Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

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THEOLOGICAL
WORDBOOK
OF THE
OLD TESTAMENT

Volume 1

R. Laird Harris, Editor
Gleason L. Archer, Jr., Associate Editor

Bruce K. Waltke, Associate Editor

MOODY PRESS
CHICAGO

© 1980 by
THE Moopy BIBLE INSTITUTE
OF CHICAGO

7 Printing/RM/Year 88 87

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repro-
duced in any form without permission in writing from the
publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied
in cnitical articles or reviews.

Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Bible. O.T.—Dictionaries—Hebrew. 2. Bible.
O.T.—Theology—Dictionaries. I. Harris, Robert Laird.

II. Archer, Gleason Leonard, 1916— III. Waltke,
Bruce K.
BS440.T49 221.4'4’0321 80-28047

ISBN 0-8024-8631-2 (set)

Printed in the United States of America

INTRODUCTION

The value of books for theological word study of the Old and New Testaments has long
been recognized. W. E. Vine’s word studies are well-known in the New Testament field. The
major work, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, is now being matched by an
extensive Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, which will run into many volumes.

Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament follows in this tradition, but approaches the
matter from a practical and less exhaustive viewpoint than the major studies. The busy pastor
or earnest Christian worker who has neither the time nor background for detailed technical
study should yet have a tool for the study of the significant theological words of the Hebrew
Bible. The editors and Moody Press are of the conviction that essential to the right under-
standing of the theological terms of the Old Testament is a belief in the Bible’s truth. Spiritual
things are ‘“‘spiritually discerned’’ (I Cor 2:14). Therefore, about thirteen years ago, they
enlisted the help of some forty evangelical scholars who would write essay definitions of the
important theological terms in the Old Testament that would be helpful to their brothers in the
work of interpreting Scripture.

Word study does not lead to a total understanding of the Old Testament text—or any text.
Words must always be taken in context. They have an area of meaning, thus ’4mar may
sometimes mean ‘‘speak,’’ sometimes ‘‘command.”’ Thus, it overlaps with dabar on the one
hand and sdwd on the other. Also, the etymologies of words are not always determinative of
meanings. In English we use words every day that are of pagan origin but no longer bear any
such connotation. We derive the names of our months from Roman deities and our weekdays
from the Norse mythologies, but we believe in neither. The Hebrews also did not invent their
language. It was used in Canaan before the Conquest. Therefore, some Hebrew words may be
of Canaanite origin, which is not to suggest that the Hebrews used them with the original
Canaanite connotation. Biblical usage is therefore the best criterion of the meaning of a word,
and to that end our authors have depended heavily on their concordances. But usage is often
limited, and all the evidence available was evaluated, we think judiciously. There will be
differences of opinion among our readers as to some of the conclusions here presented. Such
differences will arise in part from different viewpoints brought to bear on the subject. Obvi-
ously these studies are neither complete nor final, but the editors and authors believe that the
definitions given can be well defended. We hope that the work may result in the edification of
the church of Christ through the assistance it may give to her ministers and His servants.

Often it was not easy to decide which words would be defined, and of those, which ones
would receive lengthy discussion. In many cases, the decisions made could be questioned. Partly
because of this and partly because of the convenience of having all the Old Testament words
at least touched upon in one reference book, it was decided to include also the vocables not
chosen for essay treatment and give them one-line definitions—usually following the lead of
the long-time standard, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Francis
Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs.

It was decided not to include the Old Testament names, except for a few of special theolog-
ical import, like Abraham, Jerusalem, Jordan, and so on. For the principles of name formation
in the Hebrew world, one may. consult the work of Dr. Allan A. MacRae, ‘‘The Semitic Names
in the Nuzi Tablets,’’ in Nuzi Personal Names, ed. I. J. Gelb, University of Chicago, 1943.

The bibliographies following many of the articles were supplied largely by the contributors,
but the editors also attempted to supplement their material. Dr. Tom Finch, a recent graduate
of Dallas Theological Seminary, combed leading theological journals of the past thirty years,
especially those in English, for articles bearing on the meaning of the words under discussion.

iil

INTRODUCTION

The editors then checked those articles as to their applicability. Other sources have often
been noted, such as the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (which has an index of
Hebrew words discussed) and the Theologisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament. The
Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament was not largely available.

The listing is arranged according to the consonants of the Hebrew alphabet (see *‘Sugges-
tions for Use’’ for details). The Wordbook collects related words and defines nouns, adjec-
tives, and so on, together with the root from which they are derived. Grouping together
related words has the advantage of convenience and economy. It perhaps has a disadvantage
of overemphasizing etymology above usage. It has a further disadvantage in that nouns with
prefixes appear out of their alphabetical order. To obviate this problem, any word whose
spelling differs from that of its root is listed in the proper alphabetical sequence with a
numerical cross reference to the root. (Again, for details see ‘‘Suggestions for Use.’’)

In Hebrew, as is well known, most of the roots are verbs, and they are built on a tn-
consonantal pattern. With only twenty-two consonants, a system of tri-consonantal roots is
somewhat limited. The Hebrew vocabulary was far less than the rich English vocabulary of
around 750,000 words. And the biblical vocabulary is only a percentage—an unknown
percentage—of the words in use in the living language. Even so, some combinations of letters
form one, two, or even more roots using the same consonants. These roots are marked as I,
II, III, and so forth. Actually, the various authorities sometimes differ as to whether one root
has two somewhat divergent meanings or whether two separate roots are involved. In such
cases, the writers usually discuss the question.

The value of the Wordbook is largely due to the faithful work of the forty-six contributors
who agreed to study the words assigned them and compress their study into the allowed
format. Their articles are signed.

The contributors were asked to study their words from the viewpoint of biblical usage,
etymological background, comparison with cognate languages, translations in the ancient
versions, synonyms, antonyms, and theological significance. Also, they were to consider the
use of their words in passages of special difficulty. Naturally, not all of those items were
applicable to every word. And the writers felt the pressure of fitting their study into the
narrow limitations of a two-volume book of this nature. Many things they would have liked to
include could not be worked in. |

It should be explained that although the contributors held the same high view of the
truthfulness of the Bible and the reliability of its text, they were of different denominational
and exegetical traditions. The editors in general have allowed the writers to speak for them-
selves. Some variations in treatment may therefore be expected. For instance, some use the
name *‘Yahweh’’ for Israel’s God, some the word ‘‘Lord,’’ some ‘‘Jehovah.’’ (This matter is
discussed under the possible root of the name, hdyd.) In a number of cases where a writer
gave only one opinion on a particular question, the editors for the sake of completeness
mentioned a different view. In cases of significance, these additions were submitted to the
contributors and approved. In less significant cases, the editors themselves added such
additional material, believing that it did not violate the integrity of the author. If in any such
case, time and circumstances prevented conference and the authors’ views have not been
fairly represented, the editors can only express sincere regret and hope that no harm has been
done. In some cases when helpful additional material, perhaps speculative, or other views
were available, the editors have added bracketed material with their own initials. a

All the articles were read by the editor. Also, the two associate editors each read about half
of the articles. So all were double-checked. Final responsibility for what may be amiss rests
with the editor.

The work has taken much longer than expected. Selecting authors and encouraging them to
meet deadlines was a long process. A number of the authors, as well as the editors, were

iV

INTRODUCTION

heavily involved in the translation of the New International Version and gave it priority. But
the contributors were careful and faithful, and the material in time became voluminous. We
are indebted to Chrisona Peterson (now Mrs. Julian Schmidt), our copy editor, for her very
extensive work in editing, styling, alphabetizing, cutting, pasting (ad infinitum), and
proofreading. Dr. Tom Finch has already been mentioned in connection with his work on the
bibliographies. Two students at Covenant Seminary, Jeffrey Weir and Ken Wolf, worked on
the Index of Correspondence, between the numbers of the Wordbook and those of Strong’s
Concordance, found at the back of the book. Moody Press and its representatives, first David
R. Douglass, then William G. Crider, were most helpful and supportive at every turn. Finally,
hearty thanks are due to the Xerox machine and the process of computer tape printing, which
greatly assists in producing a book of complicated typography and considerable extent like
this one.

With gratitude to the Lord for the completion of this work, we pray for His blessing upon it
(Psalm 90:17).

R. Laird Harris
Gleason J. Archer, Jr.
Bruce K. Waltke

R.L.A.

R.H.A.

R.B.A.

G.L.A.

H.J.A.

A.B.

G.L.C.

G.G.C.

W.B.C.

L.J.C.

R.D.C.

C.L.F.

M.C.F.

P.R.G.

L.G.

V.P.H.

R.L.H.

CONTRIBUTORS

Entries are made in order of authors’ last names.

ALDEN, Robert, L., Ph.D., Profes-
sor of Old Testament, Conservative
Baptist Theological Seminary, Den-
ver, Colorado

ALEXANDER, Ralph H., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Lan-
guage and Exegesis, Western Con-
servative Baptist Seminary, Port-
land, Oregon

ALLEN, Ronald B., Th.D., Pro-
fessor of Old Testament Language
and Exegesis, Western Conserva-
tive Baptist Seminary, Portland,
Oregon

ARCHER, Gleason L., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Old Testament and Semi-
tic Languages, Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois
AUSTEL, Hermann J., Ph.D.,
Dean, North West Baptist Semi-
nary, Tacoma, Washington
BOWLING, Andrew, Ph.D., As-
sociate Professor of Bible and Reli-
gion, John Brown’ University,
Siloam Springs, Arkansas

CARR, G. Lloyd, Ph.D., Professor.

of Bible and Theological Studies,
Gordon College, Wenham, Mass-
achusetts

COHEN, Gary G., Th.D., Presi-
dent, Clearwater Christian College,
Clearwater, Florida

COKER, William B., Ph.D., As-
sociate Professor of Bible, Asbury
College, Wilmore, Kentucky
COPPES, Leonard J., Th.D., Pas-
tor, Harrisville, Pennsylvania
CULVER, Robert D., Th.D., Pro-
fessor of Old Testament and He-
brew, Winnipeg Theological Semi-
nary, Otterburne, Manitoba,
Canada

FEINBERG, Charles L., Th.D.,
Ph.D., Former Dean and Professor
Emeritus of Semitics and Old Tes-
tament, Talbot Theological Semi-
nary, La Mirada, California
FISHER, Milton C., Ph.D., Presi-
dent and Professor of Old Testa-
ment, Reformed Episcopal Semi-
nary, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania .
GILCHRIST, Paul R., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Biblical Studies, Covenant
College, Lookout Mountain, Ten-
nessee

GOLDBERG, Louis, Th.D., Pro-
fessor of Theology and Jewish
Studies, Moody Bible Institute,
Chicago, Illinois

HAMILTON, Victor P., Ph.D.,
Chairman of Division of Philosophy
and Religion, Asbury College,
Wilmore, Kentucky

HARRIS, R. Laird, Ph.D., Profes-
sor of Old Testament, Covenant
Theological Seminary, St. Louis,
Missouri

Vil

J.E.H.

C.D.I.

W.C.K.

E.S.K.

J.P.L.

G.H.L.

T.E.M.

A.A.M.

E.A.M.

J.N.O.

R.D.P.

J.B.P.

C.R.

J.B:S.

C.S.

E.B.S.

HARTLEY, John E., Ph.D.,
Chairperson, Division of Philoso-
phy and Religion, Azusa Pacific
College, Azusa, California
ISBELL, Charles D., Ph.D.,
Former Associate Professor of Old
Testament, Nazarene Theological
Seminary, Kansas City, Missouri
KAISER, Walter C., Ph.D., Dean
and Chairman of the Old Testament
and Semitic Languages, Trinity
Evangelical Divinity School, Deer-
field, Illinois

KALLAND, Earl S., Th.D., D.D.,
Professor Emeritus of Old Testa-
ment and Former Dean of Conser-
vative Baptist Seminary, Denver,
Colorado

LEWIS, Jack P., Ph.D., Professor
of Bible, Harding Graduate School
of Religion, Memphis, Tennessee
LIVINGSTON, G. Herbert, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament, As-
bury Theological Seminary, Wil-
more, Kentucky

MCCOMISKEY, Thomas _E.,
Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament
and Semitic Languages, Trinity
Evangelical Divinity School, Deer-
field, Illinois

MACRAE, Allan A., Ph.D., Presi-
dent and Professor of Old Testa-
ment, Biblical School of Theology,
Hatfield, Pennsylvania
MARTENS, Elmer A., Ph.D.,
President and Professor of Old Tes-
tament, Biblical Seminary, Fresno,
California

OSWALT, John N., Ph.D., As-
sociate Professor of Biblical Lan-
guages and Literature, Asbury
Theological Seminary, Wilmore,
Kentucky | .
PATTERSON, R. D., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Old Testament, Grand
Rapids ~ Baptist Seminary, Grand
Rapids, Michigan
PAYNE, J. Barton, Ph.D., Late
Professor of Old Testament, Cov-
enant Theological Seminary, St.
Louis, Missouri

ROGERS, Cleon, Th.D., Director,
Freie Theologische Akademie,
Seeheim, West Germany

SCOTT, Jack, B., Ph.D., Former
Professor of Old Testament, Re-
formed Theological Seminary, Jack-
son, Mississippi

SCHULTZ, Carl, Ph.D., Professor
of Old Testament, Houghton Col-
lege, Houghton, New York
SMICK, Elmer B., Ph.D., Profes-
sor of Old Testament, Gordon-
Conwell Theological Seminary,
South Hamilton, Massachusetts

CONTRIBUTORS

J.E.S.

H.G.S.

G.V.G.

B.K.W.

M.R.W.

SMITH, James E., Th.D.,
Academic Dean and Professor of
Old Testament, Central Florida
Bible College, Orlando, Florida
STIGERS, Harold G., Ph.D.,
Former Professor, Author, and
Lecturer, Glendale, Missouri
VAN GRONINGEN, — Gerard,
Ph.D., President, Trinity Christian
College, Palos Heights, Illinois
WALTKE, Bruce K., Th.D.,
Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament,
Regents College, Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada
WEBER, Carl Philip, Ph.D.,
Teacher, Letcher High School,
Whitesburg, Kentucky

WHITE, William, Ph.D., Specialist
in Biblical Languages, Warrington,
Pennsylvania

WILSON, Marvin R., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Biblical Studies, Gordon
College, Wenham, Massachusetts

Vill

D.J.W.

L.W.

H.W.

L.J.W.

E.Y.

R.F.Y.

WISEMAN, Donald J., D. Lit.,
Professor of Assyriology, School of
Oriental and African Studies, Lon-
don, England

WALKER, Larry, Ph.D., Profes-
sor of Old Testament and Hebrew,
Mid-America Baptist Seminary,
Memphis, Tennessee

WOLF, Herbert, Ph.D., Associate
Professor of Old Testament,
Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois
WOOD, Leon J., Ph.D., Late Pro-
fessor of Old Testament, Grand
Rapids Bible Seminary, Grand
Rapids, Michigan

YAMAUCHI, Edwin, Ph.D., Pro-
fessor and Director of Graduate
Studies, History Department,
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
YOUNGBLOOD,- Ronald .,
Ph.D., Associate Dean of Graduate
School and Professor of Old Testa-
ment, Wheaton College, Wheaton,
Illinois

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE

The Wordbook is essentially a Hebrew lexicon and can be used like any other Hebrew lexi-
con. However, it has certain special features which are designed to facilitate its use, especially
for those less at home in the Hebrew language. It is primarily intended to be a ready tool for the
pastor and the serious student, who want to study carefully and understand more fully the
sacred text.

Transliteration of the Hebrew Letters

One feature of the Wordbook is its use of transliteration of the Hebrew into English letters.
This is not only in line with the practice in Ugaritic and Akkadian studies, but will doubtless be
of assistance to the non-specialist to whom the Hebrew characters are unfamiliar. The system
of transliteration used does not claim to be final or scientific; it is practical. Actually, there is
not full agreement on early Hebrew pronunciation, the length and quality of its vowels, etc. But
this system aims to give an English equivalent for every consonant; its vowel notation, too, gives
a one-to-one equivalence which will allow the Hebrew to be fully reproduced from any trans-
literated form. |

As is well known, only the consonants were written in early Hebrew and, in general, the con-
sonants are of more importance in carrying the meaning of a Hebrew word while the vowels
are more significant in marking the form. There are twenty-two consonants (twenty-three if Sin
and Shin are distinguished) and most of these have a parallel in the English alphabet. The Hebrew
letters Zayin, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Qoph, Resh and Shin are easily represented as the
English letters z, 1, m, n, s, q, r, and sh. See the transliteration table.

There are six Hebrew consonants whose pronunciation may be ‘‘hard’’ or ‘‘soft.’’ These are
the so-called Beghadh-Kephath letters, b, g, d, k, p, t: the Hebrew letters Beth, Gimel, Daleth,
Kaph, Pe and Taw. When written with a hardening dot in the middle; these letters are pronounced
like their English equivalents. If there is a vowel sound before them (and if they are not doubled)
they are pronounced differently, but mean exactly the same thing (i.e. they differ phonetically,
but not phonemically). Technically speaking, these six letters are stops, but they receive a frica-
tive pronunciation, i.e. the point of articulation is not entirely closed, if a vowel sound precedes
them. This variant pronunciation may be represented approximately as b/v, g/gh, d/th (as th in
‘*that’’), k/kh, p/f, and t/th (as th in ‘‘thin’’). Some systems of transliteration represent this varia-
tion of these six stops. But since it makes no difference at all in the meaning of the words, it has
been judged better to represent all these letters always by their sound as stops—the ‘‘hard’’ pro-
nunciation. So Beth is always b; Gimel, g; Daleth, d; Kaph, k; Pe, p; and Taw, t. (In some sys-
tems of transliteration the soft pronunciation is represented thus: bh, gh, dh, kh, ph, th; in others
it is b, g, d, k, p, and t.)

Two consonants are called emphatics. Their ancient pronunciation 1s difficult to determine
accurately, but the Teth is some kind of a ‘‘t’’ and the Tsadhe some kind of an ‘‘s.’’ They are
represented as s and t respectively. (In some systems of transliteration the Tsadhe is written
‘*ts”’.)

Three more consonants have no equivalent in English. They are guttural sounds made in the
larynx. They are usually represented thus: ’Aleph by an apostrophe (’), and ‘Ayin by a reverse
apostrophe (‘), and Heth by ah. There is another kind of ‘*h’’ used in Ugaritic, Arabic and
Akkadian, not in Hebrew, which is made with the tongue not quite against the roof of the mouth
(technically a voiceless palatal fricative). This is represented, when it occurs, by h.

1X

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE

A second ‘‘s’’ apparently was pronounced exactly like Samekh, ‘‘s,’’ though it looks like Shin
(having a dot over the left upper corner instead of the right). To distinguish this letter Sin from
the Samekh we use an acute accent over the Sin, thus: §.

The remaining three consonants He, Waw, and Yodh are sometimes pronounced and some-
times silent, being used in conjunction with vowels. When they are pronounced, their pronuncia-
tion is like that of their English equivalents, He, h; Waw, w; and Yodh, y. In some systems of
transliteration the Waw is called Vav and pronounced ‘‘v’’ because of past German influence on
Hebrew studies. If, however, these letters are used as vowels, the long vowel resulting is always
(and only then) marked with a circumflex accent *. Examples will be given below.

All double consonants (those marked in Hebrew by a doubling dot in the middle of the letter)
are simply written twice in the transliteration.

The consonantal transliterations may be listed as follows:

Aleph S :
Beth 3 or 3 b
Gimel 4 or 3 g
Daleth Sor 4 d
He (pronounced hay) m or ® (final consonantal 7) h
Waw 5 w
Zayin } Z
Heth (or Het) a} h
Teth Y t
Yodh (or Yod) ’ y
Kaph 230r 3 k
Lamedh ? l
Mem ore m
Nun (pronounced noon) Jor] n
Samekh D S
Ayin y ;
Pe (pronounced pay) » Dor > p
Tsadhe Zor? S
Qoph (English q, but not qu) 2 q
Resh * r
Sin (pronounced seen) w §
Shin (pronounced sheen) "24 sh
Taw hors t

There are thirteen full vowels in Hebrew and four half-vowels. Another sign, which marks the
end of a syllable (the silent shewa) has no sound and is not marked in the present system. The
transliterations of these vowels and also their pronunciation following the letter ‘‘m’’ are as
follows: |

Pathah a a > ma as in man
Qames 5 a ra ma as in ma
Final Qames with vocalic He ae a Te ma as in ma
Hiriq . 1 i) mi as in pin
Hirig with Yodh * i ae) mi as ee in seen
Seghol e r2 me as in met
Sere : é iP) mé as ay in may
Sere with Yodh 7 é ve) mé as ay In may

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
Qames-Hatuph (in closed syllable)

O Ie mo as au in naught
Holem 6 2 mo as in mole
* Holem with Waw 4 6 sta) m6 in mole
Qibbus (short in closed syllable) ‘ u 2 mi oo in nook
Shureq (always with Waw) | a ta) mt as oo in fool

Various other combinations of vowels and silent consonants are self-explanatory:

Qames with final consonantal He ae ah Te) mah
Qames with final vocalic ’Aleph S a’ No ma’
Sere with final vocalic He ae éh mate) méh
Seghol with final vocalic He ae eh air) meh

The half-vowels are all pronounced virtually alike—like ‘‘o’’ in Democrat:

Shewa e > me
Hateph-pathah a te ma
Hateph-seghol . E Ie mé
Hateph-qames : 6 >» mo

A few examples of transliterated words are: 933 dabar, 35 débér, 7935 dob‘ra, "3135 dabir,
“ata m&dabbér, 358 ’adubbar.

For those less familiar with the use of Hebrew in transcription, a little attention to the
above tables will make the visualization of the equivalent Hebrew letters easy. For those less
familiar with the Hebrew characters, the use of transcription will make the word studies fully
usable.

It may here be added that the transliteration is the same for Aramaic and similar for Arabic,
Ugaritic, and Akkadian. In Ugaritic and Arabic there are a few extra consonants: Ha, h for
another kind of palatal ‘‘h’’ already mentioned; Ghain, g or § for another kind of ‘Ayin; d and d
for other kinds of ‘‘d’’; z for another emphatic sibilant; and § often used for ‘*sh.’’ The system
found in L.H. Gray, Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics (Columbia Univ., 1934)
is followed.

The asterisk preceding a verbal root indicates that although this root is quoted in the Qal form,
it only appears in the derived stems, Piel, Hiphil, etc.

The dagger before a word indicates that this word is specifically treated in the discussions of
meaning below.

Finding Words in the Lexicon

In the standard Hebrew lexicon, Brown, Driver and Briggs (BDB) printed in 1905, the words
are arranged under the roots from which they are derived. Thus for mizbéah ‘‘altar,’’ one must
look under the verb zabah ‘‘to sacrifice.’’ In the more recent lexicons, like Koehler and Baum-
gartner, the words are arranged alphabetically. So the word mizbéah is found under ‘‘m.”’ In the
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, the advantages of both of these systems appear.
The words, indeed, are arranged under the roots; the verbal root and the derived words are dis-
cussed together. But all the derivatives are also listed in their proper alphabetical position with a
convenient numerical cross reference to lead the user to the root verb where, if it is theologically
important, a discussion of the meaning of the root verb and all its derivatives will be found.

XI

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE

An effort has been made to list alphabetically all the derivatives whose consonants differ from
those of the verbal root even if their proper alphabetical position is close to the root itself. The
exception to this practice is the treatment of feminine forms of masculine nouns, which end in
‘‘4.’’ These are given as derivatives in their proper place under their root verb, but they are not
usually cross referenced if there is a corresponding masculine form. Thus, "3a?3 (mdgér) from
333 (gir), no. 332, will be found under ? ‘‘m”’ and will have a cross reference, no. 332a under
gur no. 332. But the feminine form 7552? (m°gdrda) does not have a cross reference. It will be
found by looking for 553?3 (magér) no. 332a which refers to the root no. 332 under which both
the masculine and feminine nouns appear. Nouns with consonants identical to the verb are not
cross referenced.

In the alphabetical arrangement, the vowels are completely disregarded, except that the vowel
letters He, Waw, and Yodh are treated as consonants. For instance, Ma is followed by 3".
then M372 then 357) PIV ATID AINe and Myo Ts

Note that in the transcription, the letters with circumflex always include the Hebrew vowel
letters, He %, Waw 3, or Yodh ° and these letters are considered in the alphabetization; but the
vowels without vowel letters are not considered. The doubling of letters also is not considered
in the alphabetic arrangement. Of course, the order of the Hebrew alphabet as given above in
the transliteration chart is the one followed. . |

In Hebrew there is considerable freedom in writing the Holem with Waw (full writing) or
without Waw (defective writing). The same applies to the Hiriq with or without the Yodh. In
most cases, both forms are given and are alphabetized accordingly in two different places.
Sometimes, however, if the variant spelling is quite minor it may have been overlooked. So if,
for instance, "$f Adr is not found under Heth, Waw and Yodh, it would be advisable to look under
"m hor where it does appear. Remember always that to find a word in the Hebrew alphabetiza-
tion that has been transcribed into English, it is necessary to consider only the consonants, but
this includes the vowel letters which are indicated by the circumflex. Thus, m*gd6ra, mentioned
above, would be alphabetized under Mem ‘‘m,’’ Gimel ‘‘g,’’ Waw ‘‘w,’’ Resh “‘r,’’ and He *‘h.”’

In cases where there is a difference in the Hebrew text between the written consonants (the
Kethib) and the vowels attached (the Qere), both forms are not always noted, but an effort has
been made to list one or the other reading.

All of the biblical Hebrew vocables are included in the Wordbook. Those judged for one reason
or another to be of theological significance are given essay-type definitions. The rest, on which
there is no special disagreement or theological question, are given one-line definitions, usually
following BDB. Proper names of people or places are not included except in cases like Abraham,
Jerusalem, Jordan where there is special theological interest. It is not, perhaps, necessary to
apologize for the brevity of the definitions. Scholars who wish to do extensive research on indi-
vidual words will want to look elsewhere, and the bibliographies usually appended should give
some assistance. But the Wordbook is already large enough to fulfill its purpose—to help the
serious Bible student and pastor in his work of interpreting the Word of God. Valuable material
for further study of Hebrew words may be found in Kittel’s Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament and Colin Brown’s New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Both
of these works have indexes to the Hebrew words treated at various places.

In order to make the material in the Wordbook more accessible, there is a numerical index
at the back which correlates the numbers of the Hebrew words as given in Strong’s Exhaustive
Concordance of the Bible with the numbers of the roots and derivatives as given in the Word-
book. If a word is being studied in any verse of the Old Testament, that word can easily be found
in Strong and its Hebrew number noted. Then one may enter the index at the back of the Word-
book and find the number used in the Wordbook listing and easily turn to it. For further details,
consult the heading of the Index. The Strong numbers of names are normally omitted, but the

Xi

SUGGESTIONS. FOR USE

Strong entries marked ‘‘Chaldee’’ (i.e. Aramaic) are listed. They all are found in the Aramaic

section in the back of the Wordbook.
In a work of this nature perfection is unattainable. The comparison with Strong even brought

to light misprints remaining after years of use and many reprintings. But an effort has been made
to proofread the Wordbook carefully. As errors and omissions are brought to our attention they
will be corrected in future printings.

Xill

AB

Al

AisWUS

ANET

ABBREVIATIONS

adjective

adverb
Akkadian
Aramaic

Biblical Aramaic
circa (about)
confer (compare)
chapter
feminine

Greek

Hebrew
imperfect
imperative

Old Testament
Gen
Ex
Lev
Num
Deut
Josh
Jud
Ruth

I Sam
II Sam
I Kgs
II Kgs
I Chr
II Chr
Ezr
Neh
Est
Job
Ps
Prov
Eccl
Song

General Abbreviations

inf.
inf.abs.

inf. const.

MS, MSS

Books of the Bible

Isa
Jer
Lam
Ezk

New Testament
Mt

Mk

Lk

Jn

Books and Journals

Anchor Bible (cited by author and AOOT

book)

Roland deVaux, Ancient Israel: Its
Life and Institutions, trans. 1961

ASV

J. Aistleitner, Worterbuch der ugari-
tischen Sprache, 4th ed., 1974 BA

Ancient Near Eastern Texts, ed. J. BASOR

Pritchard, 3d rev. ed. 1969

XV

infinitive

infinitive absolute
infinitive construct
manuscript (s)
masculine

opus citandum (previously cited)
participle

perfect

plural

quod vide (which see)
singular

Ugaritic

verse (S)

Acts
Rom
I Cor
II Cor
Gal
Eph
Phil
Col
I Thess
II Thess -
I Tim
II Tim
Tit
Phm
Heb
Jas
I Pet
II Pet
I Jn
II Jn
III Jn
Jude
Rev

K. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the
Old Testament, 1966

American Standard Version of the
Bible

Authorized (King James) Version of
the Bible

Biblical Archaeologist

Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research

ABBREVIATIONS

BDB

BETS

Bib
BL

Brown, Driver, Briggs, A Hebrew-Eng-
lish Lexicon of the Old Testament,
1905

Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological
Society (later the Journal)

Biblica

H. Bauer and H. Leander, Historische
Grammatik der hebradischen Sprache
des A. T., 1922

Bibliotheca Sacra

Beitrage zum Wissenschaft vom Alten
und Neuen Testament

The Assyrian Dictionary of the Orien-
tal Institute of the Univ. of Chicago,
19S6ff.

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. X.
L. duFour, 1967

Dead Sea Scrolls

A. B. Davidson, Theology of the Old
Testament, 1904

Evangelical Quarterly

W. Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Tes-
tament, I, II, trans. 1965

The Expositor

The Expository Times

W. Albright, From the Stone Age to
Christianity, rev. ed. 1957

W. Gesenius, F. Buhl, Hebrdisches
und aramdisches Handworterbuch,
17th ed. 1915

W. Gesenius, E. Kautzsch, A. Cow-
ley, Hebrew Grammar, 2d English
ed., 1910

W. Holladay, Concise Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testa-
ment, 1971

Hastings Dictionary of the Bible, 1911

R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the
Old Testament, 1969

Hebrew Union College Annual

Interpreter’s Bible

International Critical Commentary
(cited by author and book)

Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible,
ed. G. Buttrick, 1962

Israel Exploration Journal

International Standard Bible Encyclo-
pedia, ed. J. Orr, 1929

Journal of the American Oriental So-
clety

Journal of the Society of Biblical Lit-
erature and Exegesis

Journal of Bible and Religion

Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society (formerly Bulletin)

Journal of Near Eastern Studies

Jewish Quarterly Review

Journal of Semitic Studies

JTOT
KAI

KB

KD

KJV
LAP

Lis

LXX

Moscati

XVI

E. Jacob, Theology of the Old Testa-
ment, 1958

H. Donner and W. Rollig, Kanaan-
Gische u. aramdische Inschriften, I,
II, III 1964-66

L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Lex-
icon in Veteris Testamenti Libros,
2d ed., Eng.-Ger., 1958

K. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary
on the Old Testament

King James Version of the Bible

J. Finegan, Light from the Ancient
Past, rev. ed., 1959

G. Lisowsky, Koncordanz zum heb-
rdischen Alten Testament, 2d ed.,
1958

The Septuagint Version of the Old Tes-
tament in Greek

S. Moscati, An Introduction to the
Comparative Grammar of the Semi-
tic Languages, 1964

The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew
Bible

New American Standard Version of
the Bible

New Bible Commentary, 2d ed., ed. F.
Davidson, A. Stibbs, E. Kevan,
1954

New Bible Dictionary, ed. J.. Douglas,
1962

New English Bible

New International Version of the Bible

New Testament Studies

Orientalia

G. Oehler, Theology of the Old Testa-
ment, rev. trans. G. E. Day, 1883,
repr. Zondervan

Old Testament Studies

Palestine Exploration Quarterly

J. B. Payne, Theology of the Older
Testament, 1962

Princeton Theological Review

Revue Biblique ,

L. Fisher, Ras Shamra Parallels, I, I,
1972-75 |

Revised Standard Version of the Bible

A. Richardson, Theological Word
Book of the Bible, 1950

Scottish Journal of Theology

R. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old
Testament, their Bearing on Chris-
tian Doctrine, 1897, repr. Eerdmans

G. Archer, Survey of Old Testament
Introduction, 2d ed., 1974

H. Botterweck and H. Ringren,
Theological Dictionary of the O. T..,
I-III, 1974ff.

E. Jenni u. C. Westermann, Theologi-
sches Handbuch zum Alten Testa-
ment

ThT
TOT

TS
UT

Vos,BT
vRTOT

vS.AkkH
VT

Vulg

Theology Today

Theology of the Old Testament (author
specified for different titles)

Theological Studies

C.H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, 1965
(Grammar cited by chapter and sec-
tion; texts cited by chap (16) and
no. of line. Glossary cited by chap
(19) and no. of word)

G. Vos, Biblical Theology, 1948

G. von Rad, Theology of the Old Tes-
tament, Eng. ed. I, II, 1962-65

W. vonSoden, Akkadisches Handwor-
terbuch

Vetus Testamentum (Supplements,
Supp VT)

The Vulgate version of the Bible in
Latin

WBC
WBE

WJT
YBIs

YGC
ZAW

Zor

ZPEB

XVII

ABBREVIATIONS

Wycliffe Bible Commentary, ed. C.
Pfeiffer and E. Harrison, 1962

Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, ed. C.
Pfeiffer, H. Vos, J. Rea, 1975

Westminster Theological Journal

E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah, vols.
I, U, WI, 1965-72.

W. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of
Canaan, 1968

Zeitschrift fir alttestamentliche Wis-
senschaft

F. Zorrell and L. Semkowski, Lexicon
hebraicum et aramaicum V. T.,
1940ff.

Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible,
ed. M. Tenney, Zondervan, I-V,
1975

I

28 (ab). See no. 4a.
SN ('éb). See no. la.
38 ('6b). See no. 37a.
338 (‘bb). Assumed root of the following.
la 38 ('éb) freshness, fresh green.
Ib t3°a8 (abib) barley.
’abib. Barley. This noun refers to barley that

is already ripe, but still soft, the grains of which
are eaten either rubbed or roasted (KB). The asv
and RSV agree (but see Lev 2:14). The seventh
plague brought ruinous hail upon Egypt's barley
crop at least two weeks before it was fully
ripened and ready for harvest (Ex 9:31). Abib
was also the early name (later, Nisan) of the first
month of the Jewish calendar (the month of
Passover). In that month the barley came to ear,
but the usual time of harvest was the second
month (Ilyyar). According to Lev 2:14 the grain
offering was to consist of the firstfruits of ‘a@bib.
This root occurs ten times.
Bibliography: Smick, E. B., “‘Calendar.” tn
WBE.
Lod.

2 338 (‘abad) perish, be destroyed; Piel and

Hiphil destroy.

Derivatives

2a =o%38 ('6béd) destruction (Num 24:20,
24 only).

2b =6MISN ('abéda) lost thing (e.g. Deut
22:3; Ex 22:8).

2c 338 ('abdan) destruction (Est 8:6;
9:5).

2d 1538 (‘aGbaddén) — destruction, ruin,
Abaddon.

The verb ‘dbad is a common word for to die,
or, in the case of things, reputation, etc., to pass
away. (The cognates in Akkadian, Arabic, and
Ugaritic express similar ideas.) In the Piel and
Hiphil it is used transitively in the sense of kill or
break down (houses, idols, kingdoms). Egypt
was destroyed (Ex 10:7: KJv, NASB; “ruined,”
RSV, NIV) though Pharaoh would not admit it.
Joshua warned that if Israel sinned they would
soon perish from the land (Josh 23:16). Jonah's
gourd came up in a night and penshed in a night
(Jon 4:10). The foolish and senseless people per-
ish (Ps 49:10 (H 11]). The man without under-
standing will perish like the beasts (Ps 49:20 [H
21)).

Probably the main theological question about
this root is whether it refers merely to physical

death or also to eternal punishment. It is not an
easy question. Obviously the word usually refers
to some great loss, in most cases death. Esther's
famous self-dedication, “If I perish. ] perish”
(4:16), had her self sacrificing death in view—
only that. ;

The verses that may look beyond the grave to
further affliction for the wicked may be listed: Ps
49:10 [H 11]: cf. vv. 12, 20 (H 13, 21]): 73:27 (cf.
vv. 18. 19); 83:17 [H 18]; Prov 10:28; 11:7 (cf.
24:20): and Ezk 28:16. These verses, like many
others, can be interpreted to refer only to death
of the body. But they are in a context of consid-
eration of the hereafter. One's conclusion will
doubtless be influenced by general considera-
tions. If the ot “has no belief in any life beyond
the grave worthy of the name,’ as N. Snaith says
(DIOT, p. 89), then these verses will not be
pressed to speak of eternal destruction of the
wicked. But if immortality is found repeatedly in
Ps, Prov, etc. as M. Dahood argues, then they
may (See Psa/ms, Ill, in AB, pp. xli-lti and
Smick, E. B., in Bibliography).

Psalms 49 and 73 are frequently cited as refer-
ring to a future life. Psalm 49:15 (H 16] uses the
significant phrase “he will take me,” the verb
used for Elijah’s translation to heaven and also
used in Ps 73:24, “take me to glory.” It is not
far-fetched therefore to think that terms like
‘perish, (‘abad or damda II q.v.), or ‘their
tombs their houses forever’ or ‘‘decay in the
grave’ (NIV) or “death will feed on them™’ may
well refer to everlasting destruction. Psalm 83:17
[H 18] 1s perhaps not as clear as the others, but
the emphasis on the total overthrow of the
wicked is impressive. Ezekiel 28:16, if it refers as
many think to Satan who inspired the prince of
Tyre, does not bear on the punishment of the
wicked, but on Satan himself. He who once
walked in the holy mountain of God, in the midst
of the stones of fire will be disgraced (halal) and
destroyed (‘abad) and in the process removed
from (min) the mountain of God and the stones of
fire. It sounds like eternal punishment.

*abaddon. Destruction, Abaddon. This word is
transliterated in Rev 9:11 and used as the Hebrew
name of the devil, called in Greek Apollyon. This
usage is not identical with the oT usage, but is an
interesting commentary on it. The word is used
six times in the oT. Twice it is in parallel with
sh©'él (q.v.), (Prov 15:11; 27:20) and once with
qeber ‘grave’ (Ps 88:11 [H 12]). The sixth time
(Job 31:12) the word stands alone. It ts obvious
that the word refers to the destruction of the
grave, but the contexts are not clear enough to

3 mD8 (aba)

prove that it refers to eternal destruction. The
passages in Job and Prov are poetic personifica-
tions and do not clearly refer to sinners more than
to the righteous. Psalm 88 refers to the troubles of
the Psalmist and though it is highly poetic, can
hardly be referred to a place of torment. On such
matters other passages must also be consulted
(e.g. Job 27:13-23; Isa 66:22-24).

Bibliography: Heidel, A., ‘‘Death and the Af-
terlife,’ in The Gilgamesh Epic, 2d ed., Univ.
of Chicago, 1949, pp. 137-223. Harris, R. L.,
Man—God's Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971,
pp. 162-177. Smick, E. B., **The Bearing of New
Philological Data on the Subjects of Resurrection
and Immortality inthe OT,’ WTJ 21:1, pp. 12-21.

R.L.H.

mas ('aba) I, accede to a wish, accept (a re-
proach), want to, be willing, consent to (ASV and
RSV similar except in cases where secondary
implications predominate).

Derivatives

3a TSR) (ebvon) needy person.

3b MSN (('abiyOnd) caperberry.

3c =— MBN OC('@heh) reed, papyrus.

3d S38 «('ab6y) oh! (eytmology
ous.)

dubi-

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘the
willingness (inclination) to do something under
obligation or upon request.’* It is to be distin-
guished from ndaddab which implies volunteering,
rason denoting a willing pleasurable to the doer.
hapas implying a compliance suiting what is fit-
ting, or a favorable disposition, and vd'al indicat-
ing an exertion of one’s will to do something.
Also, compare ‘dwd, va@'ab, and ta'ab. Our root
occurs 112 times. The verbal form occurs only in
the Qal and al] but twice with a negative particle
(Isa 1:19; Job 39:9). Because in some cognate
languages the root means “‘to be unwilling,’ G. J.
Botterweck concludes that “the primary em-
phasis here 1s not on the intention as a psycholog-
ical factor in the inner man (cf. ‘a@wd, usually
with nepesh as subject!) but on the main be-
havioral patterns and actions in which the inten-
tion is manifested”’ (TDOT, I, p. 24). But possi-
bly the cognates are only showing a polarity of
meaning.

The basic meaning of the verb is set forth in
those two cases where it is used positively
(perhaps originally only with negative significa-
tion, B. Johnson, TDOT, I, pp. 24-26). Job 39:9
speaks of a wild ass whose natural inclination is
to refuse man’s service. In Isa 1:19, Israel is
urged to show a positive intention toward God
and not to ‘refuse’ (md'an) and “‘rebel”’
(mara), Isa 1:20. Here, as often elsewhere, ‘aha

occurs with shama’. Botterweck contrasts the
two: “The difference seems to be that ‘aba de-
notes the first beginnings of a positive reaction,
whereas shama‘ indicates complete obedience”
(TDOT, I, p. 25).

The idea of exercising the will is expressed
when one 1s asked to acquiesce to another's re-
quest (e.g. in I] Sam 13:25, David is not willing to
go with Absalom). Another dimension is added in
cases where the will is exercised against God's
law or command (Ex 10:27; II Sam 13:14). Fi-
nally, the refusal to comply may carry overtones
of perversity as when Israel will not hearken to
God (Isa 30:9) in spite of his warning in Lev
26:21. The refusal of the people is summed up in
the words, ‘“‘but you would not” (Deut 1:26; Isa
30:15; ef. Mt 23:37).

This word is also used of God's unwillingness
to destroy his people owing to his love for promi-
nent men of faith (e.g. Moses, David, Deut 10:10;
II Kgs 8:19; 13:23), and of his unwillingness to
pardon them when his love and patience are
repeatedly spurned (II Kgs 24:4).

Most interesting ts Deut 2:30. Sihon will not let
Israel pass. The scripture enigmatically explains
that this unhampered exercise of his will is due to
God's having hardened his heart in order to de-
liver him into Israel's hand.

*ebyon. One in the state of wanting, a needy or
poor person. The etymology is uncertain. Asv
and rsv translate similarly. ‘ebyén emphasizes
**need’’ and thus is to be distinguished from ‘oni
afflicted,’ dal ‘poor, and rash **weak’’ (the
Qal participle of rish “‘destitute’’). This noun has
a questionable connection with Ugaritic ‘hyn(t).
Some scholars say ‘ebydén is of Egyptian deriva-
tion (Paul Humbert, Revue de Il’ Histoire des Re-
ligions, 32. 1, pp. 1-6), and others of general
Semitic derivation (G. J. Botterweck, “‘ebyon,”
in JDOT, 1, pp. 27-41).

The ‘ebyén is poor in a material sense. He may
have lost his ancestral land (Ex 23:11). It may be
that he has reverted to borrowing (Deut 15:7, 9,
11). He may be the recipient of special gifts on
Purim (Est 9:22). He may be without clothing
(Job 31:19) or lacking food (Ps 132:15). Certainly,
used in this sense of material want the ‘‘poor’’ is
one who has fallen on hard times (Job 30:25).

This noun is used socially of those needing pro-
tection. In the Mosaic legislation God provides
protection for the needy among his people by
commanding that they be treated fairly and that
payment of loans should be forgiven them in the
year of release (Deut 15:1-4). God commands his
people to loan liberally to the needy (Deut 15:7,
9, 11) inspite of the release. And if a brother sells
himself into slavery to pay his debts, he is to
serve as a hired man only until the year of jubilee
when he would go out free and return to the

property of his fathers (Lev 25:39-41). Finally,
God himself helps the righteous needy when
there is no other helper (I Sam 2:8; Job 5:15; Ps
132:15; note the description of their plight in Job
24:2-14).

This social sense is found throughout the OT.
In Prov the needy are those oppressed by the
wicked (30:14). The king is to minister justice for
them (31:9), and the good woman sees to their
need (31:20). In the prophets (Jer, Ezk, Amos)
the needy are those who are oppressed (contrary
to Mosaic legislation) by the wicked (Amos 4:1)
or who receive just treatment from the godly (Jer
22:16). Amos especially has a major concern for
their rights. Cf. further Amos 2:6; 5:12; 8:4, 6).
King Josiah is praised because ‘‘he judged the
cause of the poor and needy” (Jer 22:16).

Isaiah refers to the needy as the firstborn (fa-
vored ones) of God. He tells us that God is their
stronghold (Isa 25:4). The psalms (where thirty-
three of the sixty occurrences appear) usually use
the word in the sense of the righteous whose des-
titution is caused by enemies and who see their
help in God alone. Hence, David can describe
himself as needy (Ps 9:18 {H 19]; 86:1). The
needy are the godly who walk uprightly (Ps
37:14). God's true spiritual people are the needy
(Ps 72:4) who are oppressed by the wicked (Ps
12:5 [H 6]) within Israel and whose stronghold is
God himself (Ps 109:31). Consequently, they cry
to God for help (Ps 12:5 [H 6]; 70:5 [H 6]), and he
delivers them (Ps 40:17 [H 18]).

Psalm 72:12 represents the Messiah as the ful-
filler of God's promise to help the needy (cf. Isa
29:19).

Bibliography: FFensham, F. Charles, ‘*Wid-
ow, Orphan, and Poor in Ancient Near Eastern
Legal and Wisdom Literature,” JNES 21: 129-
39. Honeyman, A. M., ““Some Developments of
the Semitic Root “by,” JAOS 64: 81-82.
Lambdin, Thomas O., *‘Egyptian Loan Words in
the Old Testament,’ JAOS 73: 145-55. Patter-
son, Richard D., **The Widow, the Orphan, and
the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra-
Biblical Literature,’ BS 130: 223-34.
Richardson, TWB, p. 168. Van der Ploeg, J.,
‘‘Les Pauvres d'Israel et leur Piéte,” OTS 7:
237-42. Ward, William A., ‘Comparative
Studies in Egyptian and Ugaritic,”’ JNES 20:
31-40. TDOT, I, pp. 24-41. THAT, I, pp. 20-24.

) Oa Ge

4 sss (bh) Il. . Assumed root of the following.

4a t38 ('ab) father, forefather. asv, RSV
similar, except that bér ’ab ‘‘father’s
house,’’ may be rendered ‘‘family.”’

4b Bmass (abraham) Abraham, ‘father
of a multitude.”

*ab. Father, forefather. This primitive noun
apparently is derived from such baby sounds as

4 38 (’bh)

abab (cf. *‘Papa,” in TDNT, V, p. 960), rather
than from the verbal root ‘bh, Assyrian, abi
‘*decide’’ (suggesting that the father is the ‘‘de-
cider,’” BDB, p. 3). It designates primarily **be-
getter,’ though by extension, ancestor, and
metaphorically, an originator, chief, or associate
in some degree.

The noun ’a@) occurs 1191 times in the Hebrew
OT, plus nine times in the Aramaic (the form
‘abi, Job 34:36, kKjv “‘my desire,’ is probably a
verb, “I desire,” from bayad, KB, cf. asv,
‘*would that’’). Most instances refer to a literal
father (from Gen 2:24, even before the fact of
paternity, 4:1, down to Mal 1:6); but ’@b may
designate any man who occupies a position or
receives recognition similar to that of a father:
the “‘father’’ of a servant is his master (JI Kgs
2:12); *‘a father to the poor’ (Job 29:16) is their
protector; ‘‘a father to the inhabitants of
Jerusalem” (Isa 22:21) is their governor; and ‘‘a
father to Pharaoh”’ (Gen 45:8) 1s his advisor. The
title **Father’* is thus used for one in authority (If
Kgs 2:12), whether prophet (II Kgs 6:21), priest
(Jud 18:19), or king (1 Sam 24:11 [H 12]), or
even—as a personification—the grave, *‘Thou art
my father™’ (Job 17:14).

In other passages ‘ab refers to a grandfather
(Gen 28:13; 32:9 [H 10]) or more remote ancestor
(Gen 10:21; I Kgs 15:11; cf. Ex 10:6, ‘fathers’
fathers’), especially if founding a tribal unit, e.g.
Abraham as the father of the Hebrews (Deut
26:5; Isa 51:2; Jn 8:39), although Jacob is proba-
bly their ‘‘first forefather [who] sinned” (Isa
43:27; cf. v. 28 and cf. McKenzie, J., Second
Isaiah, in AB, p. 59). If aclan congregated in one
area, its ancestor could then be called, for exam-
ple, the father of Tekoa or of Hebron (1 Chr 2:24,
42). From this it was but a step to father as the
founder of a group or guild, e.g. ‘‘the father of all
who play the lyre and pipe’ (Gen 4:21).

So Yahweh became the Father of Israel his son
(Isa 63:16) when he formed the nation (Isa 64:8
{H 7]; Deut 32:18). Yet his fatherhood concerns
primarily that covenantal, saving relationship, in
which he loved Israel (Hos 11:1; Jer 31:20),
‘‘bought”’ them by redemption from Egypt (Deut
32:6), and continued to remember his ‘‘firstborn
son’ (Ex 4:22; Jer 31:9) with providentia!l direc-
tion and fatherly care (Jer 31:9-10). He shows
particular paternal concern for the fatherless (Ps
68:5 [H 6]), the poor, and the afflicted (cf. Prov
22:22-23).

Apostates could even ‘‘say to [an idol made
from] a tree, “You are my father’’’ (Jer 2:27).
Occasionally the entire creation is related to
God's fatherhood: his challenge to Job, *‘Has the
rain a father?”’ (Job 38:28), suggests that, while
man is not its ‘‘begetter, " God is (vv. 4—5, 25-27;
cf. the Ugaritic El’s position as literal **father of
mankind’’). Yet just as in the NT, the oT (apart

5 *338 ('dbak)

from the figurative “*children”’ in Jer 3:19) never
speaks of a universal fatherhood of God toward
men (cf. G. B. Stevens's concession, The Theol-
ogy of the NT, p. 70; cf. p. 68). Malachi’s ques-
tion, **Have we not all one father? hath not one
God created us?™* (2:10), is directed to those who
inherit *‘the covenant of our fathers.”

In a special sense David, Yahweh's anointed
king over Israel and mediator of the Davidic cov-
enant (Ps 89: 3, 28), appealed to God as his
Father (v. 26 [H 27]); and the Lord replied, ‘I
will make him my firstborn, the highest of the
kings of the earth”: (v. 27 [H 28]). But just as the
next verse speaks of David’s “‘seed... to endure
forever. so the words, **I will be his Father, and
he will be my son” (II Sam 7:14), refer to David
(v. 12), and Solomon (v. 13a; I Chr 22:10a):; but
also they look beyond to the eternal Messiah (v.
135) and speak of the unique fatherhood of
Yahweh to his Son Jesus Christ (Heb 1:5). Simi-
larly in Ps 2:7 (and I Chr 22:105) the author David
(Acts 4:25) sees beyond himself to God's future
anointed one (Heb Messiah, Ps 2:2), the begotten
Son of God. Christ would then, in turn, become
an *‘eternal father’’ to his people (Isa 9:6, E. J.
Young, New International Commentary, Isaiah,
I, pp. 338-39).

But while Yahweh is to be ‘‘like a father...
toward them that fear him™’ (Ps 103:13), i.e. to-
ward the group of his ‘‘adopted {redeemed]
sons, 1s he father also to the individual believer,
as in the NT (Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6)? Jeremiah 3:4
says, “‘My Father, thou art the guide of my
youth’’; but this may well be the personified na-
tion speaking (cf. H. Schultz’ assertion of *‘noth-
ing higher till the NT,’ OT Theology, II, p. 138).
Yet individualization does appear in Ps 27:10,
‘‘When my father and mother forsake me, then
the Lord will take me up” (cf. David's personal
faith, I Sam 30:6; Ps 23), or in Prov 3:12, ““Whom
the Lord loves he reproves, even as a father the
son in whom he delights.”’ The infrequency of the
divine name *‘Father’’ in the oT may have been
due to its abuse in Canaanitish fertility cults (O.
Baab, The Theology of the OT, p. 123, citing Jer
2:27; TDNT, V, p. 968).

Among the oT's proper nouns that employ the
element ‘ah, the most famous is Abraham,
though at his call he bore the shorter name,
Abram (‘abradm, Gen 11:26—12:1), literally,
‘Father [God] (is) lofty." But when Yahweh es-
tablished his covenant with Abram (17:1-2), he
said, ‘Your name will be Abraham ('abrahadm),
for I will make you the father of a multitude,
(‘ab-hdmén) of nations’’ (v. 5). Some propose
that the root rdham is no more than a variant of
ram “to be lofty’’ (E. A. Speiser, in AB,
Genesis, pp. 124, 127). But in light of the known
Arabic noun ruhdmun, ‘‘multitude’’ (KB, p. 8),
the change in meaning which the verse itself

5

6 %38% (abal) I,

teaches should be upheld. It thereby shifts the
application of ‘ab from God to Abraham, who
hereafter becomes ‘“‘father™ of the faithful, both
in respect to his subjective attitude (of faith, Gal
3:7; Rom 4:16) and his objective inheritance (of
righteousness, Gal 3:29; Rom 4:11, 13).
Bibliography: Anderson, K. T., ‘‘Der Gott
meines Vaters,” Studia Theologia 16: 178-88.
Albright, W. F., ‘“‘Abraham the Hebrew: A New
Archaeological Interpretation,« BASOR 163:
36-54, ____, **The Names Shaddai and Ab-
ram, JBL 54: 173-204. Cross, Frank Moore,
‘*Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs,"° HTR
55: 226-59. Eitan, I., *“‘Two Onomatological
Studies,” JAOS 49: 30-33. Gibson, J. C. L.,
‘‘Light from Mari on the Patniarchs,’* JSS 7:
44-62. LaGrange, M. J., ‘‘La Paternite de Dieu
dans !'AT,”’ RB 5: 481-99. Lehman, Manfred R.,
‘**Abraham’'s Purchase of Machpelah and Hittite
Law, BASOR 129: 15-18. Payne, J. B., Theol-
ogy of the Older Testament, Zondervan, 1962,
pp. 304-307; 425-26. Pope, Marvin H., El in the
Ugaritic Texts, Supp VT 3: 1-116, esp. p. 47f.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 12, 76. Stoger, A.,
‘**Father,’’ Sacramentum Verbi, 1, 1970, pp.
260-65. Williams, James G., ‘*‘The Prophetic
‘Father’,’’ JBL 85: 34448. Wright, G. E., *‘The
Terminology of Old Testament Religion and its
Significance,’ JNES 1: 404-14. Young, E. J.,
‘The God of the Fathers,’’ WTJ 3: 24-40,
TDNT, V, pp. 929-82. TDOT, I, pp. 1-18, 52-58.
THAT, I, pp. 1-16.
J.B.P.

“38 (‘abéy). See no. 3d.
See no. 10a.

See no. 234a.

CIsN (bits).
DYMBss ('dbattihim).
3°38 (‘abib). See no. la.

See no. 3a.
See no. 3b.

“38 (‘abir), 38 (abbir). See nos. 13c,d.

WSN (‘ebydn).
M38 (‘abiyona).

*938 (‘dGbak) turn. Occurs only in the Hith-
pael (Isa 9:17; Jud 7:3).

mourn, lament. (ASV and RSV
similarly, but more uniformly
while RSV occasionally reads

translate
**mourn, ”
‘‘grieve.’’)

Derivatives

6a +938 ('ébel) mourning.
6b %S8 ('abél) I, mourning,
er; cf. Ugaritic.

mourn-

‘Gbal describes mourning nites for the dead, though
often, in its thirty-nine occurrences, it 1s used
figuratively, ““The land mourneth” (Isa 24:4).
Some propose a separate meaning, ‘‘to dry up,”’
when ‘dbal parallels yabésh (Jer 12:4; 23:10;
Amos 1:2; KB, p. 6): but **mourning™ is contex-
tually preferable (Jer 12:11).

Biblical mourning for the dead (expressed by
‘abal, sdpad, etc.) involved emotion, usually ex-
pressed audibly (Jer 22:18; 48:36) and visibly
(Gen 37:34; Ps 35:14; Mic 1:8), especially for the
decease of important leaders (II Chr 35:24-25,
Ezk 31:15). Professional mourning women could
be hired (Jer 9:17; Eccl 12:5), or the emotion
could be merely simulated (II Sam 14:2, ‘abal,
Hithpael, “feign oneself a mourner”™’; Mt 11:17).
Yet the ot forbad such pagan exhibitions as tear-
ing one’s hair or flesh for the dead (Lev 19:28;
21:5; but see Jer 16:6; 41:5); for the oT gave an
underlying assurance of immortality (Ps 73:24,
Job 19:25-27; Prov 15:24) and held out the pros-
pect of bodily resurrection (Ps 16:9-11; Isa 26:19;
Dan 12:2).

’ébel. Mourning. ‘‘Mourning’ might last
seven days (Gen 50:10; I Sam 31:13; cf. II Sam
11:27) or even seventy (Gen 50:3-4; thirty in
Num 20:29; Deut 34:8). From the first incident
arose the place-name Abel-mizraim: ‘abé/ the

mourning, misrayim, of Egypt (Gen 50:11).
Bibliography: DeWard, Eileen F., **Mourning
Customs in 1,2 Samuel,’ JJS 23: 1-27, 145-66.
Tur-Sinai, N. H., ‘‘The Ark of God at Beit
Shemesh (1! Sam. VI) and Peres ‘Uzza (2 Sam.
VI; 1 Chron XIII),°° VT 1: 275-86. IDB, III, pp.
452-54. TDOT, I, pp. 44-47. THAT, I, pp. 27-30.
J.B.P.

“38 ('b/) II. Assumed root of the following.

Ja t938 (Cabél) HH, stream, brook (KB, p.

6; cf. I] Chr 16:4, ’abél mayim, literally, stream
of water), was once derived from an assumed
root, abal Il **grow green” (7), suggesting ‘‘mead-
ow ''(?) (BDB, p. 5), but is now associated with
an Aramaic type of participial form of ydabal
(q.v.) ‘‘to bring’ (W. F. Albright, BASOR 89:15);
cf. Isa 30:25, yiblé mayim, literally, “ditches of
water’’). ‘a@bél occurs solely in four Jordanian or
Transjordanian place-names: Abel-beth-maacah
(II Sam 20:14-15, 18; I Kgs 15:20 = Abel-maim,
II Chr 16:4), Abel-shittim (Num 33:49), Abel-
keramim (Jud 11:33, which kv translates ** plain
of the vineyards’’), and Abel-meholah (7:22).
(But see Jer 12:4; Amos 1:2; Jer 12:11, NIV.)
‘dbél, found in I Sam 6:18 should be read, with
some Mss, ‘eben ‘‘stone’’ (cf. vv. 14-15), as
found in Genesis 50:11. See ‘abél I.

J.B.P.

9 1358 (eben)

8 %°38 (‘Gbal) surely. Adverb. Cf. bal, no.

246d, which also may have asseverative force.

138 (eben) stone.

Derivative
9a 338 (oben) wheel, disk.

’eben. Stone. The meaning of ’eben is almost
singularly ‘stone,’ and in the cognate Semitic
languages both meaning and usage are the same.
Stones are common in the middle east, and the
word occurs more than 275 times in the Hebrew
and Aramaic of the Bible. In all but a few places,
which are cited below, the meaning is simply
“stone.”

In its first occurrence, ‘eben refers to precious
stones (Gen 2:12). The usual meaning of ‘eben
hashshoham is “‘onyx stone,’ although *‘corne-
lians’’ (NEB), lapis Jazuli (Torah and NaB), and
others appear here and the half dozen other
places where these two words come together.
Our English word ‘“‘sapphire’’ reflects the He-
brew sappir. This occurs with ‘eben in Ezk 1:26
and 10:1. An indication that the stone is valuable
is the word millu’im, which basically means
‘‘full.”” But the derived meaning is ‘‘conse-
crated.’’ Notice this combination in Ex 25:7,
where if means a jewelry ‘‘setting, and else-
where. Sometimes y"gdrd meaning “precious”
or “‘costly’* modifies it (II Sam 12:30 et al.). In I
Chr 29:2, which includes several of the above
combinations, the modifiers pak and riqma,
translated in the kJv as ‘‘glistening’’ and ‘‘of di-
verse colours, appear. Others have ‘antimony ™’
and ‘‘colored”’ (Rsv), ‘‘coloured’* and **striped”’
(3B), “‘carnelian’’ and ‘“‘mosaic’’ (NAB). In Prov
17:8 is found the expression ‘eben hén, which is
literally ‘stone of grace’’ and is usually rendered
‘‘precious’’ or the like. Isaiah 54:12 has two
additional word combinations, ‘eben ‘eqdah and
‘eben hépes: ~‘carbuncles’’ and ‘‘pleasant
stones’ (KJV), ““‘garnet’ and ‘‘jewels”’ (NEB),
‘“‘crystal’” and “precious stones” (JB). Ezekiel
(28:14, 16) speaks of the ‘‘fire stone.’’ From the
context (especially v. 13 with its ‘eben y“qara),
this easily translated expression probably refers
to a stone which sparkles. Even today diamonds
are frequently described as fiery.

A second major category is ‘“‘stone’’ used in
the natural state. Genesis 11:3 1s the first usage of
the word as building material. Jacob used a stone
pillow (Gen 28:11) and Moses sat on a stone (Ex
17:12). Stones were used to cover wells (Gen
29:2-3) and seal caves (Josh 10:18). Stones also
served as pillars or cairns (Gen 31:45-46). Natur-
ally, stones were used for throwing (Lev 20:2)
and slinging (Jud 20:16).

The word ‘‘stone’’ is used as a title for God

10 DS ('abas)

(Gen 49:24, cf. sur ‘‘rock’’), and for the Messiah
(Isa 28:16).

Stones were made into tablets for writing, as
for the Ten Commandments (Ex 34:1), or into
bowls (Ex 7:19). From stone the images of false
deities were carved (Deut 28:36). The phrase
‘“hewn stone” (‘eben gazit, Ex 20:25) refers to
stones which were dressed or squared off.

The word ‘eben is used to denote the charac-
teristics it possesses. Exodus 15:5 refers to its
weight and 15:16 to its motionlessness. Else-
where its commonness is noted (I Kgs 10:27). Job
refers to its strength (6:12) and firmness (41:24 [H
16]). Akin to this last reference is Ezekiel’s allu-
sion to a “‘stony heart” (11:19).

Stones were used for weights (Lev 19:36), al-
though the denominations or counterparts are
imperfectly known to us. Note the ‘‘royal stone”
of If Sam 14:26 (kjv “king's weight’).

The word refers to “‘hailstones’ (e.g. Josh
10:11), and to ‘“‘limestones” (Isa 27:9; KJv
‘‘chalkstones’’).

The word “‘stone’’ appears in place names.
The best known (mostly from the hymn *‘Come,
Thou Fount’) is “‘Eben-ezer’’ (Heb ‘eben
ha‘ ézer, | Sam 7:12). There is also the “‘stone of
Bohan” (Josh 15:6, 5B, translated ‘“‘stone of Bo-
han” in KJv and **Eben-Bohan” in Nas), and the
“stone of Zoheleth” (1 Kgs 1:9, kjv; translated
‘Serpent's Stone” in rsv, ‘‘Slippery Stone’’ in
the Berkley Version, and **Sliding Stone” in js).
The word aze/l (I Sam 20:19) connected with
‘*stone’’ may be a preposition or adjective, not a
proper name.

Note that if an altar was built with stones, they
were to be undressed stones, doubtless to make
impossible the engraving of idolatrous repre-
sentations on them (Ex 20:25; Deut 27:5).

Bibliography: Diringer, David, *‘The Early
Hebrew Weights Found at Lachish,”’ PEQ 74:
82-103. Emerton, J. A., *‘The Meaning of *358
wsi> in Lamentations 4:1,°° ZAW 79: 233-36.
Harris, J. S., **The Stones of the High Priest’s
Breastplate,’ Annual of Leeds University 5:
40-62. LeBas, Edwin E., **Zechariah’s Climax to
the Career of the Corner-stone,’’ PEQ 1950:
102-22. Seitz, Oscar J. F., ‘‘‘What Do These
Stones Mean?’** JBL 79: 247-54. Sellers, Ovid
R., ‘Sling Stones of Biblical Times,’’ BA 2:
41-44, Tiegman, Edward F., *‘The Stone Hewn
from the Mountain,’’ CBQ 18: 364-79. TDOT, I,
pp. 48-51.

R.L.A.

BIS8 (‘abnét). See no. 256a.

10 BSS (adbas) feed, fatten.
Prov 15:17; I Kgs 5:3.

Occurs only in

12

13

Derivatives
10a BISN O('ebus) crib.
106. BSS8 (ma’dbus) granary. Occurs

only in Jer 50:26.

Mysyss (adba‘bi'dt). See no. 217a.

P38 ('bq) I. Assumed root of the following.

Ila 3s (abdq) dust.

llb pas (‘dbaqd) powder. Occurs
only in Song 3:6 in the phrase ‘abgat
rokel *‘powders of merchant,” L.e.
scent powders.

*998 (‘aGbaq) HI, wrestle.
the Niphal (Gen 32:25-26).

Occurs only in

"38 (‘br). Assumed root of the following.
13a T5338 (éber), M938 (Cebra) pinions.
I3b0 "38 (abar) to fly.

13c 9°38) (‘abir) strong.

13d t3938 (’abbir) mighty.

*éber, ’ebra. Feather or wing. These nouns are
probably derived from the same root. A de-
nominative verb, ‘dbar ‘‘to soar’ or ‘‘to flutter,”
appears only in Job 39:26.

The adjective ‘abbir ‘‘mighty,’’ ‘‘strong,’’ or
‘brave,’ is also probably derived from this root.

’abir. Mighty, the Mighty One of. This word oc-
curs only in poetical passages. The first is Jacob's
blessing on his son Joseph (Gen 49:24). The third
stich of that verse, which contains this word, has
the expression ‘the hands of the Mighty One,”’
which is paralleled in the preceding line by the
expression ‘‘hands were made strong.”’ The fol-
lowing stich has ‘‘the stone of Israel’’ to parallel
‘‘the Mighty One of Jacob.’ The word “‘stone’’ is
‘eben which sounds something like ‘abir
‘*Mighty One’ and emphasizes his strength fur-
ther.

The two appearances of the word ‘abir in Ps
132 (vv. 2, 5) are paralleled by the divine name
YHWH. The same is true of its three appear-
ances in Isaiah (1:24; 49:26; 60:16). Notice the
distribution of the term throughout this book,
often trisected by critics.

The name ‘abir used as a substitute for deity
may be compared with pahad the ‘‘Fear’’ of
Isaac (q.v., Gen 31:42, 53). This word ‘*Fear’’ is
also taken by some as a surrogate for deity used
especially in patriarchal times. It is possible to be
translated ‘‘Kinsman.”’ (Albright, FSAC, p. 248;
Dahood, in AB, Psalms, I, p. 81.)

It is undeniable that ‘abir relates to the Akka-
dian abdru ‘‘be strong.’* Not so certain is the
connection with the Ugaritic ‘br ‘‘bull’’ or
‘‘humped buffalo.” However, as in Hebrew, it

may be an element in a divine name in Ugaritic.
The Ugaritic form tbrd may mean “the Mighty
One of Hadd.”’

’abbir.
strong,

Horse, stallion, bull, Apis, chief, mighty,
valiant, stout(hearted), stubborn. See

‘abir for derivations and cognates in other Semitic
languages and to that list add a New Egyptian
cognate which definitely means “‘stallion” from

the hieroglyph. bs

The word is used to denote strength or leader-

ship in a man (I Sam 21:8; Job 24:22; 34:20; Jer
46:15; Lam 1:15), hardness of heart (Ps 76:5 [H
6}; Isa 46:12), angels (Ps 78:25), bulls (Ps 22:12 |H

13]; 50:13; 68:30; Isa 34:7; Jer 50:11), and horses
(Jud $:22; Jer 8:16; 47:3). Some in these last two

PD

groups may be interchanged. Isaiah 10:13 can be

read as “‘strong man,”
name of the sacred Egyptian bull (so rsv).
Bibliography:

‘bull,’ or “‘Apis,” the 33

Alt. A., ““The God of the

Fathers” in Essays on OT History and Religion,
tr. R. A. Wilson, Blackwell, 1966, pp. 25 ff.
TDOT, I, pp. 42-43. THAT. I. pp. 25-26.

20

R.L.A.

amass) (abraham). See no. 4b.

W998 (Cabrék). Meaning dubious (Speiser,
Genesis in AB, translates “‘attention!’’).

338
}Sa

(‘gd).
mas

Assumed root of the following.
(‘d@eudda) band.

Nas (Egdz) nuts (only in Song 6:11).

MIN ('dgdrd). See no. 23a.

%is (‘g/). Assumed root of the following.

7a 938 (‘égel) drop (only in — Job
38:28).

Bis (‘en). Assumed root of the following.

18a 848. ('dgam) troubled pool.

8b BAS «('agém) sad (only inIsa 19:10).

Was Cagmon), Was ('agmon) rush,

bulrush.

48 (gn). Assumed root of the following. 44

20a 7138) (‘aggdn) bowl. asv and Rsv trans- ~
late somewhat differently.

An ‘aggdn is probably a large deep two-

handled, ring-based bowl. This word occurs three

times.

In Ex 24:6 Moses holds the blood of victims in

‘agegdnot. He dips a bunch of hyssop into the

24 *358 (‘adab)

blood in order to sprinkle the people. In Isa 22:24
‘agegdnot are common household vessels which
can be hung on nails. The word appears in Assy-
rian agan(n)u ‘““bowl” and Ugaritic (A. H. Hon-
eyman, “The Pottery Vessels of the Old Testa-

ment, Palestine Exploration Fund, 1939, pp.
78-79).
R.L.A.
‘IN ('vp). Assumed root of the following.
2la AAS (‘dgap) band, army (occurs
only in Ezk (12:14; 17:21; 38:6, 9, 22;
39:4),
338 (‘agar)I, gather (food, Prov. 6:8; Deut
28:39; Prov 10:5).

sas (‘egr) II. Assumed root of the following.
23a MAN (‘dgérd) payment (1 Sam 2:36).
23b TAMSIN (Ciggeret) letter.

’iggeret. Letter. asv, RSV translate the same.
This word means “‘letter’’ (royal and general). It
may be a loan word from Akkadian egirtu/igirtu
which parallels the Hebrew word in usage and
refers to legal documents such as deeds (perhaps
related to Persian angira, angara [R. Kobert,
Orientalia 14: 478-79]). Hence, ‘iegeret may bea
letter written on a clay tablet. Biblical Aramaic
attests ‘igeerd “letter.” In Esther ‘iggeret is
used synonymously with séper, the usual He-
brew word for ‘‘letter’’ (cf. Est 9:20, 26). Another
synonym is the Persian loan word nisht'wan.
‘iggeret occurs ten times tin later passages con-
taining historical connections with Babylonia or
Assyria.

The ‘igveret could be open or closed (Neh 6:5).
If we are right in equating ‘iggeret with Akkadian
evirtu/igirtu, then it refers to the ancient practice
of writing the full text on a clay tablet and cover-
ing the tablet with an envelope of clay upon
which a summary of the contents was written.
Finally, it was properly sealed.

Bibliography: CAD 4, 45 “‘egirtu.”
Lede,
Peras (dgartal). See no. 380a.
MAN ('egrop). See no. 38Sa.
SS (éd). See no. 38d.
*358 (‘ddab) grieve. Occurs only in the
Hiphil (1 Sam 2:33).
BIs = ('édom). See no. 26e.
WISN 'Adomi). See no. 26f.
W588 ('ddén). See no. 27b.
sss (‘addir). See no. 28b.

25 OTN

25 BSS ('dm)

(‘dm) I. Assumed root of the following.
25a tats (‘adddm) man, mankind, Adam.
25b tm ('ddamda) ground, land.

"adam. Man, mankind; also human (adj.), some-
one (indef.); Adam (the first man). The asv and RSV
translate the same with notable exceptions. In
Job 31:33 the rsv obscures the reference to
Adam. Although the etymology of ‘dddm cannot
be explained with certainty (cf. TDOT, I, p. 78),
the word probably relates to the original ruddi-
ness of man’s complexion (cf. F. Maas, '@dam
TDOT., |. pp. 78-79). This word for man has to do
with man as being in God's image, the crown of
creation. It should be distinguished from ‘ish
(man as opposite of woman, or as man distin-
guished in his manliness). ‘éndsh (man as weak
and vulnerable), geber (man as mighty and no-
ble), and m* tim. Ugaritic ‘adm normally means
**people.”’ and is parallel to /'inz, or is used in the
appellation ‘ab ‘adm, “father of mankind.”
‘ddam occurs exclusively in the singular abso-
lute, 562 times.

‘adam also refers to generic man as the image
of God and the crown of creation or is a personal
name. Hence in Gen 1-3 it is the word usually
used for man. (In later passages of Scripture it is
difficult to distinguish in meaning from ‘ish.)
Here, man is distinct from the rest of creation in
that: he was created by special and solemn divine
counsel (Gen 1:26): his creation was an imme-
diate act of God; he was created after the divine
type: he was created with two distinct elements
(Gen 2:7); he was placed in an exalted position
(Gen 1:28); he was intended for a still higher (in
the sense of a permanent and fulfilled) position.
Hence, man (as ‘adddm) was the crown of crea-
tion. Genesis | sets forth ‘addi as the goal and
vice-regent of creation, while Gen 2 shows how
the creation was formed as the scene of man’s
activity, i.e. it was formed around ‘ddd. In the
first three chapters of Gen there is a wordplay on
man, mankind, and the first man **Adam.”
‘adam connotes man in the image of God as to:
soul or spirit (indicating man’s essential simplic-
ity, spirituality, invisibility. immortality). physi-
cal powers or faculties (the intellect and will with
their functions), intellectual and moral integrity
(true knowledge. righteousness. and holiness),
body (as a fit organ of the soul sharing its im-
mortality. and as the means through which man
exercises his dominion), and dominion over the
lower creation.

The image of God tn man has been much dis-
cussed. Engnell, Wildberger, and von Rad refer it
to man’s dominion over the non-human world.
Humbert and Koehler contend that it indicates
man’s external ferm. which seems inappropriate
in view of the repeated assertion of God's spiritu-
ality. Brunner. Kierkegaard, and Berkhouwer

10

think it refers to man’s exceptional relationship
with God. F. Horst declares that man ts a crea-
ture who “hears the word of God. speaks to God
in prayer and obeys him in service’ (TDOT, I, p.
85). In contrast to these somewhat neo-orthodox
approaches the image of God in the narrow sense
refers to man as a rational-moral creature (cf.
Deut 4:10—12). Significantly God's first words to
man are both a command and a prohibition (Gen
2:16-17): man alone is responsible for his deci-
sion, man alone determines his destiny by voli-
tional choice, and only man is judged as nghteous
or sinful by God's law. An older biblical theology
holds that the “‘divine likeness 1s rather to be
referred to the whole dignity of man in virtue of
which human nature is sharply distinguished
from that of the beasts; man as a free being Is set
over nature, and designed to hold communion
with God, and to be his representative on earth”
(G. F. Oehler, Old Testament Theology). Payne
remarks that “the terms ‘image’ and ‘like-
ness’... are used interchangeably.... The
image thus connotes ‘freedom’ and ‘blessed-
ness’, as it reflects within man the cosmic, ethical
and beneficent sovereignty of the Testator him-
self.... The divine image thus implies all the
various aspects of God's reflected glory and
honor.... It may be defined, in summary, as the
totality of man’s higher powers that distinguish
him from brute creation” (PTOT, p. 227). The
apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus says of the crea-
tion of man: he *‘made them according to his im-
age. and put the fear of man upon all flesh, and
gave him dominion over beasts and fowls. Coun-
se} and a tongue, and cyes, ears, and a heart,
gave he them to understand. Withal he filled them
with the knowledge of understanding. and showed
them good and evil . . . and they shall praise his
holy name, that they may search out his marvel-
lous works”™* (Eccles 17:3-9).

Even after the fall ‘@dam is used of man! The
image of God is still the central distinction.
Hence, murder is an attack on the image of God
(Gen 9:6). However. the fall lowered man’s posi-
tion before God (Gen 6:5-6; 8:21). ruptured his
communion with God, and brought the curse of
death on him so that he did not fulfill his intended
exaltation. That part of the divine image consist-
ing of true knowledge. righteousness, and holi-
ness was destroyed. Only in and by Christ, the
new Adam (Rom S:12-21), can the original divine
promise be realized.

‘adama. Ground, land, earth. The asv and Rsv
reflect the difficulties in deciding which of the
English words to use in translation. Originally
this word signified the red arable soil. From this it
came to denote any cultivated. plantable ground
and/or landed property. At times it approaches
the meaning “home country” (see especially Jon

4:2), but probably not in a political sense (how-
ever, Isa 14:2; 19:17, and especially Ezekiel’s al-
most exclusive ‘“‘land of Israel,’ et al.). One
should compare and distinguish ‘eres *‘earth,
land,’’ and ‘apar, ‘‘dry earth, dust.’* Also, con-
trast helgd ‘‘portion, field,’ vabbashad ‘‘dry
land, dry ground,” and sddeh ‘‘field, land, open
country.’’ "dda@ma occurs 224 times.

The Bible makes much of the relationship be-
tween man (’Gdam) and the ground (‘ddamd).
That this might be vivid in the mind of the reader
we will transliterate the words in the following
discussion. Initially, God made ‘dddm out of the
‘didama to till the "a4damd (Gen 3:23, to bring
forth life?). The ’4damdad was God’s possession
and under his care (Gen 2:6). Thus, the first
‘adam (the man, Adam) and his family were to
act as God's servants by obeying him in maintain-
ing the divinely created and intended relation-
ships vertically and horizontally. As long as this
condition was sustained God caused the 'ddama
to give its fruitfulness (blessing) to ‘'ddam.

Then came sin. The unit '4ada@m (Adam and
Eve; see also Rom 5:12) violated the created
structure. The ’Gdamd, henceforth, brought forth
thorns and thistles rather than freely giving fruit
(Gen 3:17). Since ‘Gdadm had disrupted the
paradisiacal life-producing state, he was driven
off the paradisiacal 'ddadmad and sentenced to re-
turn to the ’Gddadmd (Gen 3:19). He was driven to
It rather than it being given to him. He was to go
down rather than up. His life moved in and to-
ward death rather than in and toward life. How-
ever, the gracious Creator did not completely de-
stroy ‘ddam. He promised to bring forth from
‘adam a lifegiver (Gen 3:15). As a token of that
promise the Creator caused the 'Gdam4 to give of
its fruit (blessing) to ’ddam (note the curse on
Cain, Gen 4:12, 14, whereby the ‘dddmd was no
longer to give its strength to him). Because of
disobedience ‘ddam received a curse from the
‘ddama@ rather than life. Thus, we see that
‘adam!’ Gdama are deeply involved in the pattern
creation-fall-redemption.

This pattern is repeated throughout the ort.
After the flood God said he would never again
curse the ‘ddamd because of ’ddadm (Gen 8:21).
He made a new covenant (creation) with Noah
(Gen 9:1-17) who became the father of ‘adam
(since only Noah and his immediate family were
in the ark, Gen 7:7). Noah became a tiller of the
‘adama (Gen 9:20). and God blessed his efforts.
However, Noah sinned. In Abraham the promise
(redemption) given by God through Noah to
Shem emerges in the form of Paradise regained,
i.e. the promised land ('d@ddama, Gen 28:14—15).

In the Mosaic legislation God gives the 'ddamda
or takes it away according to the obedience of his
people (Lev 20:24). Its fruitfulness depends upon
their obedience (Deut 11:17). Solomon repeats

11

26 BSS ('dm)

this creation-fall-redemption pattern around
‘adam/' ddam4 (1 Kgs 8:34, 40). This cycle gov-
erns the history of Israel (I Kgs 13:34; 14:15; II
Kgs 21:8; 25:21). Nehemiah recognizes the same
theological pattern (Neh 10:37 [H 38}).

In the eschaton God will change the inner con-
stitution of ’ddam (fully restore the divine image)
so as to eliminate the possibility of a fall and as-
sure eternal possession of the 'G@damd which
yields its fruit freely (Ezk 36:25-30; cf. Jer
31:33-34; II Cor 5:17; Heb 8:8-42)—the return to
the garden of Eden (Ezk 36:35).

Bibliography: Asselin, David Tobin, ‘‘The
Notion of Dominion in Genesis 1-3,’ CBQ
16:277-94. Bloom, Alfred, ‘‘Human Rights in Is-
rael’s Thought,” Interp 8: 422-32. DeFraine, J.,
*‘Individue et Societe dans la Religion de 1’ An-
cien Testament,” Bib 33: 324-55, 445-75.
Koehler, Ludwig, Hebrew Man, Abingdon,
1957. May, Herbert G., ‘Individual Responsibil-
ity and Retribution,“ HUCA 32: 107-20. Oehler,
G. F., Old Testament Theology, Funk & Wag-
nall, 1883, pp. 146-47. Payne, J. Barton, Theol-
ogy of the Older Testament, pp. 221-31. Porter,
J. R., ‘‘The Legal Aspects of the Concept of
‘Corporate Personality’ in the Old Testament,”
VT 15: 361-80. Richardson, TWB, pp. 14-15.
Thomas, D. W., ed., Archaeology and Old Tes-
tament Study, Oxford: Clarendon, 1967. Wright,
J. Stafford, Man in the Process of Time,
Eerdmans, 1956. TDOT, I, pp. 75-87, 88-98.
THAT, I, pp. 41-56, 57-59.

Le. dc

26 ass ('dm)II. Assumed root of the following.

26a toss (‘ddom), BIS (‘ddém) be

red.

26b =BS8 ('adbm) red.

26c OBS ('6dem) carnelian.

26d ass ('édém) name of condiment.

26e tee (éddm) Edom.

26f tats (‘ddémi) Edomite.

26g =anetIs (ddamiddadm) be reddish.

26h = ISS Cadmdni) red, ruddy.

’addm, ’adem. Tobe red. The Rsv and asv trans-
late the same.

Ugaritic ‘adm is the rouging done by the nobil-
ity after bathing. Also note Old Akkadian
‘adadmu ‘‘dark red,” as of a garment, Akkadian
adama@tu ‘“‘dark red soil” and adamu “‘red
blood,’ and Aramaic 'ddam, as of blood. The
biblical stative describes the color of skin (like
coral, Lam 4:7), war shields (parallel to scarlet,
Nah 2:3 [H 4]), fermented wine (Prov 23:31), sin
(Isa 1:18), and tabernacle curtains (Ex 25:5). The
verbal form occurs ten times.

’édom. Edom, Edomite. This name was given
to Esau, who desired red pottage more than his

27 I8 (dn)

birthright (Gen 25:30; 36:1). He is described as
having been ‘‘ruddy,” ‘adderet, at birth (Gen
25:25). His descendants were identified by either
of his names (Edom, Gen 36:9, or Esau, Jer 49:8,
10) or by Seir, the mountain where he settled (cf.
II Chr 20:22—23). The Edomites assimilated some
of the peoples settled in the land when they ar-
rived (Deut 2:22, Adri, q.v.). In the Bible the area
assumed the name of its Edomite inhabitants.
This word occurs ninety-eight times.

The history of Edom is an outworking of God's
statements. In Gen 27:27-29, 39-40 Isaac pro-
phetically blesses Jacob and Esau. The latter is to
live in a desolate place (cf. N. Glueck, **Trans-
jordan,’ in D. W. Thomas, ed., Archaeology and
Old Testament Study, pp. 429-53), to live by the
sword, and to serve his brother. Subsequently,
he is to shake and cast off Jacob's yoke. Esau's
immediate reaction was hostility.

Israel was not to force their way through Edom
to the promised land (Num 20:14), and neither
were they to despise their brother (Deut 23:7-8).
When God did lead them through or past the bor-
ders of the land he strictly protected the rights of
the Edomites to whom he had given the area
(Deut 1:4~5). But the Edomites acted in a very
‘“‘unbrotherlike’’ fashion, gathering themselves to
repulse Israel. When Balaam the prophet was
summoned by Balak, Balaam reiterated *‘Ja-
cob’s"’ supremacy, stating their future subjuga-
tion and possession of Edom (Num 24:18). The
history of Israel attests repeated subjugations of
and rebellions by Edom. So bitter was the Edo-
mite hostility toward “Jacob” that they rejoiced
when their brother was destroyed and led captive
by the Babylonians (Ps 137:7). They gleefully
joined in the fray (Amos 1:6, 9, 11), doing vio-
lence to Israel. They scornfully appropriated
Jacob's land for themselves (Ezk 36:5). The
prophets reaffirmed God's order. Edom was to
be punished at the hands of the Babylonians and
subjugated by Israel (Isa 11:14; Jer 27:3-6, Ob
1:1—21).

Such was and would be the pattern of Edom’s
history, that the Lord may be magnified beyond
the border of Israel (Mal 1:5). What a clear illus-
tration of divine election, “‘Jacob I loved and
Esau I[ hated** (Rom 9:13).

’adomi. FEdomite. This adjective is the gentilic
of ‘édom. It occurs eleven times.

Bibliography: Woudstra, M. H., ‘‘Edom and
Israel in Ezekiel,” Calvin Theological Journal 3:
21-35.

| OK Ge

Bwo38 (‘ddamiddam). See no. 26g.
a8 = ('admoéni). See no. 26h.

27 358 (‘dn). Assumed root of the following.
27a TIN (‘eden) pedestal.
27b 7358) ('ddén) lord.
eden. Pedestal, base, or socket. |The asv and

12

RSV translate the same except in Song 5:15 (Asv
“pillars,” Rsv ‘“‘bases’’) and Job 38:6 (asv
“‘bases’’ rsv “‘foundation’’). The ‘eden was a
base into which pegs were inserted in order to
hold planks and pillars upright. The word occurs
fifty-four times and all but twice in Mosaic legis-
lation regarding the tabernacle. The word em-
phasizes solidity, coming from a root meaning
‘be strong.”

These bases were to be made of various metals
depending on their location in the tabernacle.
God's concern over such detail regarding wor-
ship is a principle that can hardly be ignored. In
the ot, the ritual and the equipment connected
with worship was no light thing. Every detail was
prescribed by God and those who desired to
please him were obligated to obey. It is not true.
however. that attention to external detail at the
expense of the appropriate inner spiritual disposi-
tion pleased God (see also “and ‘‘afflict, oppress,
humble,’ Deut 6-11).

Job employs our word to describe the creating
activity of God (38:6). It is paralleled with ‘‘cor-
nerstone.’’ Hence, comparing himself to a build-
er, God infers that he is the one who established
the earth's footings, laid creation’s cornerstone,
and saw to the securing of the creation.

’adon. Lord, Lord, LORD, master, owner. No
doubt exists about the meaning of this word. The
Ugaritic ‘adn means “‘lord”™’ or **father’’ and the
Akkadian adannu carries a similar meaning,
**mighty.”’

In the simple unsuffixed form or when pointed
‘ddoni or ‘Gdona(y), for the first common singu-
lar suffix or with other pronominal suffixes,
‘Gdon usually refers to men. Sarah used it in ref-
erence to her husband (Gen 18:12), Lot used
it in addressing the angelic visitors (Gen 19:2).
Abraham’s servant repeatedly called his mas-
ter by it in Gen 24. The pharaoh of Egypt was
called by this ttle (Gen 40:1), as well as Joseph
his ‘‘vizier’” (Gen 42:10). Ruth used it of Boaz
before they were married (2:13). Hannah ad-
dressed Eli the priest by this term (I Sam 1:15).
Saul’s servants called him by the title as well (I
Sam 16:16). Likewise, officers less than the king,
such as Joab, had this appellation (1J Sam 11:9).
In I Kgs 16:24 there is the unique reading
‘‘Shemer, ‘owner of the hill, Samaria."*" The
prophet Elijah bore the title ‘‘lord’’ (I Kgs 18:7).

However, there are numerous passages, par-
ticularly in Psalms, where these forms, which are
the only ones to apply to men, refer to God.
Exodus 34:23 combines ‘“‘the Lord, YHWH. the
God of Israel” (ha’addon yhwh 'élohé yisra’ él).

Deuteronomy 10:17 uses both the singular and
plural in the construction ‘‘Lord of lords’
(dddné ha'adonim; cf. Ps 136:3). In Ps 8:1 [H 2]
God has the tithe ‘““YHWH our Lord” (yhwh
’adonéni). The Messiah bears this title in Ps
110:1.

Several personal names include the element
Gdoni: Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:5); Adonizedek (Josh
10:1); Adonyah (three men, I Kgs 1:8; II Chr
17:8: Neh 10:17); Adonikam (Ezr 2:13); and
Adoniram (1 Kgs 4:6).

When ‘ddon appears in the special plural form,
with a first common singular pronominal suffix
(‘adoénaly]), it always refers to God. It appears in
this form more than three hundred times, mostly
in Psalms, Lamentations, and the latter prophets.
Just as ’él6him (God) is plural in Hebrew, so this
word might also be called an intensive plural or
plural of majesty. Only rarely is the suffix trans-
lated (cf. Gen 18:3; Isa 21:8; Ps 16:2).

To avoid the risk of taking God’s name
(YHWH) in vain, devout Jews began to sub-
stitute the word ‘dddna(y) for the proper name
itself. Although the Masoretes left the four origi-
nal consonants in the text, they added the vowels
é (in place of @ for other reasons) and @ to remind
the reader to pronounce ‘dddna(y) regardless of
the consonants. This feature occurs more than
six thousand times in the Hebrew Bible. Most
translations use all capital letters to make the title
“LORD.” Exceptions are the asv and New
World Translation which use ‘Jehovah,”
Amplified which uses **Lord,’* and JB which uses
‘*Yahweh.’’ What those cautious Jews did was
similar to our custom of saying ‘‘that is*’ when
we See the abbreviation °"‘1.e.”’ in the text. Later
the Jews substituted other words such as ‘‘the
name,” ‘the blessed,’ or ‘theaven’’ (cf. Mk
14:61-62).

In those places where ’Gd6nda(y) yhwh occurs
the latter word is pointed with the vowels from
‘élohim, and the English renderings such as
‘‘Lord GOD”’ arose (e.g. Amos 7:1).

Bibliography: Zimmerman, Frank, **’El and
Adonai,’ VT 12: 190-95. Richardson, TWB, p.
130. TDNT, Ill, pp. 1058-86. TDOT, I, pp.
59-72. THAT, 1, pp. 31-37.

R.L.A.

28 *"938 (‘ddar) to be majestic (occurs twice
in the Niphal and once in the Hiphil).

Derivatives

28a "58 (‘eder) glory, magnificence; man-
tle, cloak.

28b 3°98 ('addir) majestic.

28c TAINS (‘adderet) glory, cloak.

Basically, this root connotes that which is
superior to something else, and, therefore, that

28.1 3598 ('ddarkén)

which is majestic. Because of the infrequent ver-
bal usage in Hebrew and its occurrence in pre-
dominantly poetic passages, ‘ddar may be a
North Canaanite loanword. Phoenician attests
’adar as a verb (‘‘to be mighty’’), in the Piel, ‘‘to
make great,’ an adjective (‘‘great, mighty’’), and
a noun (‘‘noble, upper class’’). In Ugaritic ‘dr
means upper class or mighty. As an adjective it
refers to the material from which Aghat’s bow ts
made (2 Aght 6:20-23.) The noun ’eder should be
differentiated from hdérim ‘‘nobles,”’ and sdarim
‘“‘princes.”” As an adjective ‘addir should be
compared to words like ‘amis, ga’6n, ‘ayil et al.
The root occurs forty-six times.

This root is frequently used in reference to
God. Moses sings that God showed that he was
mighty in holiness by delivering the people from
Egypt (Ex 15:10). Here the idea of superior
power is set forth (cf. v. 6). His demonstrated
power over Egypt made his majesty known and
feared by the Philistines (I Sam 4:8). Although
the sin of the [sraelities caused sporadic defeats,
God’s eternal sovereignty subsequently over-
came those kings who claimed temporary
superiority (Ps 136:18). God’s name is acclaimed
as glorious over all in power and majesty (Ps 8:1
(H 2}). His exclusive lordship (power) over
oceanic waves (Ps 93:4) and mountains (Ps 76:4
{H 5}) is rightly expressed by ‘adar.

Not only is God exalted, but he sovereignly
exalts other things, e.g. his law (Isa 42:21) whose
majesty God will vindicate. God raised up Israel
and clothed her with majesty. Ezekiel uses the
figures of a vine and tree to describe how God
cuts off and exalts Israel at will (Ezk 17:8, 23; cf.
Zech 11:3).

’addir. Mighty, majestic (adj.); noble, principal,
stately. When used substantively, 'addir paral-
lels ‘‘mighty ones’? (Jud 5:13), ‘‘rulers’’ (Jer
30:21), and is sandwiched between “‘captains’’
and ‘‘governors”’ (II Chr 23:20) as the leaders of
postexilic Israel. In the difficult verse Ps 16:3 it
seems to refer to the saints. In the eschaton the
Messiah is described as the one who will be over
Israel (Jer 30:21) as the ‘addir. This is to be none
other than Jehovah himself (Isa 33:21).

’adderet. Mantle, cloak, majesty (noun); noble,
majestic (adj.). ©The noun and adjective are used
interchangeably (Ezk 17:8, 23; Zech 11:3). The
noun ‘‘mantle’’ is at first surprising, but it refers
to a costly robe (Josh 7:21) or prophets’ mantle,
etc. (II Kgs 2:8).

Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G., ** OR,’’ VT 17:
L.J.C.
28.1 Wo"Is Cddarkén) daric. This Persian

loan word is probably to be distinguished from
dark’monim ‘‘drachma,’’ no. 453c. (So KB.)

29

29 Sms (‘aheb)

sms) (ahéb) love, like, be in love, lovely.
Derivatives

29a TSER8 Cahab) love.

29b T3R8 (Ohah) love.

29c TABS Cahdaba) love.

There is little variation in the basic meaning of
this verb. The intensity of the meaning ranges
from God's infinite affection for his people to the
carnal appetites of a lazy glutton.

The verb appears in all moods of the Qal stem
plus Niphal participle and Piel participle. The six-
teen Piels are not intensive, but usually refer to
illicit “‘lovers.". The prophets Jeremiah (22:20,
22; 30:14), Ezekiel (16:36; 23:5, et al.), and Hosea
(2:5—13) use the word to speak of Israel's adulter-
ous relations. Zechariah has the word in the pre-
sumably messianic passage, ‘J was wounded in
the house of my friends” (13:6).

‘Ghéb frequently describes love between
human beings. The love of father for son is
exemplified by Abraham and Isaac (Gen 22:2)
and Israel and Joseph (Gen 37:3). A slave might
‘love’ his master and wish to identure himself to
him for the rest of his life (Ex 21:8). This is the
word used in the rule “/ove your neighbor as
yourself (Lev 19:18). **Love™’ of the stranger is
also incumbent on the faithful (Deut 10:19). Sam-
son had apparently told Delilah that he “loved”
her (Jud 14:16: 16:15). Ruth “loved’* Naomi her
mother-in-law (4:15), Elkanah “loved” his wife
Hannah (I Sam 1:5), and Rebekah “‘Joved”” her
son Jacob (Gen 25:28). Hiram's “love” for David
illustrates international friendship or irenic poli-
tics between the two (I Kgs 5:1). Notice that
nowhere is the Jove of children toward parents
mentioned. Rather. they are to honor, revere,
and obey.

People may love things concrete or abstract.
Isaac ““loved”* savory meat (Gen 27:4); others are
said to “love’> oil (Prov 21:17), silver (Eccl 5:9),
and gifts (Isa 1:23). The Psalmist “*loved’* God's
commandments (Ps 119:47). law (v. 97), tes-
timonies (v. 119), and precepts (v. 159). Men can
“love” evil (Ps 52:3 [H 5]), or death (Prov 8:36).
vanity (Ps 4:2 |H 3]). cursing (Ps 109:17), or a
false oath (Zech 8:17). Or they can “love” good
(Amos 5:15). truth and peace (Zech 8:19). salva-
tion (Ps 40:16 [H 17]), and wisdom (Prov 29:3).

God has commanded man to “love” him (Deut
6:5), and the Psalms contain testimonies of
obedience to that commandment (116:1; 145:20).
Conversely, God “loves” men, especially his
people Israel (Deut 4:37: Isa 43:4, Mal 1:2). The
Lord also “‘loves”’ other things, such as the gates
of Zion (Ps 87:2). righteousness and judgment (Ps
33:5), and the holy temple (Mal 2:11). In a few
places the verb introduces an infinitive. Jeremiah
(14:10) accused the people of loving to wander,

14

while Isaiah charged them with loving to sleep
(56:10). The verb itself is sometimes an infinitive,
as in Josh 22:5 and Isa 56:6. At least once it is a
gerund, ‘a time to fove” (Eccl 3:8).

The participles often translate as ‘*friend.”’
From II Cnr 20:7 comes the notion that Abraham
is the ‘friend’ of God. As noted above, the En-
glish word ‘lover,’ translating the Piel partici-
ple, often carries a derogatory connotation imply-
ing prostitution (Hos 2:7; 9:12;,Ezk 16:33, 36-37;
Jer 22:20, 22; 30:14; Lam 1:19; Zech 13:6, etc.).

’ahab. Love, lovely, lovers. (ksv and most oth-
ers.) Berkeley translates ‘‘love-gifts’’ in Hos 8:9
and js renders “‘fair’’ in Prov 5:19. This word
occurs only in these two passages and is plural in
both. The passage in Prov carries a good conno-
tation, “‘lovely doe,’ but in Hosea the connota-
tion 1s negative, “hired lovers."’

*Ohab. Love.
Prov 7:18.

This word means the object of love in Hos
9:10, where it is parallel to ‘*shame”™’ and **Baal.”’
There it may be parsed as an infinitive construct.
In Prov 7:18, its only other occurrence, ’dhab
also has an illicit overtone.

*ahdba. Love. Typical of abstractions in He-
brew this noun is feminine. Like the cognates
which share the same root letters, the meaning is
“love.”

The noun ‘ahdba describes the love of hus-
band toward wife, as that of Jacob for Rachel
(Gen 29:20)..God's “love’’ for his people is des-
ignated by the same word (Deut 7:8; II Chr 2:11;
et al.). Jonathan's affection for David is also
‘ahaba (I Sam 18:3; 20:17; cf. If Sam 1:26).

‘ahdba occurs frequently in the wisdom litera-
ture and a few times in the latter prophets. Prov-
erbs uses the word in its most abstract form:
‘love covers all sins” (10:12), “‘better a dinner
where love is” (15:17; cf. Eccl 9:1, 6). Naturally,
the word is used in the Song of Solomon. It is the
term for ‘love’ in several familiar verses. ** His
banner over me is love’ (2:4). “‘I am sick of
love’ (2:5; 5:8). **Love is strong as death” (8:6).
**Many waters cannot quench love’ (8:7).

Famous passages in the prophets use this word
as well. ‘‘I have loved you with an everlasting
love” (Jer 31:3). “I drew them... with bands of
love’ (Hos 11:4). **And what does the Lorp re-
quire of you but to do justice and to love mercy”
(Mic 6:8). lit. “the love of mercy”’ (‘ahdbat
hesed).

Bibliography: Audet, Jean-Paul, **Love and
Marriage in the Old Testament,’ Scripture 10:
65-83. McCarthy, Dennis J., ** Notes on the Love
of God in Deuteronomy and the Father-Son Rela-
tionship Between Yahweh and Israel,’ CBQ 27:
144-47. McKay, J. W., *‘Man’s Love for God in

The js translates ‘‘delight’’ in

Deuteronomy and the Father/Teacher-Son/Pupil
Relationship,"’ VT 22: 426-35. Moran, William
L., ‘‘The Ancient Near Eastern Background of
the Love of God in Deuteronomy,”’ Interp 19:
399-411. Torrance. T. F., *‘The Doctrine of
Grace in the Old Testament,’’ SJT 1: 55-65.
TDNT, I, pp. 21-35; LX, pp. 124-27, 154-59.
TDOT, I, pp. 99-117. THAT, I, pp. 60-72.
R.L.A.

30 RN (ahah) alas, ah_ in most translations,
but also ‘‘oh’’ (sB, Joel 1:15), ‘‘O”’ (NEB, Jer
4:10), and ‘‘oh no”’ (NAB, Ezk 4:14).

This interjection is common to both Hebrew
and English; the translation ‘‘ah”’ is practically a
transliteration (though the Oxford English Dic-
tionary does not suggest a Hebrew derivation of
‘‘ah.”’ Its origin is obscure). In most places it is
used with ‘‘Lord GOD” (Josh 7:7; Jud 6:22; Jer
1:6; 4:10; 14:13; 32:17; Ezk 4:14; 9:8; 11:13; other
occurrences are Jud 11:35; II Kgs 3:10; 6:5, 15;
Joel 1:15).

35 NAS Caharon)

The tabernacle was essentially a tent, com-
posed of two layers of cloth and two layers of
skins stretched over a wooden framework (Ex
26:7, 14-15). It is designated ‘‘tent of meeting”
(‘Ohel mé‘éd, Ex 33:7-11, etc.), as well as ‘*tent
of testimony” ('dhel ‘édat, Num 9:15; 17:22-23,
etc.)

’ohdla, ’ohdliba. Oholah, Oholibah. Ezekiel
uses these nouns as symbolic names for Samaria
and Jerusalem: Oholah (‘her tent’) and
Oholibah (“‘my tent is in her,’ Ezk 23:4, etc.).
The names Oholiab (tent of the father, Ex 31:6)
and Oholibamah (tent of the high place, Gen 36:2,
41) are from this noun.

Bibliography: Ben-Mordecai, C. A., ‘The
Tent of Meeting (Ex 33, 7-11),°° JQR 30: 399-
401. Clifford, R. J., ‘‘The Tent of El and the Is-
raelite Tent of Meeting,” CBQ 33: 221-27. Guil-
lebaud, M.L.G., ‘‘The Tent over the Taberna-
cle,”’ EQ 31: 90-96. Haran, Menahem, **The Na-
ture of the ‘Ohel mo’edh in Pentateuchal
Sources,’ JSS 5: 50-65. Morgenstern, Julian,
‘‘The Ark, the Ephod, and the Tent,’’ HUCA 17:

Bibliography: THAT, I, p. 73. 153-265; 18: 1-52. SE, ** The Tent of Meet-
R.L.A. ing, JAOS 38: 125-39. TDOT, I, pp. 118-29.
J.P.L.
31 MS (hi) where (Hos 13:10, 14).
; 33 *9ss8 ('dhal) ll, to be clear, shine. Occurs
32 %N8 (ahal) I, to pitch a tent. Denomina- once (in the Hiphil), in Job 25:5.

tive verb.

Parent Noun
32a toms ('ohel) tent, dwelling.

Derivatives

32b «tM9ON = ('ohdla) Oholah.
32c = tm3°9nN (ohldliba) Oholibah.

This verb occurs in the Qal (Gen 13:12, 18) and
Piel (Isa 13:20).

’Ohel. Dwelling, home, tabernacle, tent
and RSV similar).

’Ohel, a masculine noun, occurs 340 times and
is used for the animal skin or goat's hair (Song
1:5) dwelling of nomadic people (Gen 4:20; 13:5;
18:16; 25:27; etc.), shepherds (Jer 6:3), women
(Gen 31:33; Jud 4:17; cf. Isa 54:2), warriors (I
Sam 17:54; Jer 37:10; etc.), and cattle (II Chr
14:14). It is also used for the bridal tent (11 Sam
16:22).

The word ‘dhe! continued to be used for a habi-
tation or home (I Kgs 8:66; 12:16; Ps 91:10; Jud
19:9), including David’s palace (Isa 16:5) long
after the Israelites had adopted more permanent
dwellings. ‘dhe! is figuratively used for the
people of Edom (Ps 83:7), Qedar (Ps 120:5; Song
1:5), Judah (Jer 30:18), Cushan (Hab 3:7), and
others. The ‘tent of the daughter of Zion’? (Lam
2:4) is a figure for Jerusalem.

(ASV

34 9Rs (Al) IM.

15

35

Assumed root of the following.

34a Oss «('Ghal) aloes.

mans (‘ohdliba). See no. 32c.
wags Cahdrén) Aaron. The older brother
of Moses. A Levite and the first high priest.

The Bible records that Aaron was the son of
Amram (I Chr 6:3). Aaron was the spokesman for
Moses, who had complained to God that he was
slow of speech (Ex 4:10-14).

Aaron married Elisheba the daughter of Am-
minadab the sister of Nahshon (Ex 6:23) and they
had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and
Ithamar. The first two ‘‘offered strange fire’* and
died near the tabernacle (Lev 10:i-2; Num 3:4).
The other two served as priests under Aaron until
he died, and then Eleazar became the high priest
(Num 20:26).

With Hur, Aaron held up Moses’ arms, bearing
the rod of God, during the battle with Amalek (Ex
17:12).

According to Ex 30, Aaron's duties included
burning sweet incense daily (v. 7), lighting the
lamps nightly (v. 8), and making atonement
yearly (v. 10). Leviticus 16 outlines more respon-
sibilities. He was to bring certain sacrifices for
the atonement when he entered the holy place (v.

36 38 (6)

3). He wore the holy linen coat, linen underwear,
a linen sash, and a linen mitre (v. 4). The actual
procedures are described in the verses which fol-
low in Lev 16.

It was Aaron who was culpable in the golden
calf incident (Ex 32:35). One hears a note of in-
sincerity in his protest, ‘‘I cast it (i.e. the people’s
gold) into the fire, and out came this calf’ (Ex
32:24).

Aaron survived most of the wilderness journey
and died at the age of 123 (Num 33:39). Moses
and Eleazar witnessed his decease on Mount Hor
(Num 20:25-29).

His name occurs only a few times in the histor-
ical books, once in the prophets (Mic 6:4), and
only eight times in the Psalms. The best known is
Ps 133:1-2 (cf. Ex 30:25, 30):

Behold, how good and how pleasant it is

For brethren to dwell together in unity!

It is like the precious oil upon the head,

That ran down upon the beard,

Even Aaron’s beard;

That came down upon the skirt of his garments.

It was, of course, the oil not the beard that ran
down to the skirt of his garments (cf. the Nv).
In the nt, Luke (1:5) makes a note of
Elizabeth’s descent from Aaron. Stephen refers
to his outstanding sin of idolatry in the sermon
recorded in Acts 7:40. And, naturally, references
to Aaron appear in Hebrews (5:4; 7:11; 9:4). In
this epistle, which stresses the superiority of
Christ to various other divine institutions and oT
personages (angels, Moses, the priesthood),
Christ is superior to Aaron. Jesus, the Son of
God, is called the great high priest (4:14) who
though personally without sin, is touched with
the feelings of our infirmities (4:15). As the argu-
ment develops, the apostle asserts that Christ is
of the lineage of Melchizedek, a pre-Levitical
priest-king (Heb 7:11). Through chapter 9 of the
Epistle to the Hebrews its author underscores the
superiority of Christ’s work and continual minis-
try, ‘‘But Christ having come a high priest of the
good things to come, through the greater and
more perfect tabernacle, not made with hands,
that is to say, not of this creation, nor yet through
the blood of goats and calves, but through his
own blood, entered in once for all into the holy
place, having obtained eternal redemption”’ (vv.
11-12).
R.L.A.

18 ('6) or, whether, not the least, if, other-
wise, also, and, then.

The Ugaritic cognate is ’u and the Akkadian is
u

This conjunction occurs almost three hundred
times in the Hebrew Bible. Three-fourths of these

16

are in the books of Moses and particularly in the
legislation. Usually it introduces an alternative
situation or an exception to a general principle. In
Lev 13:47-49 ’6 is used ten times.

R.L.A.

38 (aw). See no. 40a.

37 318 (’wb). Assumed root of the following.

37a +358 ('6b) one that hath a familiar
spirit (KJV and ASv).

Modern versions have a variety of terms in-
cluding medium, ghost, spirit, spirit of the dead,
necromancer, and wizard. In Job 32:19 the word
means wineskin or bottle (NEB ‘‘bellows’’).

Hoffner lists the following cognates: Sumerian
ab(.lal), Hittite a-a-bi, Ugaritic ’eb, and Assy-
rian abu (see bibliography).

The pair ’6b and yidd*‘6ni (q.v.) often appear
together (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deut 18:11; I Sam
28:3, 9; II Kgs 21:6; 23:24; II Chr 33:6; Isa 8:19;
19:3). Since the former, which is feminine, refers
to women who practice this variety of sorcery,
and the other, which is masculine, refers to such
men. The word yidd®‘éni is derived from the root
‘to know”’ (yada‘).

God’s people were commanded to stay away
from these occultists (Lev 19:31). In fact, the
punishment for turning to such *‘mediums’’ was
death by stoning (Lev 20:27). Naturally, '6b is
included in the complete list of similar abomina-
tions in Deut 18:10-11. All of these occupations
deal with the occult. Man has desired, from time
immemorial, to know the future. In those days
some occultists read cloud formations, others ex-
amined livers (Ezk 21:21 [H 26]), while still oth-
ers consulted ghosts.

The word ’6b apparently refers to those who
consulted ghosts, because I Sam 28 describes one
in action. The famous ‘‘witch’’ of En-dor is an
’6b. Although Saul had outlawed ‘‘witches’’ and
‘‘wizards,’’ he nevertheless consulted her. Dis-
guising himself, he had the ‘‘medium”’ bring up
Samuel from the dead. She was successful, and
although he complained of being disturbed, he
announced to Saul the bad news that God was
displeased and that Saul and his sons would die
the next day.

One explanation of this phenomenon is that
God responded to the weakness of men and ac-
commodated himself to what he himself had for-
bidden. It may have been that the woman was a
bona fide and successful ’66 and that her other
successes were not hoaxes. Apparently this
diabolical device was a real threat to the faith of
God’s people. On the other hand, the interview
may have come by way of a waking vision, sent

by God but without involving any actual trans-
portation of Samuel from the dead, even though
his appearance in this vision conveyed an authen-
tic message from God. Note, the woman was her-
self surprised.

Isaiah discredits these ‘“‘necromancers’’ and
implies by his choice of words that the sounds of
spirits so raised are nothing more than ven-
triloquism: ‘‘The mediums and the wizards who
chirp and mutter’’ (8:19). Isaiah makes two more
analogies to the sounds made by an ’6b: ‘From
low in the dust your words shall come... your
speech shall whisper out of the dust’’ (29:4).

There is apparently no connection between the
kind of black magic implied by the word ’6b and
Elihu’s use of it in Job 32:19. The near-universal
judgment that ’6b means ‘‘wineskin’’ in this
verse indicates that any relationship between the
words is very tenuous. They may simply be
chance homonyms.

One of the stops during the wilderness wander-
ings was Oboth (’6b6t) which looks like a plural
of ’6b (Num 21:10-11; 33:43—44). Yet it might be
translated as ‘‘place of waterskins”’ or the like,
which sounds more suitable for the name of a
place than “‘sorcerers.”’

Other terms for diviners and divination are:
‘itti, ‘anan, ’ashshap, hartom, yidd‘ dni, kashap,
nahash, qasam.

Bibliography: Gaster, M., ‘‘Divination
(Jewish), in Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics, 1V, Scribners, 1955. Hoffner, Harry, Jr.,
‘Second Millennium Antecedents to the Hebrew
’ob,’’ JBL 86: 385-401. Lust, J., ‘‘On Wizards
and Prophets,’’ Supp VT 26: 133—42. Montague,
Summers, The History of Witchcraft, University
Books, 1956. Rabin, Chaim, ‘Hittite Words in
Hebrew,” Or 32: 113-39. TDOT, I, pp. 130-33.

R.L.A.

SIN (‘ibal). See no. 835g.

38 8) ('wd). Assumed root of the following.

38a = TN (‘ud) brand, firebrand (Amos 4:11:

Zech 3:2; Isa 7:4).
38b imN ('6da) cause.
38c 6tTS «('éd) distress, calamity.
38d T38 ('éd) mist.

’*6da. Because, cause, concerning, sake, about,
of, that, on account of. This feminine noun oc-
curs only in the plural (’6d6t or ’6d6t) and is
always preceded by the preposition ‘a/ meaning
‘‘for’’ (except in II Sam 13:16 where most assume
the ’a/ is an orthographic irregularity). Otherwise
the word appears in Gen 21:11, 25; 26:32; Ex
18:8; Num 12:1; 13:24: Josh 14:6; Jud 6:7; and Jer
3:8.

17

38 S38 (wd)

’éd. Calamity, destruction, ruin, disaster, distress,
vengeance, trouble, misfortune, doom, terror,
downfall, peril. Apart from one reference in Ezk
35:5), all twenty-two occurrences of ’éd appear
in poetical sections. Its use in Deut 32:35 is part
of the Song of Moses, and II Sam 22:19 is identi-
cal to Ps 18:18 [H 19].

The expression ‘‘day of calamity’’ constitutes
one-third of the references. It is parallel to
‘*doom’”’ (‘étid6r) in Deut 32:35, *‘day of wrath”
(‘abarét) in Job 21:30, and “‘the time of their
punishment’’ (p‘quiddatam) in Jer 46:21. Note
that Ezk 35:5 has ‘‘the time of their calamity”’
parallel to ‘‘the time of their final punishment”’
(‘awo6n qgés). In Ob the expression ‘‘day of their
calamity’ appears three times in one verse (13).

In Job 31:23, 30:12, and Ps 18:18 (parallel to Il
Sam 22:19), the righteous sufferer is in view.
Otherwise the wicked person or nation deserves
‘‘destruction.”’ Proverbs 1:26—27 and 6:15 illus-
trate the former while Jer 48:16 and 49:32 picture
the latter.

This word is to be distinguished from the
Sumerian loan word ’éd ("8), meaning “‘mist’’ or
‘‘flood’’ (see below).

"ed. Mist (Kiv, ASV, RSV,) vapor (Berkley Ver-
sion) flood (3B, NEB) stream (NAB). These are the
various translations of Gen 2:6. Most versions
translate ‘‘mist’’ in Job 36:27.

Based on these two biblical contexts and the
Akkadian and Sumerian cognates, edé# and
A.DE.A respectively, the meanings other than
‘*mist’’ and ‘‘vapor’’ have been suggested. Ear-
lier translators did not have access to the ancient
cuneiform languages which help to determine the
meaning of these difficult words. The Lxx trans-
lators guessed at xnyy (spring) in Genesis and
vepeéAn (cloud) in Job. The Akkadian edé refers
to the annual inundation of Babylon by the Eu-
phrates as well as to irrigation. If Eden was
watered by floods and irrigation rather than rain,
it may have been located in an area like southern
Mesopotamia where it does not rain. Such a loca-
tion would suggest that the paradisiacal situation
was not worldwide but peculiar to Eden’s im-
mediate environs.

The Job passage is rich with meteorological de-
tails. However, ‘“‘mist’’ is not demanded there;
one of the several options such as ‘‘stream”’
would well fit.

Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, ‘*The Mist,
the Canopy, and the Rivers of Eden,’ JETS 11:
177-79. Saebo, Wayne, ‘Die _hebrdaischer
Nomina ‘ed und ’ed,’’ Studia Theologia 24:
130-41. THAT, I, pp. 122-24. Speiser, E. A.,
‘*’"ED in the story of Creation’’ Oriental and Bib-
lical Studies, Collected Writings, Univ of Phila.
Press, 1967, pp. 23-34.

R.L.A.

40

39 M8 (wh)

39 m8 ('wh) I. Assumed root of the following.
39a 60S SO) T, ~—s coast, region.
m8 (awa) HI, desire, long, lust, covet, wait

"longingly, wish, sigh, crave, want, be greedy,
prefer.

Derivatives
40a TS ('aw) desire.
40b 38 (‘awwa) desire.
40c “IN (ma’dway) desire.

40d {MSH (ta’dwa) desire.

Often the subject of this verb is nepesh mean-
ing variously ‘“‘self,”’ “soul, ‘‘appetite’’ (e.g.
Deut 12:20; 14:26; I Sam 2:16; I Kgs 11:37; Job
23:13; Isa 26:9). Sometimes the object is ‘‘meat”’
(Deut 12:20), ‘fruit’ (Mic 7:1), or delicate food
(Prov 23:3, 6). The object may be ‘‘evil’’ itself
(Prov 21:10) or a ‘“*kingdom”™ (II Sam 3:21; I Kgs
11:37). Occasionally the object is unspecific. Ac-
cording to Num 11:4 the people “‘lusted a lust’’ or
‘felt a gluttonous craving’’ (sps). Other examples
are Prov 21:26 and Eccl 6:2.

The last of the Ten Commandments in the form
given in Deut uses this word: ‘“Do not ‘covet’
your neighbor’s house’? (Deut 5:21b). In the
phrase ‘‘do not ‘covet’ your neighbor's wife’
(Deut 5:21a), the Hebrew verb is hmd. hmd is the
only verb in the Ex parallel.

Of the twenty-seven occurrences of the word
only four are in the prophets. Perhaps the best
known is Amos 5:18, *“‘Woe to you that ‘desire’
the day of the Lorp.”’

Numbers 34:10 uses this verb (or another verb
spelled identically) in a unique way. There it
means ‘point out’ (kjv), and many modern
translations render ‘“‘draw a line for’’ a border.
Possibly this is derived from tdwd (q.v.) meaning
in the Hiphil *‘make a sign.”’

’aw. Desire. Proverbs 31:4 has the only occur-
rence of ‘aw. It may be a shortened masculine
form of the feminine noun ‘awwéd (q.v.) also
meaning ‘‘desire.’’ Because it appears in con-
struct it is pointed ’éw (in the Qere text).

’"awwa. Desire, lust, will, This feminine noun
appears in Deut 12:15, 20-21; 18:6; I Sam 23:20;
Jer 2:24; Hos 10:10. Note that ‘aww4 occurs in
construct with nepesh (soul/mind) in all passages
except the last one.

ta’awa. Desire, pleasant, lust, greed, dainty, de-
sirable. Like the other nouns built from the root
wh (’aw and ‘awwa), this noun has the meaning
of ‘‘desire’’ extending to both good and bad ob-
jects. .

In Num 11:34-35 and 33:16~17, this feminine
noun forms part of the name of the station in the
wilderness, gibrét-hatta’dwad (‘Graves of
Greed’). In Gen 49:26 it means ‘‘boundary,’’ but

4]

18

that is probably a different word built instead on a

root td’a ‘‘to designate”’ or it may be a noun from

"dw II ‘‘a mark,’’ therefore ‘‘a boundary.”
R.L.A.

*8 (awa) ll, sign, mark, describe with a
mark. Occurs only in the Hithpael (Num
34:10).

Derivative

4la TMi8 (ot) sign, mark, token, ensign,
Standard, miracle, miraculous sign,
proof, warning.

’6t. This is the general word for ‘‘sign,”’ and it
covers the entire range of the English term and
the Greek word sémeion. On the pedestrian end
of the scale it includes what amounts to a
‘‘signboard’* or ‘‘standard’’ (Num 2:2). It also
includes such important concepts as the rainbow
‘*sign’’ to Noah (Gen 9:12—13, 17).

1. ’6t first occurs in Gen 1:14, where it refers
to the luminaries serving as ‘‘signs’’ to distin-
guish the seasons. In Jer 10:2 it has a similar
meaning.

2. According to Gen 4:15, the Lord set a
‘*mark’’ on Cain. The meaning of this word is
uncertain.

3. A third use of the word is illustrated by Gen
9:12-13, 17, according to which the rainbow is a
‘“‘sign’’ of the covenant. Circumcision is the
‘sign’? in Gen 17:11. Also, the Sabbath is to be a
‘‘sign,’’ according to Ex 31:13, 17 and Ezk 20:12.
It is this use of ‘‘sign’’ that is meant when Chnis-
tians refer to the ordinances as outward “‘signs”’
of inward grace.

4. Most of the eighty occurrences of ‘6r refer
to ‘‘miraculous signs.’’ All the plagues on the
Egyptians are called ‘‘signs.’’ In these contexts
the complementary word mopét (q.v.) meaning
‘*wonders”’ often occurs (Ex 7:3; Deut 4:34; 6:22;
7:19; 26:8; Neh 9:10; Isa 20:3; et al.). This word
"6t is used in Isaiah’s famous prophecy to Ahaz
(7:11, 14). The shadow’s advance on the palace
steps was a ‘‘sign’’ for the ailing king Hezekiah
(II Kgs 20:9; Isa 38:7). Likewise God showed
Gideon a ‘‘sign’’ by igniting the offered food (Jud
6:17). .

5. The word ’6f sometimes means ‘‘token.”’
For example, Aaron’s rod was to be a ‘warning
to the rebellious’ (Num 17:25 naB and Heb, v. 10
in other English versions). In the same category
are the stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), the ham-
mered plates on the altar (Num 16:38 [H 17:3]),
and the witness pillar in Egypt (Isa 19:20).

6. A dreamer or a prophet, true or false, could
produce ‘‘signs’’ according to Deut 13:1ff. The
fulfillment of Jeremiah’s threat of punishment
was a true ‘‘sign”’ (Jer 44:29), while Isaiah speaks
of “‘signs’’ of liars (44:25).

Naturally, these categories are artificial and
overlap. The simple fact that one Hebrew word
covers them all is proof of that. The word “sign”
either signifies the unusual event itself or in
someway points to that unusual event. Or it may
point backward to a historical event such as the
stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), or even forward
to such a promise as a thornless future world (Isa
55:13).

Bibliography: Knight, Harold, *‘The Old Tes-
tament Conception of Miracle,’’ SJT 5: 355-61.
Pritchard, James B., *“‘Motifs of Old Testament
Miracles,” Crozer Quarterly 27: 97-109.
Richardson, TWB, p. 152. Robinson, H. W.,
‘‘The Nature-Miracles of the Old Testament,”’
JTS 45: 1-12. TDNT, VII, pp. 209-29. THAT, I,
pp. 91-94.

R.L.A.

SN (‘dy). Woe! Alas! Oh!

This onomatopoetic interjection occurs
twenty-two times in the oT. Often the preposition
‘to’ with a first person pronoun (“‘me”’ or ‘‘us’’)
follows to indicate despair. Isaiah 6:5 1s an exam-
ple: ‘*Woe to me because I am undone!”’ With the
second or third person pronoun it indicates threat
or denunciation. Numbers 21:29 illustrates this:
‘‘Woe to you, Moab!”’

Possibly the slang expression Oy! in English 1s
a transliteration of this Hebrew word coming into
English through Yiddish.

Bibliography: Wanke, Gunther, "8 und 93,”
ZAW 78: 215-18.

R.L.A.

43. ms ('wh)IV. Assumed root of the following.

43a Ss (7), jackal.

43b ms ('ayyad) hawk, falcon, kite.

bin (éwil), 8 (éewili). See no. 44a,b.

‘is (’w/)I. Assumed root of the following.

44a to ('éwil) foolish.

44b oN (’Bwil?) foolish (Zech 11:15).

44c tne (Cinwelet) folly, foolishness,

foolish.

’éwil. Fool, foolish, foolish man, although the
word is rendered ‘‘fool’’ in twenty of twenty-six
usages (ASV Same, RSV Similar).

Some derive ‘éwil from yd’al **be foolish,”
while another possibility 1s from an Arabic word
meaning “be thick,’ and therefore ‘‘thick-
brained’’or *‘stupid.”’

The Niv renders *‘fool”’ in Prov 1:7 with a foot-
note: **The Hebrew words rendered foo! in Prov-
erbs, and often elsewhere in the OT denote one
who is morally deficient.’’ Such a person is lack-
ing in sense and is generally corrupt. If one can

(ASV, RSV Similar.)

19

44 58 (wl)

‘posit a gradation in the words for fool, ‘éwil

would be one step below k* sil and only one step
above nabal (q.v.). An even stronger word in
Prov is /és, often translated ‘‘scoffer."’ The ‘éwil
is not only a k‘ sil because of his choices, but he
is also insolent.

The 'éwil identifies himself as soon as he opens
his mouth. He would be wise to conceal his folly
by keeping quiet (Prov 17:28). When he starts
talking without thinking, ruin is at hand (Prov
10:14). While a wise man avoids strife, the fool
quarrels at any time (Prov 20:3). He cannot re-
strain himself and will *‘display his annoyance at
once,’’ whereas a wise man overlooks an insult
(Prov 12:16 niv). A fool has no balance in his
relations with others. The wisdom instructor in-
dicates that while stones and sand are most bur-
densome, a fool’s anger is even more intolerable.

As indicated, ’éwil primarily refers to moral
perversion or insolence, to what is sinful rather
than to mental stupidity. This kind of a fool de-
Spises wisdom and is impatient with discipline.
He who does not fear God is a fool and will be
unable to grasp wisdom or benefit from godly dis-
cipline (Prov 1:7). While the wise accept godly
instruction, the boastful or babbling fool who re-
jects it will fall down by the predicaments he
makes for himself (Prov 10:8). Because a fool
feels that his own way is without error, he does
not seek or listen to counsel as the wise one does.
The fool is overbearing in his attitude since he
has all the answers (Prov 12:15). A fool despises
his father’s instructions, in contrast to the one
who shows good sense in regarding reproof (Prov
15:5). This kind of fool is also licentious, taking
sinful enjoyment with a wayward woman (Prov
1322);

This moral perversion is seen tn the statement,
‘‘Fools mock at guilt’’ (Prov 14:9). The word for
guilt can also mean the trespass offering (Lev 5).
Thus the fool scorns and despises restitution for
the injuries and sins he commits (NIv, ‘*mock at
making amends for sin’). He flouts his responsi-
bility to the community as a responsible person.
On a contrary note the upnght (or wise) have a
good reputation and are well liked.

Even if a fool were pounded with a pestle ina
mortar along with the grain, no desirable results
would follow (Prov 27:22).

A deplorable situation was seen in the northern
kingdom, when Hosea was called an 'éwil by the
general populace (Hos 9:7). The people had for-
gotten the law of God (Hos 4:6) and they consid-
ered the precepts of the law a strange thing (8:12).
In their perversity they regarded the teaching of
the prophet as being contrary to their world view.
Actually, through their twisted judgment, they
gave themselves away as fools. The adjectival
use of foolish follows the same idea of the noun’s
moral insolence. The tragedy is that this condi-

45 "8 (wl)

tion will never lead the foolish to know the Lord
(Jer 4:22).

’"iwwelet. Folly, foolishness, each twelve
times, 1S associated with a k*sil and overlaps in
meaning. Thus, a fool displays his folly, i.e., his
‘iwwelet (Prov 13:16). The folly (Ciwwelet) of
fools is deceit (Prov 14:8). One ts regarded a fool
because of his folly (‘iwweler), since folly seems
a special product of fools (k° silim).

But the aspect of moral insolence is prominent.
A quick-tempered man acts foolishly and is likely
to do things he might later regret (Prov 14:17).
Likewise one who is quick-tempered makes his
folly prominent to attract the attention of others
(Prov 14:29). A foolish man perverts his own
way. His kind of way is his own fault, not God’s
(Prov 19:3). Discipline is important to children
because foolishness is part of a child’s nature. A
remedy for correction is the rod of discipline in
order to drive the foolishness from him (Prov
22:15). One must keep in mind that this discipline
is important to curb moral insolence that might
lead in turn to rebellion against God. Proverbs
emphasizes the necessity for discipline (13:24;
23:13-14; 29:15). But it is to be tempered with
compassion and concern (1:8-9). The folly of a
quick-tempered person is contrasted with the
great understanding (1° bind, q. v.) of one slow to
anger (Prov 14:29). Similarly, the senseless find
joy in folly, while by contrast the one who walks
straight is a man of understanding.

’éwili. Foolish. | Used only once in the sense
of an overseer in Zech 11:15, describing the
foolish shepherd who had no concern for the
people to whom he was to minister.

Bibliography: Donald, Trevor, ‘‘The Seman-
tic Field of ‘Folly’ in Proverbs, Job, Psalms, and
Ecclesiastes," WT 13: 285-92. Greenstone,
Julius, Proverbs, Jewish Publication Society,
1950. Harris, R. Laird, ‘‘Proverbs,’’ in WBC.
Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964,
pp. 39-41. Walker, W. L., ‘Folly,’ in ISBE, II,
pp. 1124-25. TDOT, I, pp. 137-39. THAT, I, pp.
77-78.

L.G.
45 Ns (‘wil) II. Assumed root of the following.
45a 1% ('al) 1, body, belly (Ps 73:4).
45b O58) (al) HT, leading man, noble (II
Kes 24:15).
45c taose (uldm) I, porch.
45d tos (ayil) I, ram.
45e tos (‘ayil) IH, door post, jambs,
pilaster.
45f tos (Cayil) IU, leader.
45¢ to (‘ayil) IV, terebinth.
45h t 89s (ela) terebinth.
451 9s (élén) terebinth.
45; ‘too ('élam) portico.

20

45k
45]

"Ss (‘ayydl) stag, deer.
tmbx (‘ayyald) doe.

alam. Porch, hall. (asv uses ‘‘porch’’; Rsv
has ‘‘porch, hall,’’ or ‘‘vestibule.”’) Sometimes
equated with ’é/am. I occurs mainly in I Kgs and
Ezk as part of a temple or palace. Apparently it
was an enclosed porch or entrance hall, since it
could have windows (Ezk 41:26) and is compared
to a palace (I Kgs 7:8).

The question of the porch is bound up with the
reconstruction of the temple, which is uncertain.
The older view was that the temple had two
rooms like the tabernacle, a main hall and the
holy of holies. There was also a porch out front.
The view favored by many today is that it was a
three-room temple like Syrian temples that have
been found. W. F. Albright held that the two pil-
lars out front were free standing and totally out-
side the structure (Archaeology and the Religion
of Israel, Johns Hopkins Press, 1946, pp. 143-
48). More recent study would suggest that the
front of the building was really a half-porch or
vestibule with an open front. The two side walls
may have had windows (though Ezk 41:26 may
refer to windows in the front wall of the high main
hall that rose above the porch). In any case, the
front of the vestibule would have been open with
the roof supported by the side walls and the two
great pillars in front. This arrangement would
have given a very imposing entrance similar to the
palaces at Megiddo and elsewhere (D. Ussishkin,
‘*King Solomon’s Palaces,’’ BA 36:85-98).

The height of the porch was surely not 120
(cubits) (II Chr 3:4, kyv) but 20 cubits (some Lxx
MSS). Probably the consonants for cubit ’mh be-
came reversed and were read as one hundred
mh,

A ‘“‘porch”’ or ‘‘hall’’ figures prominently in
connection with Solomon's temple, his palace
complex, and the temple of Ezk 40-48. It is never
used in connection with any other building. Ac-
cording to I Kgs 6:3, the hall in front of Sol-
omon’s temple was twenty cubits wide and ten
cubits deep. Its width equaled that of the temple
proper. This entrance hall added a third section
to the holy place and holy of holies of the taber-
nacle. In the front of this ‘*porch’”’ or ‘‘vestibule”’
were set up the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz (1
Kgs 7:21). The excavators of Arad think that they
have found a porch area in the sanctuary at that
site. The altar of burnt offering was built in front
of the porch (II Chr 8:12), and this juxtaposition
of porch and altar is noted elsewhere also (II Chr
15:8: cf. Matt 23:55). In Ezk 8:16 wicked men are
seen at the entrance to the temple, ‘‘between the
porch and the altar,’’ worshiping the sun with
their backs to God. Joel 2:17 describes godly
priests weeping and praying ‘‘between the porch
and the altar.”

The ‘‘porch’’ of Solomon’s palace complex is
not well understood. The ‘‘hall of pillars’’ is as-
sociated with the ‘‘house of the forest of Leba-
non”’ (I Kgs 7:2, 6). This hal! of pillars, a colon-
nade structure, measured fifty cubits by thirty,
and may have functioned as an entrance hall to
the larger ‘forest of Lebanon’’ building. Another
porch or portico stood in front of the hall of pil-
lars (v. 6). The same word is used of the ‘‘hall of
the throne,” also called the ‘‘hall of judgment’’
(v. 7). The exact relationship of this hall to the
other “‘halls’’ or ‘‘porches’’ of v. 6 is prob-
lematical. It may have been directly adjacent to
the royal residence itself. Verse 8 indicates that
Solomon built for Pharaoh’s daughter a house
modelled after the ‘‘hall of the throne.”’

The largest number of references to ‘‘porch’’
occur in Ezekiel 40-46 in connection with the
hard-visualize temple described by the proph-
et. Several times the phrase ‘‘the porch of the
gate’ occurs (40:7-8, 15, 39; 44:3). These
porches were porticos of the gates between the
city and the outer court and the similar gates be-
tween the outer court and the inner. These gates
are so described that we can compare them to the
typical Solomonic gateways unearthed in
Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. The ‘‘prince”’ was
to enter and leave the temple by way of this
“porch of the gate’’ (44:3; 46:2, 8). There were
two tables on each side of this porch where the
burnt offering, sin offering, and guilt offering
were to be slaughtered (40:39). Probably the
porch was also the place where the prince ate
bread before the Lord (44:3).

In 40:48-49 the dimensions of ‘‘the porch of
the temple’ are given as twenty cubits in length
and eleven in width. These measurements are
almost identical to those of the porch of Sol-
omon’s temple. To reach the porch, a staircase
flanked by pillars was provided (v. 49).

While many of the details regarding Ezekiel’s
‘‘porch’’ remain obscure, it is clear that greater
prominence is attached to this area and that, un-
like Solomon's temple, distinct activities are as-
sociated with it.

Bibliography: Vincent, L. H., Jerusalem de
l’Ancien Testament, II, Paris: J. Gabalda, 1956,
p. 428. IDB, I, pp. 513-14, 657. See John B.
Taylor, Ezekiel (Tyndale), for a sketch of
Ezekiel’s temple. Note especially the possible
positions of the pillars in front of the structure or
within the entrance to the ‘‘porch.’’ The latter
position is favored by the Solomonic palaces at
Megiddo.

The plan of the gateways to the courts is better
shown in W. Zimmerli Biblische Kommentar
zum A.T., Il, pp. 1006, 1040.

’ayil J. Ram, male sheep. Like the word for
‘porch’ (‘alam), ‘‘ram’’ is probably derived

21

45 58 (wl)

from ‘a ‘‘to be first, in front of,’’ pointing to the
ram as the leader of the flock. It is mentioned
prominently in the Bible. The ram was valued for
its wool (II Kgs 3:4) and its tasty meat (Gen
31:38). Jacob presented rams along with other
animals as a gift to Esau (Gen 32:15). The ratio of
ten female lambs to one ram is typical in raising
animals; the males are used for meat and the
females kept for the next generation. It is
noteworthy that most animals sacrificed were
males. The sacrificial laws too were given in a
way that was not impractical. Rams or their woo!
were included in the tribute payments which the
Moabite king Mesha made to Ahab (II Kgs 3:4)
and which the Arabians gave to Jehoshaphat (II
Chr 17:11). Areas noted for their rams were
Bashan and Nebaioth, which is_ probably
Nabatea, in spite of the linguistic problem of the ¢
and t. Ram skins dyed red were an important
covering for the tabernacle (Ex 25:5).

Rams were frequently offered as sacrifices.
When God instituted his covenant with Abram, a
ram was one of the animals slain (Gen 15:9). On
Mount Moriah the ram caught in the bush became
the substitute for the beloved Isaac (Gen 22:13).
The ‘tram of ordination’’ was sacrificed at the
consecration of Aaron and his sons to the priest-
hood (Ex 29:1, 22). When the altar of the taber-
nacle was dedicated, rams were among the offer-
ings presented (Num 7:15, 21, etc.). Ezekiel
visualizes a ram as a burnt offering at the dedica-
tion of a new altar (Ezk 43:23, 25).

Rams were offered as regular sacrifices
throughout the year. Only a ram was to be used
for a guilt offering (Lev 5:15f.; 19:21-22), called a
‘‘ram of atonement’ (Num 5:8). Often rams were
among the burnt offerings, linked with bulls and
lambs. The order is usually given as bulls, rams,
and lambs (Num 28:11; I Chr 29:21). Rams for
burnt offerings were accompanied with grain of-
ferings and liquid offerings, the amounts of which
were less than those used for bulls but greater
than those for lambs. They were offered at the
new moon festival (Num 28:11-—14), Passover
(Num 28:19-20), Pentecost (Lev 23:18), and the
Day of Atonement (Lev 16:3, 5). Rams were also
slain as peace offerings (Lev 9:4f.). One ram for a
peace offering was prescribed to fulfill a nazirite
vow (Num 6:14, 17, 19).

Rams are mentioned in several passages that
condemn the multiplication of sacrifices designed
to please God automatically (I Sam 15:22; Isa
1:11; Mic 6:7). These familiar verses while dem-
onstrating the importance of rams as sacrificial
animals, indicate the importance of the wor-
shiper’s heart attitude.

In Dan 8, the ram symbolizes the kings of
Media and Persia. In Ezk 34:17 ‘‘rams’’ are
paired with male goats as symbols of the rich and
powerful in Israel. These tyrants use their horns

45 38 (wl)

to oppress the weak of the flock (v. 21). The im-
plication is that God will conduct a sacrifice and
will destroy these fat and strong ones.

’ayil II. Projecting pillar, pilaster. ‘ayil occurs
once in I Kgs 6:31 and twenty-one times in Ezk
40-41. According to I Kgs these ‘‘pillars’’ or
‘‘posts’’ were five-sided and were located at the
entrance to the inner sanctuary of the temple. As
depicted in Ezk, they feature palm tree orna-
ments (40:31) and are associated with the gates of
the temple area and with the porch of the temple.
Examples from the monarchy are described and
pictured in Albright, Archaeology of Palestine,
Pelican, 1961, pp. 125-26.

’ayil III. Mighty, leader. Some authorities con-
sider ’ayil III to be a separate word from ’ayil
I, ram (BDB), while others treat it as part of it
(KB). There are only five possible usages of this
word. The first, in Ex 15:15 (ksv, ‘‘mighty men’’),
compares the leaders of Moab with the chiefs of
Edom. The plural form in each term shows that
the reference is not restricted to the king.

In Ezk, where ‘‘ram”’ is used symbolically (see
‘ayil I, there are three instances of metaphorical
usage. Ezekiel 17:13 refers to the ‘‘mighty of the
land,’ the leaders and skilled workmen deported
from Israel by Nebuchadnezzar. A parallel pas-
sage is II Kgs 24:15, which also contains the word
’élé as the preferred reading (Qere), though the
the consonants in ’“/é (Kethib) may preserve the
original root ‘a! (see ‘ayil I). These ‘“‘leading
men’’ were exiled along with King Jehoiachin,
his family, and officials.

The singular form occurs in Ezk 31:11, refer-
ring to the ‘‘despot of the nations,’’ the king of
Babylon who destroyed Assyria’s power. There
is some disagreement about Ezk 32:21. Many
manuscripts have ‘é/é instead of ’ée/é. If the
former is correct, the expression refers to the
once ‘‘mighty leaders’’ who have gone down to
Sheol.

’ayil IV. Terebinth, oak. Probably from ‘ul ‘‘to
be in front, prominent’’ (see ‘ayil I). The ‘‘oak of
Paran’’ (El-paran) of Gen 14:6 may have been an
important landmark because of its size (cf. the
‘‘oak of Moreh’”’ in Gen 12:6). Some scholars be-
lieve that ‘ayil refers to a large tree, not a specific
species. The terebinth grows to a thirty foot
maximum.

The word is closely related to ‘é/a@, another
designation for the terebinth tree. In Isa 1:29-30
the two words seem almost interchangeable.
Modern translations alternate between ‘‘oak”’
and ‘‘terebinth.”’

Of its five occurrences, the most important are
in Isaiah. According to Isa 1:29, Zion will be
ashamed of the oaks and gardens it has desired.
This passage 1s clarified by Isa 57:5, which refers

22

to ‘‘burning with lust among the oaks.’’ Accord-
ing to Hos 4:13-14, the shade provided by large
trees made them desirable as ‘“‘high places,’ i.e.
cultic shrines.

Another metaphorical usage (Isa 61:3) calls the
faithful in Zion “‘oaks of nghteousness,’’ firmly
planted by the Lord to withstand evil.

A possible reference to ‘ayi/ occurs in Ezk
31:14, where tall, proud trees, representing As-
syria and Egypt, are felled by the Lord.

*éld. Terebinth (usually the same in ASV, RSv).

The exact identification of this tree is disputed.
Most versions translate the word by the term
‘‘oak.’’ The tree is infrequently mentioned in
Scripture, being found in six distinct historical
situations: where Jacob hid idols (Gen 35:4);
where an angel met Gideon (Jud 6:11, 19); a val-
ley where David fought Goliath (1 Sam 17:2, 19);
where Absalom caught his hair (IJ Sam 18:9);
where the unnamed prophet rested (I Kgs 13:14);
and where Saul’s bones were buried (I Chr
10:12). It is used as a symbol of judgment (Isa
1:30; 6:13) and under its limbs Israel committed
idolatry (Ezk 6:13; Hos 4:13).

’élén. Terebinth, oak. (asv and RSsv_ usually
translate ‘‘oak"’ with a marginal note ‘‘tere-
binth.”” The ksv erroneously translates as
‘*plain.’’)

It is generally conceded to be the same as ’é/d.
The tree figures often in Abraham’s travels (Gen
12:6; 13:18; 14:13; 18:1). A noted one is men-
tioned near Ebal and Gerizim (Deut 11:30). The
RSV translates the term on one occasion ‘divining
oak’’ (Jud 9:37), while asv follows kJv in translat-
ing ‘‘the oak of Meonenim."’ Apparently certain
such trees became so famous as landmarks that
they were generally recognized by all as suitable
for specifying rendezvous.

’elam. Porch, portico (K}v ‘‘arches’’). Closely
related are ‘uélam and ‘ayil, II. ’élam occurs
some sixteen times, only in Ezk 40:16-36 and
always in the plural. These ‘‘porches,’’ or ‘‘ves-
tibules’’ or ‘‘colonnades”’ are associated with the
guard rooms and side pillars of the gates of the
temple (vv. 16, 21, 29, 33, 36). They were appar-
ently side enclosures along the entire length of
the gateway, or enlarged areas at the end of the
gate. See the bibliography for suggested plans of
these gateways.

’ayyala. Doe, hind. This noun is the feminine
of ’ayydal ‘stag, deer.”’ It is known in Ugaritic
also ('y/t). All of its eleven occurrences are in
poetic passages. Three times reference is made to
the doe giving birth. In Ps 29:9 a thunderstorm
called ‘*the voice of the Lord’’ makes the doe go
into labor (cf. Job 39:1). An alternative view as
old as R. Lowth (1815) is cited by Dahood though
rejected by him (in AB, Psalms I, p. 179). It

reads ‘ayyalot ‘‘does’’ as ‘élét or ‘élét *‘oaks”
and translates the line ‘makes the oaks bend.”’ It
is not only difficult to have the reading that the
storm makes the does bear prematurely, but also
the parallel line speaks of the storm stripping the
forests—which would favor the reading ‘‘oaks”’
(so the NIV). During a severe drought, the doe
gives birth only to abandon her young (Jer 14:5).
This is apparently unusual owing to the affection-
ate nature of the doe (Prov 5:19).

Another trio of verses refers to the doe as a
surefooted animal, able to make its way on high,
dangerous terrain. The Psalmist rejoices that God
has made his feet like a doe’s feet in preparation
for battle (18:33 [H 34] = II Sam 22:34). Habak-
kuk uses the same imagery to exult in the security
God gives (3:19). When Jacob blesses Naphtali,
he predicts that the tribe will be *‘a doe let loose”’
(Gen 49:21), roaming free and secure. Naphtali’s
part in the victory over Sisera may be in view
(Jud 4:6; 5:18).

Twice in the Song of Solomon (2:7; 3:5) the
daughters of Jerusalem are adjured ‘‘by the ga-
zelles or by the does of the field.” This is proba-
bly a word play on taking an oath using ** Lorpb of
hosts’’ and ‘‘god.’’ ‘“‘Gazelles’’ is identical to
‘hosts’? (s°ba'ét) and ‘‘does” (‘aylét) is very
close to 'él6him.

The phrase ‘‘to the doe of the morning”’ intro-
ducing Ps 22 probably refers to the melody to be
used.

Bibliography: Howie, Carl Gordon, ‘The
East Gate of Ezekiel’s Temple Enclosure and the
Solomonic Gateway of Megiddo,’’ BASOR 117:
13-19, esp. p. 16.

H.W.

46 “S38 (‘dlay) perhaps, suppose.

This adverb is often associated with personal
or national crises. Sarah expressed hope that
Hagar would produce a child for her (Gen 16:2),
and Balak hoped to curse Israel through Balaam
(Num 22:6, 11). Jacob feared that Isaac would
discover his deceit (Gen 27:12), and Job wondered
if perhaps his children had cursed God (1:5). ’alay
also expresses mockery (Isa 47:12; I Kgs 18:27).

H.W.

ayn (alam) I. See no. 4Sc.

47 poss ('alam) II, but, however, nevertheless.

This strong adversative is found ten times in
Job, where Satan argues that God should test Job
(1:11; 2:5) and where Job and his friends voice
deep differences (5:8; 11:5; 13:3). God's sover-
eign will can be expressed through this term (Gen
48:19; Ex 9:16). Contrasts between past and pre-
sent are emphasized (Gen 28:19; I Kgs 20:23).

H.W.

48 8 ('wn) I.

23

48 338 (wn)

Assumed root of the following.

48a TIN ('dwen) trouble.
48b TD°NM (f° anim) toil.
’"awen. Trouble, sorrow, idolatry, wickedness, in-

iquity, emptiness. (RSV and NEB prefer ‘‘evil ,’’ and
‘mischief’ over kijv’s_ favorite, ‘‘iniqui-
ty..’) The primary meaning of the word seems to
have two facets: a stress on trouble which moves
on to wickedness, and an emphasis on emptiness
which moves on to idolatry. The word is used
eighty-five times. A noun from an identical root
’wn II is pronounced ’6n and means “‘vigor,
wealth’ (q.v.).

The root does not occur in verbal forms; nor-
mally it functions as a masculine noun, some-
times as an adjective.

One of the basic meanings of ’dwen is *‘trou-
ble’’ which is clearly shown in Gen 35:18. Just
before she died, Rachel named her newborn son,
Ben-oni, (son of sorrow). In Deut 26:14 and Hos
9:4 ‘Gwen designates mourning in association
with death. 'dwen is sometimes in proximity to
‘amal “‘toil, labor’’ (q.v.). In Job 5:6; Ps 90:10;
and Hab 1:3, 'dwen is parallel to ‘Gdmdal and em-
phasizes physical trouble. In Isa 10:1, Ps 7:14 (H
15] (cf. Job 4:8) ‘amail is the result of "Gwen in the
sense that sin brings trouble. The relationship be-
tween ‘Gwen and ‘amal is shown further by the
tendency of the latter to drift to the connotation
of deceitful words as in Ps 140:10. Also, both
words occur with other words for deceit in Job
15:35; Ps 10:7; 36:3-4; 55:11; and Isa 59:4. Ob-
serve in Job 36:21 that ’Gwen is contrasted with
another word for affliction ‘dni and both here and
in Job 34:36 ‘Gwen would seem to point to decep-
tive planning or speaking which leads to sorrow
or rebellion.

In this sense of deception, 'Gwen is tied to
thoughts and words in Prov 17:4; Isa 32:6; Ezk
11:2; Hos 12:12 and possibly Hos 6:8 (see Lxx).
From this base ‘dwen becomes a label for
idolatry in Isa 66:3 and the phrase *‘Beth-aven,”™
probably a name of shame for Bethel (Hos 5:8;
10:5, 8; cf. Amos 1:5; Ezk 30:17). Also the word
describes idols in Isa 41:29, and seems to denote
non-existence in Amos 5:5.

This trend of meaning in ’dwen is reinforced by
its proximity to standard Hebrew words for de-
ception, fraud, and falseness in Prov 6:12, 18;
19:28; 22:8; Isa 29:20; Zech 10:2. It may be that
this strand of meaning comes from a possible
early kinship to ’dyin, which means “‘nothing.”’

In by far the greater numbers of instances, the
versions prefer to translate ‘'dwen as “‘evil,’’ *‘in-
iquity,"’ or ‘“‘wicked.*’ But an interesting term
occurs about twenty times in Job, Ps, and Prov; it
is workers of iniquity (’dwen) and may designate
men skilled in magic or idolatrous ritual.

Generally, biblical theologians have given little

49 38 ('wn)

attention to ‘Gwen as a contributor to an under-
standing of sin. Since the word stresses the plan-
ning and expression of deception and points to
the painful aftermath of sin, it should be noted
more.

t©’anim. Toil. This masculine noun occurs in
the plural, possibly to intensify the force of the
word occurring only in Ezk 24:12. Translators
have been unable to agree on its precise meaning,
SO we have ‘‘lies’’ (kJv), ‘‘in vain’’ (Rsv), and
‘*corrosion’’ (NEB).

Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible,
Desclee, 1964. Guillaume, A., ‘‘The Root ’wn in
Hebrew,’ JTS 34: 62-64. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin
in the Old Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963.
Quell, G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles
Black, 1951. Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of
Sin, London: Epworth, 1953. TDOT, I, pp. 140-
46. THAT, I, pp. 81-83.

G.H.L.

49 338 ('wn) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
49a TiN (‘6n) vigor, wealth.

This root occurs as a noun only twelve times.
In Gen 49:3; Deut 21:17; Job 40:16; Ps 78:51;
105:36, the word designates reproductive power
as evidenced in the firstborn son. In Isa 40:26-27
the creative power of God is highlighted. Physical
Strength and/or wealth is denoted in Job 18:12;
20:10; Hos 12:9.

G.H.L.

50 S°Pi8 (‘dpir) Ophir.

This proper name refers to the eleventh son of
Joktan (Gen 10;29) and to a region famous for its
gold. The name is mentioned with ‘‘Sheba’’ and
**Havilah”’ in Gen 10:28-29 and I Chr 1:22-23.
Since those two designations are place names,
some authorities feel that the person ‘*Ophir”’
must be connected with the place. Others dis-
avow any relationship between the two.

Ophir is first mentioned in connection with
David, who had amassed three thousand talents
of gold from Ophir for the construction of Sol-
omon's temple (I Chr 29:4). Solomon joined with
Hiram of Tyre to send ships from Ezion-geber to
Ophir in quest of the same gold (I Kgs 9:28).
These ships also brought a large number of almug
trees and precious stones (1 Kgs 10:11), and
quantities of silver, ivory, apes, and baboons
(peacocks? I Kgs 10:22). Actually, v. 22 does not
mention Ophir, but the ships of Tarshish were
most likely the large vessels that traveled to
Ophir every three years (cf. If Chr 9:21). InI Kgs
22:49 King Jehoshaphat built ‘‘ships of Tarshish’’
to journey to Ophir in search of gold, but this

venture in the century after Solomon came to
grief before the ships could leave Ezion-geber.
Some scholars believe that *‘Tarshish’’ normally
means boats used for carrying ore or metals.

A reference to the gold of Ophir has been found
on a preexilic sherd uncovered at Tell Qasileh.
The inscription reads, ‘Gold of Ophir for Beth-
horon, thirty shekels’’ (B. Maisler, ‘“Two Hebrew
Ostraca from Tell Qasile,’”» JNES 10:265-67).
This find indicates that at least one king after
Jehoshaphat was successful in procuring addi-
tional Ophir gold.

The value of the gold of Ophir is implied in
poetic passages. In Isa 13:12 it is compared to
‘*pure gold’’ (cf. Job 28:15-16). In Ps 45:9 [H 10]
the queen is depicted as clothed in gold from
Ophir. In Job 22:24 the word ‘*Ophir’’ is under-
stood to mean “‘the gold of Ophir.”

The site of Ophir has not been conclusively
identified. Several theories have been formu-
lated, taking into account the products identified
with Ophir and the three-year length of the jour-
ney. Most likely the three years refers to one
entire year and parts of two others. Perhaps the
best case can be made for locating Ophir in the
Somali Republic, a country on the horn of Africa,
once called Punt. The products obtained in Ophir
are known in Africa, and the Hebrew words for
the two kinds of monkeys (apes and baboons?)
are related to Egyptian words (qf and ky).

A different theory would place Ophir in India,
where the commodities in question were also
available, particularly if ‘‘almug’’ wood is san-
dalwood. Some identify Ophir with Supara, sixty
miles north of Bombay. Trade between India and
the Persian Gulf is attested from the second mil-
lennium 8.c. Once Jerome translated Ophir as
‘India’ (Job 28:16), reflecting a strong tradition
in his day.

A third alternative is the southwestern coast of
Arabia. The close relationship between Ophir
and Sheba and Havilah in Gen 10:29 supports this
identification. Ma‘afir in Yemen has_ been
suggested as a site for Ophir. This theory does
not preclude the possibility that some of the
commodities were originally brought to Ophir
from India.

Bibliography: Albright, William F., Archae-
ology and the Religion of Israel, Johns Hopkins,
1953, pp. 133-35, 212.

H.W.

PIN (is) to hurry, urge, be pressed (with
the same meaning in Arabic).

This verb is used four times in Prov to discour-
age haste to get rich (28:20) and hasty words or

actions (29:20; 19:2; 21:5). In the famous Josh
10:13 the sun was in no hurry to set.
One’s territory can be too ‘‘confining’’ (Josh

17:15), and persons can be ‘‘urged"’ into action
(Ex 5:13; Gen 19:15).
H.W.

“sis (‘désar). See no. 154a.

52. "58 (ér) to be or become light, shine; in the
Hiphil stem, to give light, cause to shine. Cor-
responds to Ugaritic ’r ‘‘to be bright; to illu-
mine,”’ and Akkadian urru ‘‘day.”’

It occurs infrequently in the Qal and Niphal but
some forty-five times in the Hiphil. It refers to
the shining of the sun, but its metaphorical usages
are more common.

Derivatives
T38) (Or) light.
tsais) (ord) I, light.
mais (6rd) UH, herb (only in II Kgs
4:39).
“18 (‘ur) flame.
TAS) (urim) Unim.
T31N’ (ma’ér) luminary.
MN (m°'ard) (light) hole.

§2a
52b
52c

52d
S2e
\2F
52g

The concept of light in Scripture is important,
dealing with personal and impersonal forces on
both literal and metaphorical levels. Light is
closely related to life and happiness, which may
account for the frequent comparisons between
God and light. Since the ancient world often wor-
shiped the sun, God's role as creator of light is
stressed. Eventually, he will make the sun un-
necessary (Isa 60:19~20).

Light is frequently used as an indicator of time,
separating day from night (Gen 1:5). The em-
phasis is on the shining of the sun in the early
morning (Gen 44:3; Jud 16:2), so that “‘light’’ can
sometimes be translated ‘‘dawn™ (Neh 8:3). A
distinction may be drawn between ‘‘daybreak”’
and the ‘‘daylight’’ that follows (Jud 19:26) the
rising of the sun (Isa 60:1-3). Amos (8:9) men-
tions a judgment of darkness that will strike Israel
‘in broad daylight.”’

Light is of course associated with light-bearing
bodies, but it is distinct from them, as seen in its
creation apart from the luminaries (Gen 1:3). The
sun and the moon are the ‘‘greater light’’ and the
“lesser light’? (Gen 1:16: Ps 136:7), and the stars
are closely associated as ‘‘stars of light’’ (Ps
148:3), ‘‘Every passage that speaks of the shining
(‘6r in the Hiphil) or the light (’6r) of the sun
(Gen 1:14-16; Isa 30:20; 60:19; Jer 31:35; Ezk
32:8; Ps 136:7-9) also refers to the light of the
moon and sometimes also of the stars’’ (TDOT, I,
p. 151). These heavenly luminaries are an integral
part of the wonder of the cosmos as founded by
the Creator and serve as a clock to regulate the
seasons (Gen 1:14; Ps 104:19; Jer 31:35f.). The oT

25

52 S38 (6r

avoids isolating the sun as ‘‘the light’’ lest the
Hebrews succumb to the tendency to worship it
(cf. Job 31:26-27). Another of God’s lights was
the pillar of fire that illumined the night for the
Israelites during the wilderness wanderings (Ex
13:21; Ps 105:39). This was probably more awe-
some than lightning, which also displayed the
glory of God (Ps 77:18 [H 19]; 97:4; Job 36:32).

Manmade lights included the sacred lampstand
in the tabernacle (Num 4:9, 16; 8:2) which cast its
light in the holy place. Lamps burning olive oil
were highly valued for use in people’s homes
(Prov 13:9).

‘Or 1s used metaphorically when a person’s
face or the eyes are viewed as light-bearing ob-
jects. Sometimes literal eyesight is intended (Ps
38:10 [H 11], probably also the difficult I Sam
14:27), but more often the ‘light of the face’’
refers to a cheerful face expressing good will (Job
29:24). The favor of a king is seen in his face
(Prov 16:15), and “the light of God’s face’’ indi-
cates divine approval (Ps 44:3 (H 4]; 89:15 (H
16}).

In the famous priestly blessing of Num 6:25,
the Hiphil stem of the verb is used in a similar
context: "‘The Lord make his face to shine upon
you, and be gracious to you.”’ This time-honored
expression occurs five times in the Psalms, in-
voking God's saving and restoring presence on
behalf of his servants (Ps 31:16 [H 17]; 67:1; [H
2); 80:3, 7, 19 [H 80:4, 8, 20); 119:135). In Dan
9:17 the great statesman implores the Lord of
mercy to let his face shine upon his sanctuary and
reverse the desolate conditions in Jerusalem. The
expression finds a parallel in Ugaritic, **the coun-
tenace of the sun shines upon me,’’ meaning *'!
enjoy the favor of the king.’

Light can also symbolize general “‘life’’ or
‘*prosperity.’’ ‘To see the light”’ is *‘to be born”’
(Job 3:16), and the ‘‘light of life’’ is a poetic refer-
ence to being alive (Job 33:30; Ps 56:13 [H 14)).

Some, however, contend that this compound
should be rendered ‘‘the land of the living” be-
cause this is the meaning of the word in Phoeni-
cian. It makes excellent sense in such passages as
Job 33:30. The word ‘‘Jand”* is found in Ps 116:9,
a close parallel to Ps 56:13 {H 14]. Dahood
(Psalms, I, I] in AB) suggests the meaning ‘“‘land
of eternal life.”

In Ps 36:9 [H 10] ‘‘light’’ is parallel to ‘‘the
fountain of life.”’ In line with this usage Dahood
argues that ‘‘to see light’’ is often really to see the
light of God's face in immortality (Ps 36:9 |H 10);
and contra Ps 49:19 {H 20]). This is the expres-
sion in Isa 53:11 when the .xx and DSS texts
speak in this vein of immortality for the suffering
servant (cf. Ps 17:15).

Job 22:28 describes prosperity as light shining
on one’s ways, and a few chapters later ‘‘good”’
is compared with “‘light’’ (30:26). Unfortunately,

52 38 (Or)

Job has encountered ‘evil’ and ‘‘darkness,”” a
set of contrasts in line with Amos’s portrayal of
the day of the Lord as one of darkness and not
light (5:18). A day without light speaks of trouble
and calamity.

Prosperity and life are closely linked with joy,
SO it 1S appropriate to find ‘“*happiness”’ as a
meaning for “‘light."" The two concepts are paral-
lel in Ps 97:11. In Est 8:16 (using ‘6rd) “‘lght”’ ts
one of several words describing the relief and joy
felt by the Jews in Persia when the decree to
destroy them had been rescinded. Proverbs 15:30
speaks of the light of the eyes that makes the
heart happy.

Another prominent metaphorical usage relates
light to instruction. When a man finds wisdom,
his face lights up (Eccl 8:1). The teaching of one’s
parents (Prov 6:23) as well as the word of God are
a lamp to one’s feet, a light to one’s path (Ps
119:105, 130). In Psalm 19, which compares the
written Scriptures (o nature and to the sun in par-
ticular, the commandments of the Lord are said
to enlighten the eyes (v. 8 [H 9]). Most likely the
challenge to Israel ‘to walk in the light of the
Lord’’ denotes adherence to the laws and teach-
ings of God (Isa 2:3, 5; cf. 51:4). In a word,
whereas darkness is associated with death (Job
3:5; 10:21; Ps 88:6; 91:6), failure and suffering
(Jer 28:12; Amos 5:18, 20; Lam 3:2), folly (Job
37:19; 38:2: Eccl 2:13), and sin (Job 24:16: Ps
74:20; Prov 2:13; Jer 49:9), light is associated
with life (Mal 3:20 [H 4:2]), salvation and pros-
perity (Job 29:3; Isa 58:8; Ps 36:10 [H 9]), wisdom
(Ps 19:9 (H 8]; 119:105, 130: Prov 6:23; Dan 5:11),
justice (Isa 42:1-3, 6; 49:6; 51:4f.: Mic 7:8).

The ultimate development is to compare God
himself with light. The Lord ts my light and my
salvation (Ps 27:1), though a flaming fire to purge
out wickedness (Isa 10:17). Isaiah describes the
Messiah as a great light shining in a land of deep
darkness (9:2 [H 1]). He will be *‘a light to the
nations’’ so that God’s salvation may reach the
ends of the earth (42:6; 49:6).

Though the oT 1s careful not to identify God
and the sun, the shining glory of God is described
in terms of the sun (Ezk 43:2). He is the resplen-
dent one (Ps 76:4 [H 5]) with healing in his wings,
or rays (Mal 4:2 [H 3:20]). In the future age of
bliss the glory of the Lord will nse upon us (Isa
60:!-3) and he, not the sun, will be an everlasting
light (Isa 60:19-20).

’arim. Urim. This word occurs seven times in
the oT, only in the plural. A presumed singular
‘ar “light (asv “flame,” Isa 50:11), whence
‘*fire’’ (Isa 31:9; 44:16). ’“rim meant also east,
region of light (Isa 24:15 Ntv. NASB marg.). In all
but two cases the Urim appear with the Thum-
mim. Both were placed in the high priest's
‘breastplate of judgment’’ (Ex 28:30: Lev 8:8;

26

see hdshen) and were involved in obtaining
oracular judgments from God (Num 27:21).

Although ‘urim probably derives from ’dér **be
light’* (q.v.), Ugaritic 'r (so BDB, p. 22), other
possibilities include ‘drar ‘‘curse,’’ and ‘dard
‘pluck off" (KB, p. 23). Only in postexilic times
do Urim and Thummim occur without the article
or its equivalent, indicating that despite KJv
capitalization, these were originally common
nouns, meaning ‘“‘lights and perfections’’ (see
tamam), as the Lxx and later Greek photismoi kai
teleotétes, or, more freely, délosis kai alétheia
‘illumination and truth.”

The Urim and Thummim appear in Scripture
without explanatory identification, except that
they were to be put ‘‘in the breastplate ... and be
upon Aaron's heart’? (Ex 28:30), which may
suggest that these are none other than descriptive
terms for the twelve precious stones of the im-
mediately preceding context, inscribed with the
names of the tribes of Israel (vv. 17-21), and set
in the breastplate of judgment upon Aaron s heart
(v. 29). But cf. Lev 8:8 which seems to say they
are additional to the twelve. Josephus assigns
oracular characteristics to the twelve stones,
claiming they would shine when Israel was to be
victorious in battle (Antiquities, 3.8.9). Talmudic
tradition suggests that the Shekinah would il-
lumine letters in the tribal names to spell out rev-
elations, (Yoma, 73,a—b; although five of the
twenty-two Hebrew letters do not appear in these
twelve names). Actually, the combining of
**dreams, Urim, and prophets’ (I Sam 28:6) indi-
cates that, even as the first and last terms denote
revelations to the mind of the petitioner through a
prophetic intermediary, so Urim denotes a corrte-
spondingly personal revelation, through the mind
of that priestly intermediary who wore the shin-
ing stones of the breastpiece in Israel's sanctuary
(cf. Moses’ association of Urim and Thummim
with the tribe of Levi, Deut 33:8, and David's
seeking divine guidance through the man who
wore the priestly surplice (’épdéd, q.v.) I Sam
23:9-12: 30:7-8. to which, in turn, the breastplate
was attached (Ex 28:25-28).

Negative critics presume that the ‘uwrim were
images, magical dice, or divining disks, flipped
like coins, giving a “‘yes’’ answer should the light
(‘ar) side come up (cf. IDB, IV, p. 739 and the
RSV emendation of I Sam 14:41). But tom does
not mean ‘‘dark.”’ And the priestly oracles were
not limited to yes-or-no answers (Jud 18:5-6; II
Sam 5:19) but provided detailed explanations
(Jud 1:1; I Sam 10:22; If Sam 5:23). Scripture
condemns pagan, mechanical divination (Hos
4:12). Mention of official oracles ceases after the
time of David (replaced by prophets?), and the
breastpiece with its Umm seems to have perished
in the exile (cf. Ezr 2:63; cf. Josephus’s claim of a
Maccabean destruction, Antiquities, 3.8, 9).

53

ma’or. Light, luminary. This masculine noun
isa close synonym of ’6r, but occurs only twenty
times. It is used of the lampstand in the taberna-
cle several times (Ex 35:14; Lev 24:2; Num 4:9,
16).

‘ora J. Light, joy. This feminine form of ’6r
occurs only three times in the ot (Ps 139:12; Isa
26:19; Est 8:16).

Bibliography: Lindblom, J., ‘‘Lot-Casting in
the Old Testament,” VT 12: 164-78. Mangan,
Edward A., “The Urim and Thummim,’” CBQ
1:133-38. May, H.G., **Ephod and Anil,’ AJSL
56:44-69. Richardson, TWB, p. 129. Robertson,
Edward, ‘The ‘Urim and Thummim; What Were
They?” VT 14: 67-74. TDNT, IX, pp. 316-27.
TDOT, I, pp. 147-66. THAT, I, pp. 84-90.

H

min ('d6r). See no. 4la.

*rIs (‘ut) consent, agree (Niphal only).

m8 ('arim). See no. 52e.

54. tS (az) then.

Derivative

54a TIS (mé’az)
since.

in time past, long since,

This adverb appears 130 times. It is related to
Ugaritic idk “‘then.’’ Its use in Hebrew is em-
phatic, occurring in many important contexts and
often in poetic passages. As a temporal adverb, it
can refer to both the past and present. After the
great victory over Egypt at the Red Sea, ‘‘then
Moses sang this song to the Lorp”’ (Ex 15:1; cf.
Num 21:17). “*Then”’ introduces Joshua’s request
for the sun to stand still (Josh 10:12). When the
temple was dedicated ‘‘then Solomon assembled
all Israel (I Kgs 8:1).

'€z also occurs in future contexts, specifying
the time when the eyes of the blind will be opened
(Isa 35:5) or when the return from captivity will
bring ecstasy (Isa 60:5). After Abraham's servant
had sought a wife among his relatives, ‘‘then’’ he
would be free from his oath (Gen 24:41; Ex
12:44).

The victory songs of Ex 15 and Jud 5 use ‘dz
emphatically. When news about Israel’s tinumph
was heard, “‘then the chiefs of Edom were dis-
mayed™’ (Ex 15:15). In Jud 5:8, 11, 13 it is used to
describe the sequence of the battle with the
Canaanites.

‘‘Then” can also express strict logical se-
quence. If Israel keeps the Sabbath, ‘‘then’’ they
will find delight in the Lord (Isa 58:14). Apart
from meditating in the law, David claims, “‘I
would have perished’ (Ps 119:92; cf. II Kgs
13:19).

55 358 ('éz6b)

27

55 3538 (’éz6b)

mé’az. Since. Derived from min ‘az *“‘from
then,’’ as in Jer 44:18. It occurs eighteen times,
seven times as a preposition or conjunction (Ruth
2:7; Gen 39:5). In the absolute it is used of the re-
cent past (IJ Sam 15:34) or the more remote past. In
Isa, a cluster of verses prove that God has ‘long
since’* predicted the future (44:8; 45:21; 48:3, S,
7,8). God's throne was established **from of old’’
(Ps 93:2), which looks beyond creation (Prov
8:22).

H.W.

hyssop. (ASV and RSv similar.)

This word occurs ten times, primarily in the
Pentateuch. The English meaning is derived from
the Greek “voowxoc, which is only an attempt to
transliterate the Hebrew. Hyssop is a small plant
that grows on walls (I Kgs 4:33 [H 5:13]), proba-
bly to be identified with marjoram of the mint
family. It was used to apply blood and water in
purification ceremonies.

The importance of hyssop stems from the
Exodus. God told Moses to have each Israelite
family slay a lamb, dip a bunch of hyssop in the
blood in the basin and then smear some of the
blood on the sides and top of the doorframe (Ex
12:22). When the Angel of the Lord passed by
and saw the blood, he spared the firstborn son in
that home. Thus, the hyssop functioned as a
brush to apply the blood.

In Lev 14:4—6 hyssop is used in a purification
ceremony for a man cured of leprosy. The hys-
sop, along with a live bird, cedar wood and scar-
let yarn, was dipped in the blood of a bird killed
over running water. The man being cleansed was
then sprinkled seven times with this mixture of
blood and water. The same procedure applied to
a house which had a “‘leprous”™ outbreak (likely
mildew, see sGra‘at). It too was to be sprinkled
seven times with the same mixture (Lev 14:49-
52).

Similar was the procedure for persons or ob-
jects contaminated by contact with a corpse.
Special ashes for purification were prepared by
burning the body of a sacrificed red heifer and
throwing on top of it cedar wood, hyssop. and
scarlet yarn (Num 19:6). Whenever anyone or
anything had been near a dead body, running
water was added to the purification ashes, and
hyssop was used to sprinkle the contaminated
person and objects on the third and seventh days
of their ritual uncleanness (Num 19:17-19). Any
unclean person who failed to comply with these
regulations was to be cut off from Israel.

In the Mishnah (H. Danby, Oxford, 1933) there
are seventeen pages of rules for preparing and
sprinkling this water (pp. 697-714). Needless to
say, some of the rules give minutiae even to the
ridiculous. The spiritual character, however, is

56 bts (‘azal)

lacking. These rules represent the ideas of the
Pharisees of Jesus’ day.

The combination of cedar, hyssop, and scarlet
found in Lev and Num ts intriguing. Cedar and
hyssop seem to represent the most magnificent
tree and most insignificant bush respectively (1
Kgs 4:33 [H 5:13]). Cedar is a symbol of strength,
splendor, and longevity and it may emphasize the
importance of these rites.

In Heb 9:19 there is reference to Moses taking
the blood of calves, water, scarlet wool, and hys-
sop in order to sprinkle the scroll of the covenant
and all the people as he established the Sinai cov-
enant, though the scarlet and the hyssop are not
expressly mentioned in Ex 24:6-8.

When David in repentance cried out to God,
‘*Purify me with hyssop, and I shall be clean’’ (Ps
51:7 [H 9}), he referred to the laws of Num 19. He
knew that if he were not cleansed, he would be
cut off from his people.

Perhaps the mention of the hyssop plant given
to Chnst on the cross (Jn 19:29) refers symboli-
cally to the infinite purification that was accom-
plished through his death.

Bibliography: Harrison, R. K., ‘The Biblical
Problem of Hyssop,’’ EQ 26: 218-24. Shewell-
Cooper, W. E., ‘‘Flora’’ ZPEB, II, p. 570.

H.W.

See no. 59a.
See no. S5l1d.

"ew (’éz6r).
M398 (azkaryd).

56 338 (‘dzal)

This verb is used of a buyer who brags about
his purchase after he goes his way (Prov 20:14).
Israel also shifts its position, moving from one
ally to another (Jer 2:36).

Three times the sense is “‘to be exhausted.”’
Water ‘evaporates’ (Job 14:11), Israel's
strength was depleted (Deut 32:36), and Saul's
bread was gone (I Sam 9:7).

Combined with ‘éz ‘‘goat’’ it makes the word
‘aza’zél *‘Azazel,’’ “‘the goat of going out’ or
‘Scapegoat’ of Lev 16.

to go away, about.

H.W.

*08 (‘dzan) I, listen, give ear.

This verb is used only in the Hiphil stem, in-
dicating it is denominative.

Parent Noun
S7Ja 8 (‘Ozen) ear.
Derivative
S7b MK O('Gzén)

'd@zan occurs primarily in poetic books as a
parallel to the verbs shadma‘ *‘to hear,’’ and hiq-
shib *‘to pay attention.’’ Even where it is used in

implements, tools.

basically non-poetic books, it occurs in poetic
passages, such as the songs of Lamech (Gen
4:23), of Moses (Deut 32:1) and of Deborah (Jud
5:3). The vast majority of its forty-two occur-
rences are in imperatival forms.

’ozen. Ear, hearing. This noun occurs almost
two hundred times and is applied most often to
man, though it is used of a dog’s ears (Prov 26:17)
and of a sheep's ear, partially rescued from a lion
(Amos 3:12). Anthropomorphically, God is said
to possess ‘‘ears’’ or “‘hearing.’’

The ear can perhaps best be studied under
three headings: as an organ of hearing, as a part
of the body subject to symbolic actions, and as a
sign of responsiveness and understanding. These
usages are frequentby interrelated.

The ear as the physical organ of hearing has
been implanted by God (Ps 94:9), who himself
can hear. The Psalmist uses a teleological argu-
ment for the nature of God from the human ear:
‘*He who planted the ear, does he not hear?”’ (Ps
94:9). In contrast, the manmade ears of idols hear
nothing at all (Ps 115:6; 135:17). When the physi-
cal organ is mentioned, frequently “‘hearing”’ 1s a

good translation for ‘‘ears."’ **To speak in the
ears’’ of someone is ‘‘to speak in his hearing”’
(Gen 44:18).

Since the ear represents hearing and obedi-
ence, it is involved in important symbolic ac-
tions. If a slave chose to serve his master perma-
nently, his ear was pierced with an awl (Ex 21:6:
Deut 15:17; cf. Ps 40:6 [H 7]). By this legal act,
the slave was bound to obedience for his entire
life. At the ordination of Aaron and his sons to
the priesthood, some blood from the sacrificial
ram was placed on the lobes of their right ears,
thumbs, and big toes (Lev 8:23-24; Ex 29:20).
Similar was the case of a person cleansed from
leprosy. Blood as well as olive oil was applied to
his right ear, thumb, and big toe on the eighth day
of his purification ceremonies (Lev 14:14, 17).

Earrings were apparently given by the groom
to the bride at a marriage (Ezk 16:12) (The ‘‘ear-
ring’’ for Rebekah [Gen 24:22 kJv] was a nose
ring), but they are associated with idolatry inGen
35:4. The Israelites tore off their gold earrings so
that Aaron could make a golden calf (Ex 32:2-3),
As a sign of complete rejection, the ears and nose
were mutilated by the rampaging enemy (Ezk
23:25).

Most references to the ear or hearing involve a
response from the hearer. To hear, or to incline
the ear, means to pay close attention, e.g. to the
words of the wise (Prov 22:17). How often God
pleads with wayward Israel to listen and heed his
warnings in view of impending judgment (Hos
5:1; Jer 13:15). Even heaven and earth are called
to listen as witnesses of the covenant promises of
Israel (Deut 32:1; Isa 1:2). Predictions of national

disasters are said to make the ears ring or tingle,
so shocking is the message (I Sam 3:11; II Kgs
21:12; Jer 19:3).

Twice, the term “hardness” or ‘‘heaviness”’ is
applied to the ears of Israel. They have stopped
their ears from hearing the word of God through
the prophets (Zech 7:11-12), for God had brought
on them judicial deafness (Isa 6:10; cf. II Chr
24:19; Neh 9:30). Like the idols, the nation had
ears but could not hear (Jer 5:21). Once the
people's ears are called ‘‘uncircumcised,’’ closed
to the words of their covenant God (Jer 6:10).

Hearing and understanding are closely linked
on occasion (Job 13:1), and *‘ears’’ can almost
mean ‘‘mind’’ (Job 33:15). Horst noted: *‘The
ears are regarded as the instrument by which
speech and orders are noted, not the brain, as
with us. Hence the ear is the seat of ‘insight’ ”’
(TDNT, V, p. 546). Proverbs 23:13 condemns re-
fusal to hear the cry of the poor and thus remain
ignorant of their plight. But the man who turns a
deaf ear to talk of murder is commended (Isa
33:15). The importance of the organ to one's
spiritual life is stated by Job: **Does not the ear
test words, as the palate tastes food (Job 12:11).

Many references relate to God's ability to hear
and take action. The arrogance of Assyria came
to his ears and resulted in its destruction (Isa
37:29). Most passages deal with God's response
to prayer. The Psalmist frequently pleads with
God to hear his cry for help (Ps 80:1 [H 2}; 54:2
[H 4]) and save him from the enemy. At the dedi-
cation of the temple, Solomon asked that God's
ears would ever be attentive to the prayers of his
people (II Chr 6:40). Danie! turned toward that
temple to ask God to incline his ear and do some-
thing about the ruins of Jerusalem (Dan 9:18).
When prayer is not answered, it is not because
God has become hard of hearing (Isa 59:1). The
sin of Israel cut them off from his saving response
(Deut 1:45).

‘To uncover the ear’ (gala 'dzen) is ‘‘to dis-
close important information,’ such as a plot
against the king (I Sam 22:8, 17). In a legal con-
text, it means ‘‘to bring a matter to one’s atten-
tion’’ (Ruth 4:4). When God is the subject, *‘un-
cover the ear’’ means ‘to reveal’’ truth to his
servants (I Sam 9:15; II Sam 7:27).

Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, p. 104.
TDNT, V, pp. 546-51. THAT, I, pp. 95-97.

H.W.

"8 ('dzan) II, weigh, test, prove. Only in
the Piel (Eccl 12:9).

58a TiN (m’'2zn)

Always occurring in the dual, m6d’z°nayim indi-
cates a pair of scales. Scales were used to weigh
silver at a purchase (Jer 32:10). Accurate scales
were God's delight (Lev 19:36; Prov 11:1), and

balances, scales.

59 "I8 (azar) to gird, clothe.

59 “38 (azar)

the prophets condemned cheating merchants
(Amos 8:5; Mic 6:11).

Job wanted his case weighed by God (Job
31:6). God is able to weigh the hills on balances
(Isa 40:12), and he regards nations as the dust on
scales (Isa 40:15).

The balances of antiquity were a simple bar
suspended at the middle with pans on each end.
For a picture of an Egyptian balance, see L. M.
Petersen, ‘Balance’ in ZPEB.

The weights were called ’dbdanim (q.v.) stones,
being usually made of stone shaped and ground.
The chief opportunity for cheating lay in the
weights used.

H.W.

PIs ('dzéq). See no. 577b.

(ASV, RSV trans-
late similarly.)

Derivative
59a ot itsS ('éz6r) waistband.

This verb usually occurs in the Qal or Piel,
once in the Niphal and three times in the
Hithpael, primarily in the poetic books. Often
military preparation is in view.

’éz0r. Waistband, belt. Of its fourteen occur-
rences, eight are in Jer 13:1-11. Elijah wears a
leather belt around his hairy garment (II Kgs 1:8),
but Jeremiah dons a tight-fitting linen waistband
(13:1, 11). He left it to rot by the Euphrates as a
symbol of the corrupt nature of Israel (Jer
13:10-11).

The ‘*belt’’ or ‘‘waistband”’ characterized sol-
diers' dress. The Assyrians did not wear a loose
belt as they swept south (Isa 5:27; Ezk 23:15).
God is the one who prepares or girds the Psalmist
with strength for battle (Ps 18:32 (H 33], 39 {H 40]
= II Sam 22:40). God girded Cyrus, perhaps
equipping him with armor (Isa 45:5). The weak
are armed with strength, but the arrogant are
shattered (I Sam 2:4). God challenges the nations
to gird themselves for battle, but they face certain
defeat (Isa 8:9).

Sometimes the military significance is replaced
by a more general ‘‘prepare for action.’’ God
commands Job to gird up his loins like a man and
meet God's arguments (Job 38:3; 40:7). And
Jeremiah is given the same order in preparation
for a controversial ministry (Jer 1:17).

When God turned David's mourning into danc-
ing, he clothed (girded) him with gladness (Ps
30:11 [H 12]). A similar metaphor characterizes
the Messiah, who wears righteousness and truth
around his waist (Isa 11:5).

In Ps 65:6 ([H 7] God as Creator is said to be
‘*girded with might.’’ The King of the universe 1s
‘clothed with majesty,’ *‘girded with strength”
(Ps 93:1).

60 M8 Cah)

Bibliography: Wright, G. E., “Israelite Daily
Life. BA 18: 50-79.
H.W.
yists (ezrda'). See no. 583b.
mats (ezrah). See no. 580b.

60 FS (ah) TI, alas!
MX (‘ah) Il, II. See no. 66a, 62a.
ms ('dah). See no. 65a.
61 “IMS (‘ehad) one, same, single, first, each,

once, fem. ‘ahat (AMS).

This word occurs 960 times as a noun, adjec-
tive, or adverb, as a cardinal or ordinal number,
often used in a distributive sense. It is closely
identified with yahad “to be united” and with
ro’sh ‘first, head,’* especially tn connection with
the “first day’ of the month (Gen 8:13). It stres-
ses unity while recognizing diversity within that
oneness.

‘ehad can refer to a certain individual (Jud
13:2) or a single blessing (Gen 27:38). Solomon
alone was chosen by the Lord (I Chr 29:1). The
notion of uniqueness is also found in II Sam 7:23
and Ezk 33:24 (for this verse with reference to
God, see below). The phrase “in a single day”
can refer to the suddenness of judgment (Isa
10:17: 47:9) or blessing (Isa 66:8).

Adverbially. ‘ehad means “once” or ‘‘one
time’ (If Kgs 6:10). God solemnly swore to
David “‘one time’ that his descendants and
throne would last forever (Ps 89:35 [H 36]). In
Hag 2:6 the Lord warned that he would shake
heaven and earth “‘once more in a little while.”
Yet this prediction of the overthrow of nations
probably included a near as well as a far fulfil-
ment (cf. Heb 12:26). The expression ‘in one
day’’ denotes the swiftness of the Lord's acts (Isa
9:14 [H 13]: Zech 3:9).

Sometimes the phrase *‘as one man” can mean
‘all at once’ (Num 14:15), but when Gideon was
told he would defeat Midian ‘tas one man” it
probably meant ‘‘as easily as a single man” (Jud
6:16). The phrase can also refer to a nation
aroused to take united action against gross injus-
tice (Jud 20:8; I Sam 11:7). Zephaniah’s mention
of people serving God ‘with one shoulder’’ (3:9)
likely means ‘‘shoulder to shoulder,’ solidly
united. Likewise in Ex 24:3 ‘‘with one voice”
expresses that all Israel was involved in entering
into the Covenant with Yahweh.

The concept of unity is related to the taberna-
cle, whose curtains are fastened together to form
one unit (Ex 26:6, 11; 36:13). Adam and Eve are
described as ‘‘one flesh’* (Gen 2:24), which in-
cludes more than sexual unity. In Gen 34:16 the
men of Shechem suggest intermarriage with
Jacob's children in order to become ‘‘one
people.”

30

Later, Ezekiel predicted that the fragmented
nation of Israel would someday be reunited, as he
symbolically joined two sticks (37:17). Once
again Judah and Ephraim would be one nation
with one king (37:22). Abraham was viewed as
‘*the one’’ from whom all the people descended
(Isa 51:2; Mal 2:15), the one father of the nation.

Diversity within unity is also seen from the fact
that ‘ehad has a plural form, ‘ahadim. It is trans-
lated *‘a few days” in Gen 27:44; 29:20. and Dan
11:20. In Gen 11:1 the plural modifies ‘**words”™’:
‘the whole earth used the same language and the
same words.’ Apparently it refers to the same
vocabulary, the same set of words spoken by
everyone at the tower of Babel. The first *‘same™
in Gen 11:! is singular, analogous to “the same
law’ of the Passover applying to native-born and
foreigner (Ex 12:49: cf. Num 15:16), or to the
‘one law’ of sure death for approaching the Per-
sian king without invitation (Est 4:11).

In the famous Shema of Deut 6:4, **Hear, O
Israel... the Lorp is one,’ the question of diver-
sity within unity has theological implications.
Some scholars have felt that, though “‘one™ is
singular, the usage of the word allows for the
doctrine of the Trinity. While it is true that this
doctrine is foreshadowed in the ot, the verse
concentrates on the fact that there is one God and
that Israel owes its exclusive loyalty to him (Deut
5:9; 6:5). The nT also is strictly monotheistic
while at the same time teaching diversity within
the unity (Jas 2:19; 1 Cor 8:5-6).

[The lexical and syntactical difficulties of Deut
6:4 can be seen in the many translations offered
for it in the Niv. The option *‘the LORD ts our
God, the LORD alone” has in its favor both the
broad context of the book and the immediate con-
text. Deuteronomy 6:4 serves as an introduction
to motivate Israel to keep the command “‘to love
(the Lorp)’* (v. 5). The notion that the Lorp its
Israel's only God suits this command admirably
(cf. Song 6:8f). Moreover, these two notions, the
Lorp’s unique relation to Israel and Israel's obli-
gation to love him, are central to the concern of
Moses’ addresses in the book (cf. Deut 5:9f.; 7:9;
10:14ff., 20f., 13:6; 30:20; 32:12). Finally
Zechariah employs the text with this meaning and
applies it universally with reference to the escha-
ton: *‘The Lorp will be king over all the earth; in
that day the Lorp will be (the only) one, and His
name (the only) one’ (14:9 Nass).

In Job 31:15 and Mal 2:10 the word is used to
denote that one and the same God created all
men. The reference to the one Shepherd in Eccl
12:11 probably indicates that God is the only
source of wisdom. B.K.W.]

Bibliography: Knight, A. F., ‘‘The Lord is
One,” Exp T 79: 8-10. TDOT, I, pp. 193-200.
THAT, I, pp. 104-106.

H.W.

62 sms (hh). Assumed root of the following.
62a tm8 ('Gh) I, brother.
62b MINS (‘ahdwa) brotherhood.
62c TRIMS ('GhOt) _ sister.

ah. Brother, relative, fellow countryman, friend.
From a root common to all Semitic languages, ’ah
occurs 630 times tn the oT. Owing to its wide
range of meanings and the practice of polygamy,
it is sometimes necessary to describe a full
brother as the son of one’s mother (Deut 13:6 [H
7}; Ps 50:20: Jud 8:19). The relationship between
full brothers was extremely close, so the admon-
ition to kill a brother who has become an idolater
is severe indeed (Deut 13:6 [H 7]). Every man is
expected to be his brother's keeper (Gen 4:9).
The oT is replete with stories about half-brothers,
those with different mothers. Abraham was
Sarah's half-brother (Gen 20:5, 12), and his sons
Ishmael and Isaac were born to Hagar and Sarah.
The rivalry between Joseph and his half-brothers
turned into hatred (Gen 37:2-5), and Absalom's
hatred for Amnon resulted in murder (II Sam
13:29). Even full brothers like Cain and Abel, or
Jacob and Esau had similar experiences. The Le-
vites, however, properly put loyalty to God
above family solidarity when they killed their
own sons and brothers guilty of idolatry (32:29).

More remote descendants from a common
father are called brothers. Thus ‘‘brother’” oc-
curs together with “children of Israel’* (Deut
24:7). “‘Brother’’ is used more widely of Ab-
raham’s nephew Lot (Gen 13:8) and Laban's
nephew Jacob (Gen 29:15). Members of the same
tribe are also called “brothers,” fellow-Levites
(Num 16:10) or Simeonites (Num 25:6). The *‘rel-
atives’’ of Samson among whom he should have
selected a wife probably refer to his own tnbe of
Dan (Jud 14:3).

The meaning also includes all the children of
Israel] generally, as the parallelism with
‘‘brothers’’ shows (Lev 25:46: Deut 3:18). This is
doubtless the background of the NT usage of
‘brothers’ as fellow believers. Moses’ fellow
countrymen slaving in Egypt were called ‘‘his
brothers’? (Ex 2:11; 4:18). All were descended
from Abraham and Jacob. Israel's prophets (Deut
18:15) and kings (Deut 17:15) must be *‘brothers”’
and not foreigners. Israelites were not to take
advantage of the financial distress of other Israel-
ites (Lev 25:35; Neh 5:8), who were to be con-
sidered as ‘‘friends’’ (‘‘neighbors,’’ réa‘) or
‘brothers’ (Deut 15:2). The word is used as a
parallel or synonym with ‘‘neighbor’’ (Lev 19:17;
Jer 9:4 {H 3}). In Prov there is reference to a
friend who is better than a brother (18:24; 27:10).
When David eulogized Jonathan, he called him a
‘brother’ in this deep sense (1J Sam 1:26).

Sometimes various nations claimed *‘brother’’
status. Israel referred to Edom as *'my brother”’

31

62 AMS Chh)

(Num 20:14), partly because Esau and Isaac were
sons of Abraham. Several times Edom is con-
demned for mistreating brother Israel (Amos
1:11; Ob 10, 12). Hiram, king of Tyre, called Sol-
omon ‘‘my brother’ (1 Kgs 9:13), but it is also
Tyre which is judged for ignoring a ‘‘treaty of
friendship’ (literally, “*brotherhood,’* Amos 1:9).

‘‘Brother’’ is also used by Jacob to address
strangers politely (Gen 29:4). The old man of
Gibeah calls his perverted neighbors ‘brothers’
(Jud 19:23), when Job’s term would have been
more appropriate: ‘I have become a brother to
jackals’* (30:29). In the Mari tablets and west
semitic inscriptions, the word is used to address
persons of equal rank and to refer to professional
colleagues as well as kinsmen.

Some authorities have attributed the impor-
tance of brothers to a fratriarchal framework.
Rule of brothers 1s known in the near east, and
Laban’s behavior toward his sister Rebekah may
be an example of fratriarchy. Even though their
father was still living (Gen 24:50), it was Laban
who played the leading role.

Speiser likens the claims of Abraham and Isaac
that their wives were ‘‘sisters’’ to a similar cus-
tom in Nuzi where a high-born wife was adopted
to be also a sister. This gave her higher status and
helps to explain the actions of these patriarchs.
Unfortunately, the custom was not recognized in
Egypt and Gerar. It was evidently derived from
an old fratriarchate. For details see E. A. Speiser
Oriental and Biblical Studies (Univ. of Pennsyl-
vania, 1967, pp. 62-82).

The responsibilities of brothers are also known
through the institution of Levirate marriage. If a
man died without having a son, his brother was
obligated to marry the widow and name her
firstborn son after his brother to “‘build up his
brother's house’’ (Deut 25:5~10: Gen 38:7-9). It
was a serious sin, however, to have sexual rela-
tions with a brother's wife while he was still alive
(Lev 18:16: 20:21). The oldest son was given a
double portion of the inheritance (Deut 21:17). A
priest was permitted to defile himself for the
death of a sister or brother (Lev 21:2). Apart from
these, no other laws involving brothers are men-
tioned in oT legal materials.

’ahot. Sister, relative, beloved. Derived from
the same root as ‘‘brother’’ and with the same
semantic range, it occurs only 114 times. Again,
the distinction between full sister and half-sister
is not clear (Gen 20:5). Usually to indicate the
latter the father is said to be the same (Ezk
22:11).

‘‘Sister’’ can also be used in the sense of
‘‘close relative’’ (Gen 24:60), a woman of the
same nationality (Num 25:18), or a close friend
(Prov 7:4). The meaning *‘beloved"’ or *‘darling™
is clear in Song 4:9-12 and 5:1-2, where ‘*sister™’

63 M8 (aha)

occurs parallel to ‘‘bride’’ four times. This may
stem from an earlier custom, according to which
it was permissable to marry one's sister (Gen
20:5f.). In Hurrian society it was also the practice
for husbands in the upper classes to adopt their
wives as “‘sisters’’ to form the strongest marriage
bond. This fratniarchal feature may explain the
frequent wife-sister motif of Genesis (see ‘ah
‘*brother’’).

In Lev 18:9, 11 sexual relations with a sister or
half-sister are forbidden. Amnon’s rape of his
half-sister Tamar, Absalom’s full sister, must be
understood in this light (II Sam 13:1f.). Since
‘*sister’’ 1s used in the expression ‘‘one to another’”’
(Ex 26:3), some scholars interpret Lev 18:18 asa
condemnation of polygamy. Context strongly
argues against this, however.

Israel and Judah are called *‘sisters’’ in Jer 3:7,
and Jerusalem is castigated as a sister of Samaria
and Sodom (Ezk 16:46).

Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., ‘‘Fratriarchy in
the Old Testament,’’ JBL 54: 223-31. Neufeld,
Edward, ‘The Prohibition against Loans at
Interest in Ancient Hebrew Laws,’’ HUCA 26:
355-412. Riemann, Paul A., **AmI My Brother’s
Keeper?”’ Interp 24: 482-91. Speiser, E. A.,
‘The Wife-Sister Motif in the Patriarchal Narra-
tives,’ in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 62-82. TDOT, I,
pp. 188-92. THAT, I, pp. 98-103. For a different
view, cf. Kitchen, K. A., The Bible in its World,
Paternoster, 1977, p. 70.

H.W.

63 3MS ('Ghi) reeds, rushes.

See no. 62b.
See no. 62c.

mums (Cahdwa).
AIAR (ahd).

MS ('Ghaz) to take hold of, seize, grasp.

Derivative
64a IMI

Most of the verb’s sixty-eight occurrences are
in the Qal stem, but several Niphal forms are
found. Its uses are rather evenly divided between
the literal and metaphorical, both positive and
negative.

The basic idea of the root is ‘‘to take hold of.*’
Jacob ‘‘took hold’’ of Esau’s heel (Gen 25:26);
Samson ‘took hold’’ of the city gate (Jud 16:3);
Ruth ‘‘held’’ the cloak as Boaz poured six mea-
sures of barley into it (Ruth 3:15), The curtains of
Xerxes's palace were held by cords of linen on
silver rings (Est 1:6). Men could ‘‘hold’’ or
‘*wear’’ swords (Song 3:8).

Pertaining to architecture, it is used of the
floors of the side rooms that were ‘‘attached”’ to
the temple by cedar beams (I Kgs 6:10), or of the
footstool attached to the throne (II Chr 9:18, the

('Ghazza) possession.

32

only Hophal usage). Once it 1s applied to **bolt-
ing’’ the city gates (Neh 7:3).

Sometimes “‘to take hold of” has the violent
connotation of *‘seize’’ or “‘catch.’’ The Israel-
ites caught Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:6) and Jephthah
caught and killed the men of Ephraim unable to
pronounce ‘‘Shibboleth’’ (Jud 12:6; II Sam 2:21).
A ram is caught in a thicket (Gen 22:13) and a fish
in a net (Eccl 9:12). Job says that God has
‘*grasped me by the neck and shaken me to
pieces”’ (16:12). :

‘*To take’’ can also refer to selection, as the
men taken by lot (I Chr 24:6) or the two percent
of the plunder taken as the Levites’ share (Num
31:30, 47).

Metaphorically,, the mghteous man is said to
‘‘hold to his way’’ (Job 17:9). One can “grasp”
an idea or ‘‘take hold”’ of folly (Eccl 7:18; 2:3).
God in his grace will *‘take hold of my right
hand’’ as a sign of his guidance and favor (Ps
73:23; cf. Isa 45:1, hazaq). Psalm 139:10 speaks
of God’s right hand leading and ‘‘laying hold”’ of
the Psalmist. In Deut 32:41 the Lord sharpens his
sword *‘to take hold of justice.”

A common idiom is to be seized by pain, sor-
row or fear, often as a woman in childbirth. An-
guish grips the enemies of Israel (Ex 15:14-15),
but Israel herself suffers labor pains as she faces
exile (Jer 13:21). King Saul was seized by the
agony of death on the battlefield (II Sam 1:9), and
the nations of the world endure pain and anguish
as the day of the Lord approaches (Isa 13:8-9).

In the Niphal stem the verb usually means ‘'to
acquire property,’ thus overlapping with the
noun ‘ahazza ‘‘possession.’’ Sometimes both
noun and verb occur in the same verse (Josh 22:9,
19). The Niphal may arrive at this meaning
through its reflexive use, ‘‘to take for oneself.”’

The property in view is almost always land.
Hamor invited Jacob and his sons to ‘‘acquire
property’? in Shechem and Canaan (Gen 34:10).
Later, Joseph gave his father and brothers pos-
session of the best land of Egypt (Gen 47:11, 27),
but only as a temporary residence.

*ahiizza. Possession, property. (KJV and ASV
consistently use ‘‘possession’’ but RSV occasion-
ally renders ‘‘property.’’) The majority of its
sixty-six uses pertain to the possession of land
(the verb is so used only in the Niphal). The word
is also used in conjunction with ‘‘inheritance’’
(nahala),

Normally the property under discussion was
located in the land of Canaan. All of that land had
been promised to Abraham as ‘‘an everlasting
possession’’ (Gen 17:8), a promise repeated to
Jacob (Gen 48:4). Five times in Genesis, Ab-
raham’s purchase of the Cave of Machpelah is
mentioned (23:4, 9, 20; 49:30; 50:13). By gaining
possession of this burial site for Sarah, Abraham

made the down payment on the eventual full pos-
session of the land. Canaan is called ‘*the land of
the Lorp’s possession” in Josh 22:19, to distin-
guish it from Transjordan where the tribes of
Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh chose to settle
(22:9),

Within Canaan each family had its individual

property, considered its inheritance. Even if it
had to be leased to others, or was consecrated to
the Lord, the land always reverted to the original
owner in the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:10, 13, 28;
27:24). The daughters of Zelophehad were suc-
cessful in their bid to acquire property as an
inheritance, since they had no brothers (Num
27:7),

The Levites received no land as a possession,

but they did have cities and their surrounding
fields (Lev 25:33). The Lord was the possession
of the Levites; he was their inheritance and share
(Ezk 44:28; Num 18:20).

It was the Lord who promised to the Messiah,

son of David, that the ends of the earth would be
his possession (Ps 2:8).

Once, in Lev 25:45-46, persons are called

property. Israelites were allowed to keep resident
aliens as their permanent possession.

Bibliography: Yaron, R., *‘A Document of

Redemption from Ugarit,’’ VT 10: 83-90. THAT,

I, pp. 107-109.
H.W.
65 MAN (hh) I. Assumed root of the following.
65a 8 (‘dah) jackal. Occurs only in
Isa 13:21.
66 RRN (‘Ah) II. Possible root of the following.
66a MNS ('Gh) III, firepot, brazier.
67 ms (‘h/). Assumed root of the following.
67a osoms (‘ahla) ah that!
67b imp ons (‘ahlama) amethyst, jasper.

68

’ahlama. Amethyst.
and 39:12, refers to a stone in the third row on the
breastpiece of judgment worn by the high priest.
‘Amethyst’ is a transliteration of the Septuagint
word. The identification is not certain. Amethyst
is a purple stone, perhaps corundum. KB favors a
red or brown jasper.

Found only in Ex 28:19

"m8 ('dhar) tarry, delay, defer. The rsv is
similar, Niv ‘“‘remain,’’ ‘‘lose no time.’’ The
NIV uses ‘‘delay’’ usually in place of ‘‘tarry.”’

Derivatives

68a TIAN ('ahér) another.

68b “AN (‘ahar) after, behind (of place);
after, afterwards (of time); used as an
adverb, ‘‘afterwards’’ and also as a
conjunction with ‘dshér ‘‘after that.”’
Often used in the plural form ‘ahéré

33

68 IMS ('ahar)

especially with suffixes. A very com-

mon word.

68c “SMS (‘ahdray) afterwards; only in
Prov 28:23.

68d tiM8 ('ahér) back part, the rear,

mostly in adverbial phrases, ‘‘back-
ward.’’

MIMS Cahoranit) backwards.

NIMs (ahdrén) hindermost, west, be-
hind (of place), latter, last, coming after
(of time); the feminine ‘ahdrénda is
used adverbially.

68g tmysms (ahdrit) after part, end (of

place), latter part, future (of time).

68e
68f

The verb ‘ahar is only used seventeen times
mainly in the Piel and is not as significant as its
derivatives. It refers to situations of staying be-
hind, delaying, waiting (but not waiting in hope
like yahal or qawa).

’ahéer. Another. This word is often used in
normal situations, ‘‘another place,’’ ‘‘other
seven years,’ etc. Of remark is only the frequent
phrase in the plural *‘other gods.’’ It is used in the
first commandment (Ex 20:3), in the warnings of
Deut 13:2 [H 3] ff., of the prophets’ rebukes (Jer
7:6 ff.). It appears sixty-three times according to
BDB. Only in Ps 16:4 and Isa 42:8 is it used
absolutely. In the difficult verse Ps 16:4, we may
perhaps take the word ‘‘sorrows’”’ (‘ass°bétadm)
of the first stich from the root ‘asab II (as does
the Targum) and read ‘‘their idols.’’ This would
make a better balance for ‘‘other [gods]’’ in the
parallel.

’ahor. Back part, backwards. This derivative is
less used than others (forty-one times). The
common meaning is just ‘backward.’ Enemies
are turned backward. It is used ethically in Jer
7:24, *‘they went backward and not forward."’
Ezekiel’s scroll was written within and without
(i.e. on the back).

Theologically, the only instance that calls for
discussion is Ex 33:23, *‘thou shalt see my back,
but my face shall not be seen” (kK)v, most ver-
sions the same). But in no other place is the word
used for the back of a person’s anatomy. This is
gab or gaw or ‘orep. The word ‘'ahdér means
‘*back’’ in the sense of direction. Joab saw the
battle before and behind him (II Chr 13:14).
Ezekiel saw the apostate twenty-five leaders fac-
ing the east with their backs toward the temple,
i.e. it was behind them (Ezk 8:16). Is it not there-
fore probable that in the theophany of Ex 33:23
the emphasis is not on an extreme an-
thropomorphism saying that Moses could see
God’s back but not his face? Rather, it was meant
that Moses could see the glory and afterglow be-
hind the Lord as he passed by, but his very pres-
ence could not be seen. Of course the an-
thropomorphism is possible and not even objec-

69 BIB swas ( dhashdarp*nim)

tionable, but a semi-physical distinction between
face and back is apparently not the strict meaning
of the words.

’ahdrit. After part, latter part, future. Used
sixty-one times, this word is also not as common
as some other derivatives, but has theological
import. As is clear from other derivatives, the
general meaning of the root is after, later, behind,
following. H. W. Wolff has likened the Hebrew
conception of time to the view a man has when he
is rowing a boat. He sees where he has been and
backs into the future (lecture notes). It is true that
qedem means ‘‘before’’ as well as ‘‘ancient
times.’’ So the root ’ahar refers to what is ‘‘be-
hind’’ as well as to ‘‘future things.’’ It might be
observed that this is not necessarily due to the
psychology of the Hebrews, for the usage was
doubtless established in Canaanite before the
Hebrews arrived. But ‘ahdrit does refer to the
future.

There are two theological questions at issue.
First, does ’ahdrit hayyamim (the end of the
days) refer to the general future, or more specifi-
cally to the last days, the final segment of time?
The writer has argued elsewhere that it usually
refers just to the general future (*“‘The Last Days
in the Bible and Qumran,”* in Jesus of Nazareth,
Savior and Lord, ed. C. F. H. Henry, Eerdmans,
1966, pp. 74-79). The second question is, does
‘ahdrit alone sometimes refer to the future life?

As to the first point, the expression ‘aharit
hayyamim is used fourteen times (Gen 49:1; Num
24:14; Deut 4:30; 31:29; Isa 2:2 = Mic 4:1; Jer
23:20; 30:24; 48:47; 49:39: Ezk 38:16; Dan 2:28
[Aram.] and 10:14; Hos 3:5). The ksv translates
the Gen, Isa and Mic references with ‘“‘last
days,”’ the rest with ‘‘latter days.’’ The rsv uses
‘latter days’ except for Gen and Deut 31:29
where it has “‘days to come.”’ The Nass uses “‘lat-
ter days’’ seven times, “‘last days’’ six times and
‘days to come’ in Gen and Num. The niv uses
‘later days” in Deut 4:30; “‘last days’’ in Isa, Mic
and Hos, ‘‘the future”’ in Dan 10:14 and ‘‘days to
come’’ in the other passages.

It can be seen that none of these translations
use the phrase as an invariable technical term for
the final segment of time. The interpretation de-
pends on the context. It is possible to use this
phrase both for the eschaton and for the general
future because obviously all eschatology is fu-
ture, but not all future is eschatology. It does
seem clear that Isa 2:2ff. (=Mic 4:1 ff.) refers to
the eschaton (‘‘last days’’ KJv, NASB, NIV), but
that the reviving of Moab and Edom are simply
prophesied for some future day (Jer 48:47; 49:39.
cf. the Ammonites, 44:6). The above-cited article
suggests that the corresponding NT phrase also
often refers to the general future, not to the final
segment of time. This brings into question the

idea that the nT church thought of itself as living
in the ‘‘last days.’ The ‘‘perilous times’’ spoken
of in I Tim 4:1 may just be a serious warning for
the indefinite future (cf. Mt 24:6).

On the second question, does ‘ahdrit alone
ever refer to the future life, M. Dahood has
claimed that it sometimes clearly does (Proverbs
and Northwest Semitic Philology, Pontifical Bi-
blical Institute, 1963, pp. 48-49, 51). There are
several interrelated verses in Prov using our
word. Proverbs 24:14 (parallel to 23:18) says
there is an ‘ahdrit (NIv ‘‘future hope’’) for the
righteous. His hope (tigwd) will not be cut off.
Proverbs 11:7 says that when a wicked man dies,
his hope (tigwd) perishes. For the righteous,
Prov 12:28 promises life and immortality (‘al
mawet, **no death’’, Dahood, op. cit. p. 28). But
the evil man has no future hope (’ahdrit) and the
lamp of the wicked will be snuffed out (Prov
24:20, NIv). Dahood holds that Prov 20:20 refers
to the afterlife: his lamp will be snuffed out in the
sleep of darkness (i.e. death). There is thus an
interlocking of the words 'ahdrit in the sense of a
blessed future after death, tigwd ‘‘hope’’ beyond
death, and for the righteous ‘al mawet ‘‘no
death.’’ Dahood points out that the same colloca-
tion (except for tigwd) occurs in Ugaritic, II
Aghat VI 11. 26-36 which H. L. Ginsberg trans-
lates, ‘*Ask for life O Aqhat, the Youth, ask for
life (hym) and I'll give it thee, for deathlessness
(bl mt = Heb. ’al mawet), and I'll bestow it on
thee. I’ll make thee count years with Baal....
But Aghat, the Youth answers.... Further life
(‘uhryt = Heb. ’ahdrit)}—how can mortal attain
it? How can mortal man attain life enduring?”’
Certainly the collocation of verses in Prov along
with the similar usage of the key words in Ugar-
itic seems to warrant Dahood's conclusion that
the ‘‘affirmation of a future life... seems ines-
capable.”’

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 110-17.

R.L.H.

69 opsswes (dhashdarp’ nim) — sairaps.

70 JSAWHS (Cdhasht’ran) royal. Occurs only

in Est 8:10-14.
os (‘at). See no. 72b.

71 “8 (td). Assumed root of the following.
7la “WS (atad) bramble, buckthorn.
WS ('étun). See no. 73b.

72 wes (rr). Assumed root of the following.
72a TOS (itti) charmer (K)V, ASV, NAB);

34

sorcerer (RSV. Amplified): magician
(Berkeley): wizard (JB); oraclemonger
(NEB) (Ex 8:7 [H 3}. 18 [H 14] and
I Sam 24:4 [H 5)).

73

74

75

*itti. Charmer. This word, describing some
variety of occultist, appears only in Isa 19:3
where it is plural (‘ittim). Because of the context,
a list including idols, mediums, and wizards, its
meaning can be easily guessed. Furthermore, the
adverb ‘at is formed of the same radicals mean-
ing “slowly,” “‘softly.”” ““gently,”* or “‘secretly”’
(cf. Gen 33:14: IJ Sam 18:5; I Kgs 21:27; Job
15:11: Isa 8:6). There is an Arabic cognate which
Means “‘to emit a moaning or creaking sound.”
Isaiah 8:19 and 29:4 indicate that these various
kinds of witches and wizards made low, chirping
or muttering sounds. Although ‘itt? does not ap-
pear in either passage, the general representation
of necromancy in the Bible furnishes a satisfac-
tory background to the understanding of ‘iti
along these lines.

The Hebrew words /d’at, la’t, and /dt may also
shed light. The first is a verb probably derived as
a by-form from /ut that occurs as a term for
‘cover’ or ‘cover over’ in II Sam 19:5. The
second is perhaps an adverb appearing in Jud
4:21 only and meaning “‘softly’’ or ‘‘secretly.”’
The kJv translates the third /at as ‘‘with
enchantments’’ in Ex 7:22: 8:3, 14, and as
‘softly, “*secretly,’’ and “‘privily”’ in Ruth 3:7:
I Sam 18:22 and 24:5, respectively.

R.L.A.
%ON (‘irti). See no. 72a.
BON ('atam) shut, shut up.
Derivative
73b TBS (étun) thread, yarn. Occurs
only in Prov 7:16.
"es (‘atar) shut up, close. Occurs only in
Ps 69:16.
Derivative
74a SON (ittér) shut, bound. This ad-
jective occurs only in Jud 3:15; 20:16.
% (av) where.
Derivatives
TSa oo 8) Cayyéh) where?
75b TS (ek) how?
75c TADS (eka) how? where?
75d T3D98 ('CkO) where?
7TS5e mas ('ekaka) how?
75f T8 (Cavin) where?
75g TIS ('dn) where?
75h tRESS ('Epoh) where?

The interrogative adverb ‘ay is related to the
Ugaritic ‘v. Most of its thirty occurrences are in
rhetorical questions. It combines with other ad-
verbs to form ‘ék “*how’™’; ‘ékd *“*how, where”;

35

75 98 Cay)

'"ékakad “‘how’’; ’épdh *‘where.’’ The word
‘ayvéh is probably a lengthened form of ‘ay. The
meaning and usage are almost identical. Parallel
passages interchange ‘ay and ‘ayyéh (Isa 36:19 =
II Kgs 19:13).

The interrogative adverb is sometimes used in
requesting information (Gen 18:9; 22:7; I Sam
9:18), but more often no answer is expected. This
is particularly true of poetic passages. If God is
on your side, where is the fury of the oppressor
(Isa 51:13) or. in Job 14:10, after man expires,
where is he?

Frequently ‘‘where”™’ is used by men question-
ing the existence and power of God. Individuals
(Mic 7:10) as well as nations ask, **Where is your
God?” (Ps 79:10: 115:2), or where is the word of
God (Jer 17:15) or the God of justice? (Mal 2:17).
Gideon, doubting, asked what happened to the
miracles he had heard about (Jud 6:13). The same
earnest longing characterizes the plea for God's
action in Isa 63:11.

The Lord employed sarcasm to ask Judah
where were her gods, when that idol-loving na-
tion met distress (Deut 32:37; Jer 2:28). ‘ay,
strengthened by the enclitic zeh, is used as the
Lord asks where there is a house that could pos-
sibly contain him (Isa 66:1).

The strengthened interrogative also occurs in
Est 7:5. The king asked where the queen's tor-
mentor might be found. Rhetorical questions with
zeh are illustrated by II Chr 18:23 and Job 38:19.

Combined with mizzeh, ‘ay (or ‘é) means
‘‘where have you come from?”’ This construction
is used by human beings (I Sam 30:13), angels
(Gen 16:8), and even by God in addressing Satan
(Job 2:2).

’ék. How. This interrogative pronoun is used
in simple questions, e.g. Jehoiakim’s official asks
Baruch, **How did you write these words?” (Jer
36:17). But usually it is used in rhetorical questions
to indicate reproach (‘‘how dare you say I love
you, Jud 16:15), despair (“how the mighty have
fallen,’ I Sam 1:19), amazement (“‘how the op-
pressor has ceased,” Isa 14:4), horror (“how
they are destroyed in a moment,” Ps 73:19), or
desire (‘“thow I would set you among my sons,”
Jer 3:19).

"eka. How, where. A more emphatic form of
'ék, applied to reasoning (Jer 8:8), mocking (Ps
73:11), and exclamations (Jer 48:17). Laments in
particular are stressed (Isa 1:21; Lam 1:1; 2:1;
4:1-2). The meaning **where”’ is also attested (II
Kgs 6:13; Song 1:7).

’ékO. Where. Found only in II Kgs 6:13,
where the written text has ‘ékoh. This 1s prob-
ably another example of ‘éAd *‘where.”’

*ekaka. How. Formed ’é plus kaka, ‘‘thus,”’ it
occurs twice 1n Song 5:3 inthe sense of *‘must I.”’

76 8 C7

76

77

78

In Est 8:6 the queen wonders how she can bear to
see the destruction of the Jews.

’ayin. Where. Probably derived from ‘ay.
This adverb is always combined with min in
mé’ayin. It is a synonym of ’é mizzeh (see under
ay). Often travelers were asked, ‘‘Where have
you come from?’ (Gen 29:4; Jud 19:17), as God
asked Satan in Job 1:7. It occurs in rhetorical
questions expressing frustration (Num 11:13; II
Kgs 6:27) or distress (Jer 30:7). According to Ps
121:1-2, one’s help comes from the Lord. In this
famous verse, the original Kjv read, “I will lift up
mine eyes unto the hilles: from whence commeth
my helpe.’’ The ‘‘from whence’’ was interpreted
by some as a relative pronoun, indicating that the
help was thought of as coming via the hills. But it
seems more likely that the Hebrew is a question,
and the answer is in v. 2—that is, in the Lord
himself.

‘ayin may be contrasted to the form ’dn, which
is not combined with min,

’an. Where. Contracted from ‘ayin, it often
occurs with the locative with verbs of motion to
ask, ‘‘where to’ in questions directed to man
(Gen 32:17 [H 18]) or God (II Sam 2:1). The com-
pound ‘ad ‘dnd “how long,’ is used by God,
complaining about Israel’s prolonged lack of faith
or obedience (Ex 16:28; Num 14:11). Men also
ask God how long it will be before he responds
(Hab 1:2; Ps 13:1-2 [H 2-3]).

’épd. Where, what kind. Infrequently used
(nine times), it is compared with ‘ay or ‘ayyé.
Once it means ‘‘what kind of men’’ (Jud 8:18). It
is a combination of ‘ay (q.v.) and pdh (q.v.).

Bibliography: Muir, J., **The Significance of
18 in Genesis 5,24 and Psalm 39,13,’ Exp T S0:
476-77. THAT, 1, pp. 125-26.

H.W.

8 (fT) IH, alas! Occurs only in Eccl 4:10;
10:16.

‘ss (7) IV, not. This adverb is used only
once (Job 22:30). It is probably to be iden-
tified in the name ‘7 kdbdd *‘No Glory.”

‘Xs (7) +I, 1D. See nos. 39a, 43a.

3°68 (‘Gyab) tobeanenemy. (ASV, RSV trans-

late similarly).
Derivatives

78a iS°s ('6bad) enmity, hatred.

78b t3iN (iydb) Job.

The basic meaning of the verb is *‘to be hostile
to,’ ‘‘to be or treat as an enemy."’ This meaning
is evident in the only non-participial occurrence
of the word, Ex 23:22, where God becomes an

36

enemy to Israel's enemies. In every other in-
stance the word is used in the participial form
‘Oyéb meaning ‘‘enemy.”’

The Ugaritic cognate ’b conveys the concept of
hostility, as used in parallelism with £n’ ‘*hate’’
in UT 16: Text 51.7.35,36.

While the word usually refers simply to the
enemies of a nation or an individual, theological
implications are inherent in a number of contexts.
The defeated enemy was a mark of God's bless-
ing on Israel (Lev 26:7-8; Deut 6:19). But when
Israel forsook God she could expect to be de-
feated at the hands of her enemies (Lev 26:17, 25,
32 etc.; Num 14:42; Deut 1:42; IT Kgs 21:14).

Israel's victory over her enemies was con-
ditioned upon obedience, e.g. observing God's
commandments (Lev 26:3; cf. v. 7) and repenting
(I Kgs 8:33; II Chr 6:24).

The defeat of David’s enemies was a mark of
God's favor on him (II Sam 7:9; 22:18, 41).

The destruction of Israel's enemies was seen as
a result of God’s intervention and thus became
evidence of God’s sovereignty (Josh 23:1; Jud
8:34; I Kgs 8:46).

Even God has enemies, but they will expern-
ence certain retribution (Isa 66:6; Ps 37:20; 68:1
(H 2)).

The word occurs in several contexts in an ethi-
cal sense. One should not rejoice over the fall of
an enemy (Prov 24:17). Even one’s enemies will
be at peace with him when his ways please the
Lord (Prov 16:7).

*eba. Enmity, hatred. The meaning of this
word, as shown by the root ‘dyab, is ‘‘hostility”’
or ‘‘hatred.”’ In most of its occurrences it con-
notes the hatred in which a hostile act is perpet-
rated whether in a legal context (Num 35:21-22)
or a context describing the hostile acts of Israel's
enemies (Ezk 25:15; 35:5).

*jy6b. Job. The etymology of the name Job is
uncertain. Some have understood the name to be
a derivative of ’dyab ‘‘to be hostile,”’ the partici-
pial form of which is the common word for
**enemy.’’ This supposed derivation would have
the literary significance of depicting Job's ada-
mant attitude in the face of his trials as he refused
to accept the suffering imposed on him. If seen as
a passive form of 'dyab the name would connote
the concept of ‘the object of hostility’’ (BDB)
depicting Job as one who suffered at the hand of
God. There is little linguistic evidence for these
views however.

Another suggestion is that the name derives
from the Arabic ‘wh “‘turn’’ and connotes the
concept of repentance (BDB).

The name has been attested in various forms in
several West Semitic texts as a common proper
name (KB in loc.) which may mean either ‘*no
father’’ or ‘‘where is (my) father?’ It is quite

possible that the name bears no literary signifi-
cance and is rather to be seen as the name of an
ancient personage whose conduct in trial made
him a worthy example of the godly man’s attitude
toward suffering.

Job is cited along with Noah and Daniel in Ezk
14:14,20 as an ancient worthy who was an exam-
ple of righteousness.

Bibliography: Baab, O. J., *‘The Book of
Job,” Interp S: 329-43. Hawthorne, R. R.,
‘“Jobine Theology,’ BS 101: 64-75, 173-86,
290-303, 417-33; 102: 37-54. Pope, Marvin, Job
in AB, pp. 6-7. TDNT, II, pp. 811-13. TDOT, I,
pp. 212-18. THAT, I, pp. 118-21.

T.E.M.
8 ('éd). See no. 38c.
m8 (‘ayyad). See no. 43b.
™s (ayyéh). See no. 7Sa.
38% (’iyéb). See no. 78b.
Ms (ek), MONS (eka). See no. 75.

79 8 (‘éyal) strength (asv ‘help'’).

The connotation of help is supported by the
Syriac from which this word is probably bor-
rowed. The root ‘u/ apparently occurs in Ugan-
tic, however, in parallelism with ‘zm (UT 19: no.
164) *‘strength.’’ In Ps 88:4 [H 5], the word oc-
curs in a couplet in which the writer describes
himself as reckoned among the dead, a concept
which seems to support the connotation
‘strength’ in the expression ‘no strength’ of
line two.

79a mR (eydlat) strength. (asv

cor’’; RSV “‘help.”’)

**suc-

The basic meaning of this word seems to be
‘strength’ (see ‘yal. This feminine abstract use
of the word occurs as a surrogate for God in Ps
22:20 (its only occurrence), where it is used in
parallelism with the tetragrammeton. According
to KB it is merely a feminine form of 'éyda/ above.
For related words native to Hebrew see ‘dl.

T.E.M.

™ (‘ayil). See no. 45d,e,f,g.
28 (ayyal), 98 (‘ayyala). See no.

mie Ceyalar). See no. 79a.
pos ('élam). See no. 45j.

80 B°N ('ym). Assumed root of the following.
80a ta °N ('dydm) terrible.
80b thes ('éma) dread.

’ayom. Terrible (rSv dread’). In its occur-
rences (Song 6:4, 10; Hab 1:7), the word con-
notes the awesome dread inspired by a mighty
army. It is used metaphorically in Song 6:4, 10.

37

81 8 Cayin)

"ema. Dread, fear, horror, idol, terrible, ter-
ror. (RSV similar except that it translates as
‘‘dread wrath’ in Prov 20:2.)

In all of its occurrences the word ’émd con-
notes the concept of ‘‘fear.’’ It occurs only once
in a metaphorical sense in Jer 50:38 where it
means “‘idol’’; evidently in the sense of that
which is to be feared.

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 219-21.

T.E.M.

81 8 (Cayin) else, except, to be gone, incura-

ble, neither, never, no, nowhere, none, nor,
nor any, nor anything, not, nothing, to nought,
past, unsearchable, well nigh, without. (asv
and RSV are similar.)

This word is basically a negative substantive
used most frequently in the construct form (’én).
The word therefore has no single meaning and the
exact translation must be determined in each con-
text. The negative concept is always present
wherever the word is used. It 1s characteristically
used to negate a noun or noun clause, cf. GKC
par. 152 d and 1-0.

As indicated above, the word is used in numer-
ous negative expressions. Some basic usages of
this negative root in the oT are noted below.

The word may express the idea of absence as in
Gen 2:5, the lack of men to till. Related to this
concept is the expression of non-existence (I Sam
10:14) or of that which is gone, has disappeared (I
Kgs 20:40). We see this same idea in Eccl 3:14
where it expresses nothingness. Akin also is the
usage in Isa 44:12, where the concept is that of
fading out or failing, in reference to a man’s
strength. Finally, absence is seen as primary in
the negative time concept of Ezk 28:19, ‘‘no
more,’ *‘never more.’ .

A second basic usage of this negative root is in
the idea of alternatives. In Gen 30:1], the concept
is that of either/or. In Gen 44:26 it is expressed as
a condition (unless/except). Still in Gen (Gen
45:6), the megative alternative is expressed
(neither/nor).

The third usage we shall note is that of impos-
sibility. This is expressed in a variety of ways.
The grain of Joseph, impossible to number, is so
rendered (Gen 41:49). Limits which cannot be
exceeded are similarly expressed (II Chr 20:25).
Perhaps the most frequent use of the root to ex-
press impossibility is in negative compound con-
cepts such as incurable (II Chr 21:18), unsearch-
able (Job 5:9), and infinite (Nah 3:9).

At times the root expresses the simple negative
‘not’ as in Jud 14:3. It can also convey the con-
cept ‘‘almost”’ as it does in Ps 73:2. In this latter
usage it is close in function to the parallel word
kim‘at also meaning ‘‘almost,’’ ‘‘nearly.”’

Frequently the negative root is joined to insep-

82 MBS ('épa)

arable pronouns forming in one word both the
subject and the negative as in Ps 59:13 [H 14],
‘they shall not be’ (cf. Ps 73:5; Gen 5:24; Ex
5:10). Sometimes the simple negative root ac-
companies the independent pronoun as in Neh
4:17.

Other Semitic languages have similar words to
convey this negative concept, although for the
most part they are not cognates of our Hebrew
word. Among Semitic cognates used in a similar
way are the Moabite ‘n, the Assyrian idnu, and
particularly the Ugaritic ‘va (UT, 19: no. 99).

J.B.S.

YS ('ayin). See no. 75f.

82 MES ('épa) ephah. (asv, RSV generally the
same, but RSV sometimes supplies the word
for clarification.)

It is adry measure, frequently mentioned in the
OT, estimated to be equivalent to from three-
eights to two-thirds of a bushel.

There were ten ephahs in a homer (which its
thought to be a donkey load) and ten omers in one
ephah. The seah was probably one-third of an
ephah. The ephah was the same as the liquid
measure, the bath.

There is much uncertainty in the size of the
bath and ephah. Estimates vary from about
twenty-two liters (twenty dry quarts) to about
forty-five liters (forty-one dry quarts) with the
former favored by most. Jar handles have been
found stamped bimlk ‘bath of the royal stan-
dard.’’ Unfortunately, no such jar has been found
with enough pieces to reconstruct the jar and
measure the capacity. Until that occurs, things
are uncertain.

Moses had Aaron save one-tenth of an ephah
of manna as a memorial (Ex 16:36). For a sin
offering, one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour was
required (Lev 5:11!) and also for the offering on
the day of Aaron's anointing (Lev 6:20 (H 13]; cf.
Num 5:15; 28:5). In Ezk this is increased to one-
sixth ephah for some offerings (Ezk 45:13; 46:14).
Also, a cereal offering of one ephah was to ac-
company each bull or ram offered according to
Ezk 45:24; 46:5, 11.

On one occasion a yield of an ephah for each
homer planted indicated extremely hard times
({sa 5:10}—the yield being one tenth of the seed
planted!

The ephah is used to measure such dry sub-
stances as flour, barley, and parched grain (Jud
6:19; Ruth 2:17; I Sam 17:17). Regarding the
measurement of such grains, stern warnings were
given. Different volumes of measure for the
ephah were not allowed (Deut 25:14; Amos 8:5;
Mic 6:10), rather, one just ephah was required
(Lev 19:36; Deut 25:15; Ezk 45:10).

The ephah in Zech 5:6-10 is obviously figura-

38

83 WN (‘ysh).

tive and much larger than the normal measuring
container.

Bibliography: AI, pp. 199-203. Ap-Thomas,
D.R., *‘The Ephah of Meal in Judges 6, 19,’ JTS
41: 175-77. Huey, F. B., ‘‘Weights and Mea-
sures,’ in ZPEB. Segre, Angelo, ‘‘A Documen-
tary Analysis of Ancient Palestinian Units of
Measure,’ JBL 64: 357-75.

J.B.S.

See no. 75h. .
See no. 144.

mB’N ('épdh).
MIDS ('épd’).

Assumed root of the following.

83a Tw (ish) man, mankind, champion,
great man, husband, person, what-
soever, whosoever. (ASV, RSV Similar.)

The word ‘ish connotes primarily the concept
of man as an individual and thus differs in that
regard from the more general concepts inherent
in the words ’éndédsh and ’ddaém (‘‘mankind’’).

Two possible roots have been suggested for the
word, ‘nsh and 'ysh('wsh). If from the latter, the
word ‘ish may be related to the Akkadian ishdnu
meaning “‘strong.”’

The word is used variously in the ot. Most
commonly it denotes any individual male. Less
frequently it has the more specific connotation of
**male,’’ emphasizing the male sex, as distinct
from the female sex (Ex 35:29; Lev 13:29; II Chr
15:13) or man in his sexual role (‘to Know a
man,’’ Gen 19:8, etc.). Characteristically this is
zakar.

It is used in many technical expressions such
as ‘“‘man of the earth’ (Gen 9:20) meaning
‘‘farmer,’’ ‘‘man of the field,’’ connoting a hunter
(Gen 25:27) and *‘man of God,”” referring to a
prophet (Deut 33:1, etc.).

Frequently the word functions as an indi-
vidualizing element connoting the concept
‘*each"’ as in ‘“‘each person’’ (Gen 10:5). It also
functions in a broadly inclusive sense meaning
‘‘whoever’’ (Lev 15:5).

One of the most common usages of ‘ish is in
the sense of ‘‘husband.’* The word begins to
achieve significance in this sense first in Gen
2:23-24 where the origin of woman is described.
While the derivation of ‘ishsha from ‘ish
suggested by this passage is difficult philologi-
cally (there may be no more than a word play),
there is no question that the words ‘‘This... is
bone of my bones... She shall be called woman
because she was taken out of man” (v. 23), com-
municate a close and intimate relationship that
Adam could not find apart from one who shared
his own station and nature; indeed, his own life.
It reflects God’s desire to provide man with a
companion who would be his intellectual and
physical counterpart. The permanency intended
in the relationship is expressed in the assertion

that man should leave his parents and cleave to

his wife.

A husband could divorce his wife under certain
conditions (Deut 24:1—4) but divorce was not en-
couraged (Mal 2:16; Jer 3:1).

The relationship of husband to wife is used as a
metaphor of God's relationship to his people.
This relationship is the basis of assurance for the
people of God in the book of Hosea where the
marriage relationship forms a central motif (see
Hos 2:16).

Man possesses great individual worth in the oT,
for anyone who murders a man is himself to be
put to death (Lev 24:17). God observes the ways
of men (Job 34:21; Prov 5:21) and the invitation of
wisdom goes out to all men (Prov 8:4) demon-
strating God’s concern for the individual.

As with ‘énésh a distinction obtains between
God and man. Balaam observed that God was not
man that he should lie (Num 23:19).

Bibliography: WHallevy, Raphael, ‘‘Man of
God,’ JNES 17: 237-44. Hoffner, H. A., ‘‘Sym-
bols for Masculinity and Femininity,’ JBL 85:
326-34. May, Herbert G., ‘‘Individual Responsi-
bility and Retribution,” HUCA 32: 107-20.
TDOT, I, pp. 222-35. THAT, I, pp. 130-37.

T.E.M.

Wms (Citén). See no. 188a.

84 §8 (ak) surely (affirmative emphasis), but
(restrictive emphasis), also as a particle of
emphasis, not translated. (Great variety
exists in actual translation due to the nature
of this particle. Context and judgment of the
translator will determine the word selected
or whether to translate at all.)

This particle primarily conveys emphasis and
often is not translated. When it is translated, the
sense 1s either an emphatic affirmative (Gen 26:9;
29:14; Ex 31:13; Ex 31:13; Jer 19:19; Lam 2:16
etc.) or an emphatic restrictive (Gen 7:23; 9:4;
18:32; Ex 12:16; Lev 11:4; Num 22:20; Josh 22:19;
I Sam 8:9, etc.).

At times either sense fits in the context, and
translators differ in how they read it.

Many times no translation is preferable to either
of the above alternatives. Only emphasis is in-
tended, i.e. ‘Jacob was just gone out’’ (Gen 27:30);
‘the first day’’ (Ex 12:15); ‘ton the tenth day”’
(Lev 23:27); “if the young men have kept them-
selves from women’”’ (I Sam 21:4 [H 5]); ‘‘do not
fret to do evil’’ (Ps 37:8).

Bibliography: Snaith, N. H., ‘The Meaning of
Hebrew 38,’ VT 14: 221-25.

J.B.S.

2398 (akzab). See no. 970b.
“98 (akzar), “N28 (akzari).
971a,b.

See nos.

39

85 D8 (akal)

mesos (akz‘riyat). See no. 97Ic.
mycoses (‘dkila). See no. 85c.

85 %98 (‘akal) eat, consume, devour, burn up,

feed. (asv and Rsv are generally the same.
One notable exception is found in Ps 27:2
where RSV has ‘“‘slander’* instead of ‘‘eat my
flesh’’ in accordance with an Akkadian and
Aramaic idiom, ‘’to eat a piece of me’ mean-
ing “to slander me.)

Derivatives

85a T9328 ('dkel) food.

85b tN (okla) food, fuel, meat,
eating, describing often the act of
consuming.

85c tmDN (akila) an eating, a meal, meat.

85d tos (ma’akal) food, fruit, meat.

85e tN2SN (ma’dkelet) knife.

85f m2 aN (ma'akdler) fuel.

85g n?2% (makkélet) food stuff, food.

This same root occurs in Arabic, Assyrian and
Aramaic as well as Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 104).
Generally the meaning is the same but in the
Aramaic as noted above, there is the idiomatic
use with geras ‘‘to eat a piece of meaning ‘‘to
slander’’ (Dan 3:8).

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘to con-
sume.’’ The object consumed depends on the
subject. Predominantly, the subject is man or
some animal and therefore the object consumed
is some kind of food. If the subject is fire or some
other non-animal consumer, then the object may
be wood or other consumable material. Figura-
tively, droughts, famines, and pestilences are said
to consume, meaning that they overcome. From
this is also derived the usage of oppressors con-
suming their victims.

The basic meaning of ‘to consume” is used in
at least six different ways. First, it occurs fre-
quently in the context of hardship, whether de-
served or not. Drought, fire, war, and other
plagues devour the innocent as well as the guilty
(Gen 31:40; Num 21:28; Jer 2:30; Joel 1:4; II Sam
18:8). Greedy oppressors, foreign nations as well
as sinners in Israel, devour the innocent (Ps 14:4;
Ps 79:7). Sometimes the devourer is an insect or
an animal (I Kgs 21:23; Isa 51:8). Hardship ts also
associated with being forced to eat, actually or
symbolically, what is unpleasant (Isa 36:12; Gen
3:14; Hos 10:13; Ps 127:2). This leads to the cause
and effect relationship expressed in Ezk 18:2.

A second context for the root is in worship or
devotion. Certain foods are either eaten (II Chr
30:18; Ex 23:15) or refused (Dan 1:12; 10:3) in
devotion to the Lord. Sinners likewise eat before
pagan gods (Ps 106:28; Ezk 18:11). The unbe-
liever is forbidden to eat in worship of the true
God (Ex 12:48).

86 1D (’akén)

A third contextual use of the root, eating well,
indicates prosperity (Joel 2:26; Gen 45:18; II Kgs
18:31; Prov 24:13; Deut 8:3) or the lack of pros-
perity when eating does not satisfy (Mic 6:14).
Closely related to this is the circumstance of eat-
ing what others earned as a symbol of victory (Isa
61:6) but others eating of it symbolizes defeat (Isa
65:22).

A group of lesser contexts must also be noted.
The root can denote being zealously involved or
simply being consumed (Ps 69:9 [H 10]; Gen
31:15). Eating can also be indicative simply of
reward for work done (Prov 27:18; Amos 7:12).
One indication of the arrival of the blessed hope
of believers is the time when no flesh, only vege-
tation, will be consumed (Isa 11:7), indicative of
the state of blessedness before the fall of Adam
into sin.

’okel. Food, meat, prey. This noun is a basic
word for food. It first occurs in Gen 14:11 refer-
ring to the spoils of war. The primary use of the
term is in the Joseph account (Gen 41-47). It
seems throughout to refer to food seen as a
necessity of life, vital. It is used particularly of
that which the Lord provides. We see this in
three stages: first, that provided for men and be-
asts in Eden before the fall (Gen 1:29-30); sec-
ond, that provided for Noah and his family during
the flood (Gen 6:21); and third, that provided
after the flood to all men (Gen 9:3). God is the
provider (Ex 16:15; Lev 11:39). Sometimes, in
judgment, men become the food of fire (Ezk 15:4,
6; 21:32 [H 37]) and of wild beasts (Ezk 34:5, 8).

’okl4. Food, fuel, meat, eating, often describing
the act of consuming. This term is more general,
anything which the Lord has determined to be
edible.

*akil4é. An eating, a meal, meat. Occurs but
once (I Kgs 19:8) and perhaps refers to some
unique nourishment in that it sustains Elijah forty
days.

ma’akal. Food, fruit, meat. This term is also
quite general in meaning but is used frequently of
more dainty foods or delicacies (Gen 2:9; 3:6;
40:17; I Kgs 10:5; Job 33:20, etc.). These three
derivatives have specialized and quite limited
use.

ma’akelet. Knife. This word is used to denote
the knife by which Abraham intended to sacrifice
Isaac (Gen 22:6, 10) and the knife used by the
Levite to dismember his concubine (Jud 19:29). It
also describes the teeth of devourers of the poor
slicing them in greed. ma’dkdlet (two times) is
found only in Isa 9 and means ‘‘fuel,’’ occurring
once in a passage of hope and once in a passage
describing oppression (9:5 [H 4]; 9:19 [H 18)).
makkolet (once) apparently refers to a ration of
food.

86

87

88

89

90

40

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 236-41. THAT,
I, pp. 138-41.
J.B.S.

18 ('akén) surely, truly, indeed. (In asv
and rSv generally the same although not al-
ways translated.)

The word occurs in four basic contexts ex-
pressing a note of surprise or exasperation: fear
(Gen 28:16; Ex 2:14; Isa 40:7; Jer 3:23; 4:10; 8:8),
warning (Job 32:8; Ps 82:7; Jer 3:20; Zeph 3:7),
self-confidence (I Sam 15:32), and faith in God
(Ps 31:22 [H 23]; 66:19; Isa 45:15; 49:4; 53:4; Jer
3:23). Among the Semitic languages it appears to
be unique to Hebrew.

Bibliography: Goldbaum. Fredric J., ‘*Two
Hebrew Quasi-Adverbs: 33° and 398,"" JNES 23:
132-35.

J.B.S.
Ros (‘dkap) press, urge. Occurs only in
Prov 16:26.
Derivative
87a ASS ('ekep) pressure. Occurs only
in Job 33:7.
328 (kr). Assumed root of the following.
88a Ap8 (ikkdr) plowman, husbandman.

»s (al) I. Possible element of the following.

89a waa" «(eledbish) hail. Occurs
only in Ezk 13:11, 13; 38:22.

89b avai" «('algiimim) a tree (KJV
‘‘algum’’) from Lebanon.

89c = sara" «(almiiggim) a tree (KJV
‘‘almug’’) from Lebanon. Occurs only
in I Kgs 10:11-12.

89d 3p" (’algim) band of soldiers (Prov

30:31).

b% (al) HI, not, no, nor, neither (this ad-
verb of negation is usually reflected in asv
and rsv in the same general way, although
the choice of negatives used varies).

This particle expresses the negative as either a
wish (Gen 13:8; Jud 19:23) or a preference (Prov
17:12), thus indicating its more reserved intent
than the very adamant /6’. Consistent with this
concept, whenever it is used with a verb, the verb
is in the jussive (which often is indistinguishable
from the imperfect). Cf. GKC 109, c-e.

It can be also used in a command (II Kgs 9:15)
but never with an imperative. The negative com-
mand is usually /6’ with the indicative as in the
Ten Commandments.

Finally, inasmuch as it expresses preference, it
often occurs in prayers to God (Dan 9:19; Ps 31:1
(H 2]; 71:1), where it introduces a plea—‘‘let me

99

never....

Bibliography: Bright, John, ‘‘The Apodictic
Prohibition: Some Observations,’’ JBL 92: 184-
204.

J.B.S.
°% (el). See no. 93a.

91 °% ('el) unto, into, beside, against, in refer-
enceto. (ASV, RSV are generally the same but
varying in the specific English preposition
used due to differing interpretations. )

The preposition expresses primarily motion
toward someone or something. As such, it occurs
in a wide variety of contexts expressing motion,
attitude, direction, or location.

Physical motion ‘‘toward’’ is the primary con-
cept expressed by this preposition with numerous
examples (e.g. Gen 1:9; 14:7). The motion some-
times carries “‘into”’ that which is approached, as
in Gen 6:18 ‘“‘into the ark.”’

Closely akin is the concept of mental motion as
seen in God's grief *‘into’’ his heart (Gen 6:6).

We see also its use to express motion toward,
in the sense of “‘in reference to,” a kind of un-
seen gesture (Gen 20:2) where Abraham speaks
‘‘in reference to’’ his wife, not *‘to’’ her (cf. also I
Sam 3:21, “in reference to’’ the ark being taken).

At times the sense of motion is lost altogether
and the description of a state or condition pre-
vails, e.g. Gen 24:11, “by a well’; or If Sam
14:30, ‘‘by mine’’ rather than ‘‘unto mine.’’ For
this reason, apparently, the preposition came to
be interchangeable with ‘a/ at times, e.g. Gen
22:12, ‘‘upon the lad’’; Josh 5:14, ‘‘upon his
face.’’ This interchange of ‘al and ‘e/ may have
occurred in the living language but may partly be
due to scribal changes. It was assisted by the
circumstance that Aram has no ’e/ and uses ‘al
(from ‘alal ‘‘go in’’) in the sense of Hebrew ’el;
cf. BDB, p. 41.

Finally, the preposition can also mean
‘against,’ although motion toward is evident, as
in Gen 4:8, where Cain ‘‘rose up against Abel.”’
Here ’e/ no doubt retains something of the origi-
nal sense of both physical and mental motion to-
ward.

J.B.S.

See no. 89a.
See no. 89b.

wesa9x ('elgabish).
pya78 ('alguimmim).

92 mes (élleh) these (the same in most trans-
lations).

This demonstrative pronoun serves as the
plural of zeh. When it stands alone, without an
accompanying noun or pronoun, it has the sense
of ‘‘these things’’ (Deut 18:12).

It is generally in apposition with a substantive,
with or without a suffix (Ex 10:1). It may also

93 m°N (1h)

stand in the predicate position as an adjective, in
which case the verb ‘‘to be’’ is understood (Gen
2:4, ‘‘These are the generations’).
It takes the article only after substantives
which are themselves determined by the article.
The pronoun occurs similarly in the cognate
form in Arabic, Ethiopic, Syriac, and Aramaic.
J.B.S.

93 m°s (‘lh). Assumed root of the following.
93a toe (él) god, God.
93b th°N ('éldah) god, God.
93c tamos (élohim) gods, God.

41

‘lh is the assumed root of ‘él, ‘'éldah, and
'élohim, which mean ‘“‘god’’ or ‘'God.’’ The
Ugaritic term for ‘‘god’’ or the ‘‘chief god” is ’i/,
plural ‘i/m, occasionally plural ’i/hm (cf. UT 19:
no. 163). The Phoenician term is ’/ ‘‘EI’’; the
plural is ‘Im which seems to be construed some-
times as a singular (cf. Z. Harris, Grammar of the
Phoenician Language, Jewish Publication Soci-
ety, 1936, p. 77). The Aramaic is ’élah, plural
"élahin. The Akkadian form is ilu.

The view that the three Hebrew terms come
from one root is much disputed and a final verdict
is lacking. Some hold that the two are distinct,
deriving 'é/ from the root 'w/ (strong). Others see
"élohim derived from the root ‘/h, together with
"éloah, that root meaning ‘‘fear.’’ Still others
hold that both ’é/ and ’élohim come from ’éldah.

More probable is the view that ’élohim comes
from 'éldah as a unique development of the He-
brew Scriptures and represents chiefly the plural-
ity of persons in the Trinity of the godhead (see
"élohim).

’éloah is also a basic Hebrew term for the God
of Israel, but is used less frequently (see ’éloah
and ’él, a separate though perhaps related
generic term for God).

9

el. God, god, mighty one, strength. In the
common use of the word to denote either the
generic name ‘‘god”’ or “‘the God’’ of Israel, the
ASV and RSV are uSually alike. However, in some
specialized uses of the term they differ from KJv
and from one another, e.g. ASv and RSV treat Jud
9:46 as a proper noun ‘“‘El-Berith’’ while kJv
translates ‘‘god’’; Ps 29:1, Rsv translates
‘heavenly beings’’ while asv has ‘‘sons of the
mighty’’; Ps 50:1, asv and rsv have ‘mighty
one,’ KJV ‘‘mighty God;’’ Ps 80:10 [H 11], asv ren-
ders ‘‘cedars of God,*’ rsv has ‘‘mighty cedars’’
and KJV simply ‘“‘goodly cedars’’: Ps 82:1, asv
says ‘“‘congregation of God’’ but rsv translates
‘‘Divine counsel’’; Ps 89:6 [H 7]) asv and KIJv
‘*sons of the mighty’? but rsv ‘‘Heavenly be-
ings’’; Isa 57:5, Kjv has “‘idols’’ but asv, Rsv read
as another Hebrew word, “‘oaks’’; and finally,
Ezk 32:21, kiv and asv ‘‘strong among the

93 mos (Th)

mighty’’ while Rsv renders it simply ‘mighty
chiefs. *

The primary meanings of this root as used in
Scripture are “‘god’’ (pagan or false gods),
God" (the true God of Israel) and less fre-
quently, “the mighty” (referring to men or
angels). By far the predominant usage ts for the
true God and it is to this usage that we will give
major attention.

The name *‘El"’ is a very ancient Semitic term.
It is also the most widely distributed name among
Semitic-speaking peoples for the deity, occurring
in some form in every Semitic language except
Ethiopic. Pope. in his study of ‘El in the
Ugaritic, notes that it is the most frequently oc-
curring name for the deity in proper names
throughout the ancient Semitic world (Marvin
Pope, El in the Ugaritic Texts, p. 1).

We must agree with Pope that etymologically
the bottom of the barrel has been scraped with
little success (Pope, El in the Ugaritic Texts, p.
19). Most frequently mentioned suggestions for
an original meaning are “‘power™’ or “‘fear’” but
these are widely challenged and much disputed.
[It may be noted that even if the ongin of the
word in Canaanite or proto-Semitic is from a root
meaning power, this by no means indicates the
connotation in Hebrew religious usage. Our word
‘‘deity’’ comes from a root known in Sansknit to
mean ‘‘sky’’ but we do not worship a sky-god.
R.L.H.|

The question of the relationship between the
biblical use of 'é/ and the Semitic concepts of El
has received much attention particularly since
the discovery of the Ugaritic texts, which have
apparently established the fact that the term El
was uSed in reference to a personal god and not
merely as a generic term in the ancient Semitic
world.

Space will not allow us to develop the various
points of view on this matter. The article by
Frank M. Cross, published in 1975, in the first
volume of the Thevlogical Dictionary of the Old
Testament, gives much attention to this. Cer-
tainly we do not have to accept the view that
assumes an ancient polytheism in Israel which
was gradually refined so that various gods such
as El, Shaddai, and Elyon were finally merged
into Hebrew monotheism under the heading of
Elohim or Yahweh. The bibliography following
this article suggests further reading for those who
would like to pursue this matter.

A. B. Davidson has observed the pronounced
tendency in Scripture to accompany ‘é/ with
epithets. Indeed, as we study the word as used in
Scripture, we must conclude that it is almost al-
ways qualified by words or descriptions which
further define the word. This leads A. B. David-
son to conclude that these qualifications both
elevate the concept of El in Scripture and distin-

42

guish the term as used biblically from others who
might be so named (A. B. Davidson, Theology of
the Old Testament, p. 61).

A study of the various accompanying descrip-
tions of El where the name occurs in Scripture
leads to the rather solid conclusion that, from the
beginning of the use of this term in Scripture, tt
was intended to distinguish the true El (God)
from all false uses of that name found in other
semitic cultures.

We note first the use of El] in terms denoting
God's greatness or superiority over all other
gods: ha’él haggdadol ‘‘the great El’ (Jer 32:18;
Ps 77:13 [H 14]; 95:3): ha’él ‘6séh pele’ ** El doing
wonders’ (Ps 77:14 [H 15]): ‘él ’élim “El of els”
(‘God of gods,” Dan 11:36); "él! "élohé hariahét
l*kol-basar “‘El, the God of the spirits of all
flesh’ (Num 16:22: 27:16).

Next, consider epithets relating to El’s posi-
tion: “él hashshamadyim “El of heaven’ (Ps
136:26): él mima‘al ** El that is above’’ (Job 31:28);
"él ‘elyén ‘El most high”’ (Gen 14:18-19,20,22; Ps
78:35).

Again, aS a precaution against overfamiliarity
with God because of the use of a common Semitic
term, God is described as ‘él mistatér **El who
hides himself’ (i.e. known only by self-
revelation, Isa 45:15). Yet God does see us at all
times as Hagar affirmed, ’é/ rd’f “El who sees me”
(Gen 16:13).

Most specially El is accompanied in Scripture
by those epithets which describe him as the
Savior God of Israel. As such he is called ha’é/
hanne'éman ‘Faithful El’ (Deut 7:9): ha’ él haq-
gaddosh “Holy El (Isa 5:16); ‘él ’émet “EI of
truth’ (Ps 31:5 [H 6]; Deut 32:4); ‘el shadday
**Almighty El’ (Gen 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 48:3; Ex
6:3; Ezk 10:5); 'é/ gibbor **E] the heroic’ (Isa 9:6
|H 5]; 10:21); "é/ dé‘6r El of knowledge” (1 Sam
2:3); ‘él hakkabéd **E| of glory’’ (Ps 29:3); ‘é/
‘dlam “EI of eternity” (Gen 21:33); ‘él-saddiq
‘Righteous El” (Isa 45:21); and ‘é/ ganna’
‘Jealous El’ (Ex 20:5; Deut 4:24; 5:9; 6:15; Josh
24:19: Nah 1:2).

In contradistinction from all false **els’* (gods),
he is declared to be ‘é/ hay the ‘‘Living El’ (Josh
3:10; I Sam 17:26, 36; II Kgs 19:4, 16: Ps 42:2
(H 3]; 84:2 [H 3]; Isa 37:4; Jer 10:10, 23:36; Dan
6:20, 26 (H 21,27]; Hos 1:10 {H 2:1)). In accord
with strict biblical monotheism he is therefore ‘é/
‘ehad, the one El (Mal 2:10). And in the passage
most quoted elsewhere in the Old Testament El} is
described in terms of those attributes by which
God desired to be known by his people (Ex
34:57; cf. Deut 4:31; II Chr 30:9; Neh 9:17, 31;
Ps 103:8; Joel 2:13, etc.).

The very personal relationship between the El
of Scripture and his believers is seen in the fol-
lowing epithets: ha’él bér-'él *‘the El of Bethel”
(Gen 31:13; 35:7); ‘él sali “El my rock” (Ps 42:9

[H 10]); ’él y°sha‘ati ‘El my Savior’’ (Isa 12:2);
él hayyay *‘El of my life’’ (Ps 42:8 [H 9]); ‘é/
gomer ‘alay *‘El the performer on me’ (Ps 57:3);
“the El of...’ (Gen 49:25, etc.); “él ““My EI”
(Ps 89:26 [H 27]; 102:24 [H 25]; 118:28); hda’él
ma‘uzzi ‘*El my fortress’’ (II Sam 22:33); ha’él
ham’az°réni hayil *‘“El the girder of me with
strength’ (Ps 18:32 [H 33]); ha’él hannotén
n°qamot li *‘the El giving me vengeance”’ (Ps
18:47 [H 48}; If Sam 22:48).

Thus, in an evangelistic sense, he is described
in such epithets as 'é/ m® hollekad *‘El who begat
you’ (Deut 32:18); ‘él médshi‘am ‘EI their
Savior’ (Ps 106: 21); ’él mési’6 mimmisraim “El
his (their) bringer from Egypt’ (Num 24:8;
23:22); ’él y€sharin ‘El of Jeshurun’’ (Deut
33:26); and ‘él ’élohé yisra'el ‘‘El the God of Is-
rael’’ (Gen 33:20).

Frequently therefore we find the term ‘*EI”’
combined with or associated with the personal
name for Israel’s God, Yahweh (Josh 22:22; Ps
85:8 (H 9]; 118:27; Isa 42:5, etc.) which testifies
that he is indeed ‘é/ ndsé’ El who forgives (Ps
99:8) and consequently ha’él y° shi‘aténd ‘EI of
our salvation’ (Ps 68: 19-20 (H 20-21]).

Whether or not the name El can be identified
etymologically with the concept of fear, it is
clearly often associated with this idea in biblical
epithets. He is called ha’ él haggadol w* hannora’
‘El, great and terrible’? (Neh 1:5; 4:14; 9:32;
Deut 7:21; 10:17; Dan 9:4) or simply, ’é/ na‘dras
“Terrible El’’ (Ps 89:7 [H 8]). He is also de-
scribed as él g° mal6ét **El of recompenses”’ (Jer
51:56) or more severely ‘él ndgém ‘‘El the re-
venger’’ (Ps 99:8; Nah 1:2), and sometimes sim-
ply ‘el n®*qam “EI of vengeance” (Ps 94:1).
Being indignant is a continuous characteristic of
El in Scripture (Ps 7:11 (H 12)).

Only in Job do we find extensive use of El
without epithets. There the term is treated by Job
and his friends as the common term for the true
God and its use there, unlike other parts of Scrip-
ture, far outnumbers the occurrence of Elohim
(q.v.).

’éloah. God, god (ASV, RSV Similar). The exact
relationship between this name for God in Scrip-
ture and ‘é/ or ‘eldhim is disputed and far from
settled. It occurs in some of the oldest oT poetry
(Deut 32:15, 17) and very frequently (forty-one
times) in the debates between Job (an ancient be-
liever) and his friends. It appears therefore to be
an ancient term for God which was later dropped
for the most part until the time of the exile and
after, when there was great concern for a return
to the more ancient foundations. It is not fre-
quently used outside Job. It occurs once in Isa,
once in Prov, twice in Hab, four times in the Ps,
and then in the postexilic books: II Chr, Neh, and
Dan, a total of five times.

43

93 m°N (1h)

Marvin H. Pope in his Book, El in the Ugaritic
Texts, has noted that ’é/6ah never has the article
although it is once determined by the suffix (Hab
1:11) and found once in the construct (Ps 114:7).
He further points out that it never occurs in com-
bination with another divine name.

We shall first look at the usage outside Job.
Three times it occurs in parallel to *‘rock’’ as a
descriptive term for God (Deut 32:15; Ps 18:31 [H
32]; Isa 44:8). Once it is found in a context in

‘which God is described as a shield to those who

take refuge in him (Prov 30:5). Three times it is
used in a context of terror for sinners (Ps 50:22;
114:7; 139:19).

This would suggest that the term conveyed to
God’s people comfort and assurance while con-
veying fear to their enemies. The concepts of
strength and might conveyed by the term are fur-
ther seen in the three successive verses of
Daniel's vision about the great anti-god (Dan
11:37-39). Here the anti-god’s god (’é/dah) seems
to be ‘‘strength’’ itself. In Hab 1:11 the term is
used similarly.

In Hab 3:3, the prophet speaks of ‘éloah com-
ing from Teman. In Job, Teman is associated
with one of Job’s three friends, Eliphaz (Job 4:1).
Interestingly, the term ‘éloah, used for God, is
predominantly used in Job by Job and Eliphaz in
their debating. Only in one context does Zophar
use the term (11:S5-7). Bildad never does. Of
course Elihu uses it, perhaps in imitation of the
former speakers (six times in chapters 33-37).
God himself, in speaking to Job, uses the term
twice: once in a context of his providence and
once in parallel to ‘‘the Almighty’’ (see our dis-
cussion on the concept of might associated with
the name).

This term for God was usually clearly used for
Israel’s God, the true God. This is evident from
the fact that the Levites in the postexilic period
used the term in quoting the descriptive revela-
tion of God given in Ex 34:6-7, where the original
revelation to Moses had used El and Yahweh
(Neh 9:17).

The Hebrew word is quite similar to the
Aramaic ‘élah, the usual name for God in Biblical
Aramaic. It has been suggested that the term has
come, via Aramaic, from two elements: El and
Ah (a shortened form of Ahyeh, Ex 3:14, ‘I shall
be,’’ the designation of Yahweh in the first per-
son; Feigin, Samuel I., “The Origin of El6h,
‘God’, in Hebrew,”’ JNES 3: 259). This suggests
the possibility that onginally two separate gods
were involved and later combined. Such a
suggestion does not seem likely inasmuch as the
term is in Scripture almost always used as a des-
ignation of the true God.

It is probably akin to the term El. It was in use
quite early, then, after a period of neglect among
God's people, the term was revived to a limited

93 mos (lh)

use perhaps through the contacts with Aramaic,
where a similar term was in constant use.

’élohim. God, gods, judges, angels. (Generally,
agreement is found in asv and rsv, however in
some passages where the meaning is not clear
they differ from kK)v: Ex 31:6, where rsv has
*‘God’’ but KJv ‘“‘the judges’’; similarly in Ex
22:28 [H 27] where rsv has ‘‘God’’ but ksv “‘the
gods’’ or aS a margin ‘‘judges.’’) This word,
which is generally viewed as the plural of ’éloah,
is found far more frequently in Scripture than
either 'é/ or 'éldah for the true God. The plural
ending is usually described as a plural of majesty
and not intended as a true plural when used of
God. This is seen in the fact that the noun ’é!-
Ohim is consistently used with singular verb
forms and with adjectives and pronouns in the
singular.

Albright has suggested that the use of this
majestic plural comes from the tendency in the
ancient near east toward a universalism: ‘*We
find in Canaanite an increasing tendency to em-
ploy the plural Ashtordét *‘Astartes’, and Anatét
‘Anaths’, in the clear sense of totality of manifes-
tations of a deity’’’ (William F. Albright, From
the Stone Age to Christianity, 2d ed., p. 213). But
a better reason can be seen in Scripture itself
where, in the very first chapter of Gen, the
necessity of a term conveying both the unity of
the one God and yet allowing for a plurality of
persons is found (Gen 1:2, 26). This is further
borne out by the fact that the form ’éldhim oc-
curs only in Hebrew and in no other Semitic lan-
guage, not even in Biblical Aramaic (Gustav F.
Oehler, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 88).

The term occurs in the general sense of deity
some 2570 times in Scripture. Yet as Pope has
indicated, it is difficult to detect any discrepancy
in use between the forms ’é/, ’éloah, and ’élohim
in Scripture (Marvin H. Pope, El in the Ugaritic
Texts, p. 10).

When indicating the true God, ’éléhim func-
tions as the subject of all divine activity revealed
to man and as the object of all true reverence and
fear from men. Often ’é/dhim is accompanied by
the personal name of God, Yahweh (Gen 2:4-5;
Ex 34:23; Ps 68:18 [H 19], etc.).

While the individual occurrences of the term
'élohim for God are far too numerous to treat
here, some significant appositives and descrip-
tive phrases or clauses associated with the name
are given below. These descriptive words at-
tached to the noun 'éldhim really serve as titles
and indicate the various titles by which God’s
people came to know him. The term ’éléhim is
the favorite term in titles. They are usually at-
tached by means of the construct, the relative
clause or by participial phrases rendered as titles.

The first category of titles pertains to his work

44

of creation: Isa 45:18, ‘‘God, Former of the
Earth’’; Jon 1:9 ‘‘God of Heaven Who Made the
Sea and the Dry Land.”’

A second category of titles expresses God’s
sovereignty: Isa 54:5, ‘God of All the Earth’’; I]
Kgs 20:28, ‘God of the Hills’’; Jer 32:27, ‘‘God
of All Flesh.’’ The God of All the Kingdoms of
the Earth” (cf. Isa 37:16); God of Heaven (Neh
2:4, 20); ‘‘Yahweh God of the Heaven’ (Gen
24:7; I] Chr 36:23); God in the Heaven (II Chr
20:6); ‘‘The Lord God of the Heaven and God of
the Earth’’ (Gen 24:3; see Deut 4:39; Josh 2:11);
and finally ‘‘God of gods and Lord of Lords, the
Great, the Mighty, and the Terrible Who Does
Not Regard Favorites and Does Not Take
Bribes’’ (Deut 10:17). All of these titles may be
subsumed under the rather brief *“‘God Most
High’’ (Ps 57:2 [H 3)).

As sovereign God, '&ldhim is often described
as Judge: simply ‘‘God Judge’”’ (Ps 50:6; 75:7 (H
8]) or ‘‘GodJudge in the Earth’’ (Ps 58:11 [H 12]).

Another category of titles focuses around
God’s majesty or glory. Among these we find
‘God of Eternity” (Isa 40:28); *‘God of Justice”’
(Isa 30:18); *‘God of Certainty’’ (Isa 65:16); **Liv-
ing God’ (Jer 10:10); and *‘This Holy God”’ (I
Sam 6:20).

By far the most frequent category of titles are
those pertaining to the Savior God. Here we in-
clude numerous constructs in which God ts
linked to individuals whom he has called: **Their
God’’ (Gen 17:8); ‘‘The God of Abraham’’ (Gen
26:24); ‘‘The God of Abraham... and the God of
Isaac’’ (Gen 28:13); ‘‘The God of Abraham, the
God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob’’ (Ex 3:6),
etc. (More than one hundred such titles are found
in the Old Testament.) Sometimes to these titles
is added the personal name, ‘‘Yahweh’’ (Gen
24:12).

Similarly, we find titles linking God by the con-
struct grammatical form to Israel as a whole or to
some part of it: ‘‘God of the Armies of Israel}”’ (I
Sam 17:45) or ‘‘God of Jerusalem’’ (I] Chr 32:19).

All of these represent God as savior of his
people as does the simple *‘God of Salvation’’ (I
Chr 16:35; Ps 18:46 [H 47], etc.; cf. Ps 88:1 [H 2]).

Some titles reflect God’s actions on behalf of
his people in the past: ‘‘The Living God, Speaker
from the Midst of the Fire’’ (Deut 5:23 [H 26]; cf.
I Kgs 18:24); ‘‘God, the Bringer of Prisoners into
Prosperity”’ (Ps 68:7); ‘‘God... the Bringer out
to you Water from the Flinty Rock’’ (Deut 8:15);
‘“Your God Who Separated You from the
Peoples’’ (Lev 20:24).

And finally, we find titles expressing the inti-
macy of God with his people: **The God of Near-
ness’’ (Jer 23:23); ‘‘Your God in Whom you
Trust’’ (II Kgs 19:10); ‘‘God Your Chastener”’
(Deut 8:5); The God Feeding Me My Life Long
Until Now’ (Gen 48:15); ‘‘God of My Righ-

teousness’’ (Ps 4:1 [H 2]); **God of My Mercy (Ps
59:17 [H 18]); ‘‘God of My Strength’ (Ps 43:2)
and ‘‘Our God Being Merciful’ (Ps 116:5).

In reference to one particularly difficult pas-
sage from the point of view of interpretation,
which therefore bears on the translation, Cyrus
Gordon has said, ‘‘It is my contention that here
(Ex 22:8-9 ([H 7, 8]) ’éléhim does not mean God
as the Lxx translates, nor judges, which is the
interpretation of Peshitto and Targum Onkelos,
followed by Rashi and Ibn Ezra, by several En-
glish versions and by the Lexicon’’ (Cyrus H.
Gordon,**’é/dhim in its reputed meaning of rul-
ers, judges,’ JBL 54: 140, 149). He goes on to
demonstrate to his own satisfaction that from our
knowledge of the Nuzi tablets we can conclude
that ‘“gods”’ is the better translation and that the
passage refers to the ‘‘oaths of the gods’’ which
he calls a well! attested ancient oriental court pro-
cedure. He therefore sees this text as a heathen
survival in the Mosaic legislation, one that was
obliterated in the later Deuteronomic and priestly
recensions.

This is unacceptable from the point of view of
Scripture’s attestation to being God’s Word and
its clear doctrine of the existence of only one
God. The question of whether ‘‘God’’ or
‘‘judges’’ is to be used here is difficult. If ‘*God’’
is correct, we understand by the passage that
every man is ultimately answerable to God and
stands or falls before God no matter what judg-
ment men may make.

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., ‘‘The Names
Shaddai and Abram,”’ JBL 54: 175-92. ;
From the Stone Age to Christianity, Johns Hop-
kins, 1957. , Archaeology and the Religion
of Israel, Johns Hopkins, 1942. Bailey, Lloyd R.,
‘Israelite El Sadday and Amorite Bel Sade,”’
JBL 87: 434-38. Cross, Frank Moore, ‘‘ Yahweh
and the God of the Patriarchs,’’ HTR 55: 226-59.
, El and Yahweh,’’ JSS 1: 25-37. ;
‘**My God’ in the Old Testament,’’ EQ 19: 7-20.
Davidson, A. B., The Theology of the Old Tes-
tament, Edinburgh: T & T Clark. Della Vida. G.
Levi, *‘El Elyon in Genesis 14: 18-20, JBL
63:1-9. Drafkorn, Ann E., ‘‘Ilani/Elohim,’’ JBL
76: 216-24. Eerdmans, B. D., The Religion of
Israel, Leiden, Universtaire pers Leiden, 1947.
Feigin, Samuel J., **The Origin of ’Eloh, ‘God,’
in Hebrew,”’ JNES 3: 259. Gordon, Cyrus H.,
‘Elohim in its Repeated Meaning of Rulers,
Judges,’’ JBL 54: 140-44. Jacob, Edmond, The
Theology of the Old Testament, Harper Brothers,
1955. Keil, Karl F., Manual of Historico-Critical
Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures of the
Old Testament, 1, Eerdmans, 1952. Kelso, James
A., ‘The Antiquity of the Divine Title,’’ JBL 20:
50-55. Kohler, Ludwig, Old Testament Theol-
ogy, Westminster, 1957. Kuhn, H. B., ‘‘God,
Names of,’’ in APEB. May, H. G., ‘*El Shad-

94 m°N (ald)

dai,’’ JBL 60: 114-45. , The Patriarchal
Ideal of God,’* JBL 60: 113-28. Miller, Patrick
D., ‘*El the Warrior,’’ HTR 411-31. Pope, Mar-
vin H., El in the Ugaritic Texts, Brill, 1955.
Richardson, TWB, p. 89. Segal, M. H., ‘‘EI,
Elohim, and YHWH in the Bible,’’ JQR 46: 89-
115. Thomas, D. Winton, ‘‘A Consideration of
Some Unusual Ways of Expressing the Superla-
tive in Hebrew,”’ VT 3: 209-24. Van Allman, J.
J., A Companion to the Bible, Oxford, 1958.
Weingreen, J., ‘‘The Construct-Genitive in He-
brew Syntax,’ VT 4: 50-59. Wilson, Robert
Dick, *‘The Names of God in the Old Testa-
ment,’’ PTR 18: 460-92.

J.B.S.

94 mos ('ala) I, to swear, make a solemn

45

oath. (Rsv is generally better in translation
than asv, i.e. “‘laid an oath on’’ preferable to
‘‘adjured,’’ I Sam 14:24). The term is used in
expressing solemn oaths between men and
between God and man.

Derivatives

94a TRONS (ala) an oath, solemn statement,
promise, curse (for broken oath), oc-
curring more frequently than the
verb.

94b fROSM (ta’ala) curse (punishment
for broken oath), only once, Lam3:65.

’ala. Oath. In its most basic form we see the
noun used in the sense of a solemn promise be-
tween men (Gen 24:41; 26:28). For that reason it
is also applied to solemn statements of testimony
given in court (Lev 5:1; Prov 29:24) and before
God (Num 5:21 ff.; Jud 17:2; I Kgs 8:31; I Sam
14:24; Neh 10:29 [H 30]; Ezk 16:59; 17:13ff.).

From this we can see how it was used to ex-
press the very solemn covenant between God and
his people (Deut 29:12 [H 11]) and more particu-
larly, the warnings of judgment attached to that
covenant should the people prove to be faithless
(Deut 29: 14-21 [H 13-20]). It is used in this latter
sense also in Isa 24:6; Jer 23:10; 29:18; 42:18;
44:12 and Dan 9:11.

ta’ala. Curse. (The same in asv, Rsv.) This
noun occurs only once in Lam 3:65. It applies to
the enemies of God's people and is described as
dullness of heart.

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘‘The
Curse, Blasphemy, the Spell, and the Oath,”’
HUCA 23: 73-95. Brichto, Herbert C., The Prob-
lem of ‘‘Curse’’ in the Hebrew Bible, JBL Mono-
graph Series, vol. XIII, Society of Biblical Liter-
ature and Exegesis, 1963. Lehman, Manfred R.,
‘Biblical Oaths,’” ZAW 81: 74-92. Price, J. M.,
‘The Oath in Court Procedure in Early Baby-
lonia and the Old Testament,’’ JAOS 49: 22-29.
Scharbert, Josef, *‘‘Fluchen’ und ‘Segen’ im

95 mbox (ala)

95 mos (ald) II, wail.

96

97

98

Alten Testament,’’ Bib 39: 1-26. Tucker, G. M.,
‘*Covenant Forms and Contract Forms,’’ VT 15:
487-503. TDNT, V, pp. 459-61. TDOT, I, pp.
261-66.

J.B.S.

Only in Jon 1:8.
95a ims ('alya) fattail (of sheep). (The
same in ASV, RSV.)

This portion of the sheep was mentioned as a
distinct part of the offering in the heave offering
(Ex 29:22), in the peace offering (Lev 3:9; 9:19),
in the guilt offering (Lev 7:3) and in the offering
of consecration on the occasion of the ordination
of Aaron and his sons to the priestly office. The
fat tailed sheep are still the common ones in
Palestine.

J.B.S.
ms (alla). See no. 100a.
mos ('éla). See no. 45h.
vos (ila) if, though. Only in Eccl 6:6, Est
7:4.

‘9s (eli!) Elul, the sixth month. Occurs
only in Neh 6:15. For other month names see
no. 613b.

9s ('eldn). See no. 451.
398 (Call6n). See no. 100b.
mss (‘alluap). See no. 109b.

*mos (alah) be corrupt morally. Occurs

only in the Niphal.

mos (‘alya). See no. 95a.
S°s (‘//) I. Assumed root of the following.
99a tooN (‘élil) something worthless (par-

ticularly as an object of worship),
gods, idols. (Generally the same in
the asv and RSv.)

This term comes perhaps from a root meaning
‘*to be weak, deficient.”’ It is used primarily in
Scripture to describe vain objects of worship, 1.e.
the gods of this world, whether literal idols made
with hands, riches, or deceitful men.

In Lev 19:4, its first appearance, the word is
parallel to “‘molten gods” (cf. 26:1). It ts also
applied to any works of one’s hands as an object
of worship (Isa 2:8: Hab 2:18).

In Isaiah's day, Jerusalem and Samaria were
described as kingdoms of idols, i.e. a people who
worshipped vain things (Isa 10:10—11). Such idols
were classed along with divination and lies (Jer
14:14). They were clearly good for nothing (Isa
2:20; 31:7).

They even included people in whom men

46

10}

102

103

trusted but who were deceitful and of no value
(Job 13:4; Isa 19:3; Zech 11:17).

In Scripture they are contrasted to the true
God, the Lord, the Creator (Ps 96:5) and before
him they tremble (Isa 19:1), are put to shame (Ps
97:7), and are destroyed (Isa 2:18).

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 285-86. THAT, I,
pp. 167-68.

J.B.S.

100 55x (‘//) II. Assumed root of the follow

ing.
100a tm>s) (alla) oak.
100b tt1%8 = (Callén) oak.

’alla. Oak. This word is apparently from the
root ‘// and occurs only once in Josh 24:26. The
meaning of the passage is uncertain. It refers to
an oak in the sanctuary of the Lord under which
Joshua set up a stone for a witness against Israel,
after the people affirmed obedience to God's
covenant. The asv gets nd of the difficulty by
translating the preposition as ‘‘by’’ rather than
‘*in.”’ The rsv is more literal.

’allon. Oak (same inasv and rsv). The term
refers to one of the great trees of the forest (Isa
44:14). Three times in particular it is associated
with Bashan where it symbolized pride (Isa 2:13;
possibly Ezk 27:6) and very thick forests (Zech
11:2). Elsewhere it is also used to symbolize
strength (Amos 2:9).

In Isa 6:13, the stump of the oak is likened to
the remnant of Israe! which survives after it is cut
down.

Once, the oak is referred to as a place of pagan
worship (Hos 4:13). It was also the tree where
Deborah. Rebekah’s maid, was buried (Gen
35:8).

J.B.S.

298 (allay) alas! woe! Occurs only in
Mic 7:1; Job 10:15.

*p°~ (‘alam) bind, be made dumb (Niph-
al).

Derivatives

102a. B98) «(alumma) sheaf.

102b. BON ('élem) silence.

102c «Bos (Cillém) dumb.

p°s (‘'almaggim). See no. 89c.
v9 ('alman) widowed, forsaken, forsaken
asa widow (the same in ASV, RSV).

The adjective occurs once in Jer 51:5 in the
sense of Israel abandoned by God, as a widow,
by her husband who had died.

J.B.S.

104. 3798 ('almon) widowhood. (The same in

ASV, RSV.)

This noun is used to describe the state of Baby-
lon after God's judgment, in its one use, Isa 47:9.
J.B.S.

105 mys) (Calmana) widow. (asv and Rsv the
same.) The word has only one basic mean-
ing, “widow.”

The primary meaning, “‘widow,” is seen
throughout its usage in Scripture. The word first
occurs in Gen 38:11 in the account of Judah's
dealings with his daughterin-law, called a widow
after her husband's death.

The several contexts in which we see the term
used in Scripture will help us to see its signifi-
cance in God's Word. First, we note God's care
and concern for widows. God hears their cry (Ex
22:21-22) and he executes justice on their behalf
(Deut 10:18). Therefore God deals with them out
of exceptional pity, as defenseless. He is their
judge in a special way (Ps 65:5 [H 6]), treating
them with the same tenderness he shows to the
orphans (Ps 146:9). He also protects their inher-
itance (Prov 15:25). When others are judged, a
special call to faith is issued to them (Jer 49:11).
To the end of the ot period, God expresses his
concern for widows (Mal 3:5).

But being widows, they were restricted in
some relationships while not in others. They
could not marry priests (Lev 21:14: Ezk 44:22)
unless widows of priests. However, widows who
were daughters of priests could return to their
father's home and eat again of the holy food of
the priests (Lev 22:13). Also being widows did
not exempt them from vows made (Num 30:9
[H 10]). All of this indicates that they were a
unique category in Israel according to God's
legislation and due special regard from the
people.

The existence of widows was not indicative of
good times and the presence of many widows in
the Jand indicated God's displeasure with the
people and punishment of them (Ex 22:24 (H 23];
Jer 15:8). Indeed, on two occasions, cities under
God's judgment are called widows: Isa 47:8
(Babylon): Lam 1:1 (Jerusalem).

Because of God's concern for the widows, the
people were frequently commanded to protect
and provide for them, being careful to execute
justice on their behalf. The people were blessed
when they had regard for widows (Deut 14:29).
Leaders were responsible to defend them and to
see that justice was done (Isa 1:17, 23).

The reason for this concern is obvious.
Widows were often elderly, often without much
income, and easy prey for the unscrupulous. Ina
similar social situation the NT church is com-

47

106 M3398 ('almaniit) widowhood (same

107

108 928 ('dlap)

manded to care for those who are “widows in-
deed,” i.e. widows in need (I Tim 5:3-11).

Even in the time of Job the way one treated
widows was indicative of his moral character.
Job was accused of mistreating widows by
Eliphaz who supposed that his troubles came
from such evil conduct (Job 22:9). Job vehe-
mently denied having mistreated them and
claimed to have done them good (Job 29:13: cf.
31:16).

Thus oppression of widows became a frequent
example of wickedness among men and nations
(Ps 94:6; Isa 10:2, etc.).

The cognate root is found in Assynan and
Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 126) both for *‘widow™ and
‘widowhood.

in
ASV, RSV).

Twice the term is applied to the garments of
Tamar, widow of Judah's sons (Gen 38:14, 19). It
applies to a state of living for the concubines of
David, defiled by Absalom (IJ Sam 20:3); and
also to Israel figuratively (Isa 54:4).

Bibliography: Fensham, F. Charles, **Wid-
ow, Orphan, and Poor in Ancient Near Eastern
Legal and Wisdom Literature,” JNES 21: 129-
39. Patterson, Richard, ‘“‘The Widow, the Or-
phan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the
Extra-Biblical Literature.” BS 130: 223-34.
TDNT, LX, pp. 444-48. TDOT I, pp. 287-91.
THAT, 1, pp. 169-72.

J.B.S.
»2 278

(‘almoni) someone, a certain one.

108 AX (alap) I, learn (Qal); teach (Piel). (asv,

RSV translate the same.)

Derivatives

108a APN
108b tAIhN

‘alap is rare, occuring only four times (three in
Job). In two contexts (Prov 22:25; Job 15:5) the
teacher ts evil. In the other two, Elihu uses the
term, once describing himself as teacher, once
putting words into the mouth of others (Job
33:33, 35:11). If his words are without knowledge
(Job 38:2), then perhaps this word scripturally
has only bad connotations and does not express
teaching or learning that is valid.

cattle, oxen.
docile.

(‘elep)
Callap)

’allap J. Docile (adjective); friend (noun).
(Rsv and asv differ considerably in some places
where Rsv translates ‘‘friend’* while asv prefers
‘guide’ [Jer 3:4]). The primary sense is that of
one who is always in company with another, 1.e.
a guide or companion or friend. As such, the com-
panion is not expected to betray (Ps 55:13 [H 14]):
he ought not to be forsaken (Prov 2:17); and it is

109 *H?8 (alap)

tragic when such friends are divided (Prov 16:28;
17:9). However, times come when one cannot
trust them (Mic 7:5).

J.B.S.

109 *#98 ('alap) Hl, producing thousands (oc-
curs only in the Hiphil, Ps 144:13). De-
nominative verb.

Parent Noun

109a tH9s (‘elep) thousand (same inasv,
RSV).
Derivatives
109b tMoS (allap) chief.

The verb, derived from the noun, is used only
once (Ps 144:13), in a prayer asking God's bless-
ings so that the sheep will produce thousands.

’elep. Thousand. This numeral, a feminine
noun, usually precedes the noun it accompanies.
When the accompanying noun precedes, it is
plural. If other numbers are joined to ‘elep they
usually precede it. The basic meaning is one
thousand but it is often to be taken as a figurative
term.

This numeral is usually employed in tabula-
tions, censuses, and other enumerations in the
basic sense of the figure 1000 (Gen 20:16; 24:60;
Ex 12:37: Num 1:21 ff.).

There are, however, several specialized us-
ages. One is in the basic sense of the largest basic
division of leadership in political oversight or mil-
itary leadership (Ex 18:21: Num 1:16; 31:4; Deut
1:15; 1 Chr 13:1; 27:1; Amos 5:3).

From this usage another which developed was
the application of the term as representative of
the extreme, i.e. Eccl 6:6, an extreme number of
years. This in turn ts related to the practice of
making the numeral representative of the oppo-
site extreme of that which is quite small or few in
number (Deut 32:30: Josh 23:10; Job 9:3; Isa
30:17). At times the concept seems simply to rep-
resent that which is excessive (Mic 6:7: Song
8:12).

A notable use of the term is in connection with
God. In such contexts the basic idea seems to
be ‘‘indefinite’’ or “innumerable,” e.g. God’s
mercy is to be shown to thousands (Ex 20:6; 34:7;
Deut 5:10; Jer 32:18). This mercy is also to reach
to a thousand generations (Deut 7:9), as is his
command (Ps 105:8). The cattle on a thousand
hills belong to God (Ps 50:10). A thousand years
are but as a day in his sight (Ps 90:4).

These examples show that God uses the term
in reference to himself figuratively, an indefinite
or innumerable amount. This same practice is
seen in the NT, e.g. II Pet 3:8-10 and probably
also in Rev 20:2, 5.

The root occurs in several Semitic languages

110

48

1]1

besides Hebrew, e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, and
Ugaritic (UT, 19: no. 133) with the same basic
meaning of one thousand.

{It 1s occasionally alleged that since ‘elep
means a company of a thousand men it could
mean any military unit, even of reduced strength.
From there it came to mean a family unit or clan,
even a small one. But this means that the 1000's
of the mustering of the soldiers in Num I and 26 is
reduced to a small figure in accord with the desire
of the commentator. The wilderness wandering
and its miraculous supply is also reduced to
naturalistic proportions. But it should be remem-
bered that the conquest of Transjordan and of
Palestine was not accomplished by a handful of
men. Also such juggling must alter the text of the
Numbers passages which by the addition of their
totals clearly speak of 1000°s of soldiers. R.L.H.]

’allap. Chief, ruler of a thousand. (Generally
the same in Asv, RSV but in Zech 9:7; 12:5-6, Rsv
has ‘“‘clan.’") The word occurs exclusively to
describe a rank in the families or clans of Edom
(Gen 36:15ff: Ex 15:15; 1 Chr 1:51 ff.). This usage
probably also lies back of the Matt reading in 2:6
where “‘princes’’ of Judah reflects a pointing ’al-
lup in Mic 5:2 [H 1].

Bibliography: Davis, John J., “Biblical Nu-
merics,’ Grace Journal 5:30-4. , ‘The
Rhetorical Use of Numbers in the Old Testa-
ment,’ Grace Journal 8: 40-48. Wenham, J. W.,
‘*Large Numbers in the Old Testament.” Tyn-
dale Bulletin 18:19-53. Wolf, C.. **Terminology
of Israel's Tribal Organization,” JBL 65: 45-49.
TDNT. LX. pp. 467-69.

J.B.S.

*Pox (dlas) urge. Occurs only once, in

Jud 16:16 (Piel).

QS (im) if, not, whether, when, since. (asv,
RSV vary considerably inasmuch as the con-
text and interpretation of the text determine
the exact translation of this particle.)

The basic meaning is ‘‘if’’ and this meaning
can be seen in most of its occurrences. In the
hundreds of passages where the word occurs,
several basic types of contexts can be seen.

First, it occurs most often in conditional
clauses, e.g. Gen4:7; Jud 13:16: I Sam 20:14, etc.

Next we find many occurrences of ‘im in oath
contexts in which, in reality, a larger context 1s
assumed. In the larger, assumed context is an
oath, only rarely stated in full (I1] Kgs 9:26; cf.
Job 1:11).

Sometimes the oath involves a negative as in II
Sam 19:14. David is here promising to make
Amasa his new commander in place of Joab. He
calls on the Lord to judge him severely (the
judgment is never spelled out, perhaps because it

is so awful as to be unspeakable) if Amasa is not
to be David’s commander.

Other examples of the full oath are found in I
Kgs 20:10 (used by Ben-Hadad), II Kgs 6:31 (also
Ben-Hadad). This suggests that the oath was in
broader use than Israel alone, among the Semites
at any rate.

From this fuller form of the oath, we see the
practice frequently of abbreviating the oath,
omitting *‘the Lord do so to me and more also.”’
Thus in Gen 14:23, “If I shall take a thread or a
sandal-thong or if I shall take from anything
which is yours’’ or in other words ‘I will not
take.’ Other examples of this abbreviated form,
even at times apparently God swearing by him-
self, are as follows: Num 14:30 (God declaring
that none except Caleb and Joshua will come in
if you will come in’ = “‘you will not
come in’; I Sam 17:55, °° if I know’ = “I
do not know,” etc.

The peculiar result of this idiom is that in such
contexts ‘im has negative force; ’im 16’ is posi-
tive. This Hebrew idiom, coming through the
LXXx, 1s rightly interpreted in Heb 3:11, 18 (kv),
but missed in 4:3, 5 (KJv).

A third context in which ’im occurs is that of
alternatives. Frequently this idea is conveyed by
a double use of ’im, e.g. Ex 19:13, “if beast if

man...’ = ‘*whether a beast or a man’’; I Chr
21:12, “if three years... and if three months...
and if three days...’ = ‘‘whether... or...
or...”

In some contexts ‘im seems to have the force
of ‘‘when’’ as in Gen 38:9. Even here however,
the meaning ‘‘if’ is seen in the sense of a continu-
ing condition: ‘‘whenever he came in... he
would spill...°’ or “‘if he came in...’’, this is
what he did. Here we see the waw joined to the
verb as waw consecutive, making it in effect an
imperfect.

We also find several cases of the use of ’im in
the sense of ‘‘since.’’ In Job 14:5, for example,
‘since his days are numbered: may also be “if
his days...’ and in Job 22:20, ‘‘since our
enemies are cut off’° may equally read ‘‘surely
our enemies...’ (ASV, RSV) or even “‘if our
enemies...’’. In Jer 23:38, we can read either “if
you say’’ or ‘‘since you say.”’

Often we find ‘im used as an interrogative par-
ticle. In Gen 38:17, for example, we can read
Tamar’s response to Judah ‘‘will you give...” or
“if you will give...’> When the structure is ac-
companied by the sign of the tnterrogative as in
Josh 5:13, then there is no uncertainty. Actually
it is quite usual to have an interrogative he car-
ried on by ’im (cf. disjunctive and double ques-
tions, GKC par. 150, g. h).

Bibliography: Daube, David. ‘‘Direct and In-
direct Causation in Biblical Law,’’ VT 11: 246-
69. Eitan, I., ““Three ‘im Particles in Hebrew,”’

112 M8 (ama) maid-servant,

49

112 m8 (ama)

JAOS 54: 295. Lehman, Manfred R., ‘*Biblical
Oaths,’ ZAW 81: 74-92. Van Leeuwen, C. *‘Die
Partikel 88,°° OTS 18: 15-48.

J.B.S.

BS ('eém). See no. I1Sa.

female _ slave.
(asv and RSV generally the same but Rsv pre-
fers ‘‘female slave’’ in the Pentateuchal
regulatory passages regarding slaves, while
ASV prefers ‘‘servant’’ or **maid.’*)

The term 1s applied both to literal slaves and to
those who figuratively call themselves by this
term as an expression of humility and submis-
sion.

The first occurrence of the term is in reference
to Abimelech's female servants (Gen 20:17). We
see too that the patriarchs had such servants:
Hagar (Sarah), Bilhah (Rachel), etc. Even return-
ing Israelites after the Exile counted these ser-
vants among their possessions (Ezr 2:65). They
were also found in Egypt (Ex 2:5) and in Nineveh
(Nah 2:7 [H 8)).

God, in giving the Law to Israel, provided for
servants, male and female. They had rights (Ex
21:7, 20, 26, etc.). God was clearly concerned for
their wellbeing and physical as well as spiritual
needs (Ex 20:10; Lev 25:6). They were to wor-
ship with their master’s family in spiritual fellow-
ship (Deut 12:12, 18). But they were a posses-
sion.

A distinction was made between foreign slaves
and Hebrew servants. The latter had more rights
and freedoms (cf. Lev 25:44 and Deut 15:12-18).
But clearly, God expected his children to show
kindness and consideration for the needs of these
female slaves (Job 19:15; 31:13).

Several uses of the term in a figurative sense
are also found in Scripture. A wife or prospective
wife often referred to herself or was referred to in
this way in respect to her man, e.g. Ruth to Boaz
(Ruth 3:9); Abigail to David (I Sam 25:14);
Bathsheba to David (1 Kgs 1:17).

Sometimes a woman so referred to herself in
conversation, as Hannah to Eli (I Sam 1:16—cf.
II Sam 6:22; 14:15; I Kgs 3:20).

Finally, in the highest sense, devout women
addressed the Lord, calling themselves God's
servants in a fashion much as Paul did in the nT:
so Hannah (I Sam 1:11). This same attitude is
seen in the Psalmist who referred to his mother as
God’s maidservant when addressing the Lord (Ps
86:16; 116:16; which, however, is taken by Da-
hood as from ‘emet and rendered your true son.
‘*Psalms’’ AB in loc., so also M. Mansoor JBL
76; p. 145 on the basis of a DSS text).

The cognate root is found in several Semitic
languages, including Ugantic (UT, 19: no. 147).

113 3378 (amon)

Bibliography: Fensham, G. Charles, ‘‘The
Son of a Handmaid in Northwest Semitic,” VT
19: 312~22. Rupprecht, A., ‘‘Christianity and the
Slavery Question,’ JETS 6: 64-68.

J.B.S.

"amma). See no. 115.

‘amma). See no. 11Se.

113. 398 (‘'amén) I, Amon, an Egyptian God.
(In Nah 3:8, rsv has ‘‘Thebes’’ and further
translates *‘Nile’’ for “‘canal.’’ asv is more
literal having *‘No-amon.”’ In Jer 46:25,
RSV translates ‘‘Amon of Thebes’’ while
ASV has **Amon of No.’’ These are the only
two occurrences of the name.)

The term *‘Amon” refers to an Egyptian deity
and therefore also to the city of that deity, i.e.
‘the city of Amon.”* Since one Egyptian term for
‘city’ is “no” it is transliterated in aAsv to
*“No-Amon, ’ while Rsv simply identifies it by the
common opinion that the city was the famous
Thebes.

As Thebes became prominent in Egypt, the
god of the city became more generally acknowl-
edged and finally identified with the great Egyp-
tian god, Re or Ra, i.e. Amon Re.

In Scripture the city of this god is mentioned
twice. In Jer 46:25, the city is mentioned as an
object of God's wrath, sure to fall to Nebuchad-
nezzar because it symbolized the pride of Egypt.
In Nah 3:8, it becomes an example by its fall of
the sureness of the fall of all world cities, particu-
larly of Nineveh.

J.B.S.

Was (‘'amoén). See no. 1161.
mvs (émiund). See no. 116e.
pve (amos). See no. 117c.
yrs ('ammis). See no. 117d.
savas (‘amir). See no. 118d.

114 *9m8 (‘dmal) to languish, be exhausted.
(Generally the same in ASv, RSV.)

Derivatives

14a +598 (‘ameélal) feeble.
ll4b 49578 ~(Camlal) feeble.

The verb occurs primanily in the Pulal conjuga-
tion, describing a state of exhaustion or extrem-
ity. It is used to express the state into which the
objects of God's punishment and discipline
come: the proud mother who boasts over her bar-
ren rival (I Sam 2:5); Moab (Isa 16:8); Egypt (Isa
19:8); the whole world (Isa 24:4).

Words associated with it are ‘‘wither,”
‘*mourn,”’ and “‘lament” (Isa 24:4; 33:9; Jer
14:2).

Most particularly, it describes the state of Is-
rael and its people after the punishment of God

50

115 Bax ('mm).

has fallen (Isa 33:9; Jer 14:2), so also, Jerusalem
after the fall (Lam 2:8). Clearly, God’s objective
in such discipline was to bring his people to their
knees as a warning and to humble them (Hos 4:3;
Joel 1:10, 12).

As an adjective, the term was therefore used
by Israel's enemies as a term of derision (Neh 4:2
{H 3:34]) and by the truly humbled believer as an
expression of his contntion and recognition of the
need of God's help (Ps 6:2 [H 3)).

*amlal. Weak, feeble. (asv, ““withered away.”’
RSV “‘languishing.’’) The adjective is used once
as an expression of the Psalmist’s contrite heart
before God (Ps 6:2 [H 3}).

"Amelal. Feeble. (The same in aSv, RSV.) It
occurs once, an adjective describing the Jews,
used by their enemies (Neh 4:2 [H 3:34}).

J.B.S.

Assumed root of the following.

115a 8s (’ém) mother.

11Sb 0 MS ~Camma) I, mother city.

11Sc fM®S (Camma) II, cubit.

115d) mS = Camma) IH, only in Isa 6-4.
Meaning doubtful.

liSe MPS (amma) tribe, people.

’em. Mother, point of departure (once). (ASV
and rsv generally the same.)

The word always (except once) means
‘‘mother.’’ In most occurrences it refers literally
to the female parent. It is used at times in a
figurative sense.

"em refers to Eve, figuratively as mother of all
living beings (though she was also the literal
mother, Gen 3:20); to Deborah as a mother in
Israel (Jud 5:7); to a city as mother to its inhabi-
tants (Isa 50:1; Ezk 16:44; Hos 2:2 [H 4]): and
even to a worm as mother of Job (Job 17:14).

On some occasions the term is applied to non-
human mothers: Ex 34:26; Deut 22:6.

In studying the contexts and senses in which
the word ts used we note several of particular
interest, first, texts which relate to the duties of
the mother. She is to be a source of comfort (Isa
66:13), a teacher (Prov 31:1), and a discipliner
(Zech 13:3).

We note also what her children owe her. These
obligations may be defined as positive duties and
negative duties. On the positive side, her children
owe her obedience (Gen 28:7), blessings (Prov
30:11), honor (Ex 20:12), fear (i.e. respect, Lev
19:3), and mourning when she has died (Ps
35:14). On the negative side, her children must
not strike her (Ex 21:15), rob her (Prov 28:24),
chase her away (Prov 19:26), bring her to shame
(Prov 29:15; so Lev 18:7), set light by her (i.e.
ridicule her, Deut 27:16), nor forsake her law

(Prov 1:8). This shows clearly the high standing
of motherhood in a redeemed society.

Yet, the mother’s role in her adult son's life
was Clearly subordinate to that of his wife (Gen
2:24). His duties to his mother could not supplant
or take precedence over his duties to his wife.

A pagan mother could indeed love her son, and
presumably the pagan son could feel a sense of
duty to his mother (Jud 5:28).

The sense of guilt expressed by Job and the
Psalmist (Job 31:18; Ps 51:5 [H 7]) does not indi-
cate any particular blemish on their mothers but
expresses the doctrine we call original sin.

The occurrence of the word in Ezk 21:21 [H 26]
is unique and evidently means *‘the parting (fork)
of the road’’ in the sense of the origin (mother) of
the road.

The cognate root is found in most Semitic lan-
guages with the same basic meaning as the He-
brew: Phoenician, Arabic, Ethiopic, Aramaic,
and Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 155).

’amma. Cubit, a linear measurement. (The
same in ASV and rRSv except where used in a
figurative sense, see Isa 6:4; Jer 51:13).

The term is basically used to describe a linear
Measurement used at least from the time of
Noah. It is used throughout Scripture into the
postexilic period.

The measurement is estimated to be approxi-
mately 1712 inches or the average distance from
the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. This is
somewhat confirmed by information in the
Siloam Inscription stating that the tunnel (which
measures 1749 feet) was 1200 cubits long. This
would make the cubit then used (in Hezekiah’s
day) approximately 17! inches.

The cubit was used in building the ark of Noah
(Gen 6), the tabernacle and its furnishing (Ex
25ff.), the temple of Solomon (I Kgs 6:ff.), and
the temple seen by Ezekiel (Ezk 40ff.). It also
measured the distance between the ark of the co-
venant and the people as they went into the prom-
ised land (Josh 3:4).

Goliath was over six cubits tall (I Sam 17:4),
and Haman’s gallows was fifty cubits high (Est
5:14). A portion of the wall of Jerusalem repaired
in Nehemiah’s day was 1000 cubits long.

At times it is used figuratively as in Isa 6:4,
where the measure stands for the foundation of
the threshhold of the temple in Isaiah’s vision.
Again in Jer 51:13, the term applies to the extent
of covetousness or evil gain.

From its wide occurrence in other Semitic lan-
guages evidently this term was generally used as
a standard measure throughout the ancient near
east, but it varies somewhat from place to place
and from time to time.

Bibliography: Al, pp. 196-99. Harrison, R.
K., ‘‘The Matriarchate and the Hebrew Legal

116 128 (aman)

Succession,” EQ 29: 29-34. Huey,. F. B.,
**Weights and Measures,’ in ZPEB.
J.B.S.

116 28 (aman) to confirm, support, uphold

51

(Qal); to be established, be faithful (Niphal);
to be certain, i.e. to believe in (Hiphil). (asv,
RSV usually the same. One notable excep-
tion 1s Gen 15:6 where rsv has “‘believed,”
while asv has ‘‘believed in.*’)

Derivatives.

1l6a 98 (Omen) faithfulness.
116b fa8 ('amén) verily, truly, amen.

116c YO8 (‘omman) steady-handed one,
artist.

116d fs (éemiun) faithful, trusting.

1l6e thas ('émunad) firmness, fidelity,
steadiness.

116f 9 tmgs ('omnd) I, bringing up, nour-
ishment.

116g fm278 ('omnad) I, verily, truly.

116h thIN8 (Cadmand) faith, support, sure,
certain.

1161 tH3m8 ('amnadm) verily, indeed.

116) Bos ('omnadm) verily, truly.

116k fms (emet) firmness, truth.

1161 Tis (‘admén) I], artificer, architect.

This very important concept in biblical doc-
trine gives clear evidence of the biblical meaning
of ‘‘faith’’ in contradistinction to the many popu-
lar concepts of the term. At the heart of the mean-
ing of the root is the idea of certainty. And this is
borne out by the nT definition of faith found in
Heb 11:1.

The basic root idea is firmness or certainty. In
the Qal it expresses the basic concept of support
and is used in the sense of the strong arms of the
parent supporting the helpless infant. The con-
stancy involved in the verbal idea is further seen
in that it occurs in the Qal only as a participle
(expressing continuance). The idea of support is
also seen in II Kgs 18:16, where it refers to pillars
of support.

In the Hiphil (causative), it basically means *‘to
cause to be certain, sure’ or "to be certain about,”
‘‘to be assured.’’ In this sense the word in the
Hiphil conjugation is the biblical word for ‘‘to
believe’* and shows that biblical faith is an assur-
ance, a certainty, in contrast with modern con-
cepts of faith as something possible, hopefully
true, but not certain.

Following from this we find the word in the
passive Qal participle used with a passive mean-
ing ‘one whois established*’ or *‘one who is con-
firmed,” i.e. ‘‘faithful one’’ (IJ Sam 20:19; Ps
12:1 [H 2]; 31:23 {H 24)}).

In the Niphal conjugation the meaning is ‘‘to be
established”? (II Sam 7:16; 1 Chr 17:23; II Chr
6:17; Isa 7:9). The Niphal participle means ‘‘to be

116 a8 ('aman)

faithful, sure, dependable’ and describes believ-
ers (Num 12:7; I Sam 2:35: Neh 9:8). This form its
also used to describe that upon which all cer-
tainty rests: God himself (Deut 7:9), and his cov-
enant (Ps 89:28 [H 29]}).

One interesting illustration of the relationship
between ‘“‘belief’’ and ‘“‘being established’* is
seen in Isa 7:9. Ahaz is told that unless he be-
lieves (Hiphil) he will not be established (Niphal),
i.e. without faith he has no stability.

The various derivatives refiect the same con-
cept of certainty and dependability. The deriva-
tive ‘dmén ‘‘verily”’ is carried over into the New
Testament in the word amén which is our English
word ‘‘amen.’’ Jesus used the word frequently
(Mt 5:18, 26, etc.) to stress the certainty of a
matter. The Hebrew and Greek forms come at
the end of prayers and hymns of praise (Ps 41:13
[H 14]); 106:48; II Tim 4:18; Rev 22:20, etc.).
This indicates that the term so used in our
prayers ought to express certainty and assurance
in the Lord to whom we pray.

"omen. Faithfulness, truth (asv, “‘truth’’; RSV
as an adjective, “‘true’). The noun is used once
to describe God's counsel (Isa 25:1).

"amen. Verily, truly, amen. (Generally, the
same in ASV, RSV.) The word expresses a certain
affirmation in response to what has been said. It
is used after the pronouncement of solemn curses
(Num 5:22: Deut 27:15ff.; Neh 5:13; Jer 11:5) and
after prayers and hymns of praise (1 Chr 16:36;
Neh 8:6; Ps 41:13 [H 14], etc.). Twice the term ts
used to describe the Lord (Isa 65:16), and once
simply to approve the words of a man (I Kgs
1:36). Finally, Jeremiah uses the term once sar-
castically in response to the false prophets (Jer
28:6).

’emun. Trusting, faithfulness. (Basically the
same in ASV, RSV.) The term is applied to na-
tions as a measure of their righteousness and ac-
ceptability to God (Deut 32:20; Isa 26:2). It also
applies to individuals who are contrasted to the
bad (Prov 13:17) and the false (Prov 14:5). One to
whom the term applies is rare indeed (Prov 20:6).

’émuna. Firmness, faithfulness, fidelity. (aSsv,
RSV generally the same. Both give a marginal note
in Hab 2:4 where they translate *‘faith’’ instead of
‘‘faithfulness’’ in accord with Paul’s use of the
verse in Rom 1:17; Gal 3:11.)

There are at least ten distinct categories in
which this noun is used in Scripture. In its first
occurrence in Scripture it expresses the sense of
steady, firm hands, a very basic idea (Ex 17:12).
From this mundane sense, Scripture moves al-
most entirely to a use of the word in connection
with God or those related to God.

Basically, the term applies to God himself
(Deut 32:4) to express his total dependability. It

52

is frequently listed among the attnbutes of God (I
Sam 26:23; Ps 36:5 [H 6]; Ps 40:10 [H 11]; Lam
3:23). It describes his works (Ps 33:4); and his
words (Ps 119:86; 143:1).

"émunad is also used to refer to those whose
lives God establishes. He expects to see faithful-
ness in them (Prov 12:22: II Chr 19:9). Indeed,
such faithfulness or a life of faith is characteristic
of those justified in God's sight (Hab 2:4). God's
word of truth establishes man’s way of truth or
faithfulness (Ps 119:30). .

From this we can also see the concept of a duty
being entrusted to a believer which becomes his
trust (faithful responsibility, I Chr 9:22; II] Chr
31:15, etc.) or office.

?omna f. Brought up, nurtured, sustained.
(Same in asv, RSV.) This noun speaks of
Esther's having been sustained (strengthened and
guided) by Mordecai as a child (Est 2:20).

’?omna II. Truly, verily, actually. (The same
in ASV, RSV.) In the two contexts tn which this
adverb occurs, the speaker is perhaps seeking to
excuse his wrong, therefore ‘‘actually’’ may be
the best translation (Gen 20:12; Josh 7:20),

’amana. Settled provision, support. (ASV, RSV
same.) This noun is used in connection with a
firm commitment on the part of the people of
Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 9:38 [H 10:1))
and also applies to a fixed provision for the sin-
gers of that day (Neh 11:23).

’umnam. Indeed, really. (Same in ASV, RSV.)
This word is always found in interrogative sen-
tences and always suggests doubt on the part of
the asker: Sarah’s doubt of bearing a child (Gen
18:13); Balaam’s doubt of Balak’s power to pro-
mote him (Num 22:37): Solomon's doubt of
God’s dwelling only on earth (I Kgs 8:27; II Chr
6:18); the Psalmist’s doubt that pagan gods judge
righteously (Ps 58:1 [H 2]}).

’émet. Truth, faithfulness, verity. (ASV and RSv
usually the same.) This word carries underlying
sense of certainty, dependability.

We find it used in several categories of con-
texts, all of which relate to God directly or indi-
rectly.

First, it is frequently applied to God as a
characteristic of his nature. In Gen 24:27, for
example, it describes God who leads Abraham's
servant to the right wife for Isaac. In Ex 34:6, it is
given as one of the verbal descriptions of God
which constitute God's goodness. Other exam-
ples are Ps 25:5; 31:5 [H 6]; Jer 4:2; 10:10.

It is a term fittingly applied to God’s words (Ps
119:142, 151, 160; Dan 10:21).

As a characteristic of God revealed to men, it
therefore becomes the means by which men
know and serve God as their savior (Josh 24:14; I
Kgs 2:4; Ps 26:3; 86:11; Ps 91:4; Isa 38:3), and

then, as a characteristic to be found in those who
have indeed come to God (Ex 18:21; Neh 7:2; Ps
1§:2; Zech 8:16).

Because it is an attribute of God which is man-
ifest in man’s salvation and life of service as
God’s child, the word is often coupled with
another attribute of God related to our salvation,
‘““mercy’’ or ‘‘love”’ (hesed, Gen 24:27; Ps 61:7
{fH 8]; 85:10 [H 11]; 115:1; Prov 14:22; 16:6;
20:28).

And because these attributes of God’s truth
and mercy lead to God's peace toward sinful
men, saved by God's grace, the word is also often
coupled with peace (Isa 39:8; Jer 33:6).

As we Study its various contexts, it becomes
manifestly clear that there is no truth in the bibli-
cal sense, i.e. valid truth, outside God. All truth
comes from God and is truth because it is related
to God.

’amon II. Master-workman?, people? (There is
considerable uncertainty about this word and its
use and whether it is to be read as ’@mon or a
variant of hdmén ‘‘people.’’ Therefore transla-
tions differ.) The word occurs only twice. In Prov
8:30, the meaning seems to be that of an artificer
(one true in hand and skill). In Jer $2:15, it may
mean simply ‘‘people’’ or perhaps ‘‘the skilled

ones’’ (who remained in Jerusalem).
Bibliography: Bright, John, ‘*Faitth and Des-
tiny,’ Interp 5S: 3-26. Napier, B. D., ‘‘On
Creation—Faith in the Old Testament,’’ Interp
16:21-42. Perry, Edmund, ‘‘The Meaning of
"emuna in the Old Testament,’’ JBR 21: 252-56.
Ramsdell, Edward T., The Old Testament
Understanding of Truth,’ JR 31: 264-73.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 75, 269. TDNT, I, pp.
232-38; 335-36; VI, pp. 183-91; 194-202. TDOT,

], pp. 292-322. THAT, I, pp. 177-99.
J.B.S.

117 PRS ('amés) be stout, strong, alert, bold, be
Solid, hard. (kjJv, ASV, and Rsv translate
similarly .)

Derivatives
ty & ('omes)

117a strength.

1176 TMZRR ('amsa) strength.
117c tyra =('amds) strong or piebald from.
117d TPYON ('ammis) — strong.
I17e TH¥PN (ma’admasa) power, strength.

This verb is found forty-one times in the or.
Ugaritic attests a parallel to the term.

In the Piel stem the verb can be rendered
‘make firm,’ ‘‘strengthen,’’ ‘‘secure,’’ ‘‘hard-
en’ (one’s mind). The Hiphil stem manifests the
force of ‘‘exhibit strength,’’ ‘‘feel strong.’’ In the
Hithpael stem the translation is ‘‘strengthen one-
self,’ ‘‘persist in,’ ‘‘prove superior to,”’ ‘‘make
oneself alert.’’ The first occurrence of the verb is

53

117 PRS (ames)

in Gen 25:23 in the Qal stem. The Lord revealed
to Rebekah, before her sons were born, that they
would be progenitors of two nations, and that one
would be stronger than the other. David sang a
song of deliverance for the mercy which the Lord
granted in delivering him from Saul, an enemy
stronger than he (II Sam 22:18 with its parallel tn
Ps 18:17 [H 18]). David expressed a similar sen-
timent in his prayer in the cave (Psa 142:6 [H 7]).
In the days of Jeroboam’s revolt against the
Davidic dynasty, the Lord defeated the northern
kingdom and its forces at the hand of Abijah, and
the Judean army “‘prevailed’’ despite a well laid
ambush (II Chr 13:18).

As a parallel to the more usual verb hazaq, the
word is employed repeatedly in God's charge to
Joshua to be strong for the arduous tasks he as-
sumed at the death of Moses (Josh 1:6, 7, 9, 18).
Moses spoke similar words of encouragement to
his understudy (Deut 31:7, 23). He charged the
people in like manner (Deut 31:6).

The Piel stem conveys the concept of making
one’s heart obstinate or hard against the right as
in the case of Sihon, king of Heshbon (Deut 2:30).
The hardening of Pharaoh's heart before the
Exodus is described by two synonymous verbs.
Amos employs the same stem in his warning to
Israel that, when the Lord commences his visita-
tion in wrath upon them, the strong will not be
able to rely on their strength any more than the
agile will be able to escape by flight (Amos 2:14).

In a remarkable poetic description of wisdom,
the sacred writer indicates that Wisdom was pre-
sent when God confirmed (made firm) the skies
above (Prov 8:28). Joash’s repairs on the temple
were successful because of the devotion of the
laborers who strengthened the structure (I] Chr
24:13). ‘'amés is used in the Piel stem in connec-
tion various subjects, including the physical
strength of the virtuous woman for her numerous
household tasks (Prov 31:17), power for the war-
rior to carry on his military duties (Nah 2:1
{H 2]), and the strengthening of Rehoboam’s
royal power at the defection of the northern
tribes (11 Chr 11:17). Isaiah’s classic satire on
idolatry speaks of how the idolator secures for
himself the tree of his choice (Isa 44:14).

The Hithpael serves to designate the strength
of the conspirators against Rehoboam (II Chr
13:7), and the determination of Ruth to follow
Naomi (1:18).

The Hiphil expresses strength of faith and hope
(Psa 27:14; 31:25).

’omes. Strength. This noun is found only
once, in Job 17:9, where it refers to the righteous
growing stronger.

’amsa. Strength. The only oT reference to this
word is Zech 12:5, expressing the reliance of Ju-
dean chiliarchs on the inhabitants of Jerusalem.

118 “a8 (amar)

’amods. This adjective occurs only in the
plural and only in Zech 6:3, 7 where it indicates
horses harnessed to chariots. kJv renders ‘‘bay,”’
RSV “‘dappled gray.’’ The word is used to describe
the fourth pair of horses in a series. The first
three are given colors and it seems incongruous
to call the last pair ‘*strong."’ KB defines as
‘*piebald’’ from a root ‘admés II witnessed to in
Arabic.

’"ammis (spelled defectively ‘ammis) Strong.
The first occurrence refers to Absalom’s well-laid
conspiracy (II Sam 15:12). Job speaks of God’s
power (9:4, 19). Isaiah speaks of God who 1s
strong to chasten Israel (28:2), and shows his
might in creation (40:26). Amos uses the term
of one who survives God's judgment (2:16).

ma‘amasa. Power, strength. This noun appears
only once, in Job 36:19, in construct plural in
Elihu’s question to Job.
Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 323-27. THAT, I,
pp. 209-10.
C.L.F.

118 “Was (amar) say, speak, say to oneself (think),
intend, command, promise. (KJV, ASV, and
RSV reveal similar renderings.)

Derivatives

118a Was (Omer) speech, word.

118b TON (imrad) utterance, speech.
118c 8=— NS ~(emrd) utterance, speech.
118d “8 (amir) top, summit of tree.
118e “WaN’% (ma’dmar) word, command.

The Niphal stem may be translated *‘it is said”’
and ‘‘be called.’* The Hiphil means *‘induce to
say.’ The Hithpael conveys the force of ‘‘act
proudly.’’ The verb appears in the oT almost five
thousand times. This common verb, as with its
parallels in other languages, has a wide variety of
meanings.

This verb shares with four others (pe-aleph
verbs) the pecultarity of the quiescence of the
initial consonant in a long ov, revealing the loss of
the consonantal value of the aleph.

The commonest usage of the verb is in direct
conversation, whether the subject is God (Gen
1:3), the serpent in the garden of Eden (3:1),
Adam, terrified, trying to hide from God (3:10),
Balaam’s ass in his attempt to divert the stubborn
prophet (Num 22:28), the war horse eager for bat-
tle (Job 39:25), the sea disavowing Wisdom’s
abode in it (Job 28:22), the trees of the forest in
search of a king (Jud 9:8). It is readily seen that
the verb is pressed into service in literal contexts,
personifications, allegories, and strict narratives.
A variety of nouns, clauses, adverbs, preposi-
tional phrases are employed after the verb. Even
when synonymous verbs are used (dibbér, sawd,

54

‘ana, shaba‘, nddar, among others), the verb
’dGmar can be used in the infinitive form with the
preposition, i.e. /é’mor to introduce the com-
mand, oath, response etc.

A usage often confused and incorrectly inter-
preted on the basis of a study of the English ver-
sions alone, is ‘say in the heart’’ (Deut 8:17; Ps
14:1). The meaning is ‘‘think,’’ a subvocal speak-
ing.

Although there are only a few examples of the
use, the verb sometimes means **promise.’’ Such
is the force of the verb in a passage pointing to
God’s promise to David for a perpetual dynasty
(II Kgs 8:19), the promise to Israel to possess the
land of promise (Neh 9:15), or Haman’s promise
to Ahasuerus to pay the king for the opportunity
to destroy all the Jews of his realm (Est 4:7).

Although the Hebrew language has a well at-
tested and frequently used verb for ‘*‘command”’
(sdwaG q.v.), ’Gmar also serves for this meaning.
This usage 1s found in God’s command to Joshua
(Josh 11:9), Hezekiah’s command concerning the
offerings after the cleansing of the temple (II Chr
29:24), and Ahasuerus’s command by letters to
reverse the edict to slaughter the Jews by hanging
Haman and his sons (Est 9:25).

As in modern languages, the Niphal is em-
ployed to mean that which **is said’’ by way of a
current saying (Gen 10:9; 22:14; Jer 16:14).

An interesting usage, though not a frequent
one, is that of “‘avow,”* “‘induce to say.’” In his
closing addresses, Moses reminded Israel that
they had vowed through him to have God as their
own (Deut 26:17-18).

The use of the verb as ‘‘act proudly”’ is found
in Ps 94:4 (the Hithpael). In Isa 61:6 the sense
appears to be ‘‘boast”’ in a good connotation.

The derivation of ‘dmar is said by Wagner
(TDOT, I, p. 328) to be no longer disputed. The
root occurs in all the Semitic languages with
either the meaning *‘be visible,’” ‘‘make visible,”’
‘*see’’ (Akkadian, Ethiopic, Ugaritic) or “‘say,”’
‘“‘command’’ (Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic). It
seems probable that the meaning ‘‘to see’’ or
‘*make visible’ is the original meaning. The
semantic development to ‘‘make plain’ then
‘*say’’ is natural.

Of the more than five thousand uses of the
root, the majority hardly need comment. They
are close to the equivalent English word, ‘“‘say.”’
Indeed, the infinitive with / becomes often just a
mark of direct discourse somewhat like the quo-
tation marks of English.

However, the word “say” gathers various con-
notations from the contexts in which it is used
and some of these are of theological interest. It is
a question, however, how many of these special
meanings are inherent in the word ’dmar and
how many are due to the context.

For instance, ’Gmar sometimes means ‘‘to

command.’’ These are cases where the word is
spoken by God or some competent human au-
thority. God commanded (’aGmar) Abram to go
(Gen 12:1). The Lord had spoken ('admar) to
Joshua and Joshua executed that word as a com-
mand (sawda) (Josh 11:9). But in the case of the
Ten Commandments the synonym ddabar is used
to introduce them. At their end the Lord said
(‘dmar) to Moses, ‘*Thus you shall say ('dmar)
to the Israelites.’ Thus the differences between
‘amar and dabar need not be overemphasized.
The word ’dmar is used repeatedly by God to
introduce revelation. One would suppose that
this usage emphasizes that God’s revelation is a
spoken, transmissable, propositional, definite
matter. The *‘word’’ does not make it a revela-
tion. God gives the revelation to persons as one
person imparts knowledge to another—by spo-
ken word. The word dabar is used in such a con-
text also, ““God spoke (dabar) unto Noah’’ (Gen
8:15). The formula is frequent in Lev, ‘The Lord
spoke (dabar) unto Moses saying (/é’ mor), speak
(dabar) unto the children of Israel’’ (Lev 12:1-2).
God's word is creative. Genesis 1 has the
phrase ‘‘God said’’ (’@mar) some ten times. Half
of these times it 1s ‘“‘God said, let there be’’ and
then it happened. At other times it says ‘‘God
said, let there be” and then God proceeded to
create. This creative word of God is signalized in
Ps 33:9, ‘‘He spoke ('@mar) and it was done; he
commanded and it stood fast.’’ The parallel
word, ‘‘he commanded’’ (sawd), and the situa-
tion in Gen 1 may give us a word of warning
against thinking that the ‘‘creative word does
what it says’* (TDOT, I, p. 336), as if the word
had a power independent of God. Rather, it is
God the Creator who does what he will. This will
of God is expressed in words of command and
they are effective because he makes them so.
[The word of God was given to prophets from
Moses to Malachi and they spoke and wrote
these words to the people. Especially the
prophets of the monarchy cite the word with the
formula, ‘‘Thus saith (’amar) the Lord.’’ Since
the work of H. W. Wolff and C. Westermann
(Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, trans. by H.
C. White, Westminster, 1967) and others, this has
been taken as a messenger formula similar to that
in secular use when a messenger bearing a letter
speaks the letter in the name of his sender. The
emphasis is on the source of the prophets’ mes-
sages. The message is not an invention of the
prophet. This formula occurs over 130 times in
Jeremiah alone. The formula indeed lays em-
phasis on God, the revelator. It must be remem-
bered, however, that the commission to Jeremiah
is given once at the beginning of the book. The
whole book, and not just the pieces introduced by
the formula, was the words of God through
Jeremiah to his rebellious contemporaries. Note

55

118 “es (amar)

the lack of a formula, yet the claim to revelation
in the matter of the writing of the scroll, ** All the
words that I have spoken (ddbar) unto thee
against Israel... from the day I spoke (ddbar)
unto thee... unto this day’’ (Jer 36:2). There is
no magic in the vocable ’@mar. The power is in
God the speaker. R.L.H.]

’omer. Speech, word, thing, something. (KIV
and aSsv render in Job 22:28, thing; RSV, matter.)

A word of wide connotations ( cf. dabar) is
variously translated in different contexts. Thus,
the term under consideration has been rendered
utterance, saying, discourse, matter, promise,
plan, purpose, decree, command, and appoint-
ment. It is found six times in the oT. The refer-
ences (Job 22:28; Ps 19:2-3 [H 3-4]; 68:11 [H 12];
77:8 [H 9]; Hab 3:9) appear only in poetic pas-
sages and the lofty language of prophecy
(poetry). (It should be stated here that '@mer is
used forty-nine times; some lexicons list the cita-
tions of both words together.) The parallels to the
word are commandment, words, voice, medita-
tion, prayer, and law (instruction). Unquestiona-
bly, the term most often employed for *‘word”’ is
dabar, which is used of God 394 times with the
force of commandment, prophecy, admonition,
or encouragement. In Job 22:28 Eliphaz advises
Job to find his delight and trust in God, so that if
he decides on a ‘‘matter,’’ it may be realized for
him. The Psalmist in Ps 19:2-3 (H 3-4] refers to
the ‘‘speech”’ of natural creation. The use in Ps
68:11 [H 12] possibly relates to the command of
God pictured at the head of his army with the
command relayed by heralds (fem of office)
throughout the ranks. The force in Ps 77:8 [H 9] 1s
to the “‘promise’’ of God to the righteous. The
reference in the admittedly difficult Hab 3:9
seems to point to the ‘‘oaths’’ (that is, the prom-
ises) made to the tribes of Israel.

’imra. Word, utterance, speech, saying. (KJV
and asv similar, ‘‘word’’; RSv, ‘“‘promise.’’)
There are thirty-six uses of the word, mostly tn
poetry (nineteen references in Ps 119; seven in
other psalms) in the singular collective. Because
the concept is a prominent one, it is natural that
synonyms will be employed to avoid repetition.
Bibliography: WHeinsch, P., Das Wort im
Alten Testament und im Alten Orient, 1922.
Jacobs, E., Old Testament Theology, 1955, pp.
127-35. May, E., ““The Logos in the Old Testa-
ment,’ CBQ 8: 393-98. Mowinckel, “‘The Spint
and the Word in the Pre-exilic Prophets,’ JBL
53: 199. Richardson, TWB, p. 232. Ringgren, H..,
Word and Wisdom, 1947. Rundgren, F., **Heb-
raisch basar ‘Golderz’ und ‘amar ‘Sagen’, Zwei
Entomologien,’’ Or 32:178-83. TDNT, IV, pp.
91-100. TDOT, I, pp. 328-47. THAT, I, pp.

216-19. TWNT, IV, pp. 69ff.
C.LF.

121

119 ‘328 ('Emori)

119 28 (‘emori) Amorites (collective).
(KJV, ASV, RSV similar, rendering
Amorite|s].)

The name occurs eighty-seven times in the oT
It was employed of Palestinian settlers in general.
They are designated in place of the Canaanites as
the people whom Israel was to destroy (Gen
15:16; II Kgs 21:11). Older settlers of Judah were
called Amorites (Josh 10:5-6). Amorites were lo-
cated on the west shore of the Dead Sea (Gen
14:7), at Hebron (Gen 14:13), Shechem (Gen
48:22), Gilead, Bashan (Deut 3:10), and Hermon
(Deut 3:8; 4:48).

The Amorites lived in the mountains, as did the
Hittites and Jebusites (Num 13:29), their name
perhaps signifying mountain dwellers.

In Abraham's time the Amurru were the prom-
inent people of western Asia. In the third millen-
nium B.c. the Amorite kingdom spread over the
greater part of Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine,
the latter being designated as the “‘land of the
Amorites.’’ Thus the name belongs to the early
Babylonian period of Near Eastern history. An
Amorite dynasty ruled in northern Babylonia
with Babylon as their capital, to which Ham-
murabi belonged. Amorite kingdoms lasted to the
time of Israel’s conquest of Canaan, a fact at-
tested by the Amarna Tablets and Hittite records.
After the defeat of Sihon, an Amonite king, their
kingdom disappeared.

Bibliography: Clay, Albert F., The Empire of
the Amorites, Yale Oriental Series, Researches,
6, Yale University, 1919, p. 192. Gibson, J.C. L.,
‘Light from Mari on the Patriarchs,”’ JSS 7:
44-62. , “Observations on Some Impor-
tant Ethnic Terms in the Pentateuch,’”’ JNES 20:
217~38. Lewy, Julius, ‘“‘Amurritica,*’ HUCA
32:31-74. Tur-Sinai, H., ‘‘The Amorite and the
Amurru of the Inscriptions,’” JQR 39: 249-58.
Van Seters, John, ‘‘The Terms ‘Amorite’ and
‘Hittite’ in the Old Testament,’’ VT 22: 64-81.
Livrani, M., ‘‘The Amorites,”’ in Peoples of OT
Times, ed. K. A. Kitchen, Clarendon Press,
1973.

CLF.
120 wrs ('emesh) yesterday.

mms (‘emet). See no. 116k.
IS (dn), TS (én) On.
render similarly.)

(KJV, ASV, RSV

The name appears only three times in the oT:
Gen 41:45, 50 and 46:20. It was a city in Lower
Egypt where lived Potiphera, the priest of On and
father-in-law of Joseph. The Egyptian name was
An, Ant, and Annu; later the city was named
Heliopolis, “‘sun-city.”’ It was known for the
worship of the sun god Ra. The name occurs in

122 838

Ex 1:11 in the Lxx. Designated now by Tell Hisn
and Matariyeh, On was from ancient times the
important center of Egyptian sun worship. It has
been suggested that Aven (the same Hebrew con-
sonants as the fully written On) in Ezk 30:17 is
the same as the On of Genesis (Niv Heliopolis).
There were two Ons in Egypt, one in Upper
Egypt and the other in Lower Egypt. The biblical
On is the latter. It was about ten miles northeast
of modern Cairo. The history of On is clothed in
obscurity. In the era of the Pyramid Texts it
boasted a great sanctuary. There was a temple of
the sun to Ra and Atum. It is thought that
Bethshemesh (‘‘house of the sun’’) is a pseudo-
nym for On in Jer 43:13. Figuring in Egyptian
history in the uprising against the Assynan
Ashurbanipal, On has been deserted since 525
B.C.
C.L.F.
WW (an). See no. 75g.

(‘anna’) ah now! I beseech you.

123 338 (nb). Assumed root of the following.
123a M3358 (‘arnebet) hare.
124 MIS (dnd) TIT, mourn.
Derivatives
124a MIN (‘dniyad) mourning. This
noun occurs only in Isa 29:2; Lam
2:
124b «RINE (ta’dniyd) mourning. Oc-
curs only in Isa 29:2; Lam 3:5.
125 38 (nh) IL. Assumed root of the following.
125a t38 (Oni) ships, fleet.
125b TM9I8 «('Oniya) ship.

56

In I Kgs 10:11, kyv and asv translate ‘‘navy”’;
RSV ‘“‘fleet.”” The noun oOniyd appears thirty-
one times. It is the common word for ship
(Jon 1:3). It is already attested in the Tell el-
Amarna texts. The singular of this noun, a
feminine noun, designates a single ship. The
plural of this noun and the short collective form
(‘dni ‘“‘fleet’?) occur often. The phrase ‘anshé
"Onniydt ‘‘seamen’’ denotes those who manned
them (I Kgs 9:27). Because the Israelites had no
good harbors on the Mediterranean in the north
and because the hostile Philistines controlled the
coastal area toward the south, the sea was not an
area of traffic for the Hebrews. However, during
the illustrious reign of Solomon, the nation en-
joyed maritime activity, not so much on the
Mediterranean, but the Gulf of Aqabah. Israel’s
acquaintance with seagoing vessels dates from
their contact with the Phoenicians.

Bibliography: Barnett, R. D., **Early Ship-
ping in the Near East,’ Antiquity 32:220-30.

Sasson, Jack M., “Canaanite Maritime Involve-
ment in the Second Millenium B.C.,’> JAOS
86:126-38.

Gr.F.

126 **I8 (dnd) III, be opportune, meet.

The verb occurs only four times, three times tn
the Piel or Pual meaning ‘‘cause to meet,” 1.e.
‘‘deliver’’ or in the passive **be caused to meet.”
i.e. ““happen.’* In the Hithpael it develops into
‘seek a quarrel.”’

Derivatives

126a MINH (ta’dnd) occasion, time of es-
trous (of a donkey Jer 2:24).

126b «MINN (td'dnd) opportunity (for a
quarrel), Jud 14:4.

win ('endsh). See no. 136a.
127 *M38 (anah) sigh, groan, gasp.

Derivative
27a TSMIs (dnaha) — sighing, groaning.

‘anah occurs twelve times, only in the Niphal
and mostly in poetic passages.

The term occurs in Ugaritic. This verb is not
the most frequently used in the ot for the act of
mourning. sa@pad and ‘dbal refer more to public
acts of mourning and wailing as at a funeral. baka
refers to weeping in any sorrow as does ‘a@nah.
So important was the duty of funerary mourning
that its omission was a serious misfortune (] Kgs
14:13 s@pad). Those who were immediately in-
volved in the mourning were the members of the
deceased's family (Gen 50:10 sdpad). Apart from
funerals, public mourning was connected with
repentance (Ex 33:4 ‘abal; Joel 1:13 sdpad;
2:12-13 mispéd). In pagan practices borrowed by
Israel from her idolatrous neighbors lacerations
and mutilations accompanied mourning (cf. the
prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel). Of the verb’s
twelve citations, four appear in Lam (1:4, 8, 11,
21) and four occur in Ezk (9:4; 21:11 (bis), 12).
The remainder are in Ex 2:23; Prov 29:2; Isa 24:7;
and Joel 1:18. The instances in Lam all relate to
the destruction of Jerusalem in 587/86 B.c.
Ezekiel’s references point to exercise of heart on
the part of those who sighed over Israel's desper-
ate spiritual condition.

’anaha. Sighing, sigh, groaning. (KJV, ASV, RSV
similar, “‘sighing.’’) This noun refers to groan-
ing in either physical or mental distress. It occurs
eleven times in the ot, only in the poetic (six
times in Ps and Job) and prophetic books (three in
Isa, one in Jer, and one in Lam).

C.L.F.

128 33MI8 (dnahni) we. (KJV, ASV, RSV are
similar, ‘“we.*')

129.1 338 (anak) plummet.

129 98 (ani)

The term occurs 188 times, fewer than would
be expected (see the short form nahniz). As with
other Hebrew pronouns, its use is often for em-
phasis (also in oblique cases) “*just we.” The first
person plural pronominal suffix appears fre-
quently. Ugaritic lacks an independent full form.
It may be posited that the protosemitic form
lacked the initial aleph and that this longer form
with aleph developed in analogy to the singular
Gni and 'dnoki.

128a 433M2 (nahni) -we, reading discer-

nible as a short form of ‘dnahna.
(KJV, ASV, and RSV render uniformly,
“we, ’)

Ugaritic offers no parallel to this form, al-
though it has a suffix related to it. The word ap-
pears only six times (Gen 42:11; Ex 16:7-8; Num
32:32; [1 Sam 17:12; and Lam 3:42). This short
form of the pronoun may be the original.

C.L.F.

38 (dni). See no. 125a,b.

mas (dniyd). See no. 124a.

129 938 (ani) I. (kJv, ASV, and RSV are simi-

lar.)

It is not surprising that the important first per-
son singular pronoun occurs hundreds of times in
the oT. Its presence is attested in Ugaritic, al-
though the word was formerly thought to be a
characteristic of the late ‘*P’’ document. The
longer pronoun '@ndii is also used in Ugaritic. In
its independent form the pronoun is found as the
subject in noun clauses. Because it is the pronoun
of the speaker, it requires no further indication of
gender. Since a participle manifests no elements
of the finite verb, the personal pronoun is essen-
tial to indicate the subject of the clause. When the
pronoun is added to the finite verb, it lends em-
phasis, as in IJ Sam 12:28, ‘*Lest I myself capture
the city."’ Though in later Hebrew the emphasis
is not so clearly demarcated, in earlier Hebrew,
in prose at least, the stress is unmistakable.
Three areas of emphasis with the independent
pronoun may be pointed out. I. It is found after a
verb with the pronominal suffix of the first person
as in Gen 27:34 where Esau pleads, ‘Bless me,
even me also.” 2. It occurs after a noun with the
first person pronominal suffix as in I] Sam 18:33
{H 19:1]: *““Would I had died (lit., would my
death, even mine).’ 3. It appears after a preposi-
tion with the pronominal suffix in I Sam 25:24,
**‘Upon me, even me.”

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 216-19.

C.L.F.

Perhaps a loan
word.

130 °338 (’Gndki)

130 %338% (‘aGnoki) I.
der alike.)

This form of the first person singular pronoun
occurs more than two hundred times in the or,
but less often than the shorter form. It is found in
Assyrian and Ugaritic and other Semitic lan-
guages, but is lacking in Aramaic, Arabic, and
Ethiopic. It has been suggested that the longer
and shorter forms of the pronoun had parallel
growths, the longer adding a demonstrative ele-
ment (like Heb koh ‘‘here’’). In certain instances
both pronouns are used interchangeably. In other
cases they manifest a definite choice on two
counts, either because of the demands of the
rhythm or because of the apparent preference of
writers of the exilic period for the shorter form.
When the pronoun is added to a verb for em-
phasis, the short form is almost always used
(Deut 12:30; Jer 17:18). In the rhetorical style of
Deuteronomy the longer form is employed. Par-
ticular phrases are found now with one pronoun,
and now with the other. It is always the short
form in the phrase, ‘‘as I live’’ (Num 14:21). The
longer form is regularly employed with a predi-
cate (II Sam 1:8). In exilic or books the usage of
the short form far outstrips the long: Ezekiel em-
ploys the former 138 times and the latter once
(36:28).

(KJV, ASV, and RSV ren-

C.L.F.

131) *338 (anan) complain, murmur. Occurs
only in the Hithpoel (Lam 3:39; Num 11:1).

132 ON (‘dnas)
Est 1:8.

compel, constrain. Only in

133. IN (‘anép) to be angry, to be displeased.
(ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

133a TS (‘ap) IJ, nostril, face, anger. The
double pe in the plural shows its de-
rivation from ‘dnép.

133b 0 «MBS (‘dnadpd) an unclean bird (Lev
11:19: Deut 14:18). Its derivation is
uncertain.

"anép is used to express the Lord's attitude of
anger toward the covenant people when they
have sinned, e.g. Moses (Deut 1:37), Aaron (Deut
9:20), the people (Deut 9:8). Men acknowledge
God's prerogative, but plead that he not continue
to be angry.

’ap. Nostril, face, anger. The term ‘ap in He-
brew refers first of all to a part of the body, spe-
cifically the nose, nostril, (snout of pigs, Prov
11:22) and also face (II Sam 25:23) or counte-
nance (cf. UT 19: no. 264, an opening of the
body, or possibly the body itself, e.g., mose, nip-

134 PIS (dnaq)

ple). It is considered a vital part of the body. God
made man a living being by breathing into his
nose/nostrils (Gen 2:7). The nose, although re-
ferred to as the organ for smelling (Deut 33:10) or
a place for ornaments (Isa 3:21) or for hooks by
which to lead captives (II Kgs 19:28), is also spo-
ken of as an organ necessary if a man’s or ani-
mal's life is to continue (Isa 2:22).

By the act of breathing, emotions can be ex-
pressed. Perhaps it was observed that the nose
dilates in anger. God is said to be **’erek ‘ap-
payim”’ (lit. ‘“‘long of anger,’ i.e. long before get-
ting angry) in such passages as Ex 34:6; Num
14:18; Ps 86:15; Neh 9:17. The thought is that
God takes a long, deep breath as he holds his
anger in abeyance. A ruler is said to be persuaded
by a display of forbearance, patience, i.e. ‘‘the
long of breath’’ (Prov 25:15).

The main use of ‘ap is to refer to the anger of
men and of God. This anger is expressed in the
appearance of the nostrils. ’ap gives specific em-
phasis to the emotional aspect of anger and
wrath, whereas its synonyms and terms related to
them give particular expression to other aspects.

The anger of God is particularly related to the
sin of his people, which pains and deeply dis-
pleases him (II Kgs 13:3). Sin offends and wounds
his love. The emotional response to this is divine
anger. This anger, though fierce (Jer 25:37) is not
sinful, evil, or the source of capricious attitudes
or deeds. However, it is expressed in chastise-
ment (Ps 6:1 [H 2]; Isa 12:1) and punishment
(II Sam 6:7; Jer 44:6).

Man's anger can be legitimate (IJ Sam 12:5).
But the ot Scriptures warn that anger can be out-
rageous (Prov 27:4) and. stirs up strife (Prov
29:22). In contrast, it is said that the man slow to
anger appeases strife (Prov 15:18) and a wise man
turns from it (Prov 29:8).

Bibliography: Erlandsson, S., *‘The Wrath of
Yhwh,”’ Tyndale Bulletin 23:111—-16. Hanson, R.
P. C:, “The Wrath of God,’’ Exp T 58: 216-18.
McKenzie, John L., *“‘Vengeance is Mine,”
Scripture 12: 33-39. Morris, L. L., **The Wrath
of God.”’ Exp T 63: 142-45. TDNT, V, pp. 392-
418. TDOT, I, pp. 348-60. THAT, I, pp. 220-24.

G.V.G.

cry, groan.

Derivatives

134a = ADIs ('dndqa) I, crying, groaning.
134b «MPIN ('andqgad) H, ferret or shrew-
mouse.

135 was (anash) I, desperate, incurable, desper-

ately wicked, woeful, very sick. (RSV similar
except that it translates as ‘‘disaster™’ in
Jer 17:16.)

The basic meaning of the word is *‘to be sick”
(11 Sam 12:15) but most frequently it is used to
describe a wound or pain which is incurable as
attested by the contexts of Jer 15:18; 30:12. It is
used metaphorically in Isa 17:11; Jer 17:16. In Jer
17:9 it describes the desperate spiritual state of
the heart in terms of illness.

136 woe ('nsh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
36a) tw3N ('Endsh) man, mortal man,
person. (ASV, RSV Similar).

The basic meaning of ’éndsh is **man’’ in the
sense of *‘mankind.’’ The word can refer to an
individual only in the most general sense (e.g.
‘blessed is the man who does this [Isa 56:2]) and
thus lacks the specificity of ‘ish. It is used mainly
in the poetic material.

The verbal root of 'éndsh is uncertain. If it is a
derivation of ‘dnash ‘‘to be weak, sick,’’ the
basic emphasis would be on man’s weakness or
mortality, a connotation permitted by some con-
texts, particularly those that emphasize man’s in-
significance (e.g., Ps 8:4 [H 5]; Job 7:17). The
word may be derived from a different root ‘ns
unattested in Hebrew but found in Arabic and
Uganitic. It has the connotation of friendliness or
sociality in Arabic and the similar concept of
companionability in Ugaritic. If derived from this
root the basic emphasis of ’éndédsh would be on
man as a social being.

While it is true that the word frequently em-
phasizes man’s frailty and humanness, these
concepts may derive from the _ theological
framework in which the ancient Hebrews viewed
mankind and not necessarily from an inherent
root meaning. The word frequently has a general
sense and its usage in parallelism with other gen-
eral terms for man such as ‘@ddm (Ps 73:5),
b°*né'adam (Ps 144:3), and its use in association
with ‘land of the living’’ (Job 28:13) would seem
to argue for derivation from the unattested ‘nsh.
The stress would then be on man as he comprises
the human race.

The basic meaning ‘‘mankind”’ is evident in
such passages as Job 28:13; 36:24 (H 25]; Ps 90:3;
Isa 13:12 and in Deut 32:26; Job 7:1; Isa 24:6
where it is used of man as the one who inhabits
the earth.

A major theological concept underlying the use
of this word is the fundamental distinction be-
tween God and man. Elihu sets forth this concept
in his affirmation that God is greater than man
(Job 33:12). The Psalmist calls on God to exercise
his might so that man may recognize his insignifi-
cance before him (Ps 9:19-20 [H 20-21]). This
fundamental difference is the basis of the affirma-
tion in Ps 10:17-18 that “‘man who its of the
earth’’ will no more strike terror. Man’s sphere Is

59

137 Was ('nsh)

earth, not heaven. He ts mortal, not divine, and
SO cannot prevail against God. The distinction is
also evident in man’s mortality (Ps 90:3) and
God's immortality (vv. 2, 4). God's nature as op-
posed to man’s jis set forth in such questions as,
‘*Do you see as man sees?” (Job 10:4) and, *‘Are
your years the years of a man?” (Job 10:5).

Man's insignificance in view of the vastness of
the universe is set forth in the question, ** What is
man?”’ (Ps 8:4). His lot on earth is difficult (Job
7:1; 14:19), but he does enjoy God's providences
(Ps 104:15; cf. v. 14).

The word ‘énési: reminds man of his tran-
sience and of his lowly position before the Al-
mighty.

Messiah is described as being like the son of
man ('énésh Dan7:13) aterm which describes his
close relationship to the human race. (Note in the
Daniel passage that there might be a studied con-
trast to the four preceding symbols of Kingdoms
which are beasts.

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 345-47.

T.E.M.

137 was (nsh) III. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
137a tMYN Cishsha) woman, wife, female,
each, every. (ASV and RSV similar.)

The word ‘ishsha is the most common word for
*‘woman”™ and ‘‘wife’’ in the or.

The origin of woman is explained in Gen 2:23,
24. She is depicted as the physical counterpart of
man, deserving of his unswerving loyalty. It is in
this context (vv. 24-25) that the word Is first used
in the sense of *‘mate™ or “‘wife.”

The Bible holds woman in the highest regard
and sets forth ‘graciousness’ (Prov 11:16) and
‘‘worth’’ (Ruth 3:11) as womanly ideals. How-
ever, beauty without discretion is condemned
(Prov 11:22).

Women held positions of prestige in the or.
The wise woman of Tekoa, Deborah, and Esther
are only a few of the many women of influence
in oT history.

There are, however, warnings against the adul-
terous woman and the harlot. Congress with
them will lead to certain punishment (Prov 6:24-
29) and even spiritual death (Prov 2:16-19).

The expression “born of a woman"
y'lad ’ishsha uses ‘ishsha in a collective sense
connoting man’s mortality with its inherent frail-
ties (Job 14:1: 15:14; 25:4).

Women were forbidden to wear men’s clothing
(Deut 22:5). See Hoffner (bibliog). They were
permitted to be taken as booty in the conquest of
a city (Deut 21:10-11).

The word ‘ishshad occurs in a number of set
expressions, e.g. ‘ishshd nbi'ad, a prophetess,
and ‘ishsha znd, a harlot.

138 SOS (sh)

Metaphorically, a noble woman represents
wisdom, but a foolish woman (Prov 9:13) repre-
sents that which is opposed to wisdom.

The word is frequently used in the sense of
‘‘wife.”” The good wife is highly honored in the
oT. He who finds one finds a source of blessing
(Prov 18:22) and honor (Prov 12:4). A fruitful
wife is a sign of blessing (Ps 128:3). Her honored
position is evident in the fact that she is “‘from
the Lord’’ (Prov 19:14). The classic picture of the
ideal wife is set forth in Prov 31:10-31. A quarrel-
some wife, however, may be a source of conten-
tion (Prov 19:13; 21:9, 19; 25:24; 27:15).

The legal role of the wife is clearly defined in
the ot. Adultery is punishable by death for both
parties (Deut 22:22). A woman suspected of adul-
tery could be made to take an oath of innocence
and subjected to a kind of lie detector test by her
husband in the sacred precincts to determine her
guilt or innocence (Num 5:11-31). Hebrew ser-
vants could have wives (Ex 21:3). If a servant's
master gave him a wife, the servant stood in
danger of being separated from his wife when his
period of service ended (Ex 21:4-5). The newly
married wife was not to be separated from her
husband (Deut 24:5) and the widow was provided
for in the Levirate system (Deut 25:5).

The role of the wife is used as a metaphor ina
number of important passages. Adultery (Ezk
16:32) and divorce (Jer 3:1) figure strikingly in the
prophetic message of denunciation. Israel was
seen as the wife of the Lord, a figure expressive
of the deepest love. Yet they spurned God, as a
wayward wife spurns her husband. In Mal 2:14
the initiation of the marriage relationship be-
tween the Lord and his people is the Mosaic cov-
enant.

Bibliography: Bohl, Franz M. Th., **The Po-
sition of Women in Ancient Babylonia and Is-
rael,’’ BS 77: 4—13, 186-97. Brooks, Beatrice Al-
lard, *“Some Observations Concerning Ancient
Mesopotamian Women,” AJSL 39: 187-94.
Crook, Margaret B., **The Marriageable Maiden
of Prov 31: 10-31,°° JNES 13: 137-40. Hoffner,
H. A., “Symbols for Masculinity and Feminin-
ity,’ JBL 85: 326-35. Schofield, J. N., *“Some
Archaeological Sites and the Old Testament
(Nuzu),’’ Exp T 66: 315-18. Yaron, Reuven,
‘‘Aramaic Marriage Contracts from Elephan-
tine,’ JSS 3: 1-39. THAT, I, pp. 247-50.

T.E.M.

138 DBS (’sh) Assumed root of the following.

138a TON ('asén) mischief, evil, harm,
hurt. («sv translates ‘‘mischief’’;
ASV and RSv_ render _ similarly,
‘‘harm.*’)

The noun appears five times, always without
the article. The passages in Genesis (42:4, 38;

60

139 BON ('sm).

140 es (Cadsap) gather,

44:29) relate to Jacob’s concern for Benjamin's
welfare. The references in Exodus (21:22-23)
deal with injury to a pregnant woman.

C.L.F.
ios =('asén). See no. 138a.
“jon ('ésdr). See no. 14la.
MPS ('dsip). See no. 140b.
“OR ('dsir), WOS Cassir). See no.

141b,c.

Assumed root of the following.
139a =BON (‘dsam) storehouse. Occurs

only in Deut 28:8; Prov 3:10.
remove, gather in
(harvest).

Derivatives

140a AON ('Osép) gathering.

140b THOS ('asip) ingathering, harvest.

140c BN ('asdp) what is gathered, store.

140d MBBS (dsépa) a collecting, gather-
ing.

140e MSPN ('dsuppa) collection.

140f THODPS ('dsapsup) collection, rabble.

The Niphal is translated “be gathered” (by
death), ‘‘assemble,’’ **be removed,”’ ‘‘perish.”’
The Pual is rendered ‘‘be gathered,’’ whereas the
Hithpael has the force of ‘‘gather themselves.”’
(KJV, ASV, and Rsv render similarly.) The verb has
the same meaning in Ugaritic.

This verb occurs 199 times. Ugaritic attests a
cognate root. The two principal words for
‘gather’ are ’Gsap and qgdbas. Transitively, the
verb under consideration denotes ‘‘to bring to-
gether,’ ‘‘collect’’; intransitively, ‘‘to come to-
gether,’’ ‘‘assemble.’’ The phrase ‘‘gathered to
his fathers’’ is frequently used for “‘to die’’ or
‘*death’’ (Gen 25:8, 17; 49:29, 33; Deut 32:50; II
Kgs 22:20).

There are some scholars who suggest that this
phrase intimates, albeit indistinctly and vaguely,
an early belief in life after death with recognition
of loved ones in the afterlife. It may, however, be
a euphemism for death without clear theological
import. The transitive force can denote the
gathering of a host (Ps 27:10; cf. Isa 52:12).

An important use of the word Is connected with
the harvest for which the usual word is qdsir.
Since Israel was an agricultural people, the har-
vest (qdsir) held for them great significance (Gen
8:22; 45:6). Events were counted from or related
to harvests (Gen 30:14; Josh 3:15; Jud 15:1; Ruth
1:22; 2:23; I Sam 6:13; II Sam 21:9; 23:13). The
three main feasts of the Jewish religious calendar
answered to three harvest seasons (Ex 23:16;
34:21-22). The Feast of Passover was at the time
of barley harvest, the feast of Pentecost was at

the wheat harvest (Ex 34:22), and the Feast of
Tabernacles at year’s end came during fruit har-
vest. Between barley harvest and wheat harvest
fall a few showers which increase the wheat yield
(cf. Amos 4:7). From the time of wheat harvest
until the fruit harvest there is no rain (IJ Sam
21:10; Jer 5:24). The Mosaic law surrounded the
harvest with definite laws on gleaning (Lev 19:9),
firstfruits (Lev 23:10), and the prohibition of har-
vesting a crop for which they had not labored
(Lev 25:5).

The Gezer Calendar sets forth the harvest sea-
sons in ancient Israel. Olives were harvested from
the middle of September to the middle of Novem-
ber. Trees were beaten with long sticks (Deut
24:20; Isa 17:6). Flax was harvested in March—
April by cutting it off at the ground, then allowing
the stalks to soften (called retting) by dew or other
moisture (Josh 2:6). In April or early May barley
harvest took place with wheat harvest in May-
June. The harvesting of figs, grapes, and pome-
granates, summer fruits, was during August-—
September.

There are figurative usages also. Destruction of
a harvest indicated God's punishment (Job 5:5;
Isa 16:9: Jer 5:17). The “‘time of harvest’’ often
denoted the period of destruction (Jer 51:33: Hos
6:11; Joel 3:13 [H 4:13]). The joy of harvest des-
ignated great rejoicing. The harvest of the Nile
denoted an abundant ingathering (Isa 23:3). A
harvest that was past indicated a lost and irre-
trievable opportunity (Jer 8:20).

A derived use of the verb occurs with the
meaning of ‘“‘withdraw”’ or ‘“‘remove.’* When
Saul heard the Philistine commotion in their
camp (I Sam 14:19), he ordered the priest to
withdraw his hand from the ark of God.

’asip. Ingathering, harvest (of grain and fruits).
This noun appears twice, in Ex 23:16 and 34:22.
The first passage deals with the three pilgrimage
feasts in Israel's sacred calendar: the second
treats the same feasts in summary fashion.

"asepa. Collecting, gathering, or collection. (KJV
and asv render ‘are gathered” [in the pit]: Rsv
translates ‘*will be gathered together.”’)

This noun is a hapax legomenon (Isa 24:22),
appearing in Isaiah's’ so-called apocalypse
(chaps. 24-27) in connection with what some
exegetes believe is an eschatological revelation.
At least the resurrection is in view (Isa 25:8).

’asapsup. Rabble. (k)v, asv_ similar with
“mixed multitude’*: rsv ‘“‘rabble."") This mas-
culine collective noun occurs once in Num 11:4 in
reference to the motley collection of people who
followed Israel from Egypt.

Bibliography: Albnght. W. F., BASOR 92:
l6ff.; Wright, G. E., Biblical Archaeology, West-
minister, 1957, pp. 180ff.

C.E.F;

61

14]

141 “O8 ('asar)

“PS (‘dasar) tie, bind, harness, gird, im-
prison. (KJV, ASV, and RSV render similarly,
tie, bind, imprison.)

Derivatives
l4la 908 ('ésar) band, bond.
141b t39D8% (‘dsir) bondman, prisoner.
141c T3988 (‘assir) prisoners.
I4id “BN (Issar) bond, binding obliga-
tion.
I4le tm5 Br (masoret) bond.
I41f +309 (mdsér) band, bond.

This term occurs thirty-four times in the or.
The root is attested in Ugaritic with the force of
‘to bind.”’ With milhamd the meaning is ‘to
begin the battle,’ ‘‘make the attack.’’ In the
Niphal the rendering is ‘‘to be bound,”’ **impris-
oned’’; in the Pual stem the translation is ‘‘to be
taken prisoner.’’ Another usage refers to binding
oneself with an oath or obligation.

A number of Hebrew words indicate the con-
cept of binding, such as rdkas ‘‘to fasten” (Ex
28:28) and sar ‘‘tie up’ (Deut 14:25). It ts em-
ployed in the sense of making one a prisoner (Jud
15:10; Ps 149:8 [H 9]). Imprisonment is often
mentioned in the oT, showing that this was a
common form of punishment among the Israelites
and foreign nations (Gen 40:3; 42:19; Num 15:34;
I Kgs 22:27; Jer 37:15, 21). Among the Hebrews
there were no special prison buildings until prob-
ably the postexilic era. In Assyria and Egypt such
buildings existed. In Israel rooms or pits con-
nected with the royal palace or the homes of
court officials served in this capacity.

There are several cases in which the liberty of
individuals was restricted: Joseph's brethren
were kept for three days (Gen 42:19): Shime: was
restricted to the city of Jerusalem (I Kgs 2:36);
the man who gathered sticks on the Sabbath was
confined (Num 15:34); Micaiah was imprisoned
by Ahab (1 Kgs 22:27); Hanani by Asa (IJ Chr
16:10; Hoshea, after his fruitless attempt to form
an alliance with Egypt, by Shalmaneser (II Kgs
17:4); Jehoiachin and Zedekiah in Babylon by
Nebuchadnezzar (II Kgs 25:27; Jer 52:11).

The book of Jeremiah has much to say about
imprisonment in Israel during the later years of
the Davidic dynasty. The prophet was put in fet-
ters, at the upper gate of Benjamin (Jer 20:2),
because he had forewarned the people of Judah's
fall. During the siege of the capital, Jeremiah was
imprisoned in the court of the guard in the king's
residence (32:2), apparently in the quarters of the
sentry who guarded the palace. Finally, the
prophet was accused of treason and confined in
the house of Jonathan the scribe. It is thought
that the place was not a private residence, but
rather a building of that name which had been
taken over to serve as a prison. This has greater

142 AS (ap)

cogency when one reads that the house had a
dungeon and cells.

For a short time he was in the dungeon or pit
(b6ér) of Malchijah (Jer 38:6).

Prisoners were treated in conformity with the
gravity of their offence. Samson was placed
under hard labor (Jud 16:21) and physically muti-
lated by blinding. Adonibezek was incapacitated,
his thumbs and large toes cut off (Jud 1:6). Spe-
cial diet and garb were assigned prisoners (I Kgs
22:27; II Kgs 25:29). Punitive imprisonment was
apparently unknown in the ancient near east,
Greece, and Rome. In the Code of Justinian the
custodial aspect of imprisonment was instituted
with the position that ‘*a prison is for confine-
ment, not for punishment.”

’asir. Prisoner, captive. (KJV, ASV, and RSV
translate similarly.) Parallels are attested in
Ugaritic, Arabic, and Aramaic. Fourteen refer-
ences appear in the oT, of which two are marginal
readings (Gen 39:20, 22). Contrary to Western
concepts of imprisonment, ancient law did not
mete out incarceration as a punishment. Prisons
served as a temporary confinement until further
review and deliberation of a case. Places of con-
finement differed; some were private houses (Jer
37:15), underground dungeons (Jer 37:16), the
court of the guard (Jer 32:2), or perhaps even a
cistern (Jer 38:6). In Gen 39:20, 22 Joseph,
wrongly accused, is imprisoned with two of
Pharaoh's chief officers. Out of this situation by
the overruling of God, Joseph is elevated to a
position second to Pharaoh. Samson the judge
was imprisoned by his enemies, the Philistines, in
order to wreak vengeance on him for his success-
ful campaigns against them (Jud 16:21, 25). Isaiah
employs the concept figuratively as he describes
the activity of the King of Babylon in his impris-
oning multitudes of the earth (Isa 14:17). The
postexilic prophecy of Zechariah likens the exiles
to liberated prisoners of hope (Zech 9:11). In-
teresting are the parallels of the word: solitary (Ps
68:6 [H 7]); poor or needy (Ps 69:33 [H 34]); those
appointed to death (Ps 102:20 [H 21]); inhabitants
of darkness and deep gloom (Ps 107:10).

’assir. Prisoners (usually collective). Kv, ASV,
and rsv render alike, ‘‘prisoners’’, except in Ex
6:24 where the translation is uniformly **Assir.”’

The root concept is found in Ugantic. There
are three references in the oT, all in the prophecy
of Isaiah (10:4; 24:22; 42:7). Exodus 6:24, I Chr
6:22 [H 7} and 6:37 [H 22] have the proper noun,
**Assir.”’ In I Chr 3:17 the word ‘assir is taken by
some as the first son of Jeconiah. Others translate
it ‘‘Jeconiah (the captive)’’ which seems to fit the
context better. The ot mentions Egyptian, Assy-
rian, Judean, Babylonian, and Philistine pris-
oners. Solomon imprisoned Shimei ben Gera in
the city of Jerusalem (I Kgs 2:36-37). The cities

62

142 AN (Cap) H,

of refuge were provided for manslayers who were
innocent of murder (Num 35). When Isaiah pre-
sented the bill of particulars of Israel's sins, he
predicted that Assyria would be God’s agent of
wrath on Israel. Imprisonment and death would
be the consequences (Isa 10:4). Isaiah in his
well-known apocalyptic section (chaps. 24-27)
foresaw the cataclysmic visitation of God upon
the kings and leaders of the earth. They will be
gathered as prisoners into the pit, confined there,
and later punished with ultimate wrath (Isa
24:22). In the first of the Servant Songs, Isaiah
predicts that Messiah will liberate Satan's pris-
oners, a figurative statement of Messiah's re-
deeming grace (Isa 42:7). Assir (Ex 6:24; I Chr
6:22 [H 7] 37 (H 22]), was a son of Korah, called
son of Ebiasaph; he was named after his great-
grandfather.

masoret. Bond (construct). KJv and asv are
similar, with RSV giving rendering in footnote.
The word appears only in Ezk 20:37 of Israel's
judgment by God.

moser. Band, bond. (kjsv renders ‘‘bands”’
where ASV and rsv translate ‘“‘bonds.”’) The
Ugaritic offers a parallel to this term. Eleven us-
ages of this word are found in the ot. The English
translation ‘‘band™ (or *“*bond’’) is a rendering of
more than one Hebrew word in the Scriptures. In
its literal sense a band is anything that connects,
encloses, confines, or strengthens. Figurative
usage denotes that which chastens or restrains.
Jeremiah (5:5) sets forth Israel’s wickedness in
which the rulers of the nation have overstepped
the restraints of God. Jeremiah uses literal bonds
to convey God's warning to Israel that they, as
well as surrounding nations, will be brought
under the domination of Nebuchadnezzar (27:2).

Spiritual liberation from sin is in view in the
case of Ps 116:16. In Isa 52:2 the bonds men-
tioned are those of Zion's captivity. In a strik-
ingly clear eschatological reference in Ps 2:3 the
allied nations of earth are pictured as definitely
opposed to the restraint and sovereign rule of
God. A singularly beautiful protrayal of redeem-
ing lovingkindness is found in Ps 107:14, where
the literal and spiritual emphases of bonds inter-
change.

Bibliography: Elon, M., ‘‘Imprisonment,”’ in
Encyclopedia Judaica, Vill, 1972, pp. 1299-
1303. Gordon, C. H., UT 19: no. 284. Sheehy,
D. F., ‘* Prisons,” in New Catholic Encyclopedia,
XI, 1967, pp. 791-793.

C.L.F.

AS ('ap) I. See no. 133a.

also yea. (KJV, ASV, and RSV

render similarly.)

The conjunction occurs over 120 times. It may
denote that which is added to a preceding state-
ment with the force of ‘‘also,”: “*yea.’” A pointed
example is found in the rebellious answer given
to Moses in Num 16:14, “Also (moreover) you
have not brought us into a Jand flowing with milk
and honey.’ The conjunction is rare in prose;
more often it is found in poetry as setting forth a
new thought (I Sam 2:7). In elevated prose it ap-
pears in Lev 26:16 and following verses. With
great intensity of feeling Isaiah builds up to a
crescendo in Isa 48:12—13, 15 and elsewhere in
chapters 40-48. What is often in view is some-
thing unexpected, ‘‘even,’’ “‘indeed” (Job 14:3;
15:4). In both poetry and prose a previous state-
ment is built into an a fortiori argument, ‘““how
much more’ (after a positive sentence), or ““how
much less’* (after a negative one). The usages
may be summarized as additional use, ‘‘also’’;
emphatic, “‘! for my part’’: antithetic, “‘but™;
compounds, ‘‘yea, truly’’; conditional, **when™
ki follows the conjunction as in Prov 11:31, or
interrogative as in Gen3:1, ‘‘Is it indeed that God
has said?”

C.L.F.

142.1 SSS ('épdd), “IBN (épdd) ephod.
(KJV, ASV, and RSV translate similarly.)

This word is found forty-eight times in the ot.
Parallels are found in Assyrian and Ugaritic. In
the Cappadocian texts epadum seems to mean a
plaid robe. At Ras Shamra there was found a
Ugaritic hymn (c. 1400 B.c.), which referred to an
ephod, probably a garment of the goddess Anath.
It is not certain that there is a correspondence to
the Hebrew priestly garment. There is even some
question as to the correctness of the translation
of the passage. One scholarly view is that the oT
ephod with the sacred ark was a kind of miniature
temple. The ephod has even been compared to
the tent-like shrine carried into battle by certain
Arabian tribes. The prevailing view is still that
the ephod was a garment for the high priest in
Israel.

It was a sacred garment originally made for the
high priest (Ex 28:4ff.; 39:2ff.). It was made of
gold, blue, purple, scarlet and fine twined linen,
fastened by two shoulder pieces and woven band
for a girdle for the ephod. Two onyx stones, on
which were engraved the names of the tribes of
Israel, were placed on the shoulder pieces. The
ephod may have extended below the hips or only
to the waist. A breastplate with twelve precious
stones in four rows was attached to the ephod
with pure gold chains. Under the ephod was the
blue robe of the ephod reaching to the feet of the
priest.

Ephods were worn by others. Samuel was
girded with a linen ephod while ministering under

63

143 MDS (apa)

Eli the priest (1 Sam 2:18). The eighty-five priests
at Nob were girded with linen ephods (1 Sam
22:18). David was wearing a Jinen ephod when he
accompanied the procession bringing the ark into
Jerusalem (II Sam 6:14). Doubtless, the ephod of
the high priest was more elaborate and or-
namented than those worn by lay worshipers.

In time of crisis the will of the Lord was sought
through the ephod (cf. David in I Sam 23:9; 30:7).
In Israel both prophecy and the ephod were
authorized means of ascertaining the will of God.
The technical phrase for consulting the ephod
with the Urim and Thummim is ‘*to come before
the Lord’’ (Ex 28:30; Jud 20:27; I Sam 14:18, 41).

When the Hebrews fell into idolatry, they used
teraphim and graven images in conjunction with
the ephod (Jud 17:5; 18:14, 15, 17, 20; Hos 3:4). It
is safe to assume that in these instances the
ephod was a priestly garment (cf. that made by
Gideon, Jud 8:27), perhaps adorned with costly
gems (as in the case of Micah, Jud 17:1-S).

After the captivity, the ephod did not serve the
function described in the Pentateuchal legislation
(Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). Some believe that the
spiritual influence of the prophets served to over-
shadow this means of ascertaining the will of
God.

Another form of the word Is ‘dpiédda, found in
Ex. 28:8; 39:5; Isa 30:22. It has been suggested
that the robe with the golden bells may have been
included in the word ‘‘ephod.”’

Bibliography: Albnght, W. F., “‘Are the
Ephod and the Teraphim Mentioned in Ugaritic
Literature?” BASOR 83:39ff. Albright, W. F.,
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday,
1968, pp. 171, 174, 177, 179, 197, 200-205. Ar-
nold, W. R., Ephod and the Ark, Harvard Uni-
versity, 1917. Foote, T. C., ‘‘The Ephod,’’ JBL
21: 1-47. Grintz, Y. M., ‘“Ephod,”* in Encyclo-
pedia Judaica, 1972 vol. 6, pp. 804-806.

C.L.F.

142.2 35S (appedden) palace. A Persian
loan word.

143 MPS (apa) bake. (KIv, asv, RSV trans-
late similarly.)

Derivative
143a MBN (ma’dpeh) something baked
(Lev 2:4).

In the Qal, ‘apa is translated as indicated; in
the Niphal it is rendered “‘to be baked” (with
leaven). There are twenty-five references in the
oT. The verb is attested in Ugaritic. The partici-
ple of the Qal is used substantively and rendered
throughout as ‘‘baker.”’

The term and its derivative refer specifically to
the baking of bread and cakes made with flour

144

144 IBS (pd)

and oil. Such baked food was a basic element in
the daily diet of the Hebrews and their neighbors
(Gen 19:3; I Kgs 17:12-13). Because bread was
such an important commodity in the near east (cf.
our ‘‘staff of life’’), bakers were important offi-
cers, aS in Egypt (Gen 40:1) and Assyria where
the chief baker was singled out by an eponym.
Baking was essential to the preparation of sacred
meals (Gen 14:18) and certain bloodless offerings
(Lev 21:6), especially in relation to the show-
bread of the sanctuary. The showbread and the
baked offerings were an integral part of the wor-
ship of Israel (Lev 2:4ff.; 24:5). Bread was usu-
ally baked in an oven, a household duty of
women. The Hebrew verb is often used
Synonymously with cooking in general (Ex
16:23).

C.L.F.
SIDS (Ep0d’),

SPS (‘épd), NID*N (’ép0’

then, so.

It has been suggested that the word originally
came from po or poh, a particle with a demon-
strative force and a prosthetic aleph. The adver-
bial use of the particle is rendered ‘‘wholly,”’
‘‘so,'’ “therefore.” The word occurs fifteen
times in the ot. When employed as an interroga-
tive pronoun, it is translated *‘where.’’ The parti-
cle is used in connection with interrogative pro-
nouns and adverbs. In Gen 27:33 Isaac asks
Esau, **“Who then ts he?”’ It is used with an inter-
rogative adverb in Isa 19:12: **Where then are thy
wise men?’’ Another use of the particle is in a
command or wish, e.g. Job 19:23: ‘‘Would, then,
that my words were wnitten!’’ The term also ap-
pears after ‘im. Gen 43:11 reads, ‘‘If it be so,
then, do this.”’

To summarize, the particle is found in sen-
tences containing a question, command, or wish.
It appears after interrogative particles; apart from
the interrogative; before the interrogative; after
an expression of a wish, mi yitén; after the words
‘im, or ’im-ld’, “if now’’; following ‘im and apart
from it; and in exhortations, meaning ‘‘then.”’

CLF.
MIDS (‘apund). See no. 146c.
SDN (‘apil). See no. 145d.
MDS ('apip). See no. 149a.
145 Spx (‘p/). Assumed root of the following.
145a t9D8 (Opel) darkness, gloom.
145b 9D ~('apél) gloomy.
145c tmPpS ('dpéla) darkness, gloominess.
145d O° «('apil) late.
145e ODN (ma’dpél) darkness.
145f tm9bNsIa (ma’pélyd) deep darkness.

Darkness, gloom (poet.), calamity, (fig.).
(In Job 3:6 kJv_ renders

Opel.
spiritual darkness.

64

‘‘darkness,’> whereas asv and rsv_ translate
‘‘thick darkness.’’) For the figurative usage the
KJv translates, as do ASV and RSV, as in the case of
the literal use.

There are nine instances of the occurrence of
the word in the oT. Most appear in Job, two ref-
erences in the Psalms, and one in Isa. This noun
is used less frequently than hdshek.

Light and darkness are well-known opposites
in Palestine. In that land the light does not fade
gradually after twilight. Sunset is preceded by
brightness, which is soon changed with the dis-
appearance of the sun. Within an hour, sunset
has given way to the darkness of night.

There are symbolic uses of darkness as there
are of light. As light presages glory, blessing, pur-
ity, so darkness foreshadows disaster.

The light of God is required to reveal man’s
darkness and expel it (Job 34:21-22; Ps 139:11-
12; Mic 7:8-9).

Job (3:6) bewails the day of his birth and the
night in which he was conceived. For that night
he wishes that only the deepest darkness might
overtake it, so that it would not be reckoned
among the months or years. He pleads for a little
respite before he goes to the place where only
darkness is the order of the realm (10:22). He
wishes (23:17) that he could have been cut off
before calamity overtook him, so that he might
have been spared the agony. The prowess of man
in his research into the secrets and phenomena of
earth, characterized by darkness, is presented in
Job 28:3, whereas in 30:26 Job laments that
whenever he looked for a source of hope (light), it
always turned into misfortune (darkness).

The Psalmist 1s grieved at the extreme enmity
which the wicked harbor against the upright, be-
cause they use the cover of darkness to make
their onslaughts (Ps 11:2). In a psalm _ that
breathes the protection of God over his own, the
Psalmist assures the trusting heart that no pestt-
lence of the night will strike down the soul abid-
ing in God (Ps 91:6).

Isaiah looks to a day of God's blessing on Is-
rael when God himself will dispel their ignorance
(29:18).

*apela. Darkness, thick darkness, calamity,
gloominess. KJV, ASV, and RSV are similar, *‘thick
darkness’ (with héshek). The term is used liter-
ally, as when darkness fell upon the land of Egypt
for three days during the time of the ten plagues
(Ex 10:21-22). It is also used figuratively of calam-
ity or distress. Darkness symbolizes moral failure
and its punishment (Prov 4:9). Most of its ten
usages occur in the prophetic books.

ma’pélya. Deep darkness. (kjv renders *‘dark-
ness’’; ASV and rSv “‘thick darkness.’’) It occurs
only in Jer 2:31 where Jeremiah remonstrates
with Israel for their apostasy from God.

Bibliography: IDB, Ili, pp. 130-32. May, H.
G., ‘The Creation of Light in Gen 1:3-5,”’ JBL
58: 203-11.

C.L.F.

146 PS (’pn). Assumed root of the following.
1462 TIBIN ('d6pan) ID'N (‘6pdn) wheel.
146b IBN (Open) circumstance, condi-

tion (only in Prov 25:11).
146c MBS (‘apuiind) despair (meaning
uncertain.) Occurs only in Ps 88:16.

’opan. Wheel.
‘‘wheel.’’)

The noun for wheel, in the dual number, is at-
tested in Ugaritic. Of the thirty-five references to
wheel in the oT, twenty-five are found in the book
of Ezekiel. The most frequent use of the term is
in reference to the wheel of a chanot (Ex 14:25;
Nah 3:2; Ezk 1:15ff.). The oldest wheels discov-
ered are clay models of chariot wheels and parts
of a potter's wheel (cf. Jer 18:3) from the fourth
millennium B.c. Early wheels were made from
wooden planks joined together by pegs. Lighter
wheels came into use around 1500 B.c., along
with horses. This gave the Egyptians a decided
military advantage. The wheel was also used in
connection with Solomon’s temple. There the
bronze stands had small chanot wheels with
axles, hubs, rims, and spokes (I Kgs 7:33). These
wheels formed the bases of the temple's lavers.
Both Ezekiel (1, 10) and Daniel (7:9) had visions
of God’s throne set on a platform with wheels.
The celebrated wheels within wheels of Ezk 1
had axles set at ninety degree angles somewhat
like a gyroscope, so that the platform could go at
once in any of the four directions, without a steer-
ing mechanism. The whole picture symbolized
the omnipresence of the Lord, and the rapidity
with which he executes judgment in his rule of
the earth. Wheels were employed with machinery
for drawing water (cf. Eccl 12:6, galgal). The
rollers of a threshing wagon or cart are mentioned
in Prov 20:26 and Is 28:27. Later Hebrew com-
monly uses ga/ga/ as a synonym (q.v.) by me-
tonymy for a wagon (Ezk 23:24).

(KJV, ASV, and RSv render alike,

C.L.F.

147 DPR (‘apés) fail, cease, come to an end.

Derivatives

147a SENS ('epes) ceasing.

1476 DEN (Opes), dual ODDS (‘opsa-
yim) the extremities, i.e. the soles
of the feet or the ankles (Ezk 47:3).

The kJv translates variously ‘‘faileth,’’ **fail,”
‘is atanend,’’ ‘brought to nought”’; asv renders
“faileth,”’ ‘‘fail,’” and ““*brought to nought;’’ Rsv
prefers ‘‘is gone,’’ “‘is no more,’’ and “‘come to
nought.’’ The four or references are Gen 47:15-
16; Isa 16:4; 29:20. The root is common in the

147 DES ('apés)

noun form ‘‘ends of the earth’’ or ‘extremities of
the land.’

’epes. Ceasing, then end, extremity, non-
existence, cessation of, nought. (KJV, ASV, and
RSV render “‘ends of the earth’’; when the word
occurs as a particle the versions translate simi-
larly.) The or shows forty references to the term,
including three more of the adverb ‘apsi, the final
vowel being understood by some as the yodh
paragogic. Ugaritic texts contain the word in
connection with the end of a throne, that is, its
top.

Isaiah’s use of the word to express nonexis-
tence is indeed vivid. When he describes the
apocalyptic cataclysm of the last times which will
overtake the enemies of the Lord, he declares
that nobles and princes will not be there for the
roll call (34:12). When extolling the transcendent
greatness of the Lord of earth, the same prophet
evaluates all the nations as nothing compared to
Him (40:17). In the most scathing denunciations
of idolatry on record, Isaiah castigates the idols
of the pagan nations, especially of Babylon, as
being nothing. Their work is nothing, and their
images are nonentities (41:12, 24, 29). Reviewing
national history, he relates that Egypt took ad-
vantage of Israel when they came to sojourn
there. The Assyrians oppressed them for nothing,
that is, without sufficient cause (52:4).

’epes occurs as a particle of negation mostly in
poetry. It is then synonymous with the usual par-
ticle ’én. Such usage is found in Isaiah’s pro-
nouncement of woe on the nation’s ungodly in his
song to the vineyard. They launch an all-out drive
for the acquisition of as much property as possi-
ble, so that there is no room left for others (5:8).
Amos uses the word in a similar fashion in de-
scribing the decimation that will attend Israel's
captivity (6:10).

Because Israel was despondent over their sub-
jugation by the idolatrous Babylonians, and
might have been led to think that the gods of the
heathen were mightier than the God of Israel,
Isaiah reminds them repeatedly there is no one in
the supernatural or natural realm who is His
equal (47:8, 10), a good rendering being, “‘I am,
and there is no one else beside me.’ Hear the
beautiful refrain in Isa 45:5, 6, 18, 21.

’epes is also used as an adverb of limitation.
Israelites were permitted to receive interest from
foreigners. Nevertheless, they were not to take it
from their brothers in the land, lest some fall into
poverty (Deut 15:4).

The plural denotes the extremities of the earth
in relation to the power of God against his foes
(Deut 33:17), or the worldwide extent of God's
salvation (Isa 52:10), or the outreach of Mes-
siah’s kingdom (Zech 9:10). The ultimate bounds
of the earth known to the ancient Hebrews were

148 ADR (apap)

India and Ethiopia (Est 1:1). There is no evidence
that the Israelites, even when in apostasy, ever
worshiped the earth, as did the people of Ugarit
and Phoenicia. Earth was one of the brides of
Baal and the source of the creation of heaven and
earth.

Bibliography: BDB, sub voce. Gaster, T. H.,
‘*Earth,”’ in Encyclopedia Judaica, 1972, pp.
338-40. Myth, Legend and creation in the Old
Testament, Harper and Row, 1969, pp. 56, 98,
103, 144, 188, 294. Gordon, C. H., Ugaritic
Textbook, 1965, no. 309 in Glossary. IDB, vol. II,
pp. 2-3. KB, sub voce.

C.L.F.

YES ('epa’), See nos.
1791a,b.

MYON (ep'a).

148 HBS ('dpap) surround, encompass.

149 *5a8 ('dpaq) hold, be strong.

Derivative

149a) -S°BN «('apiq) channel (for water).

150 “DS (‘pr) I. Assumed root of the following.

150a tT 3BN ('éper) ashes. (KJV, asv, and
RSV render alike, ‘‘ashes.”’)

The word is found twenty-one times in the oT.
It has a wide variety of uses. It is often employed
parallel to the similar-sounding word ‘dpar
(dust). It denotes that which is the result of burn-
ing. It is used figuratively for what is without
value (Isa 44:20) or loathsome (Job 30:19). It sig-
nifies misery (Ps 102:9 [H 1!0]), shame (IJ Sam
13:19), humility before God (Gen 18:27; Job
42:6), and repentance and contnition (Dan 9:3; Mt
11:21). Ashes of a red heifer with so-called water
of separation were used in the rite of purification
(Num 19:9-10, 17). Ashes of sacrifices were min-
gled with running water to cleanse from pollu-
tion; they were also a sign of fasting (Isa 58:5; Jon
3:6). Sackcloth and ashes were the usual indi-
cations of repentance and humility, often coupled
with fasting (Job 42:6; Est 4:1; I Macc 3:47).
Ashes with dust were the customary signs of
mourning (Isa 61:3). The mourner or penitent
threw the ashes toward heaven, so that they fell
back on himself, especially on his head, a custom
attested among non-Hebrew also. In deep dis-
tress mourners sat on heaps of ashes (Job 2:8).
Ashes on the head were also a token of humilia-
tion and disgrace (II Sam 13:19). The king of Tyre
(q.v.) mentioned in Ezk 28:18 was to be reduced
to ashes by God’s judgment.

Bibliography: De Ward, Eileen F., **Mourn-
ing Customs in 1, 2 Samuel,’’ JJS 23:1-27,145-66.
Richardson, TWB, p. 70.

C.L.F.

66

IS] “BS (pr)

II. Assumed root of the following.
ISla “58 (‘dpér) covering, bandage. Oc-
curs only in I Kgs 20:38.

IS1b «-T5ES (appiryén) — sedan, litter,
palanquin. Occurs only in Song
3:9,

Sic Te°se8 (Ceprayim) Ephraim.

’eprayim. Ephraim. (kjJv, ASV, and RSV are
similar, ‘‘Ephraim.’’) The name appears 139
times in the ot with various connotations, as will
be shown below. The name is said to mean **dov-
ble fruit,’’ evidently from the presence of the dual
ending. Ephraim was the younger of the two sons
of Joseph and Asenath, who were born to them in
Egypt. With his brother Manasseh he was
adopted by Jacob, thus becoming the progenitor
of an Israelite tribe. Jacob in blessing Ephraim
above Manasseh (Gen 48) was predicting the
coming prominence of the tribe that descended
from him (Gen 4] :50ff.; 48:20ff.). In Jacob's final
blessing he included both grandchildren under
the name of Joseph (40:22f.). At the Exodus the
men of war from Ephraim totaled 40,500, but
when they were mobilized a second time they
were down to 32,500 (Num 1:33; 26:37). On the
march in the wilderness, Manasseh and Benjamin
joined Ephraim on the west of the tabernacle
(2:18ff.). Hoshea the son of Nun was the Ephra-
imite among the spies sent into Canaan (13:8).
When Moses blessed the tribes before his death,
he pointed to the future ascendancy of this tribe
(Deut 33:17).

Joshua, a member of this tribe, succeeded
Moses as leader of the nation. Shechem and
Shiloh, both in the territory allotted to the sons of
Joseph, became the place of national assemblies
and the focus of the people’s worship. The lead-
ership of Samuel the prophet further underscored
the prominence of Ephraim. From the era of the
conquest of Palestine the tribe was quite jealous
of its prestige (Jud 7:24; 8:1; 12:1ff.). Their loy-
alty to and support of Saul as first king may be
traced to the close ties between Joseph and Ben-
jamin. However, they never appear to have been
satisfied with the transfer of the royal prerogative
to Judah in the rule of David (II Sam 2:8f.).

They saw in the revolt of Absalom an opportu-
nity to weaken the influence of the tribe of Judah
(II Sam 15:13). When Solomon’s extravagance
and the ineptness of Rehoboam brought about
general disaffection with the Davidic dynasty, the
Ephraimite Jeroboam took full advantage of the
situation. From the disruption of the Solomonic
kingdom to the captivity of Samaria (722/21 B.c.),
Ephraim held such undisputed leadership that
Ephraim and Israel were interchangeable as
names of the northern kingdom.

The sons of Joseph had their allotment of tern-
tory in the central section of western Palestine,

and it appears that the territory of Ephraim and
Manasseh was held in common (Josh 16; 17:14).
They did not expel the Canaanites from their
cities, but subjugated them (Josh 16:10; 17:13).
The area was quite productive, so the people en-
joyed a prosperous life. Unfortunately, the mea-
sure of their material blessing was not paralleled
by spiritual strength, but rather decline and moral
decay (Isa 28:1, 4; Jer 31:18; Hos 9:13; 10:11).

As noted, the territory of Ephraim was the hill
country of central Palestine. Around the central
valley are ridges, valleys, and spurs. The area is
one of the most fertile in all the land. Currently it
is planted with olive, carob, and pomegranate
trees, among others. Before the Conquest the re-
gion was wooded (Josh 17:18), and beasts of prey
roamed there during the time of the monarchy
(II Kgs 2:24).

The gate of Ephraim was a chief gate in the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh 8:16; 12:39).

Bibliography: Aharoni, J.. The Land of the
Bible, Westminster, 1967, pp. 236-237. Ewing,
W., “Ephraim,’* in ISBE, II, 1952, p. 963. Roth,
Cecil, “Ephraim,” in Encyclopedia Judaica, V1,
pp. 806-9.

C.L.F.

152 ABS ('pt). Assumed root of the following.
1S2a tmp (mdpét) wonder, miracle, sign,
portent.

This masculine noun is of no certain etymol-
ogy. No verb or other noun uses the same root
letters. However, the meaning of mdpét is not
questioned. Often it is parallel to ’6r (q.v.), which
also means “‘‘sign,”’ ‘‘symbol,”’ ‘‘portent,”’
‘‘wonder,’’ or ““miracle’’ (Ex 7:3; Deut 4:34;
6:22: 7:19; 13:1ff.; 26:8; 28:46; 29:2; 34:11; Neh
9:10; Ps 135:9; Isa 8:18; 20:3; Jer 32:20, et al.).
‘‘Judgments’* and **works’’ are parallel to mdpét
in I] Chr 16:12 and Ps 105:5. The xx renders
mopét as térata *‘prodigies,’’ ‘marvels.’

The first occurrences of mOpét in the oT are in
Ex 4:21; 7:3,9; 11:9-10. In these verses it refers
to Moses’ rod changing into a snake (7:9), as well
as to the ten major plagues on the Egyptians.
Most of the usages in the Deuteronomy passages
refer both to the miraculous punishments and the
wonderful provisions God made for his people in
the wilderness (e.g. water, manna, quails, and the
pillar of fire). In this connection also note Neh
9:10: I Chr 16:12; Ps 78:43; 105:5, 27; 135:9; Jer
32:20.

Deuteronomy 13:1ff. and 28:46 are exceptions.
In the former pericope mopét refers to a *‘por-
tent’’ or perhaps a prediction that a questionable
prophet or dreamer gives. Depending on whether
the ’6t (sign) or the mdpét (wonder) comes to
pass, the would-be prophet is authenticated or
condemned. The Deut 28:46 passage is in the

67

153 938) (sal)

153 °¥8 (Gsal)

curse section. Israel as a nation will become a
‘*sign’’ or *‘wonder,”’ 1.e. a spectacle or demon-
stration of the rewards of disobedience. Psalm
71:7; Isa 8:18; 20:3; Ezk 12:6, 11; 24:24, 27; and
Zech 3:8 use the word similarly. The psalmists or
the prophets are themselves the object lesson.
Other miracles described by this word are the
rending of the altar to authenticate the prediction
about Josiah's advent (I Kgs 13:3, 5), the recov-
ery of Hezekiah from mortal illness (II Chr 32:24,
31), and the restoration of Ezekiel’s speech (Ezk
24:24, 27). Joel uses the word to describe celestial
and terrestial manifestations of God's power in
‘‘the great and terrible day of the Lorp’’ (2:30 [H
3:3-4]). Peter paraphrases this verse in Acts 2:19,
using the Greek plural synonyms ferata and
semeld.
R.L.A.

ss (dsil), O38 See no.

153b,c.

(‘assil).

lay aside, reserve, withdraw,
withhold. _Denominative verb.

Parent Noun
1S3a toes (‘ésel) beside, by, near.
Derivatives

1S3b Oo 9EN)—('Gsil) side, corner, chief.
153c = 88— (Cassil) joining, joint.

’ésel. Beside, by, near. A preposition appear-
ing fifty-nine times in the oT. There is no particu-
larly outstanding or unique use of the word. It is
used simply, as its meaning suggests, to indicate
proximity: of place (by Gibeah, Jud 19:14; by
En-rogel, 1 Kgs 1:9; beside the plains of Moreh,
Deut 11:30; by Bethlehem, Jer 41:17); of position
(beside the altar, Lev 1:16; the lion standing by
the carcass, I Kgs 13:25; two lions standing be-
side the arms of the throne, I Kgs 10:19; beside
his house, Neh 3:23); to some other person (lay
my bones beside his bones, I Kgs 13:21; he came
near where I stood, Dan 8:17; I remained there
with the kings of Persia, Dan 10:13; brought them
to their brothers, IJ Chr 28:15; the queen was
sitting by him, Neh 2:6; beside Ezra, Neh 8:4).

Several times the preposition is used in a
metaphorical context, at least three times in
Prov. Proverbs 7:8 refers to the unsuspecting
man who carelessly saunters through the street
‘near’ the corner where dame folly lives. As a
matter of fact she lies in wait ‘‘at’’ every corner
(7:12). Wisdom, on the contrary, has been ‘by’
God's side from the beginning (8:30).

In the days of Samuel the Philistines captured
the ark from the Israelites and attempted to place
it in one of their temples ‘‘beside’’ Dagon (I Sam
5:2). The result was nothing short of disastrous.

154 "38 (asar)

And so it always has been. God challenges any
false god I try to place beside him in my life.
V.P.H.

154 3¥8 (‘dsar) to store, lay up, used mini-
mally in the oT, once in the Qal, Amos 3:10
(although KB?, p. 80 adds II Kgs 20:17/Isa
39:6); once in the Niphal (Jsa 23:18); once
in the Hiphil (Neh 13:13).

Derivative
54a T9358) (’Osar) treasure, treasury,
storehouse.

(Eighty times in the oT according to KB? p. 23),
most often in I Chr (thirteen times) and II Chr
(eight times). It is unnecessary to accept the fre-
quent emendation (as in Rsv and 3s) in Zech 11:13
of ‘‘cast it into the treasury (‘ésdar)’* for ‘‘cast it
to the potter (yésér)’”’ in the celebrated passage
about thirty pieces of silver (see Torrey in bib-
liography).

There are at least nine words in biblical He-
brew for ‘‘treasure’’ of which this is one. It is
used in either a literal sense, referring to the trea-
sure in the king's house or in the temple or one’s
individual acquisitions, and secondly in a cosmic
sense, the source of God’s possessions and bless-
ing. Specifically there are ten references to
‘‘treasures/treasury of the king's house’’ (e.g. I
Kgs 14:26) and nine references to ‘‘treasures/
treasury of the temple of the Lord’’ (e.g. I Kgs
7:51).

Many of these references are in a military con-
text. A defeated nation was obliged to give up her
treasures to the victor. Both Asa (I Kgs 15:18)
and Joash (11 Kgs 12:19) gave to the Arameans
Benhadad and Hazael treasures from both the
temple and the royal treasury. Nebuchadnezzar
helped himself to both (I] Kgs 24:13), as did the
Egyptian Pharaoh, Shishak, much earlier (J Kgs
14:26).

At the individual level, treasure is to be happily
accepted and used, not abused (Prov 8:21) but if
it becomes an end in itself the consequences are
dire (Prov 10:2; 15:16; 21:6, 20).

There are several] references to divine store-
houses, e.g. Ps 33:7; 135:7; Job 38:22. God’s
treasure house is in the heavens (Deut 28:12). In
Jer 50:25 reference is made to God's ‘‘armory.”’

Bibliography: Torrey, C. C., ‘‘The Foundry
at Jerusalem,’ JBL 5S: 247-60. Wolf, C. U.,
‘Treasure, Treasurer, Treasury,’ in IDB, IV,
pp. 693-94.

V.P.H.

15S %3p8% (’aqq6) wildgoat. Occurs only in
Deut 14:5, in list of clean animals.

Osan (ari’él). See no. 159a.

68

156 358 (arab) to lie in wait, ambush.

Derivatives

56a 358 ~(ereb) a lying in wait.
156b 358 ('dreb) ambuscade.

156c =9MB"8 (orba) artifice.

156d tmans (‘driba) window, sluice.
1S6e = 3982) (ma’drab) ambush.

The verb is used forty times in the oT, most
frequently in Jud (fourteen times) and Joshua
(seven times). In the majority of these twenty-
one instances, ambush as a method of warfare is
described.

As Yadin has pointed out, there were five ways
to conquer a fortified city: (1) penetration by
force from above the fortifications; (2) penetra-
tion through the barriers; (3) penetration under
the barriers (tunneling); (4) siege; (5) penetration
by ruse.

There are at least two illustrations of this last
method in the oT, both using the verb ‘drab. One
is the capture of Ai (Josh 8), the other is the holy
war conducted against the Benjamites by their
fellow Israelites for the shameful act of the
former in condoning the actions of one of their
own who had violated the Levite’s daughter (Jud
20). In both instances the strategy is the same: (1)
the positioning of an ambush behind the city; (2)
the deceptive flight by the assault force to draw
the defenders out of the city and after them in
pursuit; (3) the storming of the city by the ambush
party; (4) the ‘‘fleeing’’ assault force turns now to
counterattack.

Frequently the enemies of the pious are de-
scribed as those who ‘‘lurk,’’ lie in wait for the
unsuspecting: Ps 10:9; 59:3 [H 4]; Lam 4:19; Ezr
8:31. Even God is viewed as a ‘‘lurking’’ bear
who has turned against his people (Lam 3:10),
The verb may describe the actions of criminals
before they strike: I Sam 22:8,13; Mic 7:2; Prov
1:11,18; 7:12; 12:6; 23:28. Against such there
must be constant vigilance.

"aruba. Window, chimney, floodgate. Twice
the word is used to describe one of the two
sources of the waters in the deluge (Gen 7:11;
8:2). In addition to rain from above there was also
an auxiliary source, ‘the fountains of the great
deeps,’’ i.e. subterranean water. The phrase
‘‘windows of heaven,”’ in the deluge context, Is
in some of the more recent Bible translations
rendered ‘‘sluices,’’ (NIV ‘‘floodgates’’). There is
no reason not to believe that the wniter in Gen
when using the phrase ‘*window of heavens”’ was
well aware of his own figurative language to de-
scribe the torrential downpour.

If God channels the waters of judgment and
cleansing through these windows, he also sends
his blessing through these same windows (Mal
3:10). Similarly compare II Kgs 7:2, 19 where

Elisha has made predictions of an incredible re-
duction in the price of food, much to the disbelief
of the king’s squire. Thus, such apertures are the
means of God’s cleansing or his blessing.

Two unique uses of ‘driibd are (1) window, in
the sense of a ‘“‘chimney”’ through which smoke
passes (Hos 3:13), and (2) the small opening ina
pigeon loft (Isa 60:8).

The reference to ‘‘those who look out of win-
dows are darkened’’ (Eccl 12:3) is probably not a
poetical reference to the eyes which become dim
with old age, but to some funereal practice (Da-
hood), or some disaster of unidentifiable nature
(Sawyer).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ‘‘Canaanite-
Phoenician Influences on Qoheleth,’’ Bib 33:
213-15. Gaster, T., “‘Cosmogony,”’ in IDB, I, pp.
702-9. ‘‘Old Testament Notes,’ VT 4: 79.
Sawyer, J.F.A., ‘‘The Ruined House in
Ecclesiastes 12: A Reconstruction of the Original
Parable,” JBL 94 $19-31. Harris, R. L., **The
Bible and Cosmology,’ JETS 5:15. Yadin, Y.,
The Arts of Warfare in Biblical Lands,
McGraw-Hill, 1963, vol. I, pp. 16, 100, 110-11;
vol. II, pp. 262-63.

V.P.H.
157 58 (drag) weave.
Derivatives
1S7a 58) ~(ereg) loom. Only in Jud
16:14; Job 7:6.
1S7b TaN =('argaman) purple.
’argaman. Purple, including most likely’ all

shades of this color from deep red-black to violet.
It is common in the English language to associate
colors with moods or feelings. Thus traditionally
purple is associated with anger, red with shame,
yellow with cowardice, green with nausea, and so
forth. The oT comes closest to this when it fre-
quently expresses God's anger as “his nose
turned red.’ Purple, however, 1s never used in
this way.

As is well known, purple has been symbolically
the dress of gods, royalty, and sometimes nobil-
ity. Classical sources certainly bear this out
(Homer, Iliad 4, 141-145, and Suetonius, Life of
the Twelve Caesars 6. 32 for the opinion of the
infamous Nero on the subject). The same is said
of the kings of Midian in the days of Gideon (Jud
8:26). Mordecai was similarly decorated by the
Persian Ahasuerus (Est 8:15). Anyone who ts ca-
pable of informing the distraught Belshazzar on
the significance of the ‘‘wnting fingers’’ is prom-
ised, among other things, that he will be dressed
in purple (Dan 5:7, 16, 29). In the kJv the word is
translated ‘‘scarlet.’’ It is the Aramaic word
‘arg*’wan, some shade of red-purple. In the
Apocryphal books it is recorded that purple

69

158 MN (ara)

clothing is worn by the high priest and prince (1
Macc 10:20, 62, 64; 11:58; 14:43; 2 Macc 4:38).
The nT associates purple with imperial and pagan
Rome, dressed as she was in this particular cloth-
ing (Rev 17:4; 18:16). In a fiendish attempt to
make Jesus look as ludicrous as possible, his ac-
cusers dressed him in purple at his trial (Mk
15:17; Jn 19:2, 5). Jesus apparently dressed like
everybody else and was indistinguishable at this
point—so much so that his accusers had to hire
Judas to point him out—no purple and no halo.

In the oT, it should be observed that purple is
fairly well reserved for liturgical settings. The
curtains in the temple were purple (Ex 26:1), as
was the veil (Ex 26:31) and the ephod, a kind of a
breastplate, of the high priest (Ex 28:6).

Such purple was obtained from mollusks along
the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The
pigment was secreted by a gland in the lining of
the stomach. The very name *‘Canaan”™ means
‘‘the land of purple’’ and the name ‘Phoenicia’
is to be related to the Greek word phoinos **red-
purple.’ It is in this kind of dye-work that Lydia,
the first European convert to Christ, was em-
ployed, ‘‘a seller of purple’ (Acts 16:14). Prepa-
ration of the royal purple of classical times is de-
tailed in ‘‘The Magic Lure of Sea Shells,” by P.
A. Zahl and V. R. Boswell (National Geo-
graphic, 135: 401).

The root argmn appears in Ugaritic definitely
with the meaning ‘‘gift to an exalted personage”
but whether it may also mean “‘purple”’ is open to
question (Rabin).

Bibliography: Jensen, L. B., **Royal Purple
of Tyre,’’ JNES 22: 104-118. Landsberger, B.,
‘‘Ueber Farben Im Sumerisch-Akkadischen,”’
JCS 21: 158-62. Rabin, Chaim, “Hittite Words in
Hebrew,” Orientalia 32: 116-18.

V.P.H.
158 M58 (ara) I, pluck, gather.
Derivatives
58a PSN (ari), M58 (Caryéh) lion.
IS8b 0 ANS (Curyad) manger, crib.

ari, ’aryéh. Lion. These are two of the seven
words which are translated “‘lion’’ in the or.
There is no demonstrable difference between the
two. Thus I Kgs 10:19 refers to the decorative
lions ('drdyot) by the arms of Solomon's throne.
For the twelve lions referred to in the following
verse (10:20) ’aryéh is used.

God is likened to a lion (Isa 38:13) who has
broken the bones of Hezekiah, and similarly in
the anonymous Lamentations (Lam 3:10). The
‘‘lion,’’ however, can become the lion chaser
against those who stalk Israel as a lion (Jer 49:19;
50:44). This is a natural figure of speech to desig-
nate Israel's enemies, a picture of pride, strength,

159 ASS Crh)

and rapacity: Jer 4:7; 5:6 (Nebuchadnezzar?),;
Joel 1:6; Nah 2:11-13 [H 12-14]. But again, God
can send lions against the lions: II Kgs 17:25-26.
In the psalms of lament the writer's enemies are
frequently described as lions: 7:2 [H 3]; 10:9;
17:12; 22:13, 21 (H 14, 22).

In the NT Satan is described as a *‘roaring lion’’
(I Pet 5:8), but even there he is outdone by the
‘lion out of the tribe of Judah’’ (Rev 5:5). The
thrust here is not ferociousness, but regality.

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 374-87. THAT, I,
pp. 225-28. Gliick, J. J., “‘ ’*ri and lavi (abi’): an
Etymological Study,’ ZAW 81:232-35. Porter, J.
R., “Samson's Riddle: Judges XIV 14, 18,” JTS
13: 106-109. Ullendorff, E., ‘“‘“Contribution of
South Semitics to Hebrew,’ VT 6: 192-93.

V.P.H.

159 S58) ('rh) I, Assumed root of the following.
59a ON C(‘dri’el) — Arriel; ONS
(‘driel) hearth.

These two words can be considered together.
The latter one is used in Ezk 43:15-16. It is a
cultic object, an altar hearth that is superimposed
on the base of the altar, having horns at its four
corners. It may also be the top two sections of a
three tiered altar. Comparison has been made
with this word in Ezekiel and the expression in
the Mesha Inscription, 'r'l dwdh, which Mesha,
the king of Moab, claimed to drag before his na-
tional god Chemosh. Was it an altar he dragged,
or is ‘r’l a personal name, ‘‘my light is-God,’’ or
what? It is difficult to be sure. Cf. II Sam 23:20
and I Chr 11:22.

In both of these verses in Ezekiel there is both
a Kethib (‘‘written’’) tradition and a Qere (“‘spo-
ken’’) tradition. The Kethib is ‘driél and the
Qere is ‘dri’ él.

The word ‘*Aniel’’ occurs in a prophetic oracle
in Isa 29:1,2,7. It is a name given to Jerusalem.
God will bring disaster upon Arnel (Jerusalem)
and make her like an Ariel.

There are at least three possible etymologies
for Ariel as used in Isa. One is to connect it with
the Hebrew words ‘Gri and ‘el, ‘‘the-lion-of-
God.’’ The second is to connect it with a verb,
not used in Hebrew, ‘dra ‘‘to burn’’ with a ‘‘!’
afformative. The third is to relate it to the Akka-
dian word aralia, the name for both the nether-
world and the world mountain. Although the
etymology in Isaiah’s oracle is unclear, the mean-
ing is clear. Israel shall become, under the judg-
ment of God, an Ariel, an altar hearth, that is, the
scene of a holocaust. It will not be an animal that
is burned, but Israel herself will be the victim.
But, God's intervention will prevent total annihi-
lation (29:7).

Bibliography: On the phrase ’r’! dwdh in the
Mesha Inscription: Andersen, F. I., ‘‘Moabite

70

160 <8) (’rz).

Syntax,’’ Or 35: 90. Lipinski, E., *‘Etymological
and Exegetical Notes on the MeSa‘,’’ Or 40:
332-34.

On Ariel: Albright, W. F., ‘‘The Babylonian
Temple Tower and the Altar of Burnt Offering,”
JBL 39: 137-42. May, H. G., “‘Ephod and Ariel,”’
AJSL 56: 44-69. Feigin, S., ‘‘The Meaning of
Ariel,’ JBL 39: 131-37. May, H. G., ‘‘Ephods”’
and *‘Ariel,’’ AJSL 56: 44-69.

V.P.H.

TIAN ('araz). See no. 160e.
"58 (drdn). See no. 166a.

Assumed root of the following.

160a tt98 (erez) cedar.

160b =AIN8& ('arzad) cedar
2:14 only).

160c 8 ('ariz) firm, strong (Ezk 27:24

only).

panels (Zeph

’erez. Cedar. A tree of the pine family, one
which grows best in a high and dry region. The
Talmud (Rosh Hashana 23a), says that the in-
habitants of Palestine called ten different trees
cedar. It is, however, the cedrus libani, the cedar
of Lebanon, that is most widely referred to when
the word ’erez is used in the Bible.

Not only the Israelites saw fit to make use of
this timber. As far back as the reign of Ur-
nammu—late 2000s B.c.—ancient kings from
Mesopotamia came here to arrange for the export
of the cedar of Lebanon to their home. Lebanon
is called, in a text of Naram-sin, ‘‘the cedar
mountain’? (ANET, p. 268). In Egyptian litera-
ture, Wenamon, an official of the Temple at
Amon at Karnak, is sent to Byblos to procure
Lebanon’s cedars for a ceremonial barge of the
god Amon-Re. This takes place in the late King-
dom Period, at the close of the twentieth dynasty.
In Canaanite poetry of the second millennium
B.c. when a palace of Baal was to be built, work-
ers went ‘‘to Lebanon and its timbers, to Shirion
and its choicest cedars,”’ (/lbnn w‘ sh liryn mhmd
arzh) UT 16: Text 51:VI: 20-21.

The average height of such cedars is about
eighty-five feet, though some have measured
over one hundred feet. In trunk circumference
the cedar may reach forty feet. Not infrequently
the tree’s horizontal spread of branches equals its
height. It is also common for this tree to spread
its roots among the rocks and thus secure a
stronghold.

The Lebanon cedar in the Bible is used primar-
ily in building. A particular oil in the cedar pre-
vents destruction by dry-rot and insects. Such
cedar was used on the inside of the temple (I Kgs
6:15, 18); the outside too (I Kgs 7:12); the altar of
incense (I Kgs 6:20). Similar wood was used in
the second temple (Ezr 3:7; Song 1:17(?)). In
addition to buildings cedar was used in the mak-

ing of ship masts (Ezk 27:5) and in religious nites
(Lev: 14:4, 49, 51-52; Num 19:6).

It is only natural that this lofty, firmly-rooted
tree should be used as a metaphor to describe a
person’s or nation’s moral character. It can be
used both positively and negatively. Balaam de-
scribes Israel as a ‘‘cedar beside the waters’
(Num 24:6). She is both secure and prosperous.
The opposite effect is achieved through the
metaphor of Jer 22:23. Jehoiachin assumed his
‘‘nest among the cedars’’ made him inviolate and
immune to judgment. Israel, by God’s grace, has
proliferated, as extensively as the branches of a
cedar (Ps 80:10 [H 11]). Other strong ‘*cedars,”’
however, have flourished by violence, not by
God’s good grace (Isa 2:13; Ezk 31:3; Zech
11:1-2). Such cedars, strong as they may be,
must be broken by God’s power (Jer 22:7; Ps
29:5).

Bibliography: Haupt, Paul, ‘Heb. ’drz,
Cedar, Ass. iré§u, Balsamic Juice,”’ JAOS 45:

322-23. Shewell-Cooper, J. E., ‘‘Cedar,’’ in
ZPEB.
V.P.H.
161 M38 (arah) to wander, journey, keep com-
pany with.
Derivatives
l6la MON (‘Orah) way, path.
l6lb AMON ('drahd) meal, allowance (of
food).
I6lc MMS ('Orha) caravan.

The verb is used five times in the ot. Job is
accused of **keeping company’’ with the workers
of iniquity (34:8). Normally it means ‘‘traveller,”’
one who is on the move (Jud 19:17; I] Sam 12:4;
Jer 14:8, where it is applied to God; Jer 9:2 [H 1)).

’orah. Way, path. Although the word appears
fifty-eight times in the ot, forty-five of them are
limited to three books: Prov, nineteen times; Ps,
fifteen times: Job, eleven times. Most often ’orah
is used in a figurative way, describing the way to
life or to death. It often is parallel with the word
derek, meaning ‘“‘way, lifestyle.’ *“Teach me
your way (derek), O Lord, and lead me ina plain
(?) path (‘6rah),”’ (Ps 27:11). **Do not enter the
path (’6rah) of the wicked, nor go in the way
(derek) of evil men’* (Prov 4:14; cf. Ps 139:3;
Prov 2:8; 12:28; Job 6:18; Isa 30:11).

The contrast is between the way of sin/death
and the way of obedience/life. These exhaust the
options available to man. Man makes his own
choice but he cannot choose his own conse-
quences. The path of life (Ps 16:11; Prov 2:19;
5:6; 10:17; 15:24) corresponds with the path of
integrity (Ps 27:11), the path of upnghtness (Prov
2:13), the path of justice (Prov 2:8; 17:23; Isa
26:8; 40:14), the path of mghteousness (Prov

71

162 358 (arak)

8:20). Conversely, one is to spurn the path of evil
(Ps 119:101) for it is a false path (Ps 119:104, 128).

To follow the path of truth and life is to follow
God’s own path (Ps 25:4, 10; 44:18 [H 19};
119:115, where the word ts a synonym for God's
Torah; Isa 2:3).

The way which one chooses determines one’s
destiny. There is such a thing as the ‘‘road”' of no
return (Job 16:22). Bildad speaks of the *‘fate/
path’’ of all that forget God (Job 8:13). Interest-
ingly, the _xx translates ’O6rah here as ta eschata
‘the end.”’ Proverbs 1:19 indicates, *‘Such is the
‘way/end’ for those who are after dishonest
gain,’ that consequences of evil behavior are in-
trinsic to that action and are not superimposed as
a penalty. Thus the Bible can say that the way
(derek) of the transgressor is hard.

When Jesus contrasts the two ways, the two
doors and the two destinations in the Sermon on
the Mount (Mt 7:13-14), he is basically repeating
the concept of 'drah and derek, as taught in He-
brew wisdom literature. Our Lord’s reference to
himself as “‘the way, the truth, the life’’ means
that Jesus is the way to the truth about life. He is
not the answer. That would be an oversimplifica-
tion. He is the way that leads to the answer. Only
after one steps out on the way does he discover
that Jesus is the truth about life. Wisdom litera-
ture too challenges us to step out on the right
way, the way of life, the way that leads to life.

V..P. Hi.

8) (ari), M98 Caryeh). See no. 158a,b.
288 (Cari’él). See no. 159a.
mas Curya). See no. 158b.

162 338 (arak) to be long.
Derivatives
162a T3198 (‘orek) length.
1626 THIN ('arék) long.
162c T3458 ('arok) long.
162d = AD98) ('ariika) healing.

The verb is used only three times in the Qal
stem: Gen 26:8; Ezk 12:22; 31:5. The remaining
thirty-one occurrences are in the Hiphil stem,
with the meaning ‘‘make long, prolong.’’ As we
will see, the verb is found most frequently in
Deut, eleven times, mostly in the formula, **That
(it may be well with you and that) you may ‘pro-
long’ your days in the land.”

It cannot be denied that God intended for his
creatures, among other blessings, the blessing of
long life. Premature deaths in the Bible are the
exception. ‘drak is used first in this context of
long life in the fifth commandment, **Honor your
father and mother (caring for the elderly?) so that
you may have a long life in the land the Lorp
your God has given you” (Ex 20:12).

163 O38 (dram)

It is in Deut that one finds the heaviest prolif-
eration of the phrase, *‘That you may prolong
your days/your days may be prolonged’’ (Deut
4:26, 40; 5:33 {H 30]; 6:2; 11:9; 17:20; 22:7; 25:15;
30:18; 32:47). In every instance the promise is
prefixed by a moral contingency. It is only as
Israel keeps God's laws and commandments
(Deut 4:40) that she is guaranteed security in her
land.

To be sure, longevity itself is not sacred. The
antediluvians (Gen 5) were bad enough in the first
century of their lives, worse in the second and
third century of their lives, but by the eighth and
ninth centuries they were so hopelessly incorri-
gible that God had to cleanse the earth. Long
years did not produce repentance but hardness of
heart.

The obituaries of the patmarchs reveal the
same. At the end of Abraham's life (175 years) it
is recorded that *‘he died at a ripe old age, an old
man who had lived his full span of years’* (Gen
25:7-8). Virtually the same is said of Isaac (180
years old, Gen 35:28-29). But, by contrast, Jacob
says that his own life (130 years) consisted of
only a few years and unhappy ones at that (Gen
47:8-9). This may be the Bible’s way of saying
that life’s donation is more important than life’s
duration, not how long one lives, but how well
one lives.

’orek. Length. Frequently as a measurement
of some edifice such as the ark (Gen 6:15), the
tabernacle or some part of the same, ora city. In
the latter case one recalls Zechariah’s vision of
the man going forth to measure the ‘‘length’’ and
breadth of Jerusalem about to be rebuilt (Zech 2:2
[H 6]). An angel calls the man back, for God Is
going to make Jerusalem larger than the human
blueprint calls for. It will be a city without walls.
The noun also is used often with the word
‘*day(s)’’ to express a protracted period of time:
Ps 21:4 [H 5]; 91:16; Prov 3:2, 16; Deut 30:20.
‘*Length of days’* might in some contexts signify
the everlasting afterlife, according to Dahood (Ps
23:6; 91:16; Isa 53:10, ya’ arik).

’arék. Long. Appears only in the construct
form ’erek, never in the absolute. It is used fif-
teen times. It is used ten times in connection with
God, four times in connection with man (Prov
14:29; 15:18; 16:32; Eccl 7:8), once in connection
with the wingspread of a bird (Ezk 17:3).
Applied to either God or man it is used most
frequently in construct to the word ’appayim,
and is translated ‘‘longsuffering, slow to anger/
wrath.” Literally, when the Bible says God is
‘longsuffering’ (Ex 34:6; Num 14:18; Ps 86:15,
etc.) it reads *‘God is long of nose.’’ When he is
angry, his nose becomes red and burns. It may be
questioned whether in the living language the
idioms had not already dropped their etymologi-

163 858 (dram) Aram, Syria.

72

cal associations and did not merely mean to be
longsuffering and to be angry. When he is com-
passionate his nose becomes long, so long in fact
that it would take forever to burn completely.

’arok. Long, protracted. Is used only three
times. ‘“‘There was a ‘long’ war between the
house of Saul and of David’’ (II Sam 3:1; com-
pare Jer 29:28; Job 11:9).

V.P.H.

The latter trans-
lation is found in most English versions,
the kJv for example.

The origins of the people called Arameans is
clouded in mystery, but the prevailing view is
that they were a group of western Semitic,
Aramaic speaking tribes who infiltrated the
Fertile Crescent as early as the third quarter of
the second millennium B.c. Their original home
was probably the Syro-Arabian desert.

It is not until much later, however, the last half
of the tenth century B.c. to be specific, that the
Arameans reached the climax of their political
domination in Upper (northwest) Mesopotamia.
The climax of Aramean power in Syria comes in
the ninth century B.c., and parallels and interre-
lates with early developments in the divided
monarchy.

Biblically and geographically, Aram is as-
sociated with Upper Mesopotamia in the Patri-
archal period. Abraham is the brother of Nahor
the grandfather of Aram (Gen 22:20-21). Both
Isaac (Gen 25:20) and Jacob (Gen 28:5) marry
Aramean wives. Jacob himself is described as a
‘wandering Aramean’’ (Deut 26:5). Finally we
may note the extraordinary reference in Amos
9:7. Here it is related that God not only brought
the Israelites from Egypt (south), but also the
Philistines from Caphtor (the west) and the Ara-
means from Kir (northeast, Elam?). Once again
one finds the scriptural affirmation that it is God
who controls the movements and destinies of all
nations.

After the three generations of these patriarchs
no further references in the Bible are to be found
until the time of Saul, a gap of five hundred years
at the bare minimum. The Israelites first come
into hostile contact with the Arameans towards
the end of the eleventh century B.c. in the reign of
Saul (I Sam 14:47, king(s) of Zobah), the action
having shifted now to Syria (Damascus). This
skirmish was to be an ominous harbinger of
things to come between these two peoples. Al-
though David was successful in subjugating the
Arameans (II Sam 8:3; 10:6-19) they regained
their autonomy a generation later under Rezon
during Solomon's period of decline (I Kgs
11:23-25). Again, God had raised Rezon as a ‘‘sa-
tan’’ (adversary) against Solomon (I Kgs 11:23).

Asa, the third king of Judah, was the first to
seek the support of these Arameans against
Baasha king of Israel (I Kgs 15:16-22). Appar-
ently the anomaly of the situation never dawned
on Asa: squabbling believers appealing to unbe-
lievers aS a supportive force. Such policies of
foreign alliance were to perturb the prophets to
no small degree.

Perennial strife between the Arameans and the
northern Israelites really begins during the reign
of Ahab (874-853, I Kgs 20, 22). In the latter case
Ahab is goaded into action by four hundred
clergy of Baal. In opposition to these religious
hirelings, a ‘“four-hundred and first’’ prophet,
Micaiah, urged non-involvement, but was ig-
nored by Ahab. Such irruptions between these
contiguous peoples, halted only by a common
threat to both from the Assyrians, were to last for
over a hundred years, down to the time of
Jeroboam II (783-743 B.c., II Kgs 14:25, 28).

It is no coincidence that the literary prophets
emerge precisely on the heels of this century-old
war, a war that produced in Israel at least a soci-
ety deeply divided between the impoverished
masses and the wealthy few. It is to this cleavage,
with all the accompanying social corruption, that
the early prophets addressed themselves. The
war and its aftermath had created more problems
than it had solved.

Bibliography: DuPont-Sommer, A., **Sur les
Debuts de Histoire Arameenne,’’ Supp VT 1:
40-49. Gibson, J. C. L., ‘Light from Mari on the
Patriarchs,’’ JSS 7: 44-62. , '‘Observa-
tions on Some Important Ethnic Terms in the
Pentateuch,’’ JNES 20: 217-38. Kitchen, K. A.,
in NBD, pp. 55-59. Malamat, A., in Peoples of
Old Testament Times, ed K. A. Kitchen Oxford,
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 134—55. Mazar, Benjamin,
‘‘The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Is-
rael,’’ BA 25: 98-120. Tadmor, H., *‘The South-
em Border of Aram,”’ /srael Exploration Journal
12: 114-22. Unger, M. F., Israel and the Ara-
means of Damascus, James Clark, 1957.

V.P.H.

1644 BSS (‘rm). Assumed root of the following.
l6é4a_ 1158 ('armén) citadel, palace.

This noun is always translated as ‘‘palace’’ in
KIv except Prov 18:19 where the translation is
‘castle.’ It describes a fortified dwelling, usually
a part of the royal complex. Speiser has con-
nected Hebrew ‘armén with the Assyrian root
rama which means principally ‘‘to found a dwell-
ing, to dwell.”

Of the thirty-two uses of ’armén, twenty-two
of them are in the prophetic books, and eleven of
these are found in Amos (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14, etc.).
In each the essence is that God will burn up ‘‘the
palaces’ of a certain individual or nation in di-

166 58

73

165

166 358 (rn)

vine judgment. It may be the Aramean Ben-
Hadad (Amos 1:3); the Philistine city of Gaza
(Amos 1:7); the Phoenician city of Tyre (1:10); of
Edom (Amos 1:12); of Ammon (1:14). One can-
not miss the holy war imagery in such passages.
Because of its arrogance, the nation is deprived
of one or some of its most imposing edifices.

This is not, however, something from which
God guarantees immunity to his own. The
citadels of Jerusalem too will be burned (Amos
2:5; cf. Hos 8:14). Israel's will suffer the same
fate (Amos 3:11). God even hates her citadels
(Amos 6:8) for they are filled with violence and
extortion (Amos 3:10; cf. Lam 2:5, 7; Jer 17:27).
Divine judgment does not spare the house of
God; in fact, it begins there.

Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., ‘‘The Etymol-
ogy of ‘Armon’,”’ JOR 14: 329.

V.P.H.

WS
16Sa

(‘rn) I. Assumed root of the following.
m8 (Coren) fir or cedar. Occurs
only in Isa 44:14.

(‘rn) II. Assumed root of the following.
TN58 ('drén) ark, chest, coffin (asv
and rsv similar).

166a

The Lxx renders kibdtos, Vulgate arca. A
masculine noun which occurs 193 times, it is as-
sumed to derive from the root ’rn.

The noun designates a box used for several
purposes. The remains of Joseph were placed ina
coffin in Egypt for eventual burial in Palestine
(Gen 50:26). Sums of money for the repair of the
temple were collected ina chest (II Kgs 12:10-11;
II Chr 24:8, 10-11).

‘dron is most frequently used for the ark of the
covenant. Noah’s boat, called an ‘‘ark’’ in the
English Bible, is in Hebrew tébd4, not ’drén. As
described in Ex, Bezaleel made the ark of acacia
wood. There were gold rings on the corners
through which staves were placed for carrying it
(Ex 25:10-21; 37:1-9). In size the ark was 2% by
1% by 1% cubits, and was overlaid inside and out
with gold (Ex 25:11). It was surmounted by the
mercy seat (kKapporet) and cherubim with out-
stretched wings. The ark contained the tables of
stone with the law (Deut 10:1-5; Ex 40:20), a pot
of manna, and Aaron’s rod which budded (Heb
9:4). The Damascus Document, fragments of
which were found at Qumran, has the peculiar
tradition that a copy of the Law was in the ark
and it was sealed, which explains why David had
not read it! (C.D.C. 5,3). The ark was set in the
most holy place in the tabernacle.

In the wilderness the ark was carried by the
Levites (Deut 10:8) before the line of march. A
liturgical formula was recited when it was trans-
ported (Num 10:35-36). The ark was prominent

167 PAS Ceres)

at the crossing of the Jordan (Josh 3-4) and in the
capture of Jericho (Josh 6-7). It was at Gilgal
(Josh 7:6), Shechem (Josh 8:33), Bethel (Jud
20:27-28), and later Shiloh (I Sam 3:3). It was
carried into battle against the Philistines at
Aphek. They captured it (I Sam 4:3-11) but it
caused plagues in the Philistine cities (I Sam
6:3-4). It was returned to Israel and for twenty
years remained in the house of Abinadab at
Kiriath-jearim. Finally David brought it up to
Jerusalem (1 Sam 7:1-2; II Sam 6:1ff.; Ps 132:1-
8). Helping move the ark, Uzzah fell dead for
touching it (I1 Sam 6:6—11). After that incident, it
remained three months at the house of Obed
edom. Later it was carried on a military expedi-
tion against the Ammonites (on one interpreta-
tion of I] Sam 11:11), but it remained in
Jerusalem at Absalom’s revolt (IJ Sam 15:24f.).
Solomon placed it in the holy of holies of the
temple (I Kgs 8). The ultimate fate of the ark is a
mystery. Jeremiah 3:16-17 may imply its exis-
tence as late as the time of Nebuchadnezzar. It
was the subject of later Jewish legend (II Macc
2:4f.; T. Sota 13:1; The Lives of the Prophets,
ed. Torrey, I, p. 36). There was no ark in either
Zerubbabel’s or Herod's temple (cf. Josephus,
Wars 5.5.5).

Often designated ‘‘the ark’’ (ha-’adrén), it is
also ‘‘the ark of the Lord’ (Josh 4:11, etc.) and
‘the ark of God’ (J Sam 3:3, etc.). It is called
‘*the ark of the God of Israel’ by the Philistines (I
Sam 5:2-11, etc.). The ark is most often ‘*the ark
of the covenant’’ (‘drén habb‘rit, Num 10:33,
etc.; 184 times), ‘the ark of the testimony”’
(dron ha-‘édat, Ex 25:22, etc.: 13 times); ‘‘the
ark of thy might’’ (Ps 132:8), and once ‘‘the holy
ark’’ (‘dron haqqodesh, II Chr 35:3).

The Wellhausen school assigns the description
of the ark to P and consequently considers it to be
late. The effort to make the ark the empty throne
of God is not based on concrete biblical evidence.
First a container for the tables of stone, the ark
was the visible sign of the presence of God at the
sanctuary. But it was also an object carried into
battle (Josh 6:11). As a powerful symbol of God's
presence it had to be treated with proper respect.
Calamity came to the Philistines, the men of
Bethshemesh, and Uzzah for failure to show it
proper reverence.

Bibliography: Al, pp. 297ff. Davies, G. Hen-
ton, **The Ark of the Covenant,” in IDB, I, pp.
222-26. Gutmann, J., **The History of the Ark,”
ZAW 83: 22-30. Haran, M., ‘The Ark and the
Cherubim: Their Significance in Biblical Ritual,”
Israel Exploration Journal 9: 30-38, 89-94,
, °The Disappearance of the Ark,” Israel
Exploration Journal 13:46-S8. Morgenstern, Ju-
lian, “‘The Ark, the Ephod, and the Tent,”’
HUCA 17:153-265; 18:1-52. Richardson, TWB,
p. 174. Tur-Sinai, N. H., ‘‘The Ark of God at Beth

74

Shemesh (I Sam 6) and Peres Uzza (II Sam 6; I
Chron 13),’’ VT 1: 275-86. Woudstra, Marten H.,
The Ark of the Covenant from Conquest to
Kingship, Presbyterian and Reformed, 1965S.
TDOT, I, pp. 363-73.

J.P.L.

M3398 (arnebet). See no. 123a.

167 YSIS (eres) earth, land, city (-state), (under)

world.

According to KB? (p. 87), this word appears
approximately 2400 times in the or. More specifi-
cally, THAT I, p. 229, remarks that ’eres is the
fourth most frequently used noun in the oT, ap-
pearing 2504 times in the Hebrew sections and 22
times in the Aramaic sections.

The first two meanings listed above are far and
away the most crucial. That is, ’eres designates
either (a) ‘‘the earth’’ in a cosmological sense, or
(b) ‘the land’’ in the sense of a specific territorial
designation, primarily the land of Israel.

In the former meaning, we are informed first
(Gen 1:9-13) that God created the earth on the
third day. All is done here by the divine fiat. The
earth is not the product of a primordial sub-
stance, as is the case in the Babylonian Enuma
Elish where the earth is formed from part of the
cadaver of the fallen and slain deity Tiamat. It is a
sphere that is totally under the control of divine
sovereignty. The earth is the Lord’s (Ps 24:1). He
is its King (Ps 47:2, [H 3]), and its Lord (Ps 97:5).
As such the world is good, and is not to be writ-
ten off as intrinsically evil, the work of a de-
miurge. Absolutely no tinge of an ‘“escapist men-
tality’’ is to be found in the ot. The reader of
Scripture cannot but notice how relatively silent
the oT is about the next life or another world. By
contrast this is a dominating motif in other an-
cient near eastern literature. Can this be one of
the Bible's ways of accentuating the goodness of
the earth. the here and now?

Because the earth ts the Lord's, it ts answer-
able to him. As sin escalated, God determined to
destroy the earth (Gen 9:11). But ultimately our
righteous God is not happy with mere judgment,
for this simply destroys the wicked. It uncreates.
The ultimate expression of righteousness is
neither dis-creativity nor turning the clock back.
It is redemptive righteousness that is ultimate
righteousness. This is why we have the rainbow
covenant. God's intention is to establish a new
heaven and a new earth (Isa 65:17; 66:22; Rev
21:1).

The second major use of ’eres is to designate a
particular territory. Here the references to Pales-
tine are of special significance. The boundaries of
this new land, promised to Abraham and his
seed, are first spelled out in Gen 15:18. It is of

interest that this promise has been fulfilled geo-
graphically only two times, briefly during the
period of David, and again during the time of the
Hasmoneans during the intertestamental period.

This land belongs to the Lord, as does the earth
at large. It is his heritage (I Sam 26:19). The land
is holy only because the God of holiness has
given it to his people. There is nothing intrinsi-
cally sacrosanct about this land any more than
there is about the city of Jerusalem or the temple.
If God departs, the sanctity leaves too.

The world of the Bible is divided into two sec-
tions, Israel and the nations. One is holy, the
Other is impure. Although God governs every-
where, the area of his sanctity and self-revelation
are limited to the boundaries of the land of Israel.
In alien lands the people were not even capable of
worshiping the Lord (Ps 137). This is illustrated
in the book of Jonah. While it is said by the pro-
phet himself that the Lord of heaven rules the sea
and the dry land (1:9), yet he attempts to flee
from the presence of God (1:3, 10). This can only
mean that Jonah attempts to flee from the area of
divine revelation. Here he hopes the land of God
will not come upon him. No wonder then that the
prophet’s messages to the exiles ring with the call
that God will bring his people back to this land.
The meaning *‘underworld”’ (not given in BDB) is
uncertain and appears to depend on the compan.-
son of the usage of some verses of the Psalms
with similar concepts in pagan literature.

Bibliography: ‘eres as underworld: Cross, F.,
and Freedman, D., JNES 14: 247-48. Dahood,
M., Bib 40: 164-66 and elsewhere. Holladay, W.
L., VT 19: 123-24. ’eres as city-state: Dahood,
M., Bib 44: 297-98. , supp VT 16: 46-47.
, Bib 50: 337. Watson, W. E. G., Bib 53:
92-93. General: Barr, JSS 20: 149-64. De Gug-
lielmo, Antonine, *‘The Fertility of the Land in
the Messianic Prophecies,’’ CBQ 19:306—11. Del-
cor, M., ‘‘Les Attaches Litteraires, |’ Origine et
la Signification de l’Espression Biblique ‘Prendre
a Temoin le Ciel et la Terre’,"* VT 16: 8-25. Hen-
rey, K. H., *‘Land Tenure in the Old Testa-
ment,’” PEQ 86: 5-15. Miller, Patrick, D., ‘*The
Gift of God,’ Interp 23: 451-65. Unger, Merrill
F., ‘The Old Testament Revelation of the Crea-
tion of Angels and the Earth,’ BS 114: 206-12.
Whitcomb, John C., ‘‘The Creation of the
Heavens and the Earth,” Grace Journal 8:
26-32. TDOT, I, pp. 388-404. THAT, I, pp.
228-35.

V.P.H.
168 “58 (‘arar) to curse.
Derivative

168a MAN (m°’éra) curse. Used five

times: Deut 28:20; Prov 3:33; 28:27;
Mal 2:2; 3:9.

75

168 38 (‘arar)

A striking fact is that there is such a prolifera-
tion of words in Hebrew which have been gener-
ally all translated *‘to curse.’* The list includes at
least six: ‘@rar, qgdalal, ‘ala, qabab, naqab,
za‘am. To group all of them together under the
one general English equivalent, ‘‘to curse,’ Is
much too superficial. The distinctions between
each have been thoroughly worked out in the
monograph of Brichto (see bibliography).

The verb ’drar occurs sixty-three times in the
oT, most of which are in the Qal (fifty-four). In
this particular stem the most popular form by far
is the passive participle (’aru@r and related forms).
It is used forty times, Deut 27:15ff. and 28:16ff.
accounting for eighteen of those. The verb is also
used twelve times as an antonym of bdrak *‘to
bless’’ (Gen 9:25-26; 12:3; 27:29, etc.).

On the basis of Akkadian ardru ‘‘to snare,
bind’’ and the noun irritu ‘‘noose, sling’’ Brichto,
following Speiser, advances the interpretation
that Hebrew ‘drar means *‘to bind (with a spell),
hem in with obstacles, render powerless to re-
sist.”” Thus the original curse in Gen 3:14, 17,
‘cursed are you above all cattle’ and ‘‘cursed ts
the ground for your sake’’ means “‘you are
banned/anathematized from all the other ani-
mals’’ and ‘‘condemned be the soil (i.e., fertility
to men is banned) on your account.”’ Similarly,
God’s word to Cain, “‘you are cursed from the
earth’? means Cain ts banned from the soil, or
more specifically, he is banned from enjoying its
productivity. Cf. also Josh 9:23; Jud 21:18; I Sam
26:19; I] Kgs 9:34 (barred from proper burial);
Mal 2:2. One recalls the passage where King
Balak of Moab hires Balaam to ‘‘curse”’ the Is-
raelites (Num 22:6ff.). The king wants the magi-
cian to say some word or recite some incantation
that will ‘‘immobilize’’ the Israelites, giving the
Moabite king the necessary opportunity to defeat
his numerically superior foe. Of course such was
not automatically effective. According to Kauf-
mann, “‘The Israelite idea stripped magical ac-
tions of their autonomous, metadivine potency
and made them serve as vehicles for the manifes-
tation of the will of God’ (Y. Kaufmann, Reli-
gion of Israel, p. 84).

It will be observed that the majority of **curse”’
sayings with ‘drar fall into one of three general
categories: (1) the declaration of punishments
(Gen 3:14, 17); (2) the utterance of threats (Jer
11:3; 17:5; Mal 1:14); (3) the proclamation of laws
(Deut 27:15—26; 28:16—19. It is interesting that all
these curse-sayings are a reflex of one violating
his relationship to God. To illustrate from Deut
27:15-26, idolatry (v. 15), disrespect for parents
(v. 16), deceiving one’s neighbor (vv. 17, 24),
manipulating the disadvantaged (vv. 18-19), sex-
ual aberrations (vv. 20, 21, 22, 23), bribery (v. 5),
and not observing God’s law (v. 26) all bring the
condemnation of the curse.

169 O3I958 (drarat)

That curse formulae existed throughout the an-
cient world no one will deny. But the difference
between them and those of the oT are adequately
illustrated in this quote from Fensham: ‘*The
mechanical magical execution of the treaty-
curse... Stands in glaring contrast to the ego-
theological approach of prophetic writings... the
ego of the Lord is the focal point of the threat, the
execution and punishment of a curse... Curses
of the ancient Near East, those outside the Old
Testament, are directed against a transgression
on private property... but the moral and ethical
obligation in connection with his duty to one God
and love to his neighbour is not touched on”’ (pp.
173-74).

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘The
Curse, Blasphemy, the Spell, and the Oath,”’
HUCA 23:73-95. Brichto, H. C., The Problem of
‘‘Curse’’ in the Hebrew Bible, JBL Monograph
Series, vol. XIII, 1963. Fensham, F. C., *‘Com-
mon Trends in Curses of the Near Eastern
Treaties and Kudurru-Inscriptions Compared
with the Maledictions of Amos and Isaiah,”’
ZAW 75:155-75. Gerstenberger, Erhard, *‘The
Woe-Oracles of the Prophets,’’ JBL 81:249-63.
Gevirtz, Stanley, ‘*‘West-Semitic Curses and the
Problem of the Ongins of the Hebrew Law,’’ VT
11:137-S5S8. Lehman, Manfred R., ‘‘Biblical
Oaths,” ZAW 81:74-92. Richardson, TWB, p.
58. Scharbert, J., ‘‘*Fluchen’ und ‘Segnen’ im
Alten Testament,’’ Bib 39: 5-8. Speiser, E. A.,
**An Angelic ‘Curse’: Exodus 14:20,’ JAOS 80:
198-200. TDOT, I, pp. 405-18. THAT, I, pp.
236-40.

V.P.H.

historical and ancient textual evidence Cassuto
concludes, ‘‘None of the identifications of the
biblical Ararat with a specific mountain has any
basis in the Scriptural text, for the expression on
the mountains of Ararat, correctly interpreted,
only connotes a mountain-unspecified-in the land
of Ararat,’ (p. 105).

Debate still continues among ‘‘arkologists’’
whether or not there is an ark-or-anything-at the
top of modern Mount Ararat. There are those
who are. both’ hopeful and _— optimistic
(Montgomery, Morris) and those who are uncon-
vinced and even cynical (Stiebing). The latter
view says that the deluge story is an adaptation of
its Babylonian counterpart, the Epic of Gil-
gamesh, in which it is said of Utnapishti’s boat
that ‘‘on Mt. Nisir the ship landed/Mt. Nisir held
the ship fast, allowing no motion.’’ Of course one
need not be cynical, like Stiebing, to be reserved
about what is being found on Mount Ararat. If the
finds prove to be remains of the ark, this will be a
wonderful confirmation; if they do not prove to
be, the Gen story still stands.

Bibliography: Cassuto, U., Commentary on
Genesis, Il, Jerusalem: Central Press, 1964, pp.
103-105. Montgomery, J. W., The Quest For
Noah's Ark, Minneapolis: Bethany, 1974.
Morris, J. D., Adventure on Ararat, San Diego:
Institute for Creation Research, 1973. Stiebing,
W.H., ‘A Futile Quest: The Search for Noah’s
Ark,’’ BAR 2: 1-2, 13-20. Westermann, C.,
Genesis (Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testa-
ment), 1973, pp. 594-96.

V.P.H.

170 WSs (‘dras) betrothe.

169 8598 (drarat) Ararat, famous as_ the

name of the mountain on which Noah’s ark ‘171 Assumed root of the follow-

WSN (‘drash).

came to rest.

In the Scripture Ararat is both a land and a
mountain. We are told in II Kgs 19:37 and Isa
37:38 that the sons of the Assyrian king Sen-
nacherib fled to this land (in Akkadian, Urartu)
after murdering their father. Urartu was an im-
portant nation around Lake Van in Armenia. It is
now divided between Turkey, the Soviet Union,
Iran, and Iraq. Its period of significance and
power was from the ninth century B.c. until its
destruction in the next century. by the Assyrian
Tiglath-Pileser III. In 612 B.c. it fell to the Medes.
Cf. Jer 51:27.

A careful reading of Gen 8:4 shows that the
Bible does not say that the ark landed on ‘‘Mount
Ararat.’ What it does say is that the ark landed
on ‘‘the mountains (haré) of Ararat.’’ Hence the
NEB translates Gen 8:4 as ‘‘a mountain in
Ararat.’ In this range what ts now called Mount
Ararat is easily the most imposing, rising to
16,900 feet above sea level. After surveying the

76

ing.
17la HWSN8 (‘dreshet) desire, request.
This feminine noun occurs only in Ps
213:

172 WN (ésh) fire.

Derivative
172a tmWs (lishsheh) fire offering.

’esh appears over 375 times in the Bible. Pre-
ponderantly, these references are in the context
of either God’s revelation of himself to man
(theophany) or man’s approach to God (worship
and sacrifice).

According to Gen 3:24, the climax of creation
is a sword of fire (lahat hahereb) placed at the
east of the garden of Eden. The only way man
could get back in was to go through the fire. Asa
climax to God’s covenant with Abraham, a flam-
ing fire (lappid ’ésh) moves between the sepa-
rated pieces of animals (Gen 15:17) as God’s sig-

nature to the contract. The Lord appears to
Moses in/as a flame of fire (Ex 3:2), a fire which
purged the bush of every bug on it and a fire
which protected the bush from any landing buz-
zard or browsing goat. Moses’ response was
one of fear and attraction. He was ‘“‘lashed with
terror, leashed with longing.’’ The nocturnal pil-
lar of fire preceding and following the people of
God in the wilderness guarantees the faithful that
they are led and followed by the divine presence.
It is not hard to believe that the pulse rate and
heartbeat of Moses considerably accelerated
when he ascended Mount Sinai, engulfed in
smoke (Ex 19:18). To take another portion of
Scripture, look at the prophetic literature, the
first chapter of Ezk for example. The prophet’s
life begins with a vision of God which is deter-
minative for the rest of his life. It is a vision
dominated by fire (Ezk 1:26-27). We can ap-
preciate Ezekiel’s problem. He is trying to ex-
plain something he has never seen before, i.e.
God.

What does fire symbolize in the oT? For one
thing it symbolizes judgment. It separates from
the tree of life (Gen 3:24). Sodom and Gomorrah
are consumed by fire (Gen 19:24). Nadab and
Abihu, the sons of Aaron, are consumed by fire
for offering ‘“‘strange fire’’ (Lev 10:1ff.). Was it
because they took the fire from a place outside
the altar area, or were they under the influence of
alcohol, or what? The strategic thing is that they
were disobedient at the point of worship. A simi-
lar experience befell the sons of Korah (Num
16:1 ff.). Ezekiel sees the angelic being scattering
coals of fire over backslidden Jerusalem (Ezk
10:2).

On the other hand fire may symbolize cleans-
ing. On the heels of the war with Midian (Num
31) the priest says that anything that passes
through fire will be clean (Num 31:21-24). Isaiah
saw the temple filled with smoke, saw God’s
glory and was purified (Isa 6). Cf. Mal 3:2 for the
phrase ‘‘refiner’s fire.’’ This means then that to
one fire means death and to another life. To one it
means eternal judgment and to another eternal
blessing. God’s wrath is against all that is impure.

’ishsheh. Fire offering, offering made _ by
fire. The etymology of this word (from ‘ésh or
something else) is debated (Driver). It can be
applied to any offering which was wholly or par-
tially consumed by fire. Thus it is applied to the
burnt offering (Lev 1:9, 13); the cereal/grain of-
fering (Lev 2:3); peace offering (Lev 3:3); the
guilt offering (Lev 7:5); the consecration offering
(Lev 8:28). It is used over sixty times in the oT.

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., “‘Ugaritic and
Hebrew Words,” in Ugaritica VI, Paris, 1969,
pp. 181-84. Gradwohl, R., ‘‘Das *Fremde Feuer’
von Nadab und Abjhu,*’ ZAW 75: 288-96. Miller,

77

176 "SWS (ashshir)

Patrick D., “‘Fire in the Mythology of Canaan
and Israel,’ CBQ 27: 256-61. Morgenstern, Ju-
lian, The Fire upon the Altar, Quadrangle, 1963.
TDNT, VI, pp. 934-41. TDOT, I, pp. 418-28.
THAT, I, pp. 242-46.

V.P.H.

173 WS (ish) There is, there are. Softer form
for the usual yésh. Is used in II Sam 14:19
and Mic 6:10.

174 “Ws (‘shd). Assumed root of the following.
174a tSws (‘eshed) bottom, slope.
1746 MWS (‘dshéda) foundation.

’eshed. Bottom, slope, lower part, which is the
‘construct of ‘ashéd (itself not found in the oT),
appears only in Num 21:15, ‘‘and the ‘slope’ of
the valley/ravine.”

This is in a quote from the otherwise unknown
‘*Book of the Wars of the Lord,’ another witness
to the fact that the or did not exhaust the literary
output of ancient Israel.

In the plural it is ‘dshédét/'ashdot *‘hillsides’’
(Josh 10:40; 12:8). One meets the transliteration
‘‘Ashdothpisgah”’ in the kv in Josh 12:3; 13:20;
Deut 3:17; 4:49. The reference is to the western
slope of Mount Pisgah in Transjordan. From here
Moses viewed the promised land before his
death. {Probably also in Deut 33:2, cf. Niv. R.L.H.]

V.P.H.

175 mws ('shh). Assumed root of the following.
175a MWS ('oshyd) buttress. Occurs
only in Jer 50:15.

mw (Cishsheh). See no. 172a.
mw (ishshad). See no. 137a.

176 “388 (ashshar) Asshur, Assyria, one of
the sons of Shem, the eponymous ancestor
of the Assyrians (Gen 10:22).

The land of Assyria took its name from the city
of Assur, a city on the west bank of the Tigris in
modern Iraq. The city in turn took its name from
the deity Ashur who was primarily a warrior and
a conqueror and whose symbol was an archer
with a winged disk. The god is the symbol of the
city and the state. Assur the god is Assur the
State.

Assyria first emerges, albeit briefly, as an in-
dependent state on the heels of the Ur III dy-
nasty, c. 2000 B.c. After this period of autonomy
the Assynian state fell under the control of foreign
rulers for about five hundred years, first the
Amorites, then the Hurrians.

The first person to claim the title “‘king of the
land of Assyria’’ was Assuruballit (c. 1362-1327
B.c.). The empire reached its zenith in its earlier
expansion under Tukultininurta I (c. 1244-1208
B.c.), the period of the conquest and the judges,

177

178

177 3W8 (’eshek)

but it had no apparent contact with Israel at this
time. With the exception of the reign of Tiglath-
pileser I (c. 1115-1077 B.c.) Assyria went once
again into several centuries of weakness and
eclipse. They were never a threat to Israel during
the period of the United Monarchy.

It is, however, in the pernod of the divided
monarchy, especially the ninth century B.c., that
there takes place an Assyrian resurgence that is
to present Israel with a threat she has never en-
countered before, something she never had to
face from the earlier Philistines, Moabites, etc.
That threat is the ominous appearance of a milli-
tant, hostile people with worldwide conquering
ambitions. No longer is the concern simply bor-
der skirmishes. Now it is a fight for the right to
existence. Surely it can be no accident or coinci-
dence that shortly after this Assyrian resurgence
there appears in Israel a new institution, the clas-
sical, literary prophets who will put these hercu-
lean nations into historical and theological
perspective.

It is the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (859-
825 B.c.) who is the progenitor of this revitaliza-
tion and the harbinger of still worse things to
come for Israel. The initial sparks were lit at the
battle of Qarqar (not mentioned in the Bible) on
the Orontes River in Syria in 853 B.c. This was a
confrontation between Shalmaneser and a coali-
tion that included, among others, Syria and Israel
(under Ahab). Any hopes Jsrael had for survival
were virtually wiped out a century later by
Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 s.c.). It is he who
began the policy of incorporating the conquered
territory into the empire as provinces. It was also
he who used to a greater advantage than any be-
fore him the policy of transplanting conquered
populations. Under Shalmaneser V Israel fell in
722 B.c., by now litthe more than a formality.

The literary prophets saw in these epochal
events, culminating in 722 B.c., the first decisive
fulfillment of their collective interpretation of his-
tory. Isaiah had viewed Assyria as the Lord's
tool for chastening his people (5:26-29; 10:5-19).
But interestingly, no specific Assyrian king is ac-
corded a title as is the Babylonian Nebuchadnez-
zar (“my servant’’) or the Persian Cyrus (“‘my
anointed one’). In the end Assyria destroyed
God's people only after God's people had de-
stroyed themselves.

V.P.H.

“We (adshir). See no. 183c.
mews Cadshisha). See no. 185d.
mwes (‘oshyd). See no. !75Sa.

SWS (eshek) testicle. Occurs only in Lev
21:20, in phrase m°réah ‘ashek.

M2wWs Ceshkol) (grape) cluster.

78

179 Sw

180 oYS (‘dsham)

Three times the word is used in the Song of
Solomon to describe the physical attraction be-
tween the lovers: she about him (Song 1:14); he
about her (Song 7:7-8 [H 8-9]).

Such “‘clusters’’ of grapes were either delici-
ous for eating (Mic 7:1; Deut 32:32) or for prepa-
ration in the making of wine (Isa 65:8). Such clus-
ters were used in the beverage served to the
Egyptian Pharaoh, as indicated by the dream of
Joseph’s cellmate, the chief butler (Gen 40:10).

Numbers 13:23-24 refers to the brook Eshcol,
a body of water near Hebron (probably to the
north), discovered by the Hebrew spies who had
been despatched by Moses to reconnoiter the
land of Canaan. The name was given to this
brook because of the “‘clusters’’ of grapes that
there were, clusters so large that they had to be
carried on a pole between two men. A charac-
teristic of the land of promise is its lushness and
fertility, a land flowing with milk and honey. It
will be the same in the eschatological day, a land
in which there will be abundance of wine.

Herdner claims to have found the same root in
a Ugaritic text, 'wtkl, but Gordon does not list
such a word in his Ugaritic glossary.

Bibliography: Herdner, A., “Un nouvel
exemplaire du rituel RS 1929 n°3,°° Syria 33: 104.

V.P.H.

(‘sh/). Assumed root of the following.

179a OW) (’éshel) tamarisk tree.

be desolate, be guilty, to of-
fend, to acknowledge offense, to trespass. (ASV
and rsv prefer the terms ‘‘guilt’’ and
‘‘guilty’’ more than “‘trespass,° and NEB
does not hesitate to use words like repara-
tion, compensation, penalty and punish-

ment.)
Derivatives
80a BW (Cadshém) faulty.
1I80b TEYR (Gxhem) guiltiness.
180c TW Cashma) _ sin.

The primary meaning of the word ‘dasham
seems to center on guilt. but moves from the act
which brings guilt to the condition of guilt to the
act of punishment. In any particular passage it is
often difficult to determine which thrust the word
has. The word is used with its derivatives 103
times. Synonyms such as ‘@wo6n and rasha‘
often are translated with the word, **guilty,”” but
normally their meanings are ‘“‘iniquity”’ and
‘*wicked,’’ respectively. The word is used in
Ugaritic in the cognate ‘tm (UT 19: no. 422; Ais
WUS no. 474).

The verb 'dsham occurs in the Pentateuch in
Leviticus, chapters four, five and six, and in
Numbers 5:6-7. The setting is cultic but also

ethical. Any individual who had sinned was a
guilty person. A procedure of obliterating guilt is
outlined. Normally, restitution must be made ac-
cording to cash values, plus a twenty percent
cash penalty. An animal of specified value was
brought to the priest, sin was confessed and the
animal sacrificed in a specific manner. The goal
was atonement and forgiveness.

In Jud 21:22 the verb seems to represent the
consequences of breaking a vow. In II Chr 19:10,
the first use of ‘dsham stresses guilt as a result of
breaking the law of God; whereas, the second
applies to the judges who must warn people that
sin has consequences.

A contrast between punishment and redemp-
tion is apparent in Ps 34:21-22 [H 22-23]. In this
instance, ’dsham is the punishment itself. The
sting of an inner guilt feeling is absent in Prov
30:10 also, for it points to the possible falseness
of an accusation made against a slave.

An exhortation (Hos 4:15) not to offend (Rsv
‘‘be guilty,’ NEB ‘‘guilt offering’’) is directed to
Judah. Was Judah not to play the harlot like Is-
rael, or not to incur guilt? Compare with 5:15
where Ephraim is depicted as being punished by
God but they need to realize their offence (Rsv
‘‘guilt’’), that they were sinners. The next verse,
6:1, indicates possible salvation.

Hosea 10:2 says Israel is found faulty (Rsv
‘bear their guilt,"” note NEB “‘they are mad’).
Guilt is understood as the consequence of idol
worship and of a divided heart (NEB ‘“crazy’’), but
punishment was yet to come. In Hos 13:1, ‘‘of-
fended”’ (Rsv ‘‘guilty’’) points to acts of sin, but
the next verse shows Israel still sinning and
punishment is not mentioned until 13:3. Isaiah
24:6 and Joel 1:18 depict 'dsham as the end result
of sinning, even affecting animals.

Jeremiah (2:3) declared that those who devour
Israel shall offend (rsv *‘became guilty,’ NEB ‘“‘no
one... went unpunished’’). Is the meaning of
‘asham the act of sin, the condition of guilt, or
the end result of punishment? Since the last
phrase in verse three speaks of a future evil, RSv
would seem to be correct. The same is true of Jer
50:7.

In Ezk 6:6 guilt is the condition after punish-
ment has happened. On the other hand, in 22:4,
guilt is the consequence of idol worship but be-
fore punishment (cf. v. 15). So also 25:12, and
Hab 1:11. In response to Zechariah’s preaching,
the rulers claimed they are not guilty (11:5), even
while killing people. But lack of a guilt feeling will
not forestall judgment.

Throughout these passages, '@sham varies in
stress, It may denote acts of sin, responsibility
for sin, punishment, and even the aftermath of
punishment. Perhaps, one may hold that the
‘asham connotes the totality of alienation from
God, including tts consequences.

79

180 Ys (’shl)

’asham. Guiltiness, offering for sin, sin, trespass,
trespass offering. | With a few exceptions this
masculine noun denotes the trespass offering
(RSV, NEB ‘guilt offering’). In Gen 26:10
Abimelek refers to a possible sin and its resulting
guiltiness (Rsv ‘“‘brought guilt,’° NEB *‘make us li-
able to retribution’). The NEB probably has
caught the basic meaning here. kKJv has “‘tres-
pass,’’ in Lev 5:7,15 but more correctly asv
“trespass offering,’ Rsv “‘guilt offering.’’ All
other twenty-two times in Lev the meaning is
‘‘trespass offering."’ The same is true of Num-
bers 5:7-8; 6:12; 18:9, of I Sam 6:3-4, 8, 17; of II
Kgs 12:16, and of Ezk 40:39; 42:13; 44:29; 46:20
and of Isa 53:10. But in Ps 68:21 [H 22] 'dsham is
sin (RSV ‘‘wrongs,’’ ASV ‘‘guiltiness’’), and
punishment is threatened. What of ’dsham in
Prov 14:9? kjv has ‘‘mocks at sin,’’ Rsv has
‘‘wicked,’’ NEB has ‘‘too arrogant to make
amends.’’ None denote guilt, per se.

’ashm&. Sin, cause of trespass, trespass offering.
The kKJv translates mostly ‘‘trespass’’ or ‘‘sin,”’
l.e. the acts of sin, but marginal readings some-
times have ‘‘guiltiness’’ (asv, RSV prefer ‘‘guilt’’
or ‘‘guilty’’) in Lev 4:3; 22:16. Joab argued that
numbering of Israel was cause for trespass (ASsv,
‘‘cause of guilt,’ Rsv ‘‘bring guilt’’) in I Chr 21:3.
In IE Chr 24:18; 28:10,13; 33:23, kv regards
‘ashma as ‘‘sin or trespass,’’ but asv and Rsv
sometimes prefer “‘guilt..” Does the noun desig-
nate the acts of sin or liability to penalty before
God? The same observation holds true of Ezr
9:6—7,13,15; 10:10,19, but all three versions agree
that sins (RSV “‘wrongs'’) are intended in Ps 69:5
[H 6] and Amos 8:14, though rsv and NEB simply
transliterate the Hebrew as though it were the
name of a goddess.

’ashem. Faulty, that which is faulty. The kv
translates this adjective in Gen 42:21 as ‘“‘guilty”’
(ASV, RSV, Same) and is the rare instance where a
feeling of guilt is associated with the word. II
Samuel 14:13 1s more legalistic. David is faulty
(asv, ‘“‘guilty,’’ RSV ‘‘convicts himself’). And
probably in Ezr 10:19 being ‘‘guilty’’ (ksv, asv ) is
better than ‘‘guilt-offering™’ (Rsv).

In summary, the root ’dsham includes acts of
sin, responsibility for them, punishment and its
aftermath or, as an alternative, atonement. The
word denotes any breach of God's covenant with
Israel and any divine act of dealing with it,
whether punishment or atonement.

Bibliography: Kellerman, Diether, ** ‘A8am in
Ugarit?”* ZAW 76: 319-22. Kidner, F. D., Sac-
rifice in the Old Testament, London: Tyndale,
1952. Morris, Leon, ** ‘asham,’’ EQ 30: 196-210.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 207, 226-29. Ringgren,
Helmer, Sacrifice in the Bible, Association
Press, 1963. Snaith, N. H., ‘‘The Sin Offering

181 AWS Cashshap)

and the Guilt Offering,” VT 15: 73-80. TDOT, I,
pp. 429-37. THAT, I, pp. 251-56.
G.H.L.

181 Awe ('ashshap) astrologer, enchanter, ex-
orcist (JB), conjurer, necromancer (BDB).

The word ’ashshap describing some vaniety of
occultist appears in both Hebrew and Aramaic.
In the Aramaic form the middle letter is not dou-
bled. All occurrences are in the book of Daniel
(1:20 and 2:2 [Heb]; 2:10, 27; 4:4; 5:7, 11, 158
[Aramaic]). The Assyrian Gshipu means the
same.

The meaning of this word must be determined
solely by context, since no etymology is appar-
ent. Perhaps it is a loan word from Babylonia and
related to the Assyrian shiptu (‘‘conjuration’’).
Since the word is found only in Daniel, this is all
the more likely. The Hebrew word ‘ashpda is
made from the same letters and means ‘‘quiver”’
(Job 39:23; Ps 127:5; Isa 22:6, 49:2; Jer 5:16; Lam
3:13), but any connection of meaning would be a
guess although arrows were sometimes used in
divination (Ezk 21:21 [H 27]}).

In Dan 1:20 ‘’ashshadpim are parallel to har-
tummim (magicians, qg.v.), while in 2:2 they are
also grouped with the m° kashsh* pim (sorcerers)
and kasdim (Chaldeans). The Aramaic word
gdz°rin (soothsayers/astrologers) in the lists of
Dan 4:7, 5:7, and 11 is the equivalent of the Heb
m®kashsh* pim used elsewhere.

Bibliography: Cornfeld, G., ‘‘Magic, Divina-
tion and Superstition,’ in Pictorial Biblical En-
cyclopedia, Macmillan, 1964.

R.L.A.

182 ws ('shp). Assumed root of the following.
182a MEY ('ashpad) quiver for
arrows. Derivation uncertain
182.1 “pws (adshpdr) date cake. Meaning un-

certain.

183 “SYN ('ashar) to go (straight), walk.

Derivatives

183a t3W8 (esher), IY Cashar)
happiness, blessedness.

183b t3W8 ('dsher) happiness.

183c T"IWS ('dsh&ar), WW ('ashar) step,
going.

183d T3WN (‘dshar) step, going.

183e T3888 ('dshér) Asher.

183f 8 axsws (dshurim) boxwood.

183g IWR (f°’ashshir) boxtree.

183h 9 MSWR ('dshérd), BWR ('ashéra)
Ashera.

The verb occurs in the Qal only in Prov 9:6,
‘*go/walk in the way of understanding.”’ In the

80

Piel it is used eleven times with several nuances
of which the most prominent is ‘‘to bless, called
blessed’’: Gen 30:13; Mal 3:12, 15; Job 29:11; Ps
72:17; Prov 31:28; Song 6:9; similarly in two
cases in the Pual, Ps 41:2 [H 3}; Prov 3:18. The
relationship, if any, between Qal ‘‘to go”’ and Piel
‘‘to bless”’ is not apparent. Two derivatives each
come from the meaning “‘bless,’’ and ‘‘to walk.”’

There are two verbs in Hebrew meaning ‘‘to
bless.’” One is barak and the other ’dshar. Can
any differences between them be tabulated? For
one thing bdrak is used by God when he ‘‘bles-
ses’ somebody. But there is no instance where
‘ashar is ever on God’s lips. When one *‘blesses’’
God the verb is bdrak, never 'dshar. One sugges-
tion to explain this sharp distinction, i.e. that
'ashar is reserved for man, 1s that ’dshar is a
word of envious desire, *‘to be envied with desire
is the man who trusts in the Lord.’’ God is not
man and therefore there are no grounds for aspir-
ing to his state even in a wishful way. Similarly
God does not envy man, never desires something
man is or has, which he does not have, but would
like to have. Therefore God never pronounces
man ‘‘blessed’’ (’ashré) (Janzen). It should also
be pointed out that when barak is used the initia-
tive comes from God. God can bestow his bless-
ing even when man doesn’t deserve it. On the
other hand, to be blessed ('ashré), man has to do
something. Finally, bdarak is a_ benediction,
‘a€shar more of a congratulation. The former is
rendered by eulogétos in the Lxx and the latter by
makarios.

To be ‘‘blessed’’ (’ashré), man has to do some-
thing. Usually this is something positive. A
‘‘blessed’’ man, for example, is one who trusts in
God without equivocation: Ps 2:12; 34:8 [H 9];
40:4 [H 5]; 84:5 [H 6]; 84:12 [H 13]; 146:5; Prov
16:20. A ‘‘blessed’’ man is one who comes under
the authority of God’s revelation: his Torah, Ps
119:1; 1:2; Prov 29:18; his word, Prov 16:20; his
commandment, Ps 112:1; his testimony, Ps 119:2;
his way, Ps 128:1; Prov 8:32. The man who is
beneficent to the poor is blessed (Ps 41:1 [H 2]);
Prov 14:21). Note the negative approach of Ps 1,
‘‘blessed is the man who does not.”’ He isolates
himself and shuns the company of certain people,
the ungodly. The psalm ends by noting that it is
precisely these ungodly who will in the end be
isolated. They will not stand in the judgment.
They will be conspicuous by their absence for
they will perish.

’esher. Happiness, bliss. Always occurs as
’'ashré, usually defined as the masculine plural
construct of the noun ’esher (which form is non-
existent in the Hebrew Bible), ‘‘O the happi-
ness\es) of.’’ Perhaps ‘‘bliss’’ would be a better
translation. It is used forty-four times in the oT,
twenty-six of which are in the Psalter and eight in

Prov. It appears in the Pentateuch only in Deut
33:29, in the historical books only in I Kgs 10:8
(= II Chr 9:7), and in the prophets in Isa 30:18;
32:20; 56:2.

Osher. Happiness, a hapax legomenon, used
in Gen 30:13, “‘What happiness is mine.”

’Ashor, ’ashshur. Step, going, feet, the latter
form occurring in Job 31:7 and Ps 17:11.

Both words are confined to Ps (six times), Job
(two times), and Prov (once). Dahood (see bib-
liography) has argued for the existence of the
word in Eccl 7:26, *‘The feet of her are dragnets’’
(‘dsher > ‘dshuré).

It should be observed that in the six Ps pas-
sages the noun is often used in parallel with a part
of the body. In Ps 17:5 it is parallel with pa‘am
‘foot’: in Ps 37:31 with /éb ‘‘heart’’; in Ps 40:2
(H 3] with regel ‘‘foot’’ and again in 73:2; and
finally in Job 31:7, here in conjunction with both
léb ‘‘heart’’ and ‘ayin ‘‘eye.’’ All this lends cre-
dence to the possibility that ’dshdr also refers to
some part of the body, feet, or legs.

In Scripture the word is used metaphorically,
meaning something like ‘“‘lifestyle.’’ It may em-
phasize the believer’s fidelity to God’s way: Ps
17:5; 44:18 [H 19]; 73:2; Job 31:7; Prov 14:15. The
word may also be used in a context affirming
God’s faithfulness in helping one to keep in his
way: Ps 40:2 [H 3]; 37:31.

*ashéer. Asher, Jacob’s second son by Zilpah,
the handmaid of Leah. Chronologically he is
Jacob’s eighth-born son. The name is to be re-
lated to the verb ’Gshar in the Piel meaning of *‘to
bless,’ the ‘‘happy, fortunate one,’’ akin to the
name Felix in the New Testament.

The specific etymology is found in Gen 30:13:
‘‘And Leah said, what fortune (b°’oshri, ‘happy
am I’ inkJv) for the daughters will call me blessed
(ishsh® rani), and she called his name Asher
(‘ashér).”’ Albright has discovered a related
word, albeit feminine, analogous to Asher in a list
of Egyptian slaves from the eighteenth century
B.c. It appears there as ‘sh-ra. Further Pen-
tateuchal references to Asher may be found in the
blessing of Jacob (Gen 49:20) and in the blessing
of Moses (Deut 33:24-26). The former passage
underscores the fertility of the land as does the
latter.

In the land partition section of Joshua the terri-
tory assigned to the tribe Asher comes third from
the end (Josh 19:24-31) followed only by Naph-
taliand Dan. It was alloted territory in northwest
Palestine, not far from the Phoenician cities of
Tyre and Sidon. Biblical Israel does not appear to
be homogeneous. Its systems of twelve tribes
embraced populations with contrasting ways of
life. Asher, along with Zebulon and Dan, were
navigational. As such, they had more in common

81

183 Wk (dshar)

with the Phoenicians and the Philistines than they
did with the inland Hebrews who were landlub-
bers. Their likenesses to each other would be
akin to those of a man from Kansas and a man
from Maine.

The Asher tribe never produced any religious
or political leader throughout her history, not
even during the days of the frequent appearances
of the charismatic judges. Deborah even has to
reprimand them for their unwillingness to partici-
pate in the fight against the Canaanites. They pre-
ferred to stay in more familiar surroundings, the
seacoast, rather than to commit themselves to
battling the enemy and making themselves vul-
nerable (and not only have the Ashentes been
guilty of this!).

’ashera. Asherah. Both a Canaanite goddess
and a wooden cult object in the ot. The word is
translated ‘‘groves’’ in the KJv presumably on the
basis of the Lxx alsos and nemus in the Vulgate.
Before examining the oT itself we turn to the fa-
mous Ugaritic texts from Ras Shamra. It is they
which tell us who Asherah was. Her name 1s a
feminine participle of the Ugaritic verb ‘tr (Heb
’ashar ‘‘to go’’). One of her titles is rabbatu
atiratu yammi, ‘‘Lady Atirat of the Sea,’’ or ‘‘the
lady who treads on the sea.’”’ She is the consort or
wife of the divine El, and as such enjoys the title
qaniyatu elima, ‘‘progenitress/creatress of the
gods.’’ Her most famous son was Baal. A charac-
teristic of all mythological literatures is ‘‘in the
beginning there were two.” In the Bible, how-
ever, we meet “‘in the beginning there was one.”’
The issue is not simply arithmetic. The fact that
one does not read about Mrs. God in Gen | and 2
may be one of the Bible’s ways of stating that
only God finds fulfillment in himself.

In one of the famous mythological texts from
Ugarit, the Kret epic, it is predicted to Kret of his
bnde that ‘‘she will bear you seven sons/and an
eighth (daughter) ‘Octavia’/she will bear you the
lad Yasib/who will suck the milk of Asherah.”’
Hence, (divine) life is guaranteed and be-
queathed.

To turn to the oT, there is no actual description
of an Asherah there. Was it a tree, a pole, some
kind of tree symbol, an image? It apparently was
not a natural object but one that was constructed
by man, an artifact. It was ‘‘made’’: I Kgs 16:33;
II Kgs 17:16; 21:3; it was **set up’’: II Kgs 17:10;
II Chr 33:19; Isa 27:9; it was ‘“‘built’’: I Kgs 14:23.
Only once is the verb ‘‘to plant’’ used, Deut
16:21, and here the meaning is ‘*implant.’’ The
conclusion then is that in the ot Asherah stands
for the Canaanite goddess represented by a
carved wooden image implanted into the ground,
usually adjacent to an altar dedicated to the god
Baal and located on a hilltop under a leafy tree
(Patai).

184

184 3WS ('adsher)

It is in the period of the divided monarchy that
the Asherah cult flourished both in Israel and
Judah, though its existence before is documented
by the command in Ex 34:13, the prohibition of
Deut 16:21, and the incident at the threshold of
Gideon's life of service to God, Jud 6:25ff. Re-
hoboam’s career marks the beginning of this in
Judah (I Kgs 14:23). In the north the cult received
its greatest momentum from the incentive of
Jezebel who was responsible for the presence of
‘four hundred prophets of Asherah’’ (I Kgs
18:19). Even a reform-minded king such as Asa
(I Kgs 15:13) or later Hezekiah (II Kgs 18:4) was
unable to liquidate the movement. It was
knocked down, but not knocked out. There was
an almost inevitable resurrection even in the
wake of reform. Compare son Manasseh’s policy
(II Kgs 21:7, even to the point of placing the
image in the temple) on the heels of father
Hezekiah’s reform (II Kgs 18:4). Apostasy and
idolatry just behind revival! What one generation
attempts to get rid of a subsequent generation
may trot back in, however reprehensible it may
be. All too frequently this has been the pattern in
the human race.

Bibliography: ‘dshar, 'ashré: TDOT I, pp.
445-48. THAT I, pp. 257-60. Dahood, M.,
‘*Hebrew-Uganitic Lexicography I,’’ Bib 44: 298.
Hillers, D. R., ‘‘Delocutive Verbs in Hebrew,”’
JBL 86: 321-22. Kaser, W., ‘‘Beobachtungen
zum altestamentlichen Makarismus,’’ ZAW 82:
225-250. Lipinski, E., “‘Macarismes et psaumes
de congratulation,’’ RB 75: 321-67.

'ashér: Albnght, W. F., ‘‘Northwest-
Semitic Names in Light of Egyptian Slaves from
the Eighteenth Century B.C.,’’ JAOS 74: 229.
Witfali, W., ““Asshur and Eber, or Asher and
Heber?’’ ZAW 82: 110-13.

‘ashéra: TDOT I, pp. 438-44. Albright, W.
F., Yahweh And The Gods of Canaan, Double-
day, 1968, pp. 121-24. Barr, J., ‘Seeing the
Wood For the Trees? An Enigmatic Ancient
Translation,’ JSS 13: 11-20. Patai, R., “‘The
Goddess Asherah,’’ JNES 24: 37-52. Reed, W.
L., The Asherah In The Old Testament, Texas
Christian University, 1949.

V.P.H.

"Ws (‘dsher) who, which, the relative
particle used very frequently in the Hebrew
Bible (Mandelkern’s concordance uses al-
most twenty pages, small print, four col-
umns to each page, to list all of the occur-
rences).

By contrast, the relative particle she- is used
only sporadically in several books of the Bible,
Jud, Ps, Song of Solomon for example. In Eccl
the relative she-, however, is used almost as
much as the relative ‘dsher (eighty-nine times for

82

the latter, sixty-eight times for the former accord-
ing to BDB, p. 9796, but Dahood in Bib 33: 45
lists the ratio as 89/67).

Taking into consideration the prolific use of
‘dsher in biblical Hebrew, it is of interest to ob-
serve that the equivalent has turned up only once
in the Ugantic texts: UT 16: Text 2060:34-35,
’atr it bgt w stn ly ‘‘find out what is available and
write to me.’’

To be sure, the preponderant use of ’dsher is
as a normal relative, usually with an expressed
antecedent. But there are other nuances.
Wilhams (see bibliography) lists seven syntacti-
cal uses of the particle and surely more could be
added by other Hebrew grammarians. For exam-
ple, one use of ‘dsher is to express result: ‘* ‘So
that’ if man could number the dust of the earth’
(Gen 13:16). Another is to express purpose:
‘*Keep his statutes... ‘that’ it may go well with
you’’ (or is this result? Deut 4:40); ‘‘I am going
out to the field to glean among the sheaves ‘in
order to’ find favor in his eyes’’ (Ruth 2:2, a
translation missed by both k!v and rsv; Sasson,
Interpretation 30: 418). A third is to introduce a
causal statement: ‘‘They plundered the city ‘in
reprisal for/because of their sister’? (Gen 34:27).
A category not noticed by Williams is that in Ps
71:20, ***Although’ you made me see trou-
bles... you will restore me to life,’ a concessive
use of 'dsher (note how the kJv inserts a word in
italics to make sense once it has settled on the
translation of ’dsher as “‘which’’).

On a number of occasions ’dsher is affixed to
prepositions, for example ba’dsher (nineteen
times), but much more often with k°-ka’dsher
(see the adequate outline of meanings in BDB, p.
455).

Bibliography: BDB, pp. 81-84. Archer, G., A
Survey of Old Testament Introduction, Moody,
1964, pp. 465-66. Gaenssle, C., ‘*“The Hebrew
Particle ’shr,’’ AJSL 31: 3-66, 93-159. Gevirtz,
S., ‘On The Etymology of the Phoenician Parti-
cle ’sh,’’ JNES 16: 124-27. Gordon, C., Ugaritic
Textbook, p. 369. Williams, R. J., Hebrew Syn-
tax: An Outline, University of Toronto, 1967, pp.
77-78.

V.P.H.

185 wws ('shsh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

185Sa MYyws (‘dshishad) raisin-cake, which
is consistently translated in the
KJV as ‘‘flagons (of wine).’’

The word occurs in Ugaritic as ’atit, but the
precise etymology is obscure. Driver connects it
with an Arabic root meaning ‘‘inflorescence of
the grapevine’’ and together with the translation
in Aquila (oinanthé) suggests that ‘dshisha
means: (1) the inflorescence of the palm studded

with numerous flowers and a grape vine covered
with berries, and (2) a raisin-cake resembling
such a clump of berries pressed into a solid mass.

The word is used only five times in the oT. In II
Sam 6:19 (= I Chr 16:3) we are told that David, in
the process of bringing the ark to Jerusalem, gave
out a bread roll, some dates (?), and a raisin-cake
to his people. That such a food item was delecta-
ble is substantiated by the third use of ‘dshisha,
Song 2:5, *‘Feed me with raisin-cakes... with
apples.’” See also Isa 16:7 (NIV).

The last reference is Hos 3:1, ‘*“As Yahweh
loves the children of Israel although they turn to
other gods and love raisin-cakes.’’ The last part
of this verse may also be translated, ‘To other
gods who love raisin cakes.’’ The meaning is not
clear. Most likely the reference here is to similar
‘sacrificial cakes’’ (kKawwadnim) that the people
made for or offered to the ‘‘queen of heaven,”’
i.e. Ishtar, the Assyrian goddess of fertility (Jer
7:18; 44:17-19). The point would be then that
God’s love for his own is a longsuffering love.
Even participation in obnoxious pagan rites by
the covenant peoples does not move God to ab-
rogate his love for them.

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., **Hebrew Notes
on ‘Song of Songs’ and ‘Lamentations’’’ in
Festschrift Alfred Bertholet, Tubingen: J.C.B.
Mohr, 1950, p. 144.

V.P.H.

186 mS ('ét) I. Untranslated particle.

An untranslated particle in Hebrew often de-
scribed in grammars (somewhat superficially) as
the sign of the direct object after a transitive
verb. Its origin is unknown. The prevailing view
is that 'ét was originally a noun meaning “‘es-
sence, substance, self,’’ a significance which it
subsequently lost in the historical development of
the language.

When 'éz is used to signify an accusative (nota
accusativi) it is generally, though not always, in
prose and when the object of the verb is deter-
mined by the definite article. More important
than indicating an accusative, the function of ’éf
is to emphasize the word to which it is attached.

For this reason one observes that ‘éf is used
not only with the accusative but with the subject
(nota nominativi) of both intransitive and passive
verbs. Copious illustrations could be offered but
two will suffice. With ‘ét as subject of an intransi-
tive verb compare II Kgs 6:5: **The axe-head fell
into the water’ (w*’et-habbarzel ndpal 'el-
hammayim). With ’ét as subject of a passive verb
compare Gen 17:5: ‘And your name (‘et-shimka)
shall no more be called Abram.”

To summarize, ‘éf was originally a substan-
tive, and was used to emphasize the noun to
which it was prefixed. In the course of time the

83

187 AS (et)

emphatic meaning was lost and ’ét became a par-
ticle with no special meaning.

Bibliography: On a similar particle in other
Semitic languages and texts: Andersen, F. I.,
‘*Moabite Syntax,’ Orientalia 35: 117-18.
Leahy, T., *‘Studies in the Syntax of IQS,”’ Bib
41: 152-54.

On Biblical Hebrew ’ér: Hoftijzer, J.. ‘‘Re-
marks Concerning the Use of the Particle ’r in
Classical Hebrew,’’ Oudtestamentische Studién
14: 1-99. MacDonald, J.,.°‘The Particle ‘rf in
Classical Hebrew,’ VT 14: 263-75. Saydon, P.
P., ‘Meanings and Uses of the Particle ’1,’° VT
14: 192-210. Walker, N., ‘“Concerning the Func-
tion of ‘eth,”’ VT S: 314-15.

V.P.H.

187 AS ('ér) HI, with, together with.

On occasions there is a different nuance. To
illustrate, ‘I have gotten a man ‘from’ (‘ef-) the
Lord’’ (Gen 4:1). “*The Lord... will fight for you
(lakem), according to all he did ‘for’ you (‘it-
t°_kem) in Egypt’ (Deut 1:30). ‘I have not sinned
against you (/dk) but you are doing evil ‘against’
me (itt?) to fight against me (bi)’’ (Jud 11:27).

To return to the basic meaning “‘with,”” this
preposition is used frequently in a particular
theological context. This is (a) in the promises of
God to man: ‘*I am/will be with you’; (b) affirma-
tions from man that God ts indeed with them; (c)
prayers of petition that God may be with them.
The scripture then is replete with the idea that
God calls his people to fellowship with himself,
be it in the garden of Eden, in the odyssey of an
Abraham, in a covenant situation at Sinai, in the
tabernacle, in a wilderness, crossing a Jordan,
entering a Canaan, and so forth. At this point we
should observe that the nT is no different. It 1s
Mark (3:13-15) who tells us that Jesus’ primary
reason for calling the twelve was ‘that they
might be with him."’ The call to fellowship always
precedes the call to service.

A glance, however, at biblical and post-biblical
history shows that nothing is more difficult than
walking with God. And we are not the problem—
God is! Certainly Adam and Eve couldn't suc-
ceed at it long. By Gen 3, they are longing for
a past that is gone forever. Look at the Israelites.
By 586 B.c. the song of God had gone and Ezekiel
saw God's presence leaving first the temple, then
the city.

The reason lies in the nature of God, his holy
and jealous love, and in the fact that everywhere
God meets man, he places a moral demand on
him. It is obedience and sensitivity to the Holy
One that makes God and myself compatible.

Bibliography: Meek, Theophile J., **Translat-
ing the Hebrew Bible,’ JBL 79: 328-35. TDOT,
I, pp. 449-63.

V.P.H.

188 AAS (ata)

ms (ér) Il.
AS (af).

See no. 192a.
See no. 189a.

188 APS (ata) to come.

Derivative

188a WMS (itén) entrance. This mas-
culine noun occurs only in Ezk
40:15.

The normal word for *‘come”’ is b6’ which is
used over twenty-five hundred times in the or.
By contrast ‘dtd is used only twenty times,
twenty-one times if one accepts the emendation
proposed by Dahood for Ps 74:9, *‘Our signs we
do not see, there is no longer a prophet, and no
one has ‘come’ (‘iftdnti > 'atdanii) who knows
how long.”’ Eighteen of the twenty are in the Qal
and two in the Hiphil (Isa 21:14; Jer 12:9) with the
meaning “‘to bring.’’ In the Aramaic sections of
the oT, ‘afd occurs exclusively for **to come’’
and there sixteen times. Observe also that all of
the Hebrew occurrences are in poetic passages,
never prose.

Nine times the root appears in Isaiah, mostly in
the latter half except for 21:12, 14. No particular
continuity marks the seven remaining passages:
the coming of the future (41:23; 44:7; 45:11); the
coming of Cyrus (41:25); those who come to de-
bauch themselves (56:12); the coming of wild
beasts to devour God’s people (56:9; cf. Jer 12:9)
humanity in general (41:5).

The verb is used to describe the ‘‘coming’’ of
God only in Deut 33:2. It is used for ‘‘coming”’ to
God in Jer 3:22. The root appears four times in
Job: 3:25; 16:22: 30:14; 37:22.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ‘*Hebrew-
Ugaritic Lexicography I,’’ Bib 44: 299. Gordon,
Ugaritic Glossary, no. 407. TDNT, V, pp. 861-
65. THAT, I, p. 267.

V.P.H.

189 MBS (Carta) thou.
similar, ‘‘thou.’’)

(KJV, ASV, and RSV are

Ugaritic and other Semitic parallels are com-
mon. This second person singular pronoun oc-
curs a few hundred times in the oT. It is appended
to verbs for emphasis. Its use in oblique cases
(genitive and accusative) is to afford stress to a
preceding suffix.

Derivatives

189a =AN (‘at) thou (feminine).

1896 =BAS (‘attem) you (masculine).

189c YAR (atten) you (feminine).
C.L.F.

191 pM& (’1q).

192 ARS ('tt).

Ins = (atdn). See no. 190a.
PINS ('Gtéq). See no. 19la.
PAN (attiqg). See no. 191b.

190 FNS (‘tn) Assumed root of the following.

190a HIN (atén) she-ass, she-donkey.

The she-ass is prized as a valuable possession:
Gen 12:16; 32:16; Job 1:3; 42:12. Pope observes
that she-asses ('dt6n) are listed among Job's
possessions but not male asses (hdmor). He ob-
serves, ‘‘Female asses are mentioned because
they exceeded the male asses in number and in
value, because of their milk and their breeding.
They are also better for nding than male asses’
(AB, Job, p. 7).

No wonder then that Kish dispatched his son
Saul to find the she-asses that had wandered off
(I Sam 9:3, 5, 20; 10:2, 14, 16). Saul, however,
did not find what he was looking for (as Colum-
bus). He did not find the she-donkeys but he did
find a crown for his head. Similarly it is on the
back of a donkey (hdmor), a colt, and the foal of
a donkey (ben-’adtondt) that the Messiah will ride
into Jerusalem (Zech 9:9). Speiser (AB, Genesis,
p. 362) connects this verse with the phrase in Gen
49:11, b®ni ’dtond, ‘‘the young/foal of his she-
ass’’ which he translates *‘purebred.’’ He relates
it to the phrase in the Mari texts mar atdnim
‘*choice, purebred ass.’

Finally it is on an ’atén that the diviner Balaam
rides (Num 22ff.). The donkey even spoke to
Balaam (Num 22:28; cf. talking snake in Gen
3:1ff.). It is unprofitable to pursue whether the
ass gave forth an audible sound, or was merely an
experience in the mind of Balaam, or both. What
is important is that the story demonstrates that
God’s control over nature is so exhaustive and
complete, and his word so powerful that he could
use a dumb animal as the bearer of his word.

V.P.H.

mms (etna) See nos.

Wms = (etnan).
2524a, 2529a.

Assumed root of the following.

19la Pins (‘atéq) gallery, porch. Oc-
curs only in Ezk 41:15.

191b =S°A8 (‘attiqg) gallery. Occurs only
in Ezk 41:15-16; 42:3, 5.

Assumed root of the following.
192a AS (’ét) IH, plowshare.

193 2 (be).

A very common preposition with a wide range
of meanings. BDB list mainly: in, at or by, with
(of accompaniment or of instrument), a verbal
complement of specialized meaning, and, used
with the infinitive construct, to introduce a tem-
poral clause. Currently the Hebrew prepositions
are recognized as having an even wider range of
meaning. Uganitic evidence indicates that b° also
often means “‘from,’’ as does the preposition /¢
(Gordon, UT 19: no. 435; Ais WUS 486).

R.L.H.

BMS (bi'a). See no. 212a.

194 *583 (ba’ar) declare, make plain.
Derivatives

TINS (b°’ér) well, pit.
PSSM? AND (b°’ér lahay ro’i)
of the living one who sees me.
TySY IND (b°’ér sheba‘) Beersheba.
194d {983 (bo’r) cistern, pit, well.

194e {313 (bdr) pit, cistern, well.

This verb occurs only in the Piel stem. It de-
scribes writing on tablets of stone made clear and
distinct (Deut 27:8) or some writing upon tablets
which is legible at a hurried glance (Hab 2:2). In
figurative use the verb means to make clear by
explaining (Deut 1:5).

b°’ér. Well, pit. A feminine noun possibly
from ba’ar ‘‘to make plain,’’ but connection un-
certain.

Wells for water were dug in the earth (Gen
21:30; 26:18, 21-22, 25) and the discovery of
water was an occasion for rejoicing, celebrated in
song (Gen 26:32; Num 21:17-18). Ordinarily
water had to be drawn (Gen 24:11, 20), and soa
flowing well (‘‘living water’’) was a particularly
good fortune (Gen 26:19). In a land where water
was scarce, wells were a source of contention
(Gen 26:19-21). Israel promised that they would
drink no water from the wells of Edom and
Ammon if they were allowed to pass through
their territory (Num 20:17). When not in use, the
well could be protected with a stone covering
(Gen 29:2ff.). So covered, the well served as a
hiding place for David’s informers (II Sam
17:18-21). Water was drawn by women, and so
the well served as a meeting place for the servant
of Abraham and Rebekah (Gen 24:11ff.), Jacob
and Rachel (Gen 29:2ff.), and Moses and Zip-
porah (Ex 2:15ff.).

194a

194b well

194¢

87

b*’ér also designates slime or bitumen pit (Gen
14:10) and the pit as a place of destruction (Ps
55:23 {H 24]; 69:15 [H 16}).

b¢’ér is also used figuratively. The strange
woman Is like a pit (Prov 23:27), but one’s be-
loved is a well of living water (Song 4:15). A
man’s wife is his own well (Prov 5:15).

The noun is also used in place names such as
Beersheba, Beer (Num 21:16), and Beerelim (Isa
15:8).

b®’er lahay ro’i. Well of the living one who sees
me. This is the name of a particular site be-
tween Kadesh and Bered, as yet unidentified. It
was the dwelling place of Isaac (Gen 24:62; 25:11)
and the site of Hagar’s deliverance from thirst
(Gen 16:14). The name is connected with the
phrase ‘‘thou art a God who sees’’ (Gen 16:13),
but is the subject of much conjecture.

b’er sheba‘. Beersheba. ‘‘Well of Seven’’ or
‘*Well of the Oath,’’ it marked the southern ex-
tremity of Palestine, ‘‘From Dan to Beersheba,”’
and its converse (Jud 20:1; etc.; I Chr 21:2, etc.).
It was a sanctuary (Gen 21:33; 46:1-5; Amos
8:14; 5:5). Two explanations for the name are
given in Genesis. One derives it from the oath
(shebu‘ad) between Abraham and Abimelech at-
tested by seven (sheba‘) lambs (Gen 21:30-31).
The second connects it with an oath (shebia‘a)
sworn by Isaac (Gen 26:31). [This is probably an
example of a name explanation which was not
intended to be etymological but a word play for
interest and easier memory of the incidents. The
place may have been called Beersheba before the
incidents were described. Another clear example
of such a non-etymological word play is Babel in
Gen 11:9. Babel in Akkadian means ‘‘gate of
God.’’ But it sounds somewhat like the verb
balal *‘to confound.” R.L.H.]

bo’r. Cistern. This is a masculine noun from
the root bdr (Jer 2:13 and Kethib of II Sam
23:15-16, 20; see bdr). A cistern dug in rock
which stored water in the rainy season. In time
the water stagnated, and earthquakes cracked the
rock and plaster. Jeremiah contrasts Jehovah, an
artesian well, with idolatry, a stagnant, leaky
cistern.

bér. Cistern, dungeon, fountain, pit, well. (Asv
and rSsv similar.) bdr, related to b6’r (cistern,
Jer 2:13), as well as to b°’ér (well) to which it is
parallel (Prov 5:15), is a masculine noun perhaps
from the root b’r which means ‘‘to write
plainly.’’ It occurs sixty-five times.

bér may refer to a large pit in the earth. One of

195 W835 (ba’ash)

David's mighty men slew a lion in a pit (II Sam
23:20; I Chr 11:22). In the dry climate of Palestine
(already in pre-Israelite times, Deut 6:11; Neh
9:25), cisterns were hewn from rock and then
plastered. They stored water collected during the
rainy season for use in the dry season. The time
when plastering began is uncertain. Frequent al-
lusion is made to digging cisterns or wells (IJ Chr
26:10) and drawing water from them (II Sam
23:16). Drinking water from one’s own cistern is
Rabshakeh’s promise of life as it ought to be
(II Kgs 18:31; Isa 36:16). bor is to be distin-
guished from ‘“‘spring’’ (ma‘yadn; Lev 11:36). Is-
rael’s laws recognized the danger of animals fal-
ling into an open pit, and made the owner of the
pit liable for damages in such cases (Ex 21:33-
34). Such danger is also recognized in Qumran
(CDC 11, 13) where it is specified that an animal
was not to be lifted out on a Sabbath.

Pits or cisterns with their steep smooth sides
made excellent prisons (cf. Isa 24:22). Hence
Joseph’s brothers held him prisoner in a pit until
they sold him to the Midianites (Gen 37:20-29).
In Egypt he was kept in a dungeon (Gen 40:15;
41:14). The last plague on Egypt affected even
such prisoners (Ex 12:29). Jeremiah’s opponents
threw him into a pit, but Ebedmelech rescued
him (Jer 38:6-13). bét habboér (house of the pit)
may also be a general word for dungeon (Ex
12:29: Jer 37:16). Cisterns served as convenient
dumping areas for corpses (Jer 41:7, 9), and they
served as hiding places in times of danger (I Sam
13:6).

Well-known cisterns serve as geographical lo-
cations, e.g. the well of Bethlehem (II Sam
23:15—16), the well of Sirah (II Sam 3:26), the pit
of Beth-eked (II Kgs 10:14), and the well at the
threshing floor of Secu (I Sam 19:22).

In figurative usage, the wicked who lays a
snare is like a man who digs a pit and falls into it
(Ps 7:15 (H 16]). One’s wife is his own cistern and
he should find satisfaction with her (Prov 5:15).
Death is the breaking of the wheel at the cistern
(Eccl 12:6). Sarah is the pit (quarry) from which
Israel was hewn (Isa 51:1-2). Experiencing great
danger may be compared to being cast alive intoa
pit from which one may cry to the Lord (Lam
3:53, 55) and be delivered (Ps 40:2 [H 3]). De-
liverance from captivity is being set free from the
waterless pit (Zech 9:11).

The state of death 1s a going down to the pit (Ps
28:1). Hence the dead are those who go down to
the pit (Ps 88:4 [H 5], 6 [H 7}; 143:7). The pit is in
some sense a synonym of Sheol (q.v.; cf. Prov
1:12; Isa 14:15, 19; 38:18). Ezekiel, however, dis-
tinguishes between them (32:18-32). The Psalm-
ist in distress pleads for deliverance from the pit
(Ps 30:3 [H 4]) and likens his recovery to being
drawn up from the hornble pit (Ps 40:2 [H 3)}).
Peoples like Tyre (Ezk 26:20), Egypt (Ezk 31:14,

88

16; 32:18), Assyna (Ezk 32:23), Elam (Ezk
32:24), Edom (Ezk 32:29), and Sidon (Ezk 32:30)
are threatened with being brought down to the
pit.

Bibliography: Heidel, A., ‘‘Death and the Af-
terlife,”’ in The Gilgamesh Epic and O. T. Paral-
lels, 2d ed., University of Chicago, 1949, pp.
137-223. Sutcliffe, Edmund F., The Old Testa-
ment and the Future Life, 2d ed., Newman
Bookshop, 1947. Trump, Nicholas, J., Primitive
Conceptions of Death and the Nether World in
the Old Testament, Pontifical Biblical Institute,
1969. TDOT, II, pp. 463-65.

J.P.L.
195 Wp (bd’ash) stink, abhor. (ASV, RSV
similar.)
Derivatives
195a WSS (b°’dOsh) stench.
1956 -AYWRD (bo’shd) (stinking things)
stinking or noxious weeds.
195c = SWS (b°’Ushim) _ stinking or worth-

less things, wild grapes.

When Moses struck the water of the Nile, the
fish died and the river became foul (Ex 7:18, 21).
After the plague of the frogs, the land was foul
(stank). When some tried to save their allotted
share of manna, it bred worms and emitted a
stink (Ex 16:20). But the double portion gathered
on the sixth day did not become foul (Ex 16:24).
This term, stink, is also used by the Hebrew
foremen of the Israelite slave force who com-
plained to Moses and Aaron that they had made
Israel’s savour odious in Pharoah’s presence (Ex
§$:21).

Other usages for stink or foul: David cried out
because his wounds were foul and festering on
account of his folly (Ps 38:5 [H 6]). Jacob
exclaimed to Levi and Simeon that their actions
caused him to be odious to the people of Canaan
with drastic consequences (Gen 34:30). Qohelet
says that dead flies ferment and make perfumed
oil stink (Eccl 10:1).

The idea of abhorrence is seen in David's deci-
sion to fight for the Philistines. They thought that
David had made himself odious to the Israelites (I
Sam 27:12). The affair of Absalom and his
father’s concubines was calculated to make Ab-
salom abhorrent to David and to bring about mis-
understanding between father and son (II Sam
16:21). Other shades of meaning are seen in the
actions of wicked men who are loathsome (or act
disgustingly, Prov 13:5).

Thus this word either describes objects that
have a foul odor, bad relationships between
people creating abhorrence, and the general prin-
ciple that evil deeds are so rotten that they have a
bad smell in God’s nostnls.

L.G.

196 32 (baba) apple of the eye (i.e. pupil).
Derivation uncertain.

197 939 (babel) Babel, Babylon.

Babylon is the Greek spelling of the name
which in Hebrew is uniformly ‘‘Babel.’’ The
words occurs some 290 times and refers to an an-
cient city on the eastern bank of the Euphrates
about twenty miles south of Bagdad, near the
modern village of Hilla in Iraq. Akkadian seems
to derive the name from babili(m) or from
another earlier Sumerian source. But in both
cases it means “‘Gate of God.’’ Genesis 11:9
gives the name as Babel (perhaps from bdlal *‘to
confuse’) but probably intended as a parody, a
word play referring to what happened when the
languages were confused.

The first definite occurrence of bab-ili(m) is in
the texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2300-2200
B.C., approximately Abraham’s day), although
the Scriptures state that Babylon along with
Erech and Akkad was one of the earliest cities in
the South (Gen 10:10).

The city figured prominently under Ham-
murabi placed by some at 1792-1749, by others at
1728-1686 B.c. and noted for his legal code. The
might of Assyria prevented Babylon from being
prominent (from the 1100s), although Tiglath-
pileser III (745-727 B.c.) gave the city luster, rul-
ing in it as Pulu, a name that occurs in the Bible
as ‘‘Pul’’ (IJ Kgs 15:19). Merodach Baladan at
about 700 B.c. represented a figure of resistance
to Assyria and no doubt was looking for allies
(Isa 39:1). The city was destroyed by Sen-
nacherib in 689 B.c. because of rebellions, but the
city was rebuilt by the succeeding Assyrian king,
Esarhaddon (680-669 B.c.).

The Chaldeans moved into Babylonia (the
area) under Nabopolassar in 626 B.c. and with his
great successor Nebuchadnezzar II, proceeded
to build the Neo-Babylonian empire. In 612, As-
sur, capital of Assyria, fell. Nebuchadnezzar
conquered Judah in 606-605 (Dan 1) and annexed
it in 587-586 (II Kgs 25). The empire extended its
rule to the borders of Egypt and under Nebu-
chadnezzar, Babylon was a magnificent city.
Less able rulers followed, and in 539 the Persians
conquered Babylonia (Dan S). The Persian em-
pire fell two hundred years later. Babylon re-
tained some importance under the Seleucids and
succeeding Parthians, but it eventually fell into
ruins.

Its first occurrence in the Bible pertains to the
Tower of Babel episode in which man in a titanic
social revolt attempted to throw off the rule of
God and achieve unity and peace without God.
The symbol of their unity was the tower, and the
strength of their unity was their common lan-
guage. As aresult, God judged them by confusing

198 533 (bagad)

their speech. According to the Sumerian Enmer-
kar Epic (141-46), at one time men praised Enlil
‘‘with tongue,’’ possibly a reflection in secular
history of this event.

Babylon’s greatness and reputation is reflected
in biblical sources (Isa 13; Mic 4:10), including
Jeremiah’s reference to Babylon’s walls (51:12,
58), and of its religious system which venerated
Marduk and/or Bel as gods of the city. Both
names are known in the Bible (Isa 39:12; Jer
50:2). Enuma Elish,. the early Babylonian
Genesis, mentions a pantheon of gods and god-
desses. Even as late as the first century A.D.,
John referred to the religious system, Babylon, as
the ‘‘Mother of harlots and of the abominations
of the earth’ (Rev 17:5). It is no wonder that God
took Judah to Babylon so as to preserve a rem-
nant of Judah by allowing them to experience
first-hand the horrible folly of idolatry (for this
reason more than half of all the biblical refer-
ences are in Jer).

Whereas Nebuchadnezzar envisioned the
proud city that usurped Jerusalem’s headship as a
head of gold (Dan 2), Daniel saw its true bestial
character as a lion (Dan 7). Daniel based his
prayer for Israel’s release on Jeremiah’s predic-
tion that the captivity would last seventy years
(Jer 25:11-12; 29:10; Dan 9:2ff.). But whereas
Jeremiah predicted the length of the captivity,
Isaiah foresaw the shape of Israel’s exodus from
Babylon through the conquest of Cyrus (Isa 41;
43:14; 45:1ff., etc.).

Bibliography: ‘‘Babylon,’’ in Encyclopedia
Judaica, IV, pp. 30-34. Jacobsen, T., *‘Babel,”’
and ‘‘Babylon,”’ in IDB, I, pp. 334-38. Wiseman,
D.J., Babylon, O.T., ZPEB I, pp. 439-48. Krael-
ing, E.G. H., ‘‘The Towers of Babel,’’ JAOS 40:
276-81. Parrot, A., Babylon and the Old Testa-
ment, Philosophical Library, 1958. Saggs, H. W.
F., The Greatness That Was Babylon, Glasgow:
McClelland, 1962. Siff, Myra, Harold Ginsberg,
Israel Ta Shma, ‘Babel, Tower of,”’ in Encyclo-
pedia Judaica, IV. TDOT, I, pp. 466-69.

L.G.

33. (bag). Qere is baz, no. 22Sa.

198 333 (bdgad) deal (act) treacherously, deal

deceitfully, (deal) unfaithfully, offend. (ASV
and Rsv similar except most of asv and RSV
use ‘‘treacherous[ly]’’ in place of **trans-
gress[or].’’)
Derivatives

198a 32 (beged) I, treachery.

198b fmina3s (bdg°dét) treacherous.

198c 33 (bagdd) treacherous.

198d 333 (beged) II, garment.

The various verb forms appear forty-seven

times, twenty-one times using the participle as

199 "3 (bad)

verbal noun to describe the one who deals
treacherously. He is one who does not honor an
agreement. The root in South Arabic means ‘“‘to
deceive.”’

The verb is used to denote unfaithfulness in
several different relationships. It is used in con-
nection with unfaithfulness in marriage. The ob-
ject of the faithlessness may be the wife (Ex 21:8,
a slave wife; Mal 2:14, wife of one’s youth), or
the husband (Jer 3:20). The latter passage also
illustrates that the word is used to describe Is-
rael’s unfaithfulness to the Lord (Jer 9:2 [H 1)).
In addition to the metaphor of unfaithfulness in
marriage to describe Israel’s revolt against the
Lord, the Lord or his covenant is sometimes the
explicit object of the verb (I Sam 14:33; Ps 78:57;
119:158). Even to question his justice is an act of
treachery (Ps 73:15). Involved in unfaithfulness
to the Lord’s covenant may be unfaithfulness to
one’s brother (Mal 2:10ff). Thus the word is also
used of breaching man-made treaties and the so-
cial responsibilities expected in normal human re-
lationships. The men of Shechem dealt treacher-
ously against Abimelech whom they had made
their king (Jud 9). Job felt betrayed by his friends
(Job 6:15), and in Jeremiah’s time property rights
were violated by treacherous men (Jer 12:6).

Wine (according to MT), or riches (according
to 1Q Hab 8:3) may cause men to behave this way
(Hab 2:5).

The treacherous are sometimes rewarded in
kind (Jud 9; Isa 33:1). In any case the Lord will
judge such false folk (Ps 25:3; Prov 2:22; 11:6;
21:18).

beged. Treachery. Appears twice, in Isa
24:16, as part of a play on words and in Jer 12:1
referring to treacherous dealers in treachery.

bog*dot. Treacherous. (Zeph 3:4, RSV uses
‘faithless men’’). It would seem that the idea of
treacherous is more apropos since a strong ren-
dering is needed to underscore false prophets as
men of treachery who mislead an entire nation.

bagod. Treacherous (twice, Jer 3:7, 10).

beged JI. Garment. The relation of this word
to the above root is not clear. KB cite a corre-
sponding semantic development in Arabic from
the noun ‘‘dress’’ to a verb ‘‘disguise.’’ But the
details are not known.

beged is a general word and may be used in
reference to any kind of garment, from the robes
of the rich and mighty to the rags of the poor and
the leper. It is used for the holy robes of the high
priest and also for cloth used to cover the taber-
nacle furniture (Num 4:6-13) or a bed (I Sam
9:13).

Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 470-72. THAT, I,
pp. 261-63.

L.G.

90

200

201

199 "3 (bad) I, white linen.

There is uncertainty as to the derivation of this
noun. KB derive it from bad II (20ta), a piece. It
is used of the boy Samuel in his linen ephod (I
Sam 2:18). The priests of Nob wore the linen
ephod (I Sam 22:18). David danced before the
Lord wearing a linen ephod (IJ Sam 6:14). The
priests wore linen vestments, linen breeches,
turbans, caps, tunics (Ex 28:42; 39:28; Lev 16:4).
Angels appear clad in linen garments (Ezk 9:2-3;
10:2, 6).

L.G.

"3 (bad) II.
"2 (bad) Iii.

See no. 201a.

See no. 202a.

N52 (bdda’) devise, invent (bad sense).

"39 (baddad) alone (three times only).
(AsV and RSV same except in one instance,
‘‘no straggler,’’ Isa 14:31.)

Derivatives
20la 3 (bad) II, alone, by itself, a part,
besides.

201b t393 (baddd) alone.

The core concept is ‘‘to be separate and iso-
lated.’ It can also connote the idea of dividing
into parts. This verb underscores the idea of iso-
lation, e.g. the lonely bird on the housetop (Ps
102:8), the donkey (simile of Ephraim) wilfully
going alone to Assyria (Hos 8:9), and the lone
army straggler.

bad JI. Alone. This derivative is used over
one hundred times, usually in the compound
l°bad. It may have a positive, a negative, or a
neutral connotation. Positively, the word is used
of the Lord’s incomparability and uniqueness in
his exclusive claim to deity as seen in his extra-
ordinary works (Deut 4:35; 32:12; Job 9:8; Isa
44:24; Neh 9:6), or in his splendid exaltation (Ps
72:18; 148:13; Isa 2:11, 17). Also, positively,
Balaam celebrated Israel’s dwelling alone (Num
23:9), which seems to refer to his sole posses-
sion of the land of Canaan and to his security
in it (cf. Jer 49:31).

But negatively, Israel’s deplorable isolation is
the result of the Lord’s judgment on her (Isa
27:10; Mic 7:14; Lam 1:1). Commenting on the
last passage Rudolph noted: ‘*‘This is not the
‘splendid isolation’ of Num 23:9 and Deut 33:28,
but the loneliness of a mother deprived of her
children’’ (cited in TNDT, I, p. 476).

The word also has a negative connotation when
a man is abandoned by his community or by God.
Thus the unclean leper must suffer alone apart
from human fellowship (Lev 13:46) and Jeremiah
complained that because of his unique call he

cannot sit at the company of merrymakers (Jer
15:17). The psalmists under the chastening hand
of God felt alone—separated from men and aban-
doned by God (Ps 102:1-7 [H 2-8}).

This contrast between loneliness caused by
abandonment and uniqueness in exaltation help
one to better appreciate the Lord Jesus Christ
who by enduring the loneliness of the cross se-
cured a throne at God's right hand (Phil 2:6-11).

Then too it is not good for a man to live alone
without a wife (Gen 2:18) and a man alone may be
exposed to personal danger (II Sam 17:2). One
feels the cold solitude of Jacob as he waits alone
at night before his encounter with Esau, and finds
himself reassured only after he secures the
angelic benediction (Gen 32:24 [H 25]).

The word is used more neutrally in these fa-
mous passages: *‘Man does not live by bread
alone’’ (Deut 8:3) and ‘‘against thee, thee only,
have I sinned’”’ (Ps 51:4 [H 6]).

As an adverb of limitation there is ‘‘through
thee alone do we confess thy name” (Isa 26:13)
while /* bad followed by min becomes the prepo-
sition ‘‘apart from,’’ *‘besides’’: the children of
Israel... besides children (Ex 12:37), fortified
cities... besides unwalled villages (Deut 3:5).
There are cases where the min is prefixed, e.g.
mill€bad which might be an inverted /° bad min:
there is no other besides him (mill®badé, Deut
4:35).

Still another rendering is that of a definite part,
e.g. of each there shall, be an equal part (bad
btbad Ex 30:34), as well as the plural (baddim)
denoting: extended from something, e.g. strength
(KJV; ASV ‘‘members,’’ RSv ‘“‘limbs,’’ as from a
man, Job 18:13); rods or branches of a vine (Ezk
17:6; 19:14); staves (RSV *‘poles’’) used in carrying
the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:13), table of shew-
bread (Ex 25:27), or altar of burnt offering (Ex
27:6-7), altar of incense (Ex 30:4-5). It is also
used of the bars of a fortress (Hos 11:6).

badad. Alone (seven times), solitary (twice),
desolate (Isa 27:10), solitarily (Mic 7:14), only (Ps
4:8).

The basic concept is solitariness: the leper is to
live alone, in isolation (Lev 13:46), Israel dwells
in safety alone (free from attack) (Deut 33:28),
the Lord alone guided Israel (Deut 32:12).

L.G.

202 3 (bdd) Hl. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
202a 3 (bad) I, liar (twice), lie
(three times). Possibly from a root
bd’

The etymology of this word is uncertain. Its
basic meaning is empty, idle talk. Moab’s idle
boasts were false (Isa 16:6). The term ‘‘empty
talkers’’ described false prophets, e.g., oracle

203 *933 (badal)

priests (diviners; Jer 50:36). The boaster’s omens
were idle talk (Isa 44:15).
L.G.

203 *953 (badal) separate selves to, to be sepa-

rated (Niphal), make a difference, divide,
separate, sever (Hiphil; rsv translates ‘went
over’ in I Chr 12:8, *‘banned”’ in Ezr 10:8,
and ‘‘designated’’ in Ezr 10:16).

Derivatives

203a 9p (badal) piece, severed piece.
203b = =m953% (mibdala) separate place.
203c =f9"ND (b*dil) alloy, tin, dross.
203d tmesa (b¢*ddlah) bdellium.

This verb, used only in the Niphal and Hiphil,
has the basic connotation ‘‘to be separated’’ or
‘‘to separate,’’ “‘to divide.’’ This connotation oc-
curs in such passages as Gen 1:6 where the fir-
mament separated the waters; Gen 1:14, 18
where the celestial luminaries are seen as creat-
ing the distinction between night and day; and Ex
26:33 where the veil is pictured as separating the
two areas of the temple.

The word occurs several times in contexts in
which Israel’s separation from foreigners is set
forth (Ezr 6:21; Neh 9:2; 10:28 [H 29]). This was
an ideal of the postexilic community reflecting
their desire to preserve the ethnic integrity of the
nation. In Lev 20:24 the word is used similarly
except that it was God who separated Israel from
the nations to a place of privilege. As a result
Israel is to make a distinction (bddal) between
clean and unclean animals (v. 25).

The word was also used in a somewhat techni-
cal sense as well. It could mean to discharge an
army (II Chr 25:10) or to designate cities for spe-
cial purpose (Deut 4:41; 19:2, 7) or individuals for
service (I Chr 25:1; Ezk 39:14). In Ezr 10:8 it is
used in the sense of ‘‘ban’’ with reference to un-
faithful members of the postexilic community.

The concept of separation inherent in badal
was used to describe God’s special activity in
setting apart Aaron to the consecration of the
holy things (J Chr 23:13) and the setting apart of
the Levites (Num 16:9; Deut 10:8). Israel was set
apart to be God’s heritage (I Kgs 8:53).

The word also describes the separation from
God that is the result of sin (Isa 59:2).

b*dil. Plummet, tin (asv similar, rsv ‘‘alloy.’’)

This word (to separate) denotes that which
is separated from precious metal or metal ore
and thus in Isa 1:25 refers to metal which in
combination with precious metal reduces the
precious metal to dross. It is used in that sense
figuratively of Israel (Ezk 22:18). The word also
means ‘‘tin’’ in a number of contexts. Tin with
copper give the alloy bronze. Tin was therefore
important in antiquity. Tarshish in Spain was ap-

204 43 (badaq)

parently its main source. The expression ‘stone
of tin’’ refers to a plummet in Zech 4:10 (but is
not the word used in Amos 7:7-8).

b¢ddlah. Bdellium. Possibly a stone (pearl?) or
maybe a resin (so KB), b°ddlah was a product
from the land of Havilah (Gen 2:12). The color of
manna was compared to bdellium (Num 11:7).
The derivation is uncertain.

T.E.M.
oa (b*dil). See no. 203c.
moss (b*ddlah). See no. 203d.
204 53 (bddaq) mend, repair. Perhaps a

denominative from the following noun.
204a 952 (bedeq) fissure, rent, breach.

20S mms (bhh). Assumed root of the following.
20Sa TMS (bdha) void, waste, emptiness.
Always occurring with t6ha ‘‘waste’’ (q.v.),
boha describes the primordial condition of the
earth, ‘‘void’’ at the beginning of creation (Gen
1:2), or ‘‘made empty’’ by God’s judgment (Isa
34:11; Jer 4:23). It is probable that the descrip-
tions in Isaiah of the desolations of Edom and
those in Jeremiah of Israel borrow this phrase
from the Genesis picture of a pnmordial chaos.
Bibliography: Young, Edward J., **The Inter-
pretation of Genesis 1:2,’’ WTJ 23: 151-78.
E.A.M.

sm (bahir). See no. 211b.

206 wma (bahat) a costly stone, perhaps por-
phyry.

207 %83 (bdhal) be disturbed, disturb, alarm,
terrify; to hurry. (asv renders ‘‘be trou-
bled,’’ “‘dismayed"’ but rsv frequently uses
the more intensive ‘‘terrify,’’ ‘‘panic,”’
‘‘alarm.’*’)

Derivative
207a tm9ma (behala) sudden terror, alarm.

The verb baha!i occurs fifty times, eleven of
which are in the Aramaic section of Daniel with
similar meaning. Synonyms are harad ‘‘tremble,
be afraid,’’ pahad ‘‘be afraid,’’ and ydg6r a gen-
eral word meaning ‘“‘to fear.’’ yaré’ refers to a rev-
erential fear. bahal usually expresses an emotion
of one who is confronted with something unex-
pected, threatening or disastrous (e.g. Israel at
the news of Abner’s death, II Sam 4:1; or the
Benjamites when ambushed, Jud 20:41).

God disturbs nations, sometimes to the point of
panic. Thus Edom was alarmed when she heard
how God intervened in Israel's behalf at the Sea
of Reeds (Ex 15:15). The Psalmist anticipates the
panic which will descend on his enemies as God
moves against them (Ps 6:10 [H 11]; 83:17 [H

18]). The day of the Lord especially will be
marked by nations such as Babylon being
alarmed (Isa 13:8). With the appearing of the cho-
sen king, God will address the conspiring nations
and ‘‘terrify (bahal) them in his fury’’ (Ps 2:5).
Thus, the preliminary psychological defeat of the
enemy is part of God’s acts in that war.

But individuals also know disturbance emo-
tionally at the hand of God (cf. Job 23:15). bahal
is frequent in Daniel in connection with dreams
and visions, both of the prophet (4:5) and of the
king (5:6).

This connotation of fear from confrontation
with the supernatural is seen in Saul’s terror at
the appearance of Samuel (I Sam 28:21) and Is-
rael’s fear in the presence of sudden death (Lev
26:16; Ps 78:33).

An additional meaning of bahal ‘‘hurry,’’ *‘be
hasty,’’ is found in narrative literature (e.g.
II Chr 35:21; Est 2:9; Dan 2:25) and wisdom ma-
terial, where it is associated with rash acts or
haste in securing wealth (e.g. Eccl 5:2 [H 1]; 7:9;
Prov 20:21 28:22).

behala. Sudden terror. In the four passages
where behdalad is employed, God is always the
agent bringing terror on Israel. God threatens ter-
ror (Lev 26:16), or is said to have brought behala
on them (Jer 15:8; Ps 78:33) because of their dis-
regard of him. It seems that both meanings of
bahal ‘‘alarm’’ and “‘haste’’ are brought together
in the noun, behald *‘sudden terror.”’

E.A.M.

208 ons (bhm). Assumed root of the following.

208a trans (b°hema) beast, animal, cat-

tle.
208b tnimss (b*hémét) hippopotamus.
b®* hema. Beast, animal, cattle. (asv and RSV
similar.) Used 137 times, b®hémd denotes

four-footed animals and is distinguished from
birds (Gen 6:7), fishes, and reptiles (I Kgs 4:33
[H 5:13}).

b* héma 1s in contrast to man (’ddam) (e.g. Ex
9:9-10) and though both are subsumed under liv-
ing things (hayyd), there is nowhere a classifica-
tion of man as animal. b*hém4 can refer to both
wild beast, though exclusive use as wild beast is
less frequent (cf. Jer 7:33) and domestic animal.
When referring to domestic animals, b®hémad
usually includes both large cattle (bdqdr, q.v.)
and sheep (s0'n), but not the ‘‘creeping things”’
(remeS) that creep along the ground. These are
perhaps the smaller animals, lizards, rodents,
etc.

b* héma, often collective, are God’s creation
(Gen 1:26) and are preserved by him through his
provision (Ps 36:6 [H 7]; cf. 104:14).

Man's rule over the animal world is not to be
interpreted as exploitation. Ruthless treatment of

natural resources, including animals, brings
judgment (Hab 2:17). Indeed, so intertwined is
man’s moral life with the world of nature that sins
bring havoc also in the world of nature (Hos 4:1-
4). Jeremiah states that human moral evil will
bring about an absence of animals (Jer 9:10 (H 9};
cf. 9:4ff.). Righteous men have regard for beasts
(Prov 12:10).

Several prohibitions relate to man with respect
to beasts. He is not to make an image of God in
their likeness (Deut 4:17). Human beings are not
to have sexual intercourse with beasts on the
penalty of death (Ex 22:10, 19 [H 9, 18]; cf. Lev
18:23). Certain animals, primarily but not only
those that do not chew cud or have cloven hoofs,
were unfit for food (Deut 14:4-8), likely for
hygienic reasons (cf. Lev 11:46; 20:25, see R. L.
Harris, Man-God's Eternal Creation, Moody,
1971, pp. 139-44).

In apocalyptic material, beasts become a sym-
bol for bad nations, though another term is used
there (e.g. Dan 7:7).

bthémot. Hippopotamus (asv ‘‘hippopotamus’’;
RSV ‘‘behemoth’’).

Though used only once (Job 40:15), b®& hémoét
has evoked considerable discussion. As an ex-
tension of the plural of b° hémd (q.v.) akin to the
superlative in the English, b® hémot refers to a
large beast, the brute beast par excellence. Judg-
ing from the description in Job 40:15, b® hémot is
a land animal in distinction to leviathan
(livyatan, q.v.), likely a sea monster, though
some have regarded b°hémot as a water crea-
ture.

The debate centers on whether b‘hémét is to
be regarded as a natural animal, the hip-
popotamus, or whether there is a reference to an
animal monster which in myths of the ancient
middle east, so it is maintained, functioned as the
adversary of the hero whom the hero, divine-like,
overpowered. b°hémoét is best thought of as a
large land animal whose habits are Known and
described but which, as is the custom in poetry,
may symbolize another meaning here as the
strange beast of mythology. It is possible there-
fore that an allusion to a mythological beast
exists in the Job passage, but such allusion is not
to be interpreted as legitimating these myths as
true. (See the discussion of such mythological al-
lusions under taah.) The pagan concept, if it is at
all in view, is modified by the addition of ‘which
I have made” (Job 40:15). The statement that
b®*hémét is ‘first of the works of God’’ (Job
40:19) is a reference, not to chronology, but to
the largeness of b*hémot (‘‘he ranks first among
the works of God,’ Niv). [If b°hémdt is a real
creature the description of a ‘‘tail like a cedar” is
strange. Could it be that the word zandb ‘‘tail”’
also can be used for other appendages—as the

212 sia (bd6’) go in, enter.

212 N33 (bd’)

trunk of an elephant? In this case the elephant
would be an even more likely candidate. R.L.H.]
The mention of b*hémét heightens the impact
of the passage which is that even the strongest
creature is God's creation. The Greeks, it has
been remarked, were arrested with the beautiful
as expressive of deity; the Hebrews were im-
pressed with the huge, even the ugly, as repre-

senting the power of deity.
E.A.M.

nivana (bthémét). See no. 208b.

209 3"3 (bhn). Assumed root of the following.

209a T1823 (bdhen) thumb, big toe (al-
ways used of both together).

Blood was applied to the thumb of the right
hand and the big toe of the right foot at the con-
secration of the high priest (Ex 29:20) and his
sons (Lev 8:23-24), and also to the right ear. The
ritual would at least suggest that the priests were
to hear, work, and walk for the Lord. Oil, in addi-
tion to blood, was similarly applied at the cleans-
ing of lepers (Lev 14:14). In the conquest of Ca-
naan. Adonibezek, the Canaanite king, was hu-
miliated at his capture by the amputation of
thumbs and big toes and thus rendered unfit to
reign (Jud 1:6—7).

E.A.M.

210 "m3 (bhq). Assumed root of the following.

210a Sms (bdhaq) harmless eruption of
the skin (Lev 13:39).

211 sm3 (bhr). Assumed root of the following.

2lla tmsmd (baheret) white patch of
skin (asv ‘“‘bright spot’; = Rsv
“*spot’’).

Found in Lev 13 and 14 only, baheret is a pos-
sible sign of a skin disease (sdra‘at, q.v.). The
checking of the symptom by the priest under-
scores the concern in the Bible for bodily
hygiene.

E.A.M.

21ib smd) (bahir) bright,
light.

brilliant, of

In the Hiphil,
‘bring.’ (ASV and Rsv generally similar.)

Derivatives

212a TANS (bi'd) entrance.
212b T5323 (mabd’) entrance.
212c «TANISH (f° bu'a) produce.

bé’, the fourth most frequently occurring verb
in the oT, is used 2570 times, for the most part
with everyday meanings of *‘go, arrive, enter a
house,’’ or, more idiomatically, *‘to die’’ (go to

212 833 (bd’

the fathers) or for sexual relations (come in to
her). A synonym is hdlak ‘‘go’’; an antonym is
yasa’ **go out.”

Theologically the verb 56’ appears in varied
but significant contexts. Four aspects can be
identified.

First, bd’ is found with reference to YHWH as
one who comes to his people. At the founding of
Israel as a nation he came in thick clouds to
Mount Sinai (Ex 19:9; 20:20). From Sinai he
came with his ten thousands to fight for his
people (Deut 33:2-5; Hab 3:3). In accordance
with his promise that he would come to every
place he chose to cause his name to be remem-
bered (Ex 20:24), he came to Mount Zion with his
ten thousands of holy ones (Ps 68:17 [H_ 18)).
Thus he comes to fight for Israel throughout her
history (Isa 30:27), which is an earnest that in the
future he will give Israel an ultimate and univer-
sal victory over evil (Ps 96:13; 98:9). As in the
past he fulfilled his promise to judge the nations
(cf. Isa 19:1; Jer 25:31), so he will come in the
future to judge the evildoers (Isa 66:15). He will
come as a mighty warrior bringing back his
people from the ends of the earth (Isa 40:9-11),
and he will dwell in Jerusalem (Zech 2:10 [H 14}).
The notion that the Lorp is a God who comes
with salvation is succinctly captured by Hosea:
‘Let us press on to know YHWH,; his going forth
is sure as the dawn; he will come to us as the
showers, as the spring rains that water the earth”’
(6:3). This anticipation which characterizes the
oT finds its fulfillment in part in Jesus Christ of
whom it can be enthusiastically heralded, **Bles-
sed be he who enters (b0’ *“‘cometh,”’ asv) in the
name of the Lorp”’ (Ps 118:26). God’s coming to
Save iS essentially an intervention and almost al-
ways regarded as imminent.

But he also comes to judge sinful Israel (Ps
50:3). In fact, one of the last prophecies of the oT
is that YHWH will suddenly come to his temple
as a refining fire (Mal 3:1).

But in addition to these statements regarding
his personal coming, other texts reveal various
ways in which he comes: in a dream to Abi-
melech (Gen 20:3); through messengers closely
identified with him and yet distinct from him (Jud
6:11; 13:6-10): in connection with the ark (1 Sam
4:6-7); and in the word of a prophet (Num 22:38;
] Sam 2:27).

Secondly, *‘coming™ (b6’) is associated with
the promise-fulfillment motif. The verdict con-
cerning the words (i.e. promises) of God by
Joshua is that ‘‘all have come (bd’) to pass”
(Josh 23:14). John Bright observes that as best he
can tell, on every occasion when bd’ is used of
God's word or purpose, it has the force of *‘come
to pass, “‘come true’’ (John Durkam & J. R.
Porter, eds., Proclamation and Presence, John
Knox, 1970, p. 206). The test of a true prophet is

94

that his words must come to pass (Deut 18:22). Of
course, the words of a false prophet may also
come true, and thus one must examine the
theological content of the word as well (Deut
13:3).

By bringing to pass either his threats or his
promises YHWH demonstrates his dominion
over history (Josh 23:15; II Kgs 19:25: Isa 31:2).
Frequently the predictions use the causative
Hiphil stem with bd’ showing clearly that it is
YHWH who js sovereignly guiding history (Ex
11:1; I Kgs 21:29; passim). In a passage that ex-
tols YHWH above graven images one reads,
‘*Behold the former things have come to pass’’
(Isa 42:9). Gods are challenged to declare ‘*things
to come”’ (b6') (Isa 41:22). The promise of land
and progeny to the patriarchs is only one of many
promise-predictions that have come to fulfillment
and which argue for the superiority of YHWH.

A characteristic expression referring to the fu-
ture, but not necessarily to the final days of the
world history, 1s ‘*days are coming”’ (participle of
b6é’). Although employed by Amos (8:11; 9:13)
and Isaiah (27:6; 39:6), it is Jeremiah who most
frequently uses it as an introductory phrase,
sometimes to announce judgment (e.g. Jer 9:26
[H 24}; 19:6; 48:12; 49:2) but also to announce
salvation (Jer 16:14), including the eatablishment
of the new covenant (Jer 31:31) and the appear-
ance of a kingly messiah (Jer 23:5).

In a word 5d’ is used in the announcements of
threat and promise. Thus even as bd’ is used in
the announcement of judgment against Eli (I Sam
2:31) and against Hezekiah (I] Kgs 20:17), the
pre-exilic prophets use it in the form of a pro-
phetic perfect with reference to the judgment
coming upon Israel (Amos 8:2; Hos 9:7; Mic 1:9;
7:12). For Zephaniah it is the coming day of the
Lord's fierce anger (2:2); for Jeremiah it 1s a day
of calamity also for Egypt (46:22) and Babylon
(50:27); for Ezekiel it is the day of distress (Ezk
7:7,10); and for Joel a day of destruction from
Shaddai (Joel 1:15). This judgment will come be-
cause the people refused to repent (Isa 5:19; Jer
25:8-11; Zeph 2:3).

Our verb is also used in the proclamations of
salvation that Israel will come back to the land
(Mic 4:8; Isa 35:10; 51:11; Zeph 3:20; Ezk 11:16;
34:13). Ezekiel, moreover, saw the glory of the
LORD coming into the new temple (43:4) and
Haggai forsaw the wealth of all the nations com-
ing to the temple (2:7). Ezra was among those of
the Diaspora who came back to the house of God
(3:8).

Thirdly, the word is used in connection with
the coming ‘*Messiah’’ who will bring salvation.
Although Gen 49:10 is fraught with text-critical
matters, it is at least certain that Jacob speaks of
a ruler that will come from the tnbe of Judah.
Ezekiel and Zechariah further this hope for the

‘coming’? one (Ezk 21:27 [H 32]; Zech 9:9f.).
According to Zechariah this triumphant king is
poor, and comes riding on a donkey, a symbol of
his lowliness.

Finally, bd6’ is used with reference to the man
who comes to the sanctuary in company with his
community in order to pray and bring sacrifices
(Deut 12:5; 31:11; If Sam 7:18; Isa 30:29; Jer 7:2,
10; Ps 5:7 [H 8]; 42:2 (H 3]). Whereas priests had
to satisfy specific regulations in order to enter
this sacred sphere (Ex 28:29f.; 29:30; etc.), all
who enter must exhibit righteous behavior (Ps 15;
24). Foreigners also could come to pray (I Kgs
8:41), but eunuchs were excluded from the cultic
community (Deut 23:1 [H 2]). When the people
came to the sanctuary they also went to the
priests (Deut 17:9). They also went to the prophet
to inquire of the Lorp (e.g. I Kgs 14:3, 5; II Kgs
4:42; Ezk 14:4, 7).

bi’4. Entrance. Used once, bi’d refers to an
entryway within the temple area in which the of-
fensive image of jealousy was erected (Ezk 8:5).

mabo’. Entrance, entry, setting (of sun). While
mabo’ refers concretely to the entrance of a city
(Jud 1:24) or temple (II Chr 23:13) etc., it is used
in an abstract sense in the phrase ‘‘going out and
coming in”’ (II Sam 3:25) which in Hebrew idiom
means ‘‘the whole range of a man’s life’ (cf. con-
texts: blessing Deut 28:6, surveillance I Sam
29:6, petition I Kgs 3:7, promise Ps 121:8, and
judgment Isa 37:28).

t*ba’4. Produce, yield. (asv often ‘‘increase’’;
RSV uses ‘increase’ only once and prefers **pro-
duce,’ ‘*harvest,”’ **yield’’ or ‘*gain.’’ Both oc-
casionally use ‘‘fruit.”*)

Used forty-two times with highest frequency in
Lev, Deut and Prov, t° ba’a refers to the yield of
the ground, crops both in the form of grain and
fruit. Poetic and prophetic literature extends this
meaning to refer to ‘“‘result.”’ The yield (1° b4'G)
of wisdom is better than choice silver (Prov 8:19).
The gain (1° bu’) of the wicked is sin and trouble
(Prov 10:16; 15:6). Jeremiah identifies Israel as
the firstfruit of YHWH’s harvest (1° bz'd Jer 2:3).

Three affirmations can be made concerning the
produce of the ground. First, it is God who makes
yield (t°bu’a) possible. Israel was assured that
even in the sabbatical and jubilee year the yield
would be sufficient to meet the need (Lev 25:3ff.,
12, 19ff.). God is praised for bnnging about a
fruitful yield (Ps 107:37; cf. Deut 33:14). He
promises blessing in the form of productivity
(Deut 16:15; cf. Isa 30:23).

Secondly, the ingathering of produce (1° bu'@)
was an occasion of celebration. There were two
festivals of harvest in addition to the Festival of
Unleavened bread. The feast of weeks (firstfruits
of grain) was observed in May-June (Deut

213 93 (b2z)

16:9ff.). The end-of-the-year harvest in October,
chiefly a fruit harvest, concluded with the obser-
vance of the festival of booths (Lev 23:39; cf.
Deut 16:13ff.).

Thirdly, both in legal and wisdom literature the
firstfruits of the produce (t°ba’da) are designated
for YHWH (cf. Prov 3:9; Deut 14:22). Israel was
to tithe (‘asar) all the produce of the field annu-
ally. Every three years the agricultural tithe was
designated particularly to the Levite, the
sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Deut
26:12; cf. 14:28). ~

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘‘Some Ob-
servations Concerning Biblical Prayer,’ HUCA
32: 75-90. Driver, G. R., ‘*‘Hebrew Notes,’ VT
1: 241-50. Speiser, E. A., ** ‘Coming’ and ‘Going’
at the City Gate,’ BASOR 144: 20-23. TDNT, V,
861-65. TDOT, II, pp. 20-49. THAT, I, pp.
264-68.

E.A.M.
213 383 (baz) despise, hold as_ insignificant.
(asv and rsv usually similar, though Rsv
renders ‘‘scorn’’ in Song 8:7, Prov 30:17,

and “‘belittle’’ in Prov 11:12.)

Derivatives
213a 33 (buz) contempt.
213b this (baza) contempt.

95

With derivatives, baz appears twenty-four
times, almost entirely in wisdom and poetic ma-
terial. Synonyms are bdazd ‘“‘despise’’ and nd’as
‘‘despise to the point of rejection.’” An antonym
is yare’ “‘reverence,’’ “‘regard,’’ biz is probably
a by-form of bdzd (q.v.).

One may despise (bu#z) either people or their
sayings, or, to include a closely related synonym,
one may despise (bdzd) also oaths (Ezk 17:16),
birthrights (Gen 25:34), or even God (Mal 1:6).
But to do so incurs God's wrath. To despise (biz)
wisdom is characteristic of fools (Prov 1:7; 23:9).
Destruction is the end result for those who disre-
gard, i.e. despise (b&z) the law (Prov 13:13).

Youth is counseled, ‘‘Do not despise your
mother’ (Prov 23:22). The seriousness of belit-
tling a neighbor is evident from another proverb
which depicts such action as betraying lack of
sense (Prov 11:12) or as sinful (Prov 14:21).
Scripture emphasizes the dignity of man (Ps 8:5;
[H 6}) and whoever undercuts that dignity,
whether for reasons of racial difference, eco-
nomic standing, or even age is guilty of sin. For
this reason there is punishment, e.g. for one who
scoms parents (Prov 30:17). To despise one’s
neighbor is failure to love the neighbor as one
loves himself. Jesus’ reason for persons to refrain
from despising children (kataphroned, Mt 18:10)
is that in heaven their angels behold the face of

214

214 *393 (bik)

the Father, i.e. God has regard for them. It is
sinful to despise the innocent.

biz. Contempt, put to shame. (asv and RSV
similar, though Rsv once ‘‘be laughed at’’ (Gen
38:23). The opposite of baz is hillél *‘praise”’
(Prov 12:8).

Contempt is characteristic of the wicked (Prov
18:3) and is often directed at the righteous (Ps
31:18 [H 19}), who then cry for God’s mercy and
intervention (Ps 123:3-4; cf. Ps 119:22). To be
regarded by others as unimportant or insignifi-
cant is the luxury of those who are secure (Job
12:5) but it is irritable, if not hurtful, to those who
are the objects of baz and who understandably
avoid it (Gen 38:23). Job was terrified by the
‘contempt of families’’ (clansmen?) so he sought
God who would deal nghteously with him (Job
31:34-35).

On the other hand, justice and the vindication
of righteousness demands that the wicked be
treated with contempt. Twice God is said to pour
contempt (bz) on princes. In the context of a
description of God's greatness, Job uses the ex-
pression to indicate that God is not intimidated
by princes (Job 12:21). The Psalmist calls on
people to praise God for his deeds, among which
is God’s contempt on princes (Ps 107:40). Isaiah
by faith warned the arrogant invading Assyrians
that Jerusalem looked on their proud horde with
contempt and scorn (II Kgs 19:21; Isa 37:22).
This stance is consistent with the proverb ‘‘men
with warped minds are despised’’ (Prov 12:8,
NIV).

baza. Contempt. Used in Nehemiah’s prayer
(Neh 4:4 (H 3:36]), buza as illustrated by To-
biah’s joking remark, is sufficient reason for a cry
to God for intervention.

One may hold someone in such high regard in
love that by contrast one despises (biz) a house
of wealth (Song 8:7). But apart from such usage
of the verb, biz is regarded as inappropriate,
even sinful.

E.A.M.
*383 (bik) perplex, confuse. Occurs only
in the Niphal.
Derivative
214a M3339 «(Mm baka) confusion,

confounding (Mic 7:4).

215 533 (bal) Bul, the eighth month. Deriva-
tion uncertain. For other month names see
no. 613b.

35 «6(bal). See no. 835d.

216 BID (bus) trample down (Rsv and ASv simi-

lar).

96

Derivatives

2l6a tDI3° (y*busi) Jebusite.

216b =mBI3% «(m* basa) downtreading, sub-
Jugation.

216c 3=MDISM «(f°busad) downtreading=ruin,
downfall.

This verb occurs twelve times. Often joined
with ‘‘enemies,’’ bis is primarily destructive ac-
tion (e.g. Zech 10:5), and differs from _ its
synonyms ddarak **march,”’ **tread (winepress),”’
and rdmas ‘‘trample,”’ ‘‘tread (clay),’’ which
may, but need not, denote destruction.

God is often the subject who is either asked to
trample down (bis) the enemy (e.g. Ps 44:5 [H 6])
or who himself promises to trample down (bis)
peoples (Isa 63:6) such as the Assyrians (Isa
14:25). bus is used anthropomorphically, but one
should not miss the accompanying emotion of
anger (cf. Isa 63:6).

Metaphorically, bias is used of *‘desecration’’
(e.g. sanctuary, Isa 63:18).

y°busi. Jebusite(s). Descendants of Canaan
(q.v.; Gen 10:16), these peoples lived in the hill
country of southern Palestine (Num 13:29), and
occupied the area which during the time of King
David was captured and became Known as
Jerusalem (II Sam 5:6; cf. Josh 18:28). As inhabi-
tants of the hill country, they are associated with
the Amorites (cf. Josh 15:63; 10:5).

The Jebusites are listed nine times as members
of a six-nation group (Ex 3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2;
Deut 20:17; Josh 9:1; 11:3; 12:8; Jud 3:5), whose
good land God was giving to Israel (Ex 13:5). God
promised to drive out the Jebusites before Israel
(Ex 23:23). They were to be destroyed so that
Israel would not learn their abominable practices
(Ex 34:11). But instead Israel, particularly the
tribe of Benjamin, failed to expel them (Jud 1:21).
Consequently the Jebusites eventually intermar-
ried with the Israelites and became the occasion
in part for Israel’s idolatry and apostasy (Jud
3: Sff.).

That the stronghold of the Jebusites under
David became the place for the temple as well as
the capital illustrates not only the fulfillment of
God’s promise but also the decisive overturn of a
pagan enclave to bring about God’s glory.

In Josh 15:63 it says also that Judah failed to
drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem.
Jerusalem was on the border of Judah and Ben-
jamin. Both failed. It is not to the contrary that
Judah had once taken Jerusalem and fired the city
(Jud 1:8). There was a spot which changed hands
so often in the Korean war that it was called
‘*heartbreak ridge’*! These are the fortunes of
war. The Jebusites were not dislodged until
David's campaign (II Sam 5:6-9).

Although presented negatively as a group and

described as nokri (foreigners, Jud 19:11), an in-
dividual Jebusite, such as Araunah (or Ornan,
who offered his threshing floor to King David), is
seen to be a man of generosity and grace (II Sam
24:18ff.; cf. | Chr 21:18ff.). Araunah is probably a
Hurrian name meaning ‘“‘lord,’’ ‘‘nobleman’’ (see
W. C. Kaiser, **Araunah,”’ in ZPEB, I, pp. 257-
58), which fits well with the presence of Hurrians
(Horites) among the non-Israelite population of
Jebus. Condemnation of a group does not pre-
clude the uprightness of individuals within it. The
view of some that the priest Zadok, inducted by
David, was earlier a priest at a Jebusite sanctuary
has insufficient evidence and is contrary to the
biblical description (II Sam 8:17).

E.A.M.

217 ys (bw‘). Assumed root of the following.
217a «=Mysyss (dba‘bia‘ot) blisters, boils
(Ex 9:9).

218 33 (bws). Assumed root of the following.
218a mes (besa) egg.

219 P3D (bus) Byssus, a fine, costly white fab-
ric.

A synonym is shésh, an Egyptian loan word
which occurs from earlier literature as late as
Ezk. bas is found in late biblical wnitings only,
including Chr. There are cognates in Akkadian
and Phoenician. The word was borrowed into
Greek as byssus.

bis, a costly cloth, was a luxury import (Ezk
27:16), and therefore fit for the royal court (1 Chr
15:27; cf. Est 1:6, Mordecai went to the Persian
king draped with a mantle of this cloth, 8:15). The
veil in Solomon’s temple was made of bis (II Chr
3:14) as were the garments of the priests (II Chr
5:12). Scripture does not exclude appreciation of
finery.

Bibliography: Lambdin, Thomas O., *‘Egyp-
tian Loan Words in the Old Testament,’’ JAOS
73: 145-55.

E.A.M.

220 33 (bwq). Assumed root of the
following (a by-form of >)5).
220a MIS (bugad) emptiness (Nah 2:11).
220b = mpiata «(m*bigad) emptiness (Nah
2:11).

"pis. (bégér). See no. 274b.

221 993 (bur) declare (?) explain, prove.

Possibly a by-form of bd’ar. In Eccl 9:1, the
Qal infinitive construct of bur is used as a finite
verb (see Bauer-Leander, p. 435; GKC sec. 113,
no. 4a). In the Mishnah, ‘‘to make clear,’’ *‘to

97

222 wis (bésh)

prove’’ (Jastrow 197b). The root, form, and
meaning are debatable. The Lxx reads ‘‘my heart
saw,’ KJV “‘to declare.’’ The asv and rsv, follow-
ing the Vulgate, emend to fir *‘to explore,’ ‘*to
examine.’

J.P.L.

"35 (bdr). See no. 194e.

222 wis (bésh) be ashamed, put to shame, dis-

concerted, disappointed. (aSv and RSV nor-
mally translate with the above, or in a few
instances with ‘‘confound.’’ Idiomatic us-
ages such as ‘‘delay’’ and ‘“‘cease’’ are dis-
cussed below.)

Derivatives

222a =omwia (biishd) shame.

222b 0 «™32W3 (boshna) shame.

222c MWS (bdshet) shame.

222d = =wiata (mabésh) private parts (AsV
‘‘secrets’’). Occurs only in Deut
25:11 as masculine plural
m® bishim.

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘to fall into
disgrace, normally through failure, either of self
or of an object of trust.’ Along with its deriva-
tives, it occurs 155 times, all but 25 times in the
prophets or the Psalms. No less than 38 occur-
rences are found in Jeremiah and 20 in Isaiah.
The word is often paralleled with kdlam ‘‘to be
humiliated,’ and less frequently with Adtat ‘‘to
be shattered, dismayed.’’ As these parallels
suggest, the force of bésh is somewhat in con-
trast to the primary meaning of the English ‘*to be
ashamed,’’ in that the English stresses the inner
attitude, the state of mind, while the Hebrew
means ‘“‘to come to shame’’ and stresses the
sense of public disgrace, a physical state.
Likewise, in Akkadian the G-stem of this root
means ‘to come to shame” and the D-stem ‘‘to
put to shame.”’

bosh and its derivatives are used in five some-
what distinct ways. First, it is used idiomatically
to express long delay or cessation. In Jud 3:25; Il
Kgs 2:17; 8:11 it is used to express the sense of
confusion which either the waiter or the waited
upon feel when a delay becomes excessively
long. The two occurrences of the Polel form are
also used to express this idiom, e.g. Ex 32:11
where the people of Israel say that Moses was
‘‘ashamed’’ (Asv and rsv ‘‘delayed’’) to come
down from the mountain.

While the idiomatic use of bdésh to express
cessation may be related to the above, it is more
likely that it represents an interchange in meaning
with yabésh ‘‘to dry up.’’ Four of the five occur-
rences of this usage are in Joel 1:10-17 where
Hiphil forms indistinguishable from those of

223 Nip (baza’)

yabésh are used. (Cf. Gesenius-Kautzsch-
Cowley, 2d ed., p. 220.)

The second usage of bésh expresses that sense
of confusion, embarrassment, and dismay when
matters turn out contrary to one’s expectations.
Thus, Job speaks of the shame of the caravaneers
when they do not find water in the expected place
(6:20). So also, Israel will be shamed when God
cuts off the rain (Jer 14:3). In a more profound
sense, Israel and the nations will be shamed by
their idols when they fail them (Isa 42:17; Jer
22:22; Hos 10:6).

The third usage and the one that is most com-
mon carries the above thought further expressing
the disgrace which is the result of defeat at the
hands of an enemy, either in battle or in some
other manner. In particular, the awful shame of
being paraded as captives is thought of (Mic 1:11;
cf. also Jer 2:26). Involved here are all the
nuances of confusion, disillusionment, humilia-
tion, and brokenness which the word connotes.
The prophets normally use the word with this
sense, promising Israel that unless she repents
and turns from her idolatrous ways, she will cer-
tainly experience the shame of defeat and exile.
(Cf. Isa 1:29; 30:5; Jer 2:36; 9:19 (H 18]; Ezr 9:6;
Dan 9:7, etc.)

Intimately associated with this third use of the
word is the question of trust. If Israel seeks to
insure her own glory by refusing to trust in God
but rather trusts in idols (Isa 1:29) or in foreign
nations (Isa 20:5; 30:3,5), she will not get glory,
but shame and disgrace. On the other hand, if one
will humbly submit to God, he will find his true
glory, for God will not let that person come to
shame (Isa 29:22; Joel 2:26, 27; Zeph 3:19). It is
this promise of which the Psalmist continually
reminds God (Ps 25:3; 31:17 [H 18]; 37:19;
119:46).

Similarly, although Israel’s enemies may
triumph over her for a period, they must inevita-
bly, because of their idolatry and their lack of
trust in God, be brought to abject shame (Isa
41:11; Jer 46:24; 51:47.) Again, it is the Psalmist’s
fervent expectation that because he trusts in
God, those who are attempting to destroy him
must themselves be brought low in disgrace (Ps
6:10 {H 11]; 22:6; 40:14 [H 15]; 109:28).

Fourthly, shame results from imprudent or
immoral action. This use is found in I Sam 20:30.
From Saul’s perspective Jonathan made a fool of
himself not only by committing a grave injustice
against the reigning king, but also by jeapordizing
his mother’s position who would become part of
David’s harem. Likewise Joab accused David of
not thinking things through and thus acting
foolishly (II Sam 19:5 [H 6]). But this usage is
largely restricted to Proverbs. All the occur-
rences are Hiphil participles in references which
describe explicitly or implicitly the actions of

98

those who bring disgrace upon their parents or
spouses (Prov 10:5; 12:4; 14:35, etc.).

The final use of bésh is the one which coin-
cides most closely with the common English
connotation: a feeling of guilt from having done
what is wrong. Jeremiah (6:15) is horrified that
the people are not ashamed having committed
abomination (idolatry). Similarly, Ezekiel (16:63)
indicates that God's grace, manifested in the res-
toration, will not allay, but increase Judah’s
sense of shame. Not until then will she see what a
terrible thing it was to trust idols instead of the
living God. Ezra, discovering the situation in
Jerusalem, cries out that he is ashamed because
‘‘our iniquities are higher than our heads.”’

Evidently this sense of horror over idolatry ac-
counts for the transmutation of the names of
Saul’s sons Ishbaal (man of Baal) and Mephibaal
(utterance of Baal) into Ish-bosheth (man of
shame) and Mephibosheth (utterance of shame,
Il Sam 2:8; 9:6, etc.). This substituion of
‘‘shame’’ for ‘‘baal’’ has a further development
in the substitution of the vowels of boshet in
other words. Thus, it is probable that molech is
the word for *‘king’’ melek (i.e. the divine king)
with the substitution of other vowels. Indeed, it
may have been pronounced boshet. In the same
vein, sikkut and kiyun may be vocalized from
shigqus ‘‘abomination’’ (Amos 5:26).

In the few occurrences of the cognate in Ugari-
tic, it seems to be used in the final sense. E.g.,
Asherah rebukes Baal for killing Yam, saying,
‘‘Shame, shame.’’ It is then said that Baal is
ashamed and goes out (68:28-31).

Bibliography: TDOT, 0, pp. 50-59. THAT, I,
pp. 269-71.

J.N.O.

ts (baz). See no. 22Sa.

223 SIR (bazd’) divide, cut through (occurs

only in Isa 18:2, 7).

224 MIp (baza) to despise, disdain, hold in con-

tempt. (ASV and RSV Similar.)

Derivative
224a 43 (bizzdyén) contempt.

baza appears with its derivatives forty-three
times in the oT. The basic meaning of the root ts
‘‘to accord little worth to something.’’ While this
action may or may not include overt feelings of
contempt or scorn, the biblical usage indicates
that the very act of undervaluing something or
someone implies contempt.

The use of baza shows that disobedience to the
Lord is based on ‘‘contempt, despising”’ of him.
Thus David’s adultery with Bathsheba is equated
with contempt for the Lord (II Sam 12:10) and his

word (v. 19). Likewise to ‘‘despise an oath’’ is
equated with breaking the Lord’s covenant (Ezk
16:59; 17:16, 18). A person who despises the
Lord is devious in his ways (Prov 14:2). The op-
posite of bdza is kabéd *‘to honor’ (I Sam 2:30),
yare’ *‘to fear’’ (Prov 14:2), and shadmar ‘‘to
keep’ commandments (Prov 19:16).

The person who acts contrary to the commu-
nity founded on the ‘‘fear of the Lord’’ must be
cut off from it (Num 15:31); those who treat the
Lord with contempt will themselves be held con-
temptible by him (Mal 1:6-7, 12; 2:9) and will die
(Prov 19:16). Those who treated his messengers
with disrespect experienced his wrath (II Chr
36:16).

The Lord also condemns to insignificance
those who despise what he chose: Esau for de-
spising the birthright (Gen 25:34), worthless fel-
lows for despising Saul’s election (I Sam 10:27),
Goliath for despising David's youth (I Sam
17:42), and Michal for despising David's religious
enthusiasm (II Sam 6:16).

Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 60-65.

B.K.W.

m3 (bizza). See no. 225b.

225 "3 (bazaz) to spoil, prey upon, seize,

plunder. (asv and Rsv similar.)
Derivatives
225a 13 (baz) spoil.
225b «= MtD) «(bizzad) spoil, plunder, prey.

The word and its derivatives occur seventy-
seven times in the Hebrew Bible, of which occur-
rences seventeen are in Ezk, twelve in Isa, and
twelve in the other prophetic books. It is always
associated with warfare and violence, indicating
the taking of goods or persons by force, usually
as a concomitant of military victory.

This root is used in two ways. The first group
of occurrences is found largely in the narrative
literature. These usages simply report an event
of plundering without indicating a necessary
theological relationship. Such a usage appears in
Gen 34:27, 29 where Jacob’s sons are reported to
have plundered Shechem. (Cf. also Est 3:13; 1
Sam 14:36, etc.)

The second group of usages 1s much larger than
the first. In these occurrences plundering or
being plundered is very closely connected to
obedience to God. If Israel were obedient to God
she would triumph over her enemies and would
despoil them. This had been her experience dur-
ing the latter part of the wilderness period and
during the conquest of Canaan (Num 31:9, 32, 53;
Josh 8:2, 27; etc.). God was pleased to give the
spoil to them, only reserving to himself that

228 9ns (bahél)

which was designated herem, devoted to God.
By the same token, it is promised that in the latter
days she will once again despoil her enemies (Isa
11:14; Zeph 2:9; etc.). God will act so mightily on
Israel’s behalf that even the lame will take spoil
(Isa 33:23). However, this will not happen simply
because Israel is Israel, but because she will then
be obedient and because the fruit of her enemies’
arrogance will have come to its full term (Ezk
26:5; 36:4; Jer 30:16).

In the meantime, however, a disobedient Israel
and Judah were doomed to be spoiled not only by
external enemies, but by one another (II Chr 28:8
(cf. v. 5]; Jer 20:5; Ezk 23:46; Amos 3:11). But at
the end of time Israel will despoil those who
spoiled them (Isa 42:22, 24; Jer 30:16; Ezk 39:10).
To refuse to trust God was to be left helpless
before ravening wolves (Ezk 34:8).

In the truest sense, it was through his final and
utter obedience that Christ was able to spoil the
principalities and powers and lead them on a
triumphal march through heaven's gates (Col
2:15).

baz. Spoil, plunder, prey. This noun is used as
an object (cognate accusative) of bdzaz six times
(lit. *‘to spoil the spoil,’ cf. Ezk 29:19). It also
appears in the name of Isaiah’s son Maher-
shalal-hash-baz, *‘The spoil speeds, the prey
hastes,’’ two times (Isa 8:1, 3). In general its
range of usages duplicates the verb.
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 66-68.
J.N.O.

W433 (bizzayén) See no. 224a.

226 pts) (bzq) Assumed root of the following.
226a pts) (bdzdq) lightning flash (Ezk
1:14). Meaning uncertain.
227 "33 (bazar) scatter.
mmM3 (bahun). See no 230c.
wimg (bahén). See no. 230d.
"ind. (bahar). See no. 23 1a.
esaina) (b¢&hurim). See no. 231b.
soma. (bahir). See no. 23!Ic.
228 °mpZ (bahél) I, to feel loathing. (Rsv ‘‘de-

99

test.’’)

This word occurs once, in Zech 11:8. There it
expresses the reaction of the flock, Israel, to the
Good Shepherd. The use of the cognate in Syriac,
‘‘to be nauseated by,’’ suggests the real force of
the usage. Israel’s abhorrence of her Covenant-
Lord is expressed elsewhere in the ot through the
use of such words as gda‘al and bdaza (q.v.).

.N.O.

229 *9m3 (bahél)

229 *9m3 (bahél) HW. Occurs only in the Pual,
in Prov. 20:21, nahdla m*bohelet an ‘*in-
heritance gotten by greed.’’

230 IMP (badhan) to examine, try, prove. (ASV
similar. RSV often translates ‘‘test.’’)

Derivatives

230a M3 (bdhan) testing.

2306 IMS (bahan) watchtower.

230c 3=699M3S) «(bahtin) occurs only with suf-
fix, bahaindyw, their siege towers.

230d IMB (bahdn) assayer.

This root and its derivatives occur thirty-two
times in the oT, chiefly in Job, Ps, and Jer. It
often appears in parallel with nasa ("6J) and
sarap ("\3%), its meaning falling about midway be-
tween the two. nasa means ‘‘to put to the test,
tempt’’ (in the archaic sense), while sdrap means
‘to smelt, refine.”’ badhan partakes of both of
these in that it denotes examining to determine
essential qualities, especially integrity. [Whereas
bahan usually has God as its subject, nasa oc-
curs almost equally with man as its subject.
sarap when used in the religious sense has only
God as subject and man as object. But baéhan in
contrast to the other two, is used almost exclu-
sively in the spiritual or religious realm. Fur-
thermore, whereas sdrap and nasa denote attain-
ing knowledge through testing, badhan seems to
denote attaining knowledge intellectually or intui-
tively. Thus it seems to have the most spiritual
connotations of these three synonyms. B.K.wW.]

In only five of the occurrences is bdhan used
without explicit theological reference. These are
found in Gen 42:15-16; Ezk 21:13 (H 18]; Job
12:11; 34:3.

All of the remaining occurrences (twenty-two
times), except three, refer to God’s examination
of his people. In the exceptions, it is God who is
tested. It is evident that this is abnormal proce-
dure. In Ps 95:9 the people are reminded of the
folly of testing God at Meribah. In Malachi, it is
only because of the people’s apathy that God
calls them to test him (3:10, 15).

As is indicated in Hebrews (12:5-8), part of the
privilege of being God’s people is that of being
tested (Jer 20:12; Ps 11:5; 139:23). Unlike the
Egyptian doctrine where the heart is weighed
after death, Yahweh continually assays the
hearts of his people that in the end they may
come forth as gold (Zech 13:9; Job 23:10).

bohan. Testing. Appears only in Isa 28:16
where it 1s used adjectivally with ’eben *‘stone.”’
In the NT (I Pet 2:4-6; Rom 9:33) this stone is
interpreted as being Christ, the foundation stone
of God's kingdom. Some writers believe that the
word has nothing to do with ‘‘testing’’ being de-
rived from a homonymous root meaning *‘for-

100

tress, tower,’ etc. Thus, this word would mean
‘*strong, secure,’ etc.
Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 69-72. THAT, I,
pp. 269-71.
J.N.O.

231 "M3 (bdhar) to choose, elect, decide for.

(ASV and RSV similar.)

Derivatives

23la f99M3 (bahar) young man.
231b tassma (b*hiarim) youth.
231c f9°9MS (bahir) chosen.

231d tama (mibhar) choicest, best.
23le t3Im3% (mibhdor) choice.

The root and its derivations occur 198 times
with this meaning. The root idea is evidently *‘to
take a keen look at’’ (KB), thus accounting for
the connotation of ‘testing or examining’’ found
in Isa 48:10 and in the usage of the Niphal stem in
Proverbs (e.g. 10:20 ‘‘choice silver’’). It has also
been suggested that the root is related to the
Arabic bahara ‘‘to cleave, till the ground, (in sci-
ence) to penetrate,’’ thus yielding some such
meaning as ‘‘to distinguish.’’ But the Akkadian
bérum ‘‘to choose”’ and much rarer ‘‘to test’’ is
the most important Semitic parallel.

bahar is used only in a few instances without
specific theological overtones. A typical example
would be Gen 13:11, ‘‘Lot chose the plain.’’ (Cf.
also Ex 18:25; Deut 23:16 [H 17]; etc.). It is im-
portant to note, however, that it always involves
a careful, well thought-out choice (cf. I Sam
17:40; I Kgs 18:25; Isa 1:29; 40:20).

Apart from these exceptions, the word is used
to express that choosing which has ultimate and
eternal significance. On the one hand God
chooses a people (Ps 135:4), certain tribes (Ps
78:68), specific individuals (I Kgs 8:16; I Chr
28:5; I Sam 10:24; II Sam 6:21), and a place for
his name (Deut 12:5; etc.). In all of these cases
serviceability rather than simple arbitrariness is
at the heart of the choosing. Thus Yahweh chose
Israel to be holy and thereby to serve as his wit-
ness among the nations (Deut 14:6). But her elec-
tion is not based on her own greatness but on the
greatness of the Lord’s love (Deut 7:7f.). The
choice of Israel is confirmed by the exile and res-
toration, for in a new way Israel now bears wit-
ness of the Lord to the nations (Isa 41:8f.; 43:10;
48:10). The scriptural doctrine of divine capacity
for choice demonstrates that purpose and per-
sonality, not blind mechanism, are at the heart of
the universe. Since God carefully chooses certain
ones for a specific task, he can also reject them if
they deviate from that purpose (I Sam 2:27ff.).

bahtr /. Young man. (ASV and RSV similar.)
bahar and its derivative b® hurim may both be

understood to be derivatives of bdhar ‘‘to
choose,’’ in that the picked or chosen men ina
military context are usually the young men. But
while bahar *‘young man,’* may sometimes be
confused with bahur ‘‘chosen one’’ (cf. Ps 78:31
marg.), its meaning is generally quite distinct,
especially when it 1s used antonymically with
zagén ‘old man,”’ or paralleled with b° tila
‘‘virgin.”” As a result, most lexicographers see
two different root meanings.

In the majority of its occurrences, this word is
used in the context of God’s judgment upon Is-
rael. The point is made that even the young man,
symbol of vigor, strength, and indeed, the con-
tinued existence of the nation, will be destroyed.

bahar JI. Elected, chosen. A Qal passive par-
ticiple used almost entirely in military parlance,
e.g. Jud 20:15-16, ‘‘Seven hundred thousand
chosen men.”’ It is used fifteen times thus, all but
two in conjunction with enumeration.

b’harim. Youth (period of). An abstract plural
noun (cf. Ges § 124d), appearing once in the mas-
culine (Num 11:28, KJV and ASV ‘young men,”’
ASV marg. and RSV ‘‘youth’’) and twice in the
feminine, b° Aardt (Eccl 11:9; 12:1, all versions
‘‘youth’’).

bahir. Chosen, elect. This derivative is used
exclusively to indicate the relationship of the sub-
ject to God. It commonly occurs in a direct quo-
tation of God, having the first singular possessive
pronoun suffixed to it. Thus, God himself attests
that this person or nation is his own personal
choice. (Cf. Isa 42:1; Ps 89:3 [H 4]; etc.)

mibhar. Chosen, choice. This word usually
appears in construct with a following noun. As
such it is often translated as a superlative (GKC §
133g). Cf. Gen 23:6, ‘In the choicest of our
sepulchres.’’ The idea seems to be that which has
been examined and found to be best or most ser-
viceable.

mibhér. Chosen, choice. Occurs twice. Its
usage is Similar to mibhar.

Bibliography: Altmann, Peter, Erwdhlungs-
theologie und Universalismus im AT, Berlin: To-
pelmann, 1964. Berkouwer, G. C., Divine Elec-
tion, Eerdmans, 1960. Clements, R. E.,
‘Deuteronomy and the Jerusalem Cult Tradi-
tion,’ VT 15: 300-312. Palache, J. L., Semantic
Notes on the Hebrew Lexicon,. Brill, 1959.
Richardson, TWB, p. 43. Rowley, H. H., The
Biblical Doctrine of Election, London: Lutter-
worth, 1950. Wright, G. E., The Old Testament
Against Its Environment, SCM, 1950, pp. 46—S4.
TDNT, IV, pp. 145-72. TDOT, II, pp. 73-87.
THAT, I, pp. 275-99.

J.N.O.

101

232 MYDS (bald), SYD (batd’) speak

233 mvs (batah)

rashly,
thoughtlessly.

Derivative

232a = NMS «(mibta’) rash utterance. Oc-
curs only in Num 30:7, 9.

233 mya (batah) I, trust in, feel safe, be con-

fident, careless. (ASV similar. RSV usually
similar but occasionally ‘‘rely on.’’)

Derivatives

233a tmea (betah) safety.

233b «tAmea (biteha) trust.

233c «06RD «(bittahén) confidence.
233d tmimes (battuhdot) security.
233e tmeats (mibtah) trust.

This is one of two words used in the oT to
express trust or reliance upon, the other being
hdasd (q.v.). There is no clear cognate in the other
Semitic languages although KB sees a connection
with Arabic bataha ‘‘to be stretched out, taut’’
(cf. especially the VII stem). The basic idea
would then have to do with firmness or solidity.
Be that as it may, in Hebrew, bdtah expresses
that sense of well-being and security which re-
sults from having something or someone in whom
to place confidence. It is significant that the Lxx
never translates this word with muotevw ‘believe
in’’ but with edmifw ‘to hope,”’ in the positive
sense ‘‘to rely on God”’ or xeiqopat *‘to be per-
suaded,’’ for the negative notion for relying on
what turns out to be deceptive. This would seem
to indicate that bdtah does not connote that full-
orbed intellectual and volitional response to reve-
lation which is involved in ‘‘faith,’’ rather stres-
sing the feeling of being safe or secure. Likewise,
all the derivatives have the same meaning ‘‘to
feel secure,’’ ‘‘be unconcerned.’’

[The word bdtah has an ambivalent connota-
tion when used of human relationships. The folk
‘living at ease’’ with their neighbors suffered for
their credulity and gullibility, while those taking
advantage of their careless posture are censured:
cf. the false security of the Shechemites vs. the
cruelty of Levi and Simeon (Gen 34:25), of Israel
vs. Gog (Ezk 38:10-11). Proverbs 3:29 explicitly
warms against taking advantage of a trusting
neighbor. B.K.W. |]

In general, the oT contrasts the validity of that
sense of confidence which comes from reliance
upon God with the folly of any other kind of secu-
rity. It is made plain that all such trust will end in
disgrace and shame (Ps 31:14 (H 15], see bésh),
whereas those whose hope is in God alone will be
delivered from their enemies (Ps 22:4 [H 5]); their
prayers will be answered (I Chr 5:20); they will
walk in straight paths (Prov 3:5); will be given joy
and gladness (Ps 16:9; 33:21); will know inner

234 MQ3 (bth)

peace and absence of fear (Ps 4:8 [H 9]; Isa 26:3);
etc. Hence, the repeated admonition to trust in
the Lord (Prov 16:20; Isa 30:15; Jer 17:7).

The Psalms, which show the largest number of
occurrences (SO out of a total of 181), are most
consistently expressive of the values of trust in
God. They also make the point that the cause for
hope ts not in one’s ment with God or in some
sort of ‘‘tit-for-tat’’ arrangement, but only be-
cause of God's hesed (q.v.), his unswerving loy-
alty, his gracious kindness. Ezekiel 33:13 makes
it plain that no one dare hope for life on the basis
of his own righteousness and Jer 7:4, 8, 14 show
the folly of trusting in sacred formulas and struc-
tures. In this sense the or foreshadows the NT in
its proclamation that there is hope for those who
accept God’s gift of eternal life through Jesus
Christ.

This hope in God is not a sort of querulous
wishing, but a confident expectation. Unlike the
pagan religions where unremitted anxiety was the
rule, the Hebrew religion knew a God whose
chief characteristic was faithfulness and trust-
worthiness (Deut 33:28: I Sam 12:11; Ps 27:3).
This contrast between anxiety and confidence
becomes all the more striking when one recalls
that the pagan was never left without
mechanisms whereby he felt he had some control
over his destiny, while the devout Hebrew knew
himself to be utterly without personal resources.
But better to be utterly dependent on a gracious
and dependable God, than left to one’s own de-
vices In a sea of fickle gods, vengeful demons,
and inscrutable magical forces. In view of these
facts God’s sovereign contro! of man’s destiny
and God’s total dependability, putting one’s con-
fidence in anything but God is seen to be utterly
groundless. However, trust in God 1s not an au-
tomatic guarantee of protection from any and all
harm. Nor is refusal to trust God necessanily the
road to poverty and deprivation. In the face of his
comforters’ bland assurances, Job points out
these apparent contradictions in some biting sar-
casms (12:6; 24:23). Yet, even Job in his anguish
must admit that any other source of security 1s
ultimately valueless (31:24; cf. 39:11; cf. also Isa
50:10).

The oT considers these sources of false secu-
rity in some detail in order to show by contrast
the excellence of hope in God. The list includes
man (Ps 118:8; 146:3; Prov 25:19; Jer 17:5); wick-
edness (Isa 47:10); violence and oppression (Ps
§5:23 [H 24]; 62:10 [H 11]; Isa 30:12); riches (Ps
49:6 ([H 7]; $2:7 [H 9]; Prov 11:28); idols (Ps 31:6
[H 7]; 115:8; Isa 42:17; Hab 2:18); military power
(Deut 28:52; Ps 44:6 [H 7]; Isa 31:1; Jer 5:17; Hos
10:13); religion (Jer 7:4, 8, 14); one’s own righte-
ousness (Ezk 33:13; Hos 10:13); foreign alliances
(Isa 36:4ff; Ezk 29:16). In particular the Bible
heaps scorn upon those who live in complacency,

102

235 % Ma (bdtal) cease.

never having evaluated the flimsy basis for such
complacency (Isa 32:9-11; Ezk 30:9; Amos 6:1).

Perhaps the place where the central issues re-
volving around bdatah are seen most clearly ina
brief compass is II Kgs 18 and 19 where the Assy-
rian Rabshakeh challenges the worth of
Hezekiah’s trust in God and where that trust is
fully vindicated. The word occurs 20 times here
and in the parallel passages (Isa 36-37; II Chr 32).
In human relations, only one area of trust is
commended: a husband in a wife of noble charac-
ter (Prov 31:11, NIV).

betah. Safety, security, carelessness. Used al-
most exclusively in adverbial constructions.
Used frequently with yashab *‘to dwell,”’ e.g. Jer
23:6, where it is promised that God will deliver
Israel in the future and make her dwell securely.
In general, the word is used in two ways: the
promise that those who are rightly related to God
will dwell securely (Lev 25:18; Ps 16:9); and in-
dication of the transitory nature of any security
other than God’s (Jud 18:7; Isa 47:8; Ezk 30:9).

bitha. Trust. Appears only in Isa 30:15,
where it is used in a context which expresses
resignation and cessation of one’s own efforts.

battuhot. Security. Job 12:6 where Job in sar-
casm says that those who provoke God are Se-
cure.

mibtah. Trust, confidence. Used in the same
two ways as the previous. Appears only in poetic
passages.

Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., Theology of the
Old Testament, II, pp. 268-90. Kohler, L.,
‘‘Hebraische Vokabeln,’’ VT 55: 172-73. Rabin,
Chaim, ‘‘Three Hebrew Terms from the Realm of
Social Psychology,’ Supp VT 16: 219-30.
TDNT, II, pp. 521-29; VI, pp. 191-92, 194-202.
TDOT, II, pp. 88-93. THAT, I, pp. 300-304.

J.N.O.

234 mOQs (bth) II. Assumed root of the following.

234a = BYNBS8 ('Abattihim) watermelons
(only in Num 11:5).

ines (bittahdn). See no. 233c.

Occurs only in Eccl
1233;

236 3835 (btn) I. Assumed root of the following.

236a +13 (beten) womb, belly, body. (Asv
and rsv similar, but both tend to
translate ‘‘body’’ or utilize some pen-
phrastic construction where kJv trans-
lates ‘‘belly.’’)

The basic meaning of this word according to
the Semitic cognates is ‘‘interior’’; in Hebrew it

denotes the ‘‘lower abdomen” and has the same
meaning in the Amarna tablets. As such it can
refer to a woman’s womb, or to the stomach, or
be used in a figurative sense to express man’s
physical nature. It has a considerably broader
range of meaning than rehem ‘‘womb,’’ with
which it occasionally occurs in parallel. The ref-
erence to Ehud’s plunging the sword into the
beten of Eglon, king of Moab, suggests a touch of
poetic justice, because this well-sated ruler, this
‘‘very fat man’’ lived off the spoils of his victims.

The prostration of one’s beten on the ground
expressed humiliation (cf. Ps 44:25 [H 26], Egyp-
tian reliefs and the Amarna tablets).

The phrases ‘‘from the womb”’ and ‘‘fruit of
the beten’’ are idiomatic, expressing ‘from
birth’ on the one hand and “‘issue from the
body’’ or ‘‘children’’ on the other.

beten is used several times in the wisdom liter-
ature to express the deepest recesses of the per-
son, and/or the seat of the desires (cf. Job 15:35:
20:20; Prov 18:8; 18:20; etc.). It 1s also used in
parallel with nepesh ‘‘soul’’ to express the total-
ity of the human person. “Body” is a rather
colorless translation for the visceral quality of
beten in these references (Ps 31:9 [H 10]; 44:25
[H 26]; Mic 6:7).

The references to God in connection with
beten indicate that he is the one who shapes and
forms the fetus (Job 3:3-11; 31:18; Ps 139:13; Jer
1:5; cf. Ps 51:15 [H 7]), who brings the child forth
from the womb (Ps 22:9 [H 10]; Isa 46:3) and
superintends its life from the earliest moments
(Ps 71:6; Isa 49:1). The fruit of the womb is his
reward (Ps 127:3; cf. Deut 7:13; 28: 4, 11; 30:9).
The wicked, however, go astray “*from the womb
mérahem and speak lies’’ from birth mibbeten
(Ps 58: 3 [H 4]). And God curses the womb of the
adulteress (Num 5:21).

Probably as a polemic against the Babylonian
notion that their gods called their kings from the
womb, Isaiah proclaims that it was the Lord who
formed the Servant and called him from the
womb (Isa 44:2, 24; 49:5).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ‘**Hebrew-
Ugaritic Lexicography,’’ Bib 44: 301. Pederson,
J., Israel, Its Life and Culture, London: Oxford,
1946, pp. 170-73. TDOT, II, pp. 94-98.

J.N.O.

237 183 (btn) II. Assumed root of the following.

237a 8383 (botnim) pistachio (Gen
43:11).

238 3 (bdyay), ‘DS (bay) entreat.
238a %D (bi) excuse me, please. Particle
of entreaty.

239 13 (bin) understand,
prudent, regard.

consider, perceive,

103

239 993 (bin)

There are seventeen other renderings in addi-
tion. (Asv almost the same; RSv varies the
readings for the two most numerous, ‘‘under-
stand’’ and ‘‘consider’’ by interchanging *‘per-
ceive,’ “‘observe,’’ “‘discern,’’ et al.).

Derivatives

239a TS (bén) between.
239b tm2°D (bind) understanding.
239c «6 tm2I3R (tf bund) understanding.

The verb and its derivatives are used 247 times.
Its main English usage is “‘understanding™’ or
“‘insight.’’ The background idea of the verb Is to
‘*discern,’’ and this les behind the derivative
nouns and the close relation derived from the
substantive bayin (see below) from which comes
the preposition bén *‘between.’’ The combina-
tion of these words, *‘discern between’”’ is used in
I Kgs 3:9, **That I may discern between good and
evil.’ bin includes the concept of distinguish-
ment that leads to understanding.

The verb refers to knowledge which is superior
to the mere gathering of data. It is necessary to
know how to use knowledge one possesses
(Pirke Abot 3:12). The verb yada‘ (q.v.) can also
mean ‘‘understanding” in the sense of ability
(e.g. Esau as a skilful hunter). It can also mean
‘‘to be perceptive,’’ (Ps 73:22). However, yada’
generally describes the process whereby one
gains knowledge through experience with objects
and circumstances. bin is a power of judgment
and perceptive insight and is demonstrated in the
use of knowledge.

A person can perceive pertinent data with his
senses: with his eyes he can discern (Prov 7:73,
with his ears he can understand words (Prov
29:19). Understanding can also be said to feel (Ps
58:10) and discernment can even be sensed
through taste (Job 6:30).

It is possible to hear without perceiving. Daniel
did not understand what he had heard (Dan 12:8).
It is said in a derogatory sense that the wicked
cannot understand the knowledge he knows
(Prov 29:7). Other instances emphasize an atten-
tive observation or consideration: Moses accus-
ingly asked the people to consider diligently the
years of experience of all generations (Deut 32:7),
and David perceived the destination of the
wicked (Ps 73:17).

The Hiphil stem especially emphasizes ability
to understand. Ezra read the word of God in the
presence of men, women, and those able to
understand, 1.e. old enough (Neh 8:3). God can
make a person understand his ways (Ps 119:34,
73). His angel came to give understanding to
Daniel (Dan 10:14). The participial form refers to
a teacher, i.e. one who gives discernment to his
students (Ezra 8:16).

From a number of instances, insight or moral

239 993 (bin)

understanding is a gift from God (Dan 2:21) and is
not the fruit of empiricism. It is ethical discern-
ment. A person prays for it (Ps 119:34) and since
this insight is uniquely God’s, he can reveal or
conceal it (Isa 29:14). The seat of insight is the
heart and it is the heart which discerns (or fails to
discern) the works of the Lord (Ps 28:5), the fear
of the Lord (Prov 2:5), righteousness and justice
(Prov 2:9), and his will as his word is obeyed (Ps
111:10).

While understanding is a gift of God, it does
not come automatically. The possession of it re-
quires a persistent diligence. It is more than IQ; it
connotes character. One is at fault if he doesn’t
have it and in fact, not to pursue it will incur
God's punishment (Prov 2:1f; Ruth 1:21f.). When
one acts on the objective presentations of God’s
revelation, he will attain the ideal of the signifi-
cance of understanding.

bén. Between, among, et al. From bayin, a
substantive that expresses the notion ‘‘interval,”’
“space between.’ It appears many times (BDB
selects only twenty-four entries), and ina number
of situations of doubling where the second usage
of bin in separating a pair is not translated into
English.

It is used as a preposition, “‘in the interval,”’
‘‘between,”’ e.g. between the pieces (Gen 15:7),
between your eyes (Ex 13:9), between the two
walls (Isa 22:11), et al. In one unusual instance it
is used with a singular between the Ulai, i.e. on
its banks (Dan 8:16). To indicate the space
Separating two objects, bén is repeated: in the
interval of Bethel and in the interval of Ai (Gen
13:3), Sometimes this result is accomplished by
using bén followed by the preposition / indicating
an interval with respect to the object, e.g. be-
tween you and between your God (Isa 59:2).

bén is also used of a temporal notion, during
the interval of ten days (Neh 5:18), as well as with
a number of other prepositions, in between, in
among (Ezk 31:10), amongst (Isa 44:4), with pre-
position min (Gen 49:10, et al). There is also the
plural béndt between the wheels (Ezk 10:2) and
the dual bénayim, the man from the intervening
space between two armies, Goliath, i.e. a cham-
pion (I Sam 17:4).

bén is also used with verbs of judging, know-
ing, teaching, etc., involving the notion of distin-
guishing, e.g. discerning between good and evil (I
Kgs 3:9), judging between the nations (Isa 2:4).

bina. Understanding. This noun is used in a
vaniety of ways. It refers to understanding, as in
the prediction that Israel will never again be ex-
posed to a foreign language difficult to un-
derstand (Isa 33:19), or in the statement that
Daniel had understanding of every subject which
Nebuchadnezzar asked (Dan 1:20). bind also re-
fers to the very faculty of understanding. One is

104

not to lean on his own understanding (Prov 3:5),
A person should desist from his own understand-
ing, thus trying to attain great wealth (Prov 23:4),
People who have been involved in sin and in-
iquity are those of no understanding (Isa 27:11).
People are encouraged diligently to seek this fa-
culty of understanding (Prov 4:5, 7).

bind is also used as theobject of knowledge.
Job inquired concerning the place of understand-
ing (Job 28:12, 20) and then partially answered
the question that to depart from evil is under-
standing (Job 28:28 where wisdom hokmd [q.v.]
and bind are close synonyms). Wisdom advises
that a person should go in the way of understand-
ing (Prov 9:6) and that the knowledge of the Holy
One is understanding (Prov 9:10).

Understanding and wisdom (hokm@) are per-
sonified (Prov 2:3; 7:4 but primarily in Prov 8: 14f.
where there are important implications). This
personification also appears in Ecclesiasticus
24:9, 23, where the function of God’s spirit medi-
ated between God as wholly other, and the world
(it would appear). The question has been asked as
to whether wisdom is some aspect of a hypostasis
with God, or if it is an abstract principle which
has been made personal in the use of poetry.
There is a mysterious objectifying of God's
word-concept in wisdom by which the world
exists as well as by whom we receive wisdom and
power.

t°-bana. Understanding. (asv is similar but Rsv
uses “‘intelligence’’ in a few instances for
‘*understanding.’’)

Synonymous with bind, it is used in the same
variety of ways, although in different passages.
By the act of understanding God shattered Rahab
(Job 26:12). The faculty 1s such that a man of
understanding walks in a path of uprightness
(Prov 15:21). Then again, understanding can refer
to the object of knowledge as when one gains
understanding (Prov 3:13). ¢t® bund is also per-
sonified as a woman lifting up her voice (Prov
8:1). Here understanding is parallel with wisdom
and thus is seen as the teacher. In only one pas-
sage do bind and ¢* bund appear in synonymous
parallelism: as one cries for discernment one
must lift up his voice for understanding (Prov
2:3); the nouns refer to the object of knowledge.

Bibliography: Girdlestone, R., Synonyms of
the Old Testament, Eerdmans, 1897, p. 74.
Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964.
Harris, R. L., **Proverbs,’* WBC, pp. 553-54. Or-
linsky, Harry M., *‘The Biblical Prepositions Té-
hat, Bén, Ba‘ad, and Pronouns ‘4nd (or ’And),
Zo'tah,’’ HUCA 17: 267-92. TDOT, II, pp. 99-
106. THAT, I, pp. 305-307.

L.G.

mess) (bésa). See no. 218a.

240 m3 (bird) palace.

BDB suggests that it is a loan word from Akka-
dian. The cognate appears in Biblical Aramaic
(Ezr 6:2). It is used of the temple in Jerusalem (1
Chr 29:1, 19). In Neh 2:8, ‘*palace”’ (kKJv) 1s ren-
dered ‘‘castle’’ (Asv) and ‘‘fortress’’ (Rsv), while
at Neh 7:2 the asv and rsv use ‘‘castle.’’ In Neh
1:1 and Est 1:2, 5; 2:3, 5, 8, et al., in Shushan the
‘palace,’ the asv renders *‘palace’’ while the Rsv
uses ‘“‘capital."” The wording of the latter,
b¢shushan habbird, suggests *‘in a fortress in the
city’ (BDB). The form birdnit is identified as a
plural form in GB.

L.G.

241 ©°3 (bayit) house, household, home, place,
temple, inward, family, et al. (Asv and RSV
similar generally, except that Rsv renders
house (hold) instead of family.)

Derivatives

241a toe ms (bét’él) Bethel.
241b tam? nes (bét lehem) Bethlehem.
241c ND (bitan) house, palace.

The word is common to Aramaic, Arabic, Ak-
kadian, and Ugaritic. By contrast ‘ohel is ‘‘tent,”’

me‘dra ‘‘cave,’ bird ‘palace, castle, hékal
‘palace, temple,” Adsér **settlement,’’ mdshab
“dwelling,” = md‘dn refuge,” miqdash

‘sanctuary,’’ and mishkdn ‘‘tabernacle.”’

It is used as a dwelling or habitation. Ar-
cheologists have uncovered some impressive
houses with thick walls dating from the early
Bronze Age (3000-2100 B.c.). At Debir were dis-
covered thick walls of a house believed to be of
the Middle Bronze period (2100-1500 B.c.). Lot’s
house at Sodom, also of the Middle Bronze Age,
had well constructed walls which stopped the
mob's assault. Other houses, not so well con-
structed, would not have lasted. For earlier
house construction cf. Kenyon, K. M., Archae-
ology in the Holy Land, Praeger, 1961, pl. 5B
and Mellaart, J., The Neolithic of the Near East,
Scribners, 1975, esp. pp. 35-49.

The word is used of ordinary houses (Ex 12:7,
et al.), dwelling houses (Lev 25:29), houses of
solid materials with doorposts (Deut 11:20), walls
(Lev 14:37) of stones, wood, and mortar (Lev
14:45). Possibly the walls were rectangular with a
courtyard in front. For the door there was proba-
bly a wood beam as the lintel and two upright
doorposts as jambs. There was also a room for
domestic animals and a sleeping room. Cooking
was usually done outside. Windows were proba-
bly open with a latticework covering while ceil-
ings might have consisted of beams plastered
with clay. Steps led to the roof. Larger houses or
official buildings were supported by pillars (Jud
16:26f.). Albright shows a patrician house of the

105

241 m°3 (bayit)

time of the monarchy with the first story enclosed
on three sides and the second story supported on
the fourth side by four pillars (Archaeology of
Palestine, Penguin, 1960, p. 141). A house with
seven pillars would be rich indeed (Prov 9:1; cf.
NiIv). Some of the better houses were built on the
walls of a city (Josh 2:15) and also had roofs
where people could relax (II Sam 11:12). The
word ‘‘house’’ is also used to designate the tem-
ple and king’s house in Jerusalem (I Kgs 5:3;
7:51) as well as Ezekiel’s temple (Ezk 40f.).

bayit can be used in the construct to denote
distinct buildings or parts of a large building.
Thus it can be used of the king’s house (I Kgs
10:12), a prison (Jer 37:15), a treasury (Isa 39:2),
but most significantly of a temple: the house of a
deity.

Many Canaanite place names stem from the
temple of the deity located in it; e.g. Beth-
Shemesh = Temple of the Sun-god, Shemesh,
Beth-horon, Beth-shan. Israel by contrast named
sites after persons: Hinnom, etc.

The most important house in Israel, of course,
was the Lord's house, first mentioned in extra-
biblical literature in the Arad ostraca. (See Y.
Aharoni, BA, 31: 16f.) Because the Lord was
uniquely present here, the Psalmist celebrated
Zion and longed to appear before him in worship
(Ps 26:8; 122:1). But when Israel made it a den of
robbers, God threatened to destroy it, even as he
had destroyed his residence at Shiloh (Jer 7).

Rooms of a large house can be called a bayit.
Thus the word is used in construct to designate
the drinking hall of Ahasuerus (Est 7:8), his
harem (Est 2:3), and the winter house, a particu-
lar quarter of the palace in Jerusalem (Jer 36:22).

House ts applied to places, e.g. place of my
father’s tombs (Neh 2:3), or Bethel as the king's
house (Amos 7:13). bayit is used peculiarly as
‘*place’’ (KJv), holders or receptacles, holders for
the staves (rings, Ex 25:27), perfume boxes (Isa
3:20).

Importantly, house is applied to a household or
family: Jacob’s household (Gen 35:2), family of
descendants as a corporate group, also Ab-
raham’s house (Gen 18:19) and David's house (II
Sam 7:11), the Hebrew people as house of Jacob
(Gen 46:27) and house of Israel (Ex 16:31), the
father’s house in sense of a clan or family (Num
1:2). In the of there is a solidarity between a man
and his house (Josh 2:12; 6:22; 7:1-5; I Kgs 7:15).
So Joshua informs the Israelites that he and his
house will serve the Lord (Josh 24:15).

By metonymy the word can denote what is in
the house. This is the force of the tenth com-
mandment prohibiting the coveting of a
neighbor’s house (Ex 20:17; cf. Gen 30:30; Num
22:18; 24:13, etc.).

Bibliography: Ahistrom, G. E., **Der Prophet
Nathan und der Tempelbau,’’ VT 11: 113-27.

241 m3 (bayit)

Dickie, A. C., ““House,’* in ISBE, III, pp. 1434—
38. Hyatt, J. Philip, **The Deity Bethel and the Old
Testament,” JAOS 59: 81-98. Landsberger,
Franz, *“The House of the People,’"*’ HUCA 22:
149-55. Pope, Marvin H., “‘El in the Ugaritic
Texts,’ Supp VT 2: 1-116, esp. p. S9f. Rainey,
Anson F., **Family Relationship in Ugarit,’’ Or
34: 10-22. Sellers, O., ‘*House,’* in IDB, p. 657.
Stigers, Harold G., “‘House,” in ZPBD, pp.
217-21. Ward, William A., “‘Egyptian Titles in
Genesis 39-50," BS 114: 40-59. TDOT, II, pp.
107-15. THAT, I, pp. 308-12.

bét "él. House of God. Indicates the city and
sanctuary whose name 1s read in English as one
word, **Bethel.’’ It is mentioned sixty-five times,
more than any other city except Jerusalem.

Bethel was a Canaanite and Israelite town, lo-
cated ten to eleven miles north of Jerusalem, at
the intersection of the north-south road along the
crest of the hill line and the east-west road to the
plains of Jericho and the coastal plain. It was on
the north boundary of Benjamin (southern boun-
dary of Ephraim).

The settlement at Bethel appears to have been
established at the turn of the third millennium
B.c. In the early patnarchal period the town was
called Luz (Gen 28:19). When Jacob stopped
there, he was at ‘‘the place’’ (Gen 28:11), possi-
bly where Abraham had sacrificed (Gen 18:8) and
where he had viewed the Jordan valley (Gen
13:9f.), east of the town. Four nearby springs
made settlement inevitable. When Jacob awoke
from his sleep, he set up a pillar of stones on
which he had slept, poured oil on them, and
called the place bét-'é/, emphasizing God's reve-
lation of himself there. Jacob revisited the area
when he was returning from Paddan-Aram to
meet with God (Gen 35:2-3,7). It was there that
Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, died and was buried
under *‘the oak’’ nearby (Gen 35:8).

There is a lot of history associated with Bethel.
It was a Canaanite royal city (Josh 12:16), was
captured by Joshua (8:7), and allotted to Benja-
min (18:22). Bethel was probably recaptured by
the Canaanites early in the period of the Judges,
but taken again by the house of Joseph (Jud
1:22f.) to remain Ephraimite territory (I Chr
7:28).

Later the ark was located in Bethel (Jud 20:18)
and it became an important center of worship (I
Sam 10:3). It was on Samuel's circuit when he
judged Israel (I Sam 7:16). While remaining pros-
perous, it temporarily lost prominence when
Saul’s Gibeah and David's and Solomon's
Jerusalem were in the fore. When the kingdom
divided, Jeroboam I designated Bethel as the
northern kingdom’s main sanctuary, challenging
the temple in Jerusalem and weaning the people
away (I Kgs 12:26-33). The golden calf ritual and

106

sanctuary at Bethel remained central as late as
the time of Amos (3:14: 4:4; Hos 4:15). The
northern revolt was thorough in every way, poli-
tically, etc., and especially in the synthesis of
Yahweh worship and other cultic practices from
Egypt, Canaan, and other middle eastern coun-
tries. God condemned the action, first in a warn-
ing by a man of God who pronounced doom upon
Jeroboam (I Kgs 13) and by Amos and Hosea
later who mocked Bethel as bét 'awen (house of
iniquity).

Apparently Bethel was spared when Samaria
fell to Assyria (no archeological evidence
suggests Assyrian destruction). It seems that
priests still taught there after Samaria was de-
stroyed (II Kgs 17:28). Josiah captured it, de-
molished the altar, and defiled the site (II Kgs
23:15), while the Babylonians destroyed the city
in their second invasion (587-576 B.c.).

In the Persian period Bethel was included in
the territory of Judah (Ezr 2:28; Neh 7:32). Dur-
ing the period of Hasmonean guerilla warfare, it
was fortified by the Seleucids (1 Macc 9:50;
Josephus, Antiquities, 13.1.3). Vespasian cap-
tured it as he approached Jerusalem (Josephus,
Wars of the Jews, 4.9.9).

Bethel is also associated with both sanctuary
and deity. For the Canaanites bét-’él was a city
sanctuary dedicated to the deity ‘é/ (q.v.). ‘él
was a general name for God in the ancient near
east, but the Israelites identified 'é/ with Jacob's
experiences (Gen 28:10-22; 35). Babylonian
documents by Nebuchadnezzar use the word in
personal names, while some Jewish people at
Elephantine (Elephantine Papyri) had names in
combination with bét-’é/, indicating various at-
tributes of God.

There is also a place by the same name not far
from Beersheba (I Sam 30:27) in the territory of
Simeon (which was an enclave in Judah), al-
though there is probably a textual error since this
appears as bral (Josh 19:4) and b°ta’el (1 Chr
4:30). The site of the city is still unknown.

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., Archeology
and the Religion of Israel, Johns Hopkins, 1942,
pp. 168-74. Albnght, W. F. and J. L. Kelso,
‘‘The Excavation of Bethel,” AASOR, 39:
Fauer, Jose, ‘Idolatry, and Gershon Bacon,
‘The View of Kaufmann,” in Encyclopedia
Judaica, pp. 1227-33. Kelso, ‘‘The Second Cam-
paign at Bethel,’ and ‘The Third Campaign at
Bethel,” BASOR, 137, IS1. Rowley, H. H.,
From Joseph to Joshua, Oxford, 1950, pp. 19,
111, 138. Avi-Yonah, Michael, *‘“Bethel,’ in En-
cyclopedia Judaica, 1V, pp. 728-30.

bét-lehem. House of bread. In English it is
read as one word, ‘Bethlehem,’ designating the
city. It appears forty-three times; four times, as
bét-hallahmi ‘‘Bethlehemite,”’ designating one

belonging to Bethlehem. This name can refer to
the place (house) of fighting (since the root /hm
refers also to fighting or to the place (house) of
the god Jahamu (probably from the Amarna let-
ters, where a complaint is registered that bit
lahamu was in the hands of the invaders), but all
this etymology is uncertain.

The area is first mentioned in Scripture when
Rachel was buried by Jacob on the way to Eph-
rath, specifically at Bethlehem (Gen 35:19). It is
located about five miles south of Jerusalem in
Judean territory.

The city with the surrounding area was the
center of the tribe of Judah. A well-known fam-
ily, descendants of Perez, settled there and in the
Judges period some of the family included Boaz
the ancestor of, and Jesse the father of David.
This area produced the godly family of Ruth and
Boaz.

Bethlehem unfortunately was the abode of the
Levite who became the priest of Micah in Eph-
raim and later of the Danites (Jud 17; 18). Jewish
people to this day despise this one for while he
was a grandson of Moses, he became a shame.
Therefore, in order to conceal his genealogy, the
biblical text reads Manasseh (with an n above the
line) instead of Moses (Jud 18:30). The Levite of
Ephraim had a concubine from Bethlehem, and it
was her death at .the hand of the Levite that
caused the civil war between Israel and Benjamin
(Jud 19).

Bethlehem’s prominence in the oT was in its
association with David. It was his home (I Sam
17:12; 20:6) and there Samuel anointed him king
(I Sam 16:1, 13). Possibly Bethlehem was one of
the worship centers on Samuel's circuit. Some of
David's kinsmen who were his personal warnors,
sons of Zeruiah, were born there also. Near the
end of Saul’s reign the Philistines were quartered
there (II Sam 23:14—16). It was the burial place of
Asahel, brother of Joab (II Sam 2:32).

The succeeding history can be brief. Re-
hoboam fortified it (IJ Chr 11:16). Some of
Gedaliah’s murderers stopped at Bethlehem on
their way to Egypt (Jer 41:16-17). Ezra 2:21 and
Neh 7:26 record more than one hundred Beth-
lehemite emigrants, some of the leading citizens.
Jews continued to live in Bethlehem in nt and
post NT times and Lam Rabbah 1:15 records that
a Roman garrison was quartered there to destroy
any remnant of Bar Kokhba’s army. Today no
Jews live in Bethlehem.

Because of the messianic passage (Mic 5:2
[H 1]), early Jewish believers who recognized

Jesus as Messiah, emphasized Bethlehem as his
birthplace (Mt 2:1, 5: Lk 2:4, 15; Jn 7:42). Justin
Martyr mentioned that the birthplace of Jesus
was In a cave.

Thus the Son of God humbled himself to be born
in a cave housing animals in a town so small and

242 S23 (baka’) balsam tree

243 Mpa (bakd)

107

243 mp3 (baka)

insignificant that when the land was distributed it
was not even mentioned among the forty-six
cities of Judah (Josh 15:20-63; Mic 5:2). In 325
Helena, mother of Constantine, had a church
erected over the cave. It was destroyed in 529
A.D. in the Samaritan uprising against the Byzan-
tines. Justinian (527-65) rebuilt it, and the Church
of the Nativity today reflects the Justinian pat-
tern. At the beginning of the 400s a.p., Jerome

settled in Bethlehem and lived in a cave near the
nativity cave. While in Bethlehem, Jewish schol-
ars taught Hebrew to Jerome. His work in that
cave, of translating the ot from Hebrew to Latin,
became the basis of the Vulgate, in addition to his
work of NT translation.

Bethlehem of Judah is not to be confused with
a city of the same name in Zebulun (Josh 19:15).
This is located about seven miles northwest of
Nazareth.

Bibliography: Crowfoot, J. W., = Early
Churches in Palestine, Oxford, 1941, pp. 22—40.
Masterman, E. W., ‘‘Bethlehem,”’ in ISBE, I,
pp. 449-50. Orn, Ephraim, *‘Bethlehem,”’ in En-
cyclopedia Judaica, IV, pp. 739-45. Van Beek,
G., ‘*‘Bethlehem,” in IDB, I, pp. 394-95.

L.G.

(II Sam 5:23-24
= I Chr 14:14-15; Ps 84:7).

to weep, cry, Shed tears. (ASV

and rsv similar.)
Derivatives

tm22 4 (bekeh) a weeping.
1993 «(b°ki) weeping.

243c TMIDD (bakit) weeping.
243d maa (b°kit) weeping.

This root occurs in all the major languages, in-
cluding Arabic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. It 1s
used with approximately the same range of mean-
ing. In Hebrew it means ‘‘to weep by reason of
joy or sorrow, the latter including lament, com-
plaint, remorse or repentance.’’ The root is
commonly paralleled with dama‘ ‘‘to shed
tears’ and with sdpad ‘‘to mourn.” But,
whereas tears are associated with the eyes, weep-
ing 1S associated with the voice; Semites do not
weep quietly, but aloud. These parallelisms occur
frequently in Ugantic (Fisher). However, in
Ugaritic, as in Akkadian and Arabic, the stress
upon repentance which is seen in the conjunction
of baka with sum ‘‘to fast’’ is absent. Another
synonym is ‘dbal which emphasizes the formal!
mourning for the dead.

Throughout the ot weeping is the natural and
spontaneous expression of strong emotion. baka
is especially prominent in the narrative literature

243a
243b

244 *9395 (bakar)

although it also occurs frequently in the poetic
and prophetic books. The total number of occur-
rences is [41].

The root is used in five different ways. Al-
though weeping is usually associated with dis-
tress or sorrow, it is also a sign of joy. Interest-
ingly enough, all occurrences of this usage appear
in the Jacob narrative. Jacob wept for joy when
he met Rachel after his journey from Canaan
(Gen 29:11). So did Jacob and Esau when they
met again after the long separation (Gen 33:4).
Joseph and Jacob wept with each other when
they met in Egypt (Gen 46:29), etc.

A much more frequent usage is crying in dis-
tress. Thus the baby Moses began to cry in the
Pharaoh's daughter’s presence (Ex 2:6). Simi-
larly Esau wept in bitterness and frustration at
the discovery of Jacob’s fraud (Gen 27:38). Job
says that he deserves punishment if he has com-
mitted any of a number of sins, among which is
causing the “‘furrows of the land’’ to weep
through abuse (Job 31:38). Israel wept because of
the threat of the enemy (I Sam 11:4, 30:4; etc.);
they wept in the exile (Ps 137:1; cf. Jer 31:15);
and the Psalmist wept for those who despised
God’s law (Ps 119:136). The distress need not be
one’s own, for weeping may be a sympathetic
reaction at the distress of another (cf. Job 2:12;
30:25; Isa 16:9; Jer 48:5; Ezk 27:31).

A specific form of distress is that which is on
account of death. The form of the lament is seen
clearly in I Sam 1 where David weeps for the
slain Saul and Jonathon. The magnanimity of
David which is shown in his weeping for Saul is
seen again when he weeps for Abner, the enemy
general (1 Sam 3:32). It is evident at several
points that the time of lament was carefully pre-
scribed (Gen 50:4; Deut 34:8; etc.). Professional
mourners were called to weep at times of death
(II Sam 1:24; Jer 49:3; Ps 78:64; Job 27:15). This
served the twofold purpose of insuring that the
dead person was mourned properly and also that
the mourning did not continue interminably.

This lamentation for the dead formed a specific
part of the fertility cult, wherein the dead vegeta-
tion god was mourned in the fall of the year. Nu-
merous references to this rite are found in the
Ugaritic literature (e.g. texts 62; 67:VI, and cf. I
Kgs 18:26-29 where a similar ritual was evidently
performed). Ezekiel was horrified when he dis-
covered that such practices were being carried on
within the temple itself (8:14).

Another type of weeping would be that which
is associated with pleading or complaint. Hannah
wept with bitter tears as she pleaded with God for
a son (I Sam 1:7-10). So also, Esther wept before
the Persian emperor begging for her people’s life
(Est 8:3). Cf. also Hezekiah (I] Kgs 20:3). This
type of weeping can quickly become whining, as
witness Samson’s wife importuning him for the

108

answer to his riddle (Jud 14:16) and the crying of
the Israelites for meat (Num 11:4-20).

The final usage of *‘weeping’’ is unique to the
oT. It is the weeping of repentance. In other cul-
tures of the ancient near east weeping out of re-
morse or sorrow for punishment is known, but
never sheer sorrow over having offended the de-
ity. Both of these occur in the or. An example of
the former would be found in Jud 21:2 where the
Israelites weep because of their folly in decimat-
ing Benjamin. On the other hand ts the weeping
of Josiah at the reading of the Law (II Kgs 22:19),
or the weeping of Israel when she returns to her
God (Jer 31:9; 50:4). When the Law was read to
the returned exiles and they saw how far short
they had fallen, they had to be reminded that a
holy day was not for mourning (Neh 8:9; cf. also
Ezr 10:1; Hos 12:4 [H 5]). Such weeping was that
of Peter when he realized how he had denied his
Lord (Mt 26:75). It may be said that there is no
genuine repentance apart from a bitter sense of
SOrrow OVer one’s Sins, a SOrrow so deep that it
may quite properly issue in weeping. In the es-
chaton God will make an end to all weeping (Isa
65:19; cf. 25:8).

bekeh. Weeping. At Ezr 10:1 where the people
wept greatly (lit. ‘‘multiplied weeping’’).

b’ki. Weeping. Occurs thirty times, five of
which are cognate accusatives (cf. Jud 21:2).

bakit. Weeping. Name of the oak where Re-
bekah’s nurse was buried (Gen 35:8).
Bibliography: Collins, T., ‘‘The Physiology of
Tears in the OT,’’ CBQ 33: 18-38, 185-97. De-
Ward, Eileen F., ‘‘Mourning Customs in 1, 2
Samuel,’’ JJS 23: 1-27, 145-66. Fisher, L. R.,
Ras Shamra Parallels, vol. 1, Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1972, pp. 142-44. Hvidberg, F. F.,
Weeping and Laughter in the Old Testament,
Brill, 1962. Westermann, C., ‘‘Struktur und Ges-
chichte der Klage im AT,’’ ZAW 25: 44-80.
TDOT, II, pp. 116-20. THAT, I, pp. 313-15.
J.N.O.

“inp. (b%kér). See no. 244a.
e235) (bikkurim). See no. 244e.
miss (bakit). See no. 243c.

‘23 (b°ki). See no. 243b.

massa (b°kird). See no. 244d.
maa ((b°kit). See no. 243d.

244 *"393 (bakar) to be born first.(asv and RSv

similar.)
Derivatives

244a 3533 (b¢kdr) firstborn.
244b mas (bikrad) young camel.
244c «fms 33 «(b&kord) birthright.

244d tmn%53 6(btkira) firstborn (of women).
244e tessa (bikkurim) firstfruits.
244f mina (bikkurd) _firstfruits.

Of the 158 occurrences of this root and its de-
rivatives, only four are in verbal form and these
are all in derived stems. This suggests that the
basic idea in Hebrew is the nominal ‘‘the
firstborn’ and that the verb forms are derivative.
In the Arabic, the root bakara means ‘'to arise,
to be first, to come early”’ and this is probably the
root idea from which the Hebrew connotation has
sprung.

b*kér. Firstborn, firstling, eldest(son). Arabic,
Ethiopia, Aramaic, and probably Akkadian pos-
sess a nominal equivalent to Hebrew b¢kor for
‘“firstborn’’ indicating that this is the original
meaning of the noun. This noun form accounts
for 118 of the total occurrences of the root. In the
singular and the plural constructions, masculine
forms are used. However, in the four places
where an absolute plural form is used it is always
in the feminine M35 53: Deut 12:6; 14:23; Neh
10:37 [twice].

bikkarim. Firstfruits, firstripe. Only appears
in masculine plural and refers especially to the
first products of grain and fruit, (bread, Ex 23:16;
grapes, Num 13:20; figs, Nah 3:12), a portion of
which were to be given to the Lord as a thank
offering and for the support of the priesthood (cf.
Lev 2:14; Num 18:12-13).

b*kora. Birthright, primogenture. Appears
only in feminine singular and always with this
special meaning. Involves especially the legal
claims of the firstborn to a double portion of the
inheritance and to such other nghts as might be
his by virtue of his position as first born.

b¢kiré. Firstborn daughter. The feminine
counterpart of b®kdér. Appears only six times,
five of which are in Gen. Of these, four are found
in Gen 19 (vv. 31, 33, 34, 37) where Lot’s
firstborn daughter provokes her sister to join her
in sexual relations with their father.

In Israel, as in much of the rest of the ancient
near east, the firstborn son, Reuben, enjoyed a
position of honor and favor. He ts called ‘‘the
first of the (procreative) strength’ of the father
(Gen 49:3). So noteworthy were departures from
this rule, that they became, in C. H. Gordon's
words, ‘‘worthy of saga.’’ As such these depar-
tures constitute a literary theme in the Bible (Gen
25:23; etc.) and elsewhere (cf. Ug. Text 128:
III:16). The Lord’s choice of Abel over Cain, of
Jacob over Esau, of Joseph and Judah over Reu-
ben, of Ephraim over Manasseh, of Moses over
Aaron, of David over his brothers, of Solomon
over Adonijah, show that he is the Lord of sacred
history and that he transcends cultural norms.

109

244 *493 (bakar)

Many of the occurrences of b®kér simply de-
lineate a particular son as the firstborn, indicating
the importance attached to this position (esp. in |
Chr, but frequently elsewhere). Among other
rights, the firstborn was entitled to a double por-
tion of the inheritance (Deut 21:17), to the
father’s blessing (Gen 27; cf. also 48:17-19), and
to preferential treatment (Gen 43:33). If there
were two sons, the firstborn would receive two-
thirds of the inheritance, if three, two-fourths,
etc. The firstborn could sell this inheritance (as in
Nuzi law—cf. Gen 25:31-34). This concept is
transferred to the prophetic gift in the case of
Elisha to show his superiority over the other
prophets (JI Kgs 2:3ff.). Israel is called the
Lord’s firstborn (Ex 4:22; cf. Jer 31:9) to show
that though it was the youngest of the nations, it
occupied the position of leadership and privilege
over them.

At the same time, however, the Israelites seem
to have held the belief, in common with the rest
of the ancient near east, that the deity, as lord of
the manor, was entitled not only to the best but to
the first share of all produce. This meant that the
firstfruits of plant, animal and man were his.
Commonly this meant that these could only be
used in the practices of and support of the deity’s
temple. At any rate, they were forfeited to the
deity. This is the basic meaning of the Lord’s
smiting the firstborn of Egypt. It is not Pharaoh,
or the Egyptian gods who have the right to
Egypt’s firstborn. It is the Lord. He is the true
owner of Egypt. This Egyptian experience be-
came fundamental for the Hebrew concept of the
firstborn (cf. Ex 11:5; Num 8:17; etc.).

It is with regard to the firstborn, however, that
Hebrew practice differs sharply from the pagan.
Both treat the first plants and animals as tabu and
thus only available for sacrifice. The pagans car-
ried this logic further, commonly sacnificing the
eldest son as well. Although the Hebrews fell
back into this custom during the divided
monarchy (e.g. IJ Kgs 16:3) and perhaps may
have even So interpreted the Lord’s command-
ment to dedicate the firstborn (Ex 11:5; Ezk
20:26), the Old Testament exhibits a special
loathing for child sacrifice (see the discussion
under ftdpet). Wherever it 1s reported, it is with
horror (cf. Josh 6:26; II Kgs 3:27; Jer 32:35; Mic
6:7). Rather, the paradigm for treatment of the
firstborn is found in the account of Abraham's
near sacrifice of Isaac. It is redemption by means
of substitution. As such, it foreshadows the sub-
stitutionary atonement of Christ. By rights, this
child’s life is forfeited to God. But God does not
want to take the child’s life, so he makes a way of
escape. The chief means of substitution after
Sinai was via the Levites. The Levitical family
was consecrated to God in place of the firstborn
(Num 3:1-45). The extra firstborn sons beyond

245 193 (balag)

the number of the Levites were redeemed at five
shekels a head (Num 3:46-51). Apparently Num
18:15-16 refers to this transaction. Thereafter
only the firstborn of animals was demanded
(Deut 15:19).

Bibliography: AI, pp. 441-46; pp. 490-93.
Gaster, T. H., ‘‘Sacrifices,’’ in IDB, IV, p. 148.
Kooy, V. H., *‘Firstborn,”’ in IDB, II, pp. 270-
72. Mendlesohn, I., ‘‘On the Preferential Status
of the Eldest Son,’’ BASOR 156: 38-40.
Michaelis, W., ‘“tOWTOTOXOS, MOWTOTOXELa,’* In
TDNT, VI, pp. 872-76. Pedersen, J., Israel, Its
Life and Culture II]-IV, London: Oxford, 1940,
pp. 300-22. Richardson, TWB, p. 83. TDOT, II,
pp. 121-27.

J.N.O.

’5 (bal). See no. 246d.
bs (bel). See no. 262c.

245 393 (bdlag) gleam, smile.

Derivative

245a = °3°%35% «(mabligit) smiling,
cheerfulness (Jer 8:18).

246 mp (bald) become old, worn out.

Derivatives

246a +tm23 (bdleh) worn out.

2466 =N19D (b°16’) worn out things, rags.

246c tm93n (tablit) destruction.

246d +53 (bal) not.

246e t92 (b°li) wearing out.

246f tma°os (b¢limad) nothingness.

246g foys9D (b*liya‘al) worthlessness.

246h 9 ops (bil‘adé) apart from, except,
without.

246i +tm?D (bélet) not, except.

bala appears sixteen times and is attested in
the Ugaritic text by bly (Ut 19: no. 474, blym
alpm, *‘The oxen are worn out,’’ i.e. unfit for
plowing).

Its basic meaning is used of the Israelites’ gar-
ments which did not wear out (Deut 8:4; 29:4;
Neh 9:21) in the wilderness. The Gibeonites
claimed the reverse concerning their garments in
Josh 9:13.

The same idea is used in a figurative expression
relating to the heavens and the earth (Isa 50:9;
51:6; Ps 102:27). While other Scriptures teach the
perpetuity of the heavens and earth, this one re-
fers to their worn-out condition. The new
heavens and new earth will consist of the old
ones renewed; similarly, our resurrected bodies
will have many features of continuity with our
present bodies.

Men and women are said to waste away
through age, cares, or sickness (Gen 18:12; Job

110

13:28; Ps 32:3; Lam 3:4). In the grave, the bodily
form wastes away (Ps 49:15). Wicked men or an
attacking enemy can wear out or exhaust the
righteous (I Chr 17:9; cf. 11 Sam 7:10: Dan 7:25,
Aramaic).

Finally, ba/a can mean *‘to wear out by use”
or ‘‘to use to the full,’ as in Isa 65:22 or Job
21:13.

baleh. Worn out. This adjective is used only
twice, in Josh 9:4-5 and Ezk 23:43. The context
in Joshua is the ruse employed by the Gibeonites.
They showed Joshua their worn out sacks and
wineskins (v. 4), and sandals and garments (v. 5).
In Ezk 23:43, baleh is used figuratively. The
adulteress (Judah) is worn out by her adulteries.
The rsv finds the Hebrew obscure here and Eich-
rodt calls it untranslatable, but it 1s possible to
translate it as ‘‘old in adulteries.”’

tablit. Destruction. A noun found only once,
in Isa 10:25. Six mss read taklitam *‘con-
sumption,’’ but are probably confusing it with a
more familiar term. Shortly the indignation of the
Lord would end against Israel and be turned to-
ward (al) the destruction of the invading Assy-
rians. The axe had forgotten that the Lord was
swinging it (Isa 10:15).

bal. Not. An adverb appearing sixty-nine times.
Both Phoenician and Uganttic attest this negative.
It is used mainly in poetry instead of lo’, which
normally appears in prose.

In Isa 40:24, bal may gather the meaning
‘scarcely’ or ‘‘hardly."’ Some argue, however
for a ‘‘neither, nor’’ construction (Hahn, Koenig)
or the negative may simply be used in a hyper-
bolic structure.

Some have argued that ba/ has a positive
meaning as in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 466, °*I shall
surely put,’ or Il Aqht 1:21, *"He surely has no
son’’). Also cf. Dahood AB on Ps 10:15: perhaps
15b could be rendered: ‘Search out his wick-
edness—surely you will find it.’’

b‘li. Wearing out. There are fifty-seven exam-
ples of this form. The only example of a substan-
tive is found in Isa 38:17, ‘‘The pit of destruc-
tion,’ which refers to Sheol.

Usually it functions as an adverb of negation
with adjectives or participles (I] Sam 1:21; Ps
19:4; Hos 7:8). It is frequently joined to a sub-
stantive in the sense of ‘“‘without’’ (Job 8:11;
24:10; 31:19, et al.). Rarely is it found with a finite
verb (Gen 31:20; Isa 14:6).

When used with the preposition min it ex-
presses the idea of causation and is rendered
‘from want of,” ‘from lack of,” or **because
not.’’ This combination occurs twenty times (e.g.
Deut 9:28; Ex 14:11).

With the preposition b°* it means “without”

(Deut 4:42; 19:4). The preposition /* makes it “in
a state of’ or “‘without, regardless,’ (Isa 5:14;
Job 41:25). Finally, with “ad it means ‘‘until’’ or
“in that not’ (Ps 72:7; Gen 31:20: Mal 3:10).
These prepositional phrases account for over half
of the uses and every context has its own nuance
of meaning.

b‘lima. Nothingness. From b‘lii and ma: *‘not-
aught.’’ Found only in Job 26:7. The Lord **hangs
the earth upon nothing”’ (rsv), a remarkable vision
of the earth being supported in space by the power
of God.

b‘liya‘al. Worthlessness. Belial from b°li and
ya‘al: “not, without’’ and “‘to be of use, worth,
or profit.’’ Cf. Ugaritic bl-mt, ‘‘not-death’ =
“immortality or bl-mlk ‘‘not-king’’ = ‘*‘com-
moner.'’ Others derive the name from DI’, ‘‘to
swallow,’’ hence the ‘‘swallower.’’ (Cf. F. Cross,
D. N. Freedman, JBL 22 (1953) and D. Winton
Thomas in Biblical and Patristic Studies, eds.
J. N. Birdsall and R. W. Thomson, Freiburg,
1963, pp. 11-19). See however the discussion
below on Ps 18:5.

The term appears twenty-seven times. The kJv
and Vulgate treated it as a proper name in sixteen
and eight instances respectively. The Lxx renders
it according to the context by the terms para-
nomos, anomia, and aphron, i.e. ‘lawless, law-
lessness, witless.”

Usually it occurs in such expressions as
‘*son(s) of Belial’’ (Deut 13:14; Jud 19:22; I Sam
2:12; I] Chr 13:7), a ‘‘daughter of Belial’’ (I Sam
1:16), ‘““man or men of’* (1 Sam 25:25; II Sam
16:7; I Kgs 21:13; Prov 16:27), or a ‘“‘worthless
witness’’ (Prov 19:28). It appears alone in I] Sam
23:6 and Job 34:18.

In Prov 6:12, the ‘‘worthless man” is equated
with the “‘wicked man,” ‘ish ‘@wen. He isa plot-
ter of evil (Prov 16:27) as well as a ‘‘counsellor of
villainy’ (Nah 1:11) and a mocker of justice
(Prov 19:28). In Psalms, b‘/iya‘al is used for tor-
rents of perdition or destruction which over-
whelmed the Psalmist (Ps 18:5; cf. II Sam 22:5),
for the ‘‘deadly’’ thing (Ps 41:9), or for anything
base (101:3). Many connect David's reference in
Ps 18:5 to the mythological motif of the Canaanite
god of death, Mot with his open mouth, the
‘*swallower’’ in the netherworld. If this is a
proper connection it is only the verbiage which 1s
borrowed in the context and not the ideology.
The Lxx more realistically understands the
metaphor of *‘streams’* or *‘waves™’ in Ps 18:5 to
be another of the frequent scriptural references to
enemies rushing in like torrents.

This concept of Belial became a proper name
for the prince of evil, Satan, in the pseudepi-
graphal literature, the Zadokite Document, and
the War Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. See also
It Cor 6:15 and II Thess 2:3.

11]

247 *m>5

248 953

248 593 (balal)

belet. Not, except. It is used as an adverb, con-
junction, and with prepositions to express pur-
pose 110 times. In the meaning ‘‘failure,”’ it does
not appear in the oT.

It appears as the adverb “‘not’* with an adjec-
tive in I Sam 20:26, with a substantive in Isa 14:6,
and with a finite verb in Ezk 13:3.

When it follows a negative, it takes on the
meaning of ‘‘except’’ (Gen 21:26; Ex 22:19; Josh
11:19; Hos 13:4).

The form bilti likewise follows an expressed or
an implied negative. In Num 11:6, Isa 10:4, and
Dan 11:18 it is used in the sense of ‘‘except to,”
l.e. ‘‘there is nothing but to,’ hence nothing left.
Note also Amos 3:3-4 ‘‘unless.”’

The form also appears following infinitives
with three different prepositions: negation of /*
**so as not, in order not’’ (Gen 4:15); negation of
min “‘on account of not, because not,” (Num
14:16; Ezk 16:28); and ‘ad ‘‘until not’’ (Josh
8:22).

Bibliography: Cooper, Jacob, *‘The End of
the Material Universe,’ Reformed Church Re-
view 7: $36-67. Dahood, M., Proverbs and
Northwest Semitic Philology, Rome, 1963, p. 31.
Goetze, A., “‘Ugaritic Negations,” in Studia
Orientalia Ioanni Pedersen, 1953, p. 123, n. 26.
Hogg, J. E., “Belial in the OT,’ AJSL, 44:
56-58. Labuschagne, C. J., *‘Ugaritic BLT and
BILTI in Isa X.4,"° VT 14: 97-99. O'Callaghan,
Roger T., ‘Echoes of Canaanite Literature in the
Psalms,’ VT 4: 164-76. Smith, Wilbur, ‘*"New
Heavens and New Earth,” in Biblical Doctrine
of Heaven, Moody, 1968, pp. 223-36.

W.C.K.

trouble.

(balah) Occurs only in the

Piel (Ez 4:4).
Derivative

247a omm?s (ballaha) terror, destruction.
See no. 246b.

See no. 246e.

6855 «(b¢lil). See no. 248a.

mass (b* lima). See no. 246f.

byes (beliya‘al). See no. 246g.

sI9D (b¢ld').
3 (b¢li).

(balal) mix, mingle, confuse, confound.
Derivatives

248a «99993 (b¢lil) fodder.

248b 5p (balal) give provender. De-
nominative verb from b° lil.

248c 0 993W (shabb‘ lil) snail.

248d 93m (tebel) confusion.

248e to9amn (r’ballul) obscurity.

A ritualistic term used of mixing oil into the
flour or meal of the cereal offering until every

249 993 (balam)

particle of flour was mingled or anointed with oil
(balal bashshemen; Ex 29:2, 40; Lev 2:4-5; and
chap 7; and often in Num chaps 7, 15, 28, and 29).

An unusual form, expressing an extension of
this idea, is found in Ps 92:11. The Psalmist
exclaims, “‘I am anointed with fresh oil.’’ While
the verb is different, this idea is similar to the one
in Ps 23:6.

A Hithpael form ts found in Hos 7:8. There
Ephraim *‘mixes himself among the peoples.”’

The only witness for the meaning of confound-
ing is in the Tower of Babel narrative where the
Lord said, **Let us go down and there confuse
their language’ (Gen 11:7). This incident pro-
vides the basis for a wordplay involving asso-
nance (Gen 11:9). The place is named Babel be-
cause the Lord confused (balal) the language of
all the earth there. Babel itself does not mean
‘“confuse’’; tt sounds enough like bala/ for the
paranomasia.

Probably the single example of the Hiphil in Isa
64:5 should be derived from the root nabal **fade
away'’ rather than balal.

The form in Judg 19:21 is a denominative of
b*lil *‘fodder’’; hence *‘to give provender.”’

tebel. Confusion. This word is only used
twice in the or. Both instances apply to a reversal
of the divinely intended order of things in the
sexual realm. Leviticus 18:23 calls bestiality a
perversion (rSv) and Lev 20:12 uses this same
term to apply to any sex relations with one’s
daughter-in-law, i.e. incest (RSV).

t*ballul. Obscurity. Only found in Lev 21:20.
The NAB renders it ‘‘wall-eyed’’ while the NAsB
says ‘‘one who has a defect’’ (margin ‘‘slit’’) in his
eye. The precise meaning remains unknown.
W.C.K.

249 god (balam) curb, holdin (Ps 32:9, only).

250 pYs (balas) gather figs, tend sycamore
trees (Amos 7:14, only).

251 yop (bala) I, swallow down, swallow up.

Derivatives

25la tps (bela') swallowing.
2516 Byos (bil'am) Balaam.
251c ty9s (bala‘) IH, confuse, confound.

Used of men (Isa 28:4), fish (Jon 2:1), serpents
(Ex 7:12), and animals (Gen 41:7, 24).

On two different occasions, the Lord caused
the earth to open and swallow alive groups of
men as a judgment: at the Red Sea (Ex 15:12) and
at the Korah, Dathan, and Abiram rebellion
(Num 16:30, 32, 34; 26:10; Deut 11:6; and Ps
106:17).

Frequently the word is used as a symbol of

112

destruction and ruin: Lam 2:2, 5, 8; Isa 3:12;
49:19, etc.

bela‘. Swallowing, devouring. This noun oc-
curs only twice in the or. In Ps 52:6, David uses it
to refer with disgust to Doeg’s ‘words that de-
vour’’ (Rsv Lit. ‘‘words of devouring’’). In Jer
51:44, the Lord says that he will take from the
mouth of the idol Bel *‘what he has swallowed’
(RSV).

bil‘am. Balaam. Mentioned fifty-one times tn
Num 22-24; also in Num 31:8, 16; Deut 23:5,6;
Josh 13:22; 24:9-10; Mic 6:5; Neh 13:2; II Pet
2:15; Jude 11: Rev 2:14.

The older Gesenius lexicon analyzes the name
as bal and ‘am ‘‘not-people’’ meaning ‘*‘for-
eigner,'’ i.e. (he who belongs) ‘‘not (to the)
people.’’ But this is impossible. To be preferred
is the view of Simonis and Hengstenberg: bela‘
and ‘am ‘‘destruction of people’’ which accords
with his reputation as a charmer and conjurer.
(Some have suggested that Nikolaos *‘con-
queror of the people’ in Rev 2:6,15 is a transla-
tion of this name.) However, Albright sees the
name as Amorite Yabil‘ammu, “‘the (divine)
uncle brings’’ (AJSL 44:31ff.; JBL 63: 232,
n.142).

While Balaam was the source of authentic
revelation of God (Num 22-24), he was not
thereby approved in all he did or said, as is shown
by the devious advice which he gave to the king
of Moab and Midian (Num 31:16; cf. Num 235:
1-3; Ps 106:28-29). Balaam was a heathen di-
viner. Balaak, according to ancient custom and
belief, would not fight Israel without a propitious
omen. Such omens were often cast again and
again to get the right time to attack. By overpow-
ering Balaam the Lord prevented Balak’s attack.

bala‘, JI. Confound, confuse. The Psalmist
prays in Ps 55:10, ‘**Confuse, O Lord, divide their
speech,”’ all of which is reminiscent of bala/ (Gen
11:7, 9) at the tower of Babel. Also cf. Ps 107:27;
Isa 9:15; 19:3; and 28:7.

Bibliography: Aljbright, W. F., “‘The Oracles
of Balaam,’* JBL 63: 207-33. Hengstenberg, E.
W., ‘The History of Balaam and His
Prophecies,’ in Dissertations of the Genuine-
ness of Daniel and the Integrity of Daniel, Edin-
burgh: Clark, 1847, pp. 337-56. TDOT, II, pp.
136-38.

W.C.K.
sy95 (bil‘adé). See no. 246h.
ays (bil‘'am). See no. 25ib.
252 *pod (bdlaq) waste, lay waste. Does not

occur in the Qal.

nop (bélet). See no. 246i.

253 mad (bama) ridge or height, high place,
bamah (technical name for cultic plat-
form).

A cognate is found in Akkadian and Ugaritic.
bama, which in eighty of the one hundred times
refers to a worship area (or perhaps structure),
has a basic meaning of ‘‘back,”’ ‘‘ridge,”’ or
‘‘height.’° So KB. In Ugaritic it means **back”’ of
a person or animal (UT 19: no. 480). Where bama
refers to a worship area, ASV and RSV use “high
place.’’ The idiom of *‘treading on the heights”
conveys the notion of possessing key terrain and
thus signifies ‘‘being in firm control.’* To tread
bamd is a promise given to Israel (Deut 33:29; cf.
Isa 58:14); it is descriptive also of God (Mic 1:3).

A recent study relying heavily on Ugaritic and
archeology, quite convincingly argues that the
basic meaning is not ‘‘height’’ but “rib cage,”
‘flank’ with derived meanings of ‘‘hillsides,”
‘‘cultic platform’’ (built of field stones), and by ex-
tension ‘‘altar’’ and even ‘‘sanctuary’’ (Vaughn).
[Schrunk proposes as its primary meaning *‘cultic
high place’’ or ‘‘cultic place’’ (see TDOT in bib-
liography).

The pagan cultic places were usually located
on natural heights (I Sam 9:13ff.; 10:5; I Kgs 11:7;
II Kgs 17:9, 29; 23:5, 8). They were supplied with
idols (IJ Chr 33:19), an ’Gshérd, a wooden pole
symbolizing the goddess of fertility and a mas-
sébd, one or more stone pillars symbolizing the
male deity (II Kgs 3:2). The altar (II Kgs 21:3; II
Chr 14:3 (H 2]) built of stones, was either sepa-
rate from the bam4 or part of it. The bam4 con-
tained a tent or room where the cultic vessels
were stored and where the sacrificial meals were
eaten (I Kgs 12:31; 13:32; II Kgs 17:29;
23:19). B.K.w.] All told, six activities may be
traced: the burning of incense, sacrificing, the
eating of sacrificial meals, praying, prostitution,
and child sacrifice (cf. bama in the valley, Jer
7:31).

Aside from the usage for a ‘‘height’’ or “‘lofty
spot’’ bam4 is essentially a place of worship. But
what kind of worship? Critical thought in the past
has argued that Israel normally worshipped in
these local shrines until Josiah’s reform cen-
tralized the worship in Jerusalem. All high places
were legitimate and normal. The pejorative refer-
ences to them are said to be due to post Josianic
super-orthodox editors.

Prior to the monarchy during the time when the
tabernacle of Shiloh was in ruins and prior to
worship at the Jerusalem temple, worship was
practiced at the bdmd, chief of which was Gi-
beon, where God communicated with Solomon
through a dream (I Kgs 3:2ff). Before him,
Samuel frequented high places, officiating there
(I Sam 9:12ff.).

After the building of Solomon’s temple, refer-

254 13 (bén)

ences to bam4 are pejorative, for building bamd
represents Israel's sinful involvement in pagan
worship. There is only one exception, during the
upset days of Manasseh (II Chr 33:17). God’s
basic stance, already indicated in Lev 26:30, is
one of ‘“‘being against’? bamad. “‘I will destroy
your bamd’*’ (Ezk 6:3; cf. I Kgs 13:2). Prior to
their entry into the land, Israel was commanded
to destroy pagan high places (Num 33:52; cf. II
Kgs 17:11). The reason for God’s judgment is that
a bamd represents competing allegiances. In in-
stances Israel substituted pagan deities for the
worship of YHWH, but at other times, as in
Samaria following the northern captivity, an at-
tempt was made to worship both YHWH and
other gods simultaneously (II Kgs 17:29). God's
action against bamd, first threatened and then
executed, stands as prime witness to the signifi-
cance of the first command, *‘You shall have no
other gods before me** (Ex 20:3).

God’s displeasure with the bad is cited at the
first mention of the construction of a bamd in the
nation of Israel. Solomon built high places for the
gods Chemosh of Moab and Molech of the Am-
monites in order to please his wives (I Kgs 11:7).
Only in Josiah’s time, three hundred years later,
were these destroyed (II Kgs 23, a key chapter
for information about badmda). The unnamed man
of God protested Jeroboam’s institution of bama
(I Kgs 13:2). The lengthy explanation in II Kgs 17
for the northern tribes’ exile notes that the people
built for themselves bam4 ‘‘at all their towns”’ (II
Kgs 17:9). Though the prophet Isaiah is silent
about cultic bamd, likely because under Heze-
kiah they had been removed (II Kgs 18:4),
Jeremiah in two prophetic judgment speeches
announces that the ba@md, which in his day was
the place for human sacrifice, constituted part of
the reason for the coming catastrophe (Jer 19:5;
32:35).

In fact worship at the high places seems to be a
decisive or climaxing action of evil. At the time of
Rehoboam, Judah initiated high places, thereby
committing more sin than their fathers (I Kgs
14:22-23). Jeroboam’s large enthusiasm for high
places and his practice of placing priests there,
‘*became a sin to the house of Jeroboam, so as to
cut it off’ (I Kgs 13:34).

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., ‘‘The High
Place in Ancient Palestine," Supp VT 4: 242-58.
Iwry, Samuel, ‘*‘Massebah and Bamah in 1Q
Isaiah 46'3,°° JBL 76: 225-32. McCown, C. C.,
‘‘Hebrew High Places and Cult Remains,’ JBL
69: 205-19. TDOT, II, pp. 139-44.

E.A.M.

93 (b*md). See no. 153.

254 33 (bén) son, grandson, member of a group.

113

254 13 (ben)

Derivatives

254a T1933) (binvamin) Benjamin.
254b TMS (bat) daughter.

Occurring almost five thousand times, bén is
basically but not exclusively a reference to the
male offspring of human parents. It is also used
idiomatically for children generally, for descen-
dants, i.e. grandsons, for male offspring of beasts,
for age designation (e.g. ‘‘son of eight days,’ Gen
17:12) and for people or items belonging in a cate-
gory or group (e.g. ‘sons of prophets’’). A syn-
onym is yeled ‘‘child.”

Along with other literature from the ancient
near east, such as the Ugaritic epic of Keret, the
oT places great value upon having a son. The orig-
inal life from God and the image of God is passed
on in the son (Gen 5:3; 9:6). A man achieves so-
cial continuance through his son (Deut 25:6; IJ
Sam 18:8). It is against this value that the pain of
the loss of an only son must be understood (Gen
22:2; Zech 12:10). The woman finds a great mea-
sure of fulfillment in childbearing (Gen 30:1: I
Sam 1: Ps 113:9). A recurring motif from Genesis
into the NT is the promise to childless parents, of
a son (bén). Features of such narratives include
the appearance of a messenger, usually an angel,
the promise, including either a description of the
son's activities or his name, a response of sur-
prise or even disbelief, and a report of the con-
ception and birth (e.g. Gen 12:2; 17:6: Jud 13:7; I
Kgs 4:16; Lk 1:13). Most striking is the promise
to Isaiah: **Behold a young woman shall conceive
and bear a son (bén)” (7:14), see ‘alma which
some hold had immediate fulfillment, but which
was unquestionably fulfilled eventually in the
coming of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:23: cf. Isa 9:6 [H 5}).

Godly parents are fully rewarded in a wise son
(Gen 27:46: Prov 10:1). Great emphasis is placed
on the parents’ responsibility to instruct the son
in the Law (Ex 13:14; 20:10; Deut 11:19; Josh
4:6). On their part, sons are to honor their par-
ents. In this connection it is important to note
that the verb “honor” elsewhere in the oT takes
as Its object a person or that which has a sacral
character.

Another motif involving bén is the adoption
procedure (cf. Gen 15:2ff.), which was especially
common in Nuzi law. Moses was taken into
Pharoah’s daughter's house and “he became her
son’ (Ex 2:10). Certain statements which God
directed both to people and to individuals are
best appreciated in a figurative context as-
sociated with adoption or legitimation based on
covenant promises, e.g. ‘‘Israel is my firstborn
son’ (Ex 4:22). Of David's descendant God de-
clares. **He shall be my son” (II Sam 7:14) and of
Israel] it 1s to be said “‘sons of the living God”
(Hos 1:10 (H 2:1]). Similarly of a king to be coro-
nated, though with ultimate reference to Christ,

114

**You are my son, today I have begotten you”
(Ps 2:7; see mashah). Clearly in these contexts
bén specifies an intimate relationship (cf. Ps
103:13). This functions to show the distance be-
tween Yahweh and his *‘son,”’ the subordinate
position of the **son,’’ and his right to share
God's authority.

A further motif is that of blessing/curse upon
the son. The patriarchs such as Isaac and Jacob
speak blessings upon their sons (Gen 27:28-29;
48:14ff.), but so does Moses bless Israel prior to
his death (Deut 33:1). Punishment, on the other
hand, is destined for sons of the third and fourth
generation of parents who do evil (Ex 20:5; 34:7;
cf. Jer 6:21).

An important motif is that of setting apart the
firstborn male child (cf. b°kdr) for the Lord. Of
course children were not to be sacrificed as were
the firstborn of animals, but children were to be
redeemed (pada, q.v.) for a redemption price of
five shekels (Ex 13:13; 34:20; Num 18:16). Fur-
thermore, the naming of children by the prophets
to convey a message should be noted (e.g.
‘*Not-My-People’’ Hos 1:9: cf. Hos 1:3; Isa 7:3;
8:3).

One characteristic formula with the term bén is
‘‘sons of Israel,’ a phrase that occurs 630 times
and is rendered as ‘‘children of Israel’’ by asv
and as “‘people of Israel’* or ‘‘Israelites’’ by rsv
and Niv. It is comparable tn idiom to ‘‘sons of
Ammon,” i.e. Ammonites. Another important
formularic combination is **son of man” which is
equivalent to “‘man’’ as the poetic parallelism
makes clear (Num 23:19; Ps 8:4 [H 5]; Job 25:6:
35:8). ben-ddam (‘‘son of man’’) occurs as a title
for the prophet in Ezk (93 times), where the
phrase designates simply “‘man’’ or “‘indi-
vidual,” but emphasizes the finiteness of the
prophet vis-a-vis God’s transcendence. Christ's
appropriation of the title ‘‘Son of man’’ reaches
back to its Aramaic usage in Dan 7:13 in which
case (though interpretations vary) it underscores
his identification with mankind and combines fea-
tures of both suffering and glory. The *‘sons of
God’ (élohim) mentioned in Gen 6 are either
angelic beings, or rulers, i.e. kings (cf. Ps 82:6),
or more likely the godly line of Seth. In contrast
to other religions, ‘‘sons of God** occurs seldom
in the otT—this identical phrase only three other
times—and generally signifies heavenly creatures
(Ps 29:1 ‘élim [with a parallel in 96:7]; Job 1:6
‘Elohim; 38:7 'élohim) or Israel (e.g. Deut 14:1;
32:19; also 32:8; cf. DSS).

binyamin. Benjamin. literally, “‘son of the
right hand,’ or **son of the south.”’

Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and
Rachel, is important in the story of his elder
brother Joseph (Gen 42-45). The Benjamin tribe
settled in central Palestine (Josh 18:21-28) be-

tween Ephraim and Judah, but did not totally
drive out the Canaanites (e.g. Jerusalem, Jud
1:21).

The story of the brutal and shameful treatment
given by the Benjamite city of Gibeah to the
travelling Levite and his concubine, while illus-
trative of social conditions, reflects negatively on
the Benjamites (Jud 19-21). Confronted with
their evil, the Benjamites threw their support be-
hind Gibeah. When clan or family loyalty blinds
men from moral indignation the situation be-
comes vicious and the resulting civil war almost
annihilated Benjamin.

The size of Benjamin receives occasional men-
tion in Scripture. Though renowned for its valiant
soldiers (Jud 20:15; cf. I Chr 8:40; Gen 49:27), its
population was never large nor was its territory
impressive in size (cf. Ps 68:27, niv). Israel's first
king protests his appointment noting that he is
from the least of the tribes of Israel (I Sam 9:21;
cf. Ps 68:27 [H 28]). Yet God's choice of Saul
illustrates the principle that he not infrequently
bypasses those of high station and reaches for
those esteemed as insignificant (cf. Deut 33:12).

It should not go unnoticed that Samuel's minis-
try was mostly in the Benjamite region and that to
the Benjamites belong not only Saul, but also
Jeremiah (Jer 1:1), Esther (Est 2:5), and the apos-
tle Paul (Rom 11:1).

The name Benjamin occurs in the Mari letters
of the eighteenth century designating a particular
tribe which appears to be somewhat nomadic.
There it doubtless means .\’sons of the south.”’
Jacob chose the name for his son because of the
other meaning.

bat. Daughter. As in most Semitic languages,
the primary meaning in the 587 occurrences of
bat is that of female child in the household. He-
brew may use the compound banim ubanot **sons
and daughters’’ to express “‘children’’ (approxi-
mately 110 times). As with son (bén), bat in the
plural may refer to membership in a group, as
in ‘‘daughters of the Philistines,’ i.e. Philistine
women. In expressions such as *“*Heshbon and
her daughters,’’ the reference is to satellite towns
and villages (Num 21:25). Personified, bat speci-
fies land or city as in, ‘‘O virgin daughter of
Babylon’’ (Isa 47:1).

Although less emphasis is placed on daughters
then sons (c. 585 references to 4850 respectively),
they were greatly valued. The continuation of life
depended on daughters—Eve is the ‘mother of
all the living,’’ and a daughter was valuable for
her labor (Gen 24:15; 29:9; Ex 20:10). At mar-
riage a bride price was paid to the daughter's
father, but he normally restored it to her as a
dowry (Gen 31:15). The dowry may even have
been higher than the price (cf. W. Plautz, **Die
Form der Eheschliessung im AT,’ ZAW 76:

115

254 93 (bén)

298-18). The love of a father for an only daughter
is illustrated by Jephthah’s sorrow at the loss of
his daughter (Jud 11:34-40; cf. II Sam 12:3). If
there were no sons, a man’s daughters inherited
his property, provided they married within the
same tribe (Num 27:1-1]: 36:1-12).

The birth of a daughter brought about a
mother’s uncleanness twice the duration of un-
cleanness in the birth of a son. The daughters of
the Canaanite culture brought about Israel's ruin
(Num 25: 1ff.; Deut 7:3; Jud 3:6: I Kgs 11:1, etc.),
but the Aramean daughters of Abraham's family
embraced the faith of their husbands (Gen 21:6;
24:58; 27:46; 29:32), though in the case of Jacob's
wives it was less than perfect (Gen 31:1ff.; 35:2).
Lot's daughters fled from Sodom with him leav-
ing their husbands behind (Gen 19:14-16), though
later they had incestuous relations with him
(19:30ff.). Daughters accompanied their parents
at religious festivities, and in the promised age
they will share equally with sons in the Sptnt’s
gifts (Joel 2:28 [H 3:1]). The prophets through
personification make three theological affirma-
tions. The first relates to the expression **daugh-
ter (of) Zion,’’ understood not as a daughter be-
longing to Zion but as the daughter who is Zion,
or as the aggregate of the city’s inhabitants.
While the expression appears in historical mate-
rial (II Kgs 19:21) and hymnic poetry (Ps 9:14 [H
15}), among the prophets it 1s Isaiah who uses it
most frequently in connection with what is
known as Zion theology. Zion, a portion of
Jerusalem, is a poetic way of referring to
Jerusalem as a whole, and in some passages is a
symbol for the whole land of Israel. Zion was
God's choice. His presence, blessing, and protec-
tion is upon Zion, and, while thought therefore by
the people to be inviolable, the prophets pro-
nounced judgment on Zion. Yet they also declare
that her “‘salvation comes” (Isa 62:11). E. J.
Young holds that the expression ‘‘daughter of
Zion™’ is also intended to be one of tenderness.
(Isaiah, vol. 1, p. 55)

Jeremiah speaks of the ‘‘daughter of my
people,’ an expression found in his book and in
Lam thirteen times but seldom elsewhere, and
mostly in the context of approaching or realized
calamity. Jeremiah notes the wound which his
people sustained (Jer 8:19, 21), and describes his
sorrow at the destruction of *‘the daughter of my
people’ (Jer 14:17; cf. Lam 2:11; 3:48). John
Bright renders “My Daughter-My People’ ex-
plaining that the nouns are in apposition and
comments, *“The term is a poetic, and endearing,
personification of the people, and is a favorite
with Jeremiah’’ (Jeremiah, 1965S, p. 32). R. K.
Harrison says, ‘‘This unusual term expresses
Jeremiah’s sense of God's kinship with Israel”
(Jeremiah, p. 71).

Ezekiel develops an elaborate analogy on the

255 "93 (band)

daughter motif by referring to Jerusalem as
daughter of a Hittite (Ezk 16:45). This figure of
speech enables the prophet to discourse on the
upbringing of the daughter, to capitalize on the
proverb, “‘Like mother, like daughter’ (Ezk
16:44), to stress the increasing degradation of
playing the harlot and finally to compare the sis-
ters, Samaria and Sodom, who when compared
to Jerusalem seem righteous.

Bibliography: Andersen, H. G., *‘Benjamin,”’
in ZPEB I, 521-2. Berney, Leroy, **An Exegeti-
cal Study of Gen 6:1-4,’’ JETS 13: 43-52. Bess,
S. Herbert, **The Term ‘Son of God’ in the Light
of Old Testament Idiom,’’ Grace Journal 6:
16—23. Bright, J., History of Israel, Westminster,
1949, p. 70. Colerom, J. E., ‘‘The Sons of God in
Genesis 6, 2,"° TS 2: 488-509. Cooke, Gerald,
‘The Israelite King as Son of God,’’ ZAW 73:
202-25. , ‘The Sons of (the) Goddess,”
ZAW 76: 22-47. Delekat, C., ‘*‘Zum Hebraischen
Worterbuch,”’ VT 14: 7-66. DeBoer, P. A. H.,
‘*The Son of God in the Old Testament,’ OTS
18: 188-207. Emerton, J. A., ‘*The Origin of the
Son of Man Imagery,’’ JTS 9: 225-42. Fensham,
F. Charles, *‘The Son of a Handmaid in North-
west Semitic,’’ VT 19: 312-22. Kline, Meredith
G., ‘Divine Kingship and Genesis 6:1-4,’° WTJ
24: 187-204. Longenecker, Richard N., *‘Son of
Man Imagery: Some Implications for Theology
and Discipleship,’” JETS 13: 43-52. McKenzie,
John L., *‘Divine Sonship and Individual Relli-
gion,’ CBQ 7: 32-47. , ‘The Divine Son-
ship of Man in the Old Testament,’’ CBQ 7:
326-39. , ‘The Divine Sonship of Israel
and the Covenant,’ CBQ 8: 320-31. ;
‘*The Divine Sonship of the Angels,’’ CBQ 8S:
293-300. Mendelsohn, I., ‘‘A Ugaritic Parallel to
the Adoption of Ephraim and Manasseh,”’ /srael
Exploration Journal 9: 180-83. , ‘The
Family in the Ancient Near East,’’ BA 11: 24-40.
Muilenberg, James, *‘The Son of Man in Daniel
and the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch,’’ JBL 79:
197-209. Rainey, Anson F., ‘*Family Relation-
ships in Ugarit,’"’ Or 34: 10-22. Richardson,
TWB, p. 230. Williams, James G., ‘The Pro-
phetic *Father’,”’ JBL 85: 344-48. Winter, P.,
‘*Der Begriff ‘Sohne Gottes’ im Moselied Dt 32,
1-43," ZAW 67: 40-48. TDOT, II, pp. 148-58.
THAT, I, pp. 316-24.

E.A.M.

255 md (band) build, rebuild. (asv and Rsv
usually identical, but *‘rebuild’’ in the Rsv is
sometimes used where asv uses ‘‘build,”’
e.g. Ezk 36:36).

Derivatives
255a 93D. (binyd) structure, building.
2556 «3933 (binydn) structure.

116

255c =ma3% «=6(mibneh) _ structure.
255d tm33h (tabnit) pattern, plan.

bdnd as construction refers to houses, cities,
towers, altars, etc. and idiomatically to bring
about increase in offspring (Gen 16:2). band oc-
curs 376 times in Qal and Niphal stems.

Synonyms are kun ‘establish’ (II Sam 7:13;
Ps 89:4 [H 5}) and ‘asaé ‘‘make.’’ An antonym Is
haras ‘‘break down”’ (Jer 1:10; Ps 28:5).

The theological significance of the verb band
can be exposed by considering the use of the verb
first with God and then with man as its subject.

1. God as Builder. YHWH is presented in
Scripture as the master builder of both the
created and historical order. The word is used
metaphorically of his final creative act for man’s
good when he “‘built’’ the rib which he had taken
from Adam into a woman (Gen 2:22). Elsewhere
the biblical poets describe the ordered universe
as a building which YHWH designed and built
(Amos 9:6; cf. Ps 104:2-3).

YHWH, the wise, powerful and good architect
of the created order is also the sovereign and
moral master builder of temporal history. His
sovereignty over history is seen in Joshua’s pre-
diction that it would cost a man his first born son
to rebuild Jericho (Josh 7:26); Hiel the Bethelite
fulfilled this grim prediction eight hundred years
later (I Kgs 16:34). As the designer of history he
tears down the edifices of the wicked while he
builds his own kingdom. Concerning his sover-
eignty in tearing down the works of the ungodly,
Job proclaimed: ‘‘With him are wisdom and
might; to him belong counsel and understanding.
Behold, he tears down, and it cannot be rebuilt’’
(Job 12:13-14a). Because of his righteous perfec-
tion the Psalmist foresaw: *‘Because they [the
wicked] do not regard the works of the Lord nor
the deeds of his hands, he will tear them down
and not build them up’’ (Ps 28:5). At the time of
his judgment he will destroy the cities of the god-
less so that they will never be rebuilt. This was
the fate of the Canaanites (Deut 13:16 [H 17]),
and of Tyre (Ezk 26:14). In a doxology Isaiah
exclaimed: ‘“‘O Lorp, you are my God; I will
exalt you, I will give thanks to your name...; a
palace of strangers is a city no more; it will never
be rebuilt’’ (Isa 25:1—2). In a word, that which 1s
built through unrighteousness is unstable and will
fall. Even Jerusalem will become a ruin because
her leaders built Zion with bloodshed and
Jerusalem with violence and injustice (Mic 3:10),
and Jehoiakim will be buried like a stubborn don-
key because he built himself a spacious house
through unrighteousness and injustice (Jer
22:13-19; cf. Hab 2:12). YHWH subjected his
chosen city to the same fate he inflicted on the
Canaanites by giving its new houses to the enemy
before Israel had ever used them (Deut 28:30;

Zeph 1:13). Though nations, such as Edom, may
resolve to build in opposition to him his decrees,
they will not succeed (Mal 1:4).

Other texts, however, affirm his sovereignty
according to his righteous purposes in building up
his kingdom through his elect. He also promised
to build Jeroboam I an enduring house if he kept
YHWH’s statutes (I Kgs 11:38). Unlike David,
however, Jeroboam I failed to behave as a true
servant of YHWH.

In addition to building the houses of his faithful
priests and kings, he is also the master builder of
Zion and the temple. Even as in the days of
Moses he gave instructions as to how his altars
should be built (Ex 20:25; Deut 27:5). In the gol-
den age of Israel's united kingdom, he chose the
time, the place and the person to build his house
(I Kgs 8:16-20). David promised Solomon that
through YHWH's blessing, he would secure the
necessary materials and craftsmen for its con-
struction (J Chr 22:11; II Chr 2:7ff [H 6]). Thus he
fulfilled his promise at the time he founded the
nation to choose a place to put his name (Deut
12:5). A striking amount of detailed instruction is
given about the building of these structures in
which YHWH delights (cf. I Kgs 6; Ezk 40;
Neh 3).

Moreover, though he chastens the house of
David and Zion by tearing them down for a time,
yet his purpose to bring salvation cannot be
thwarted forever.

Jeremiah’s use of the combination ‘*build and
plant,’” since it follows God’s destructive act of
judgment, illustrates that God in grace ‘builds
again’ (Jer 1:10; 18:7-10; 42:10). Impressive is
YHWH’s promise to the people destined for
exile, ‘‘Again I will build you and you shall be
built, O virgin Israel’’ (Jer 31:4; cf. 24:6; 33:7). In
the metaphorical usages of this word pair it is
always YHWH whois subject; and in Jeremiah,
the object, when it is given, is always a group of
people, primarily Israel. The word pair is linked
with salvation history and emphasizes YHWH's
initiative as well as his solicitude. Thus, he sent
Cyrus to rebuild the temple (II Chr 36:23; Ezr
1:2-4) and promised to rebuild the house of David
(Amos 9:11). (Perhaps as an indication of his in-
tention to use Israel to bring universal salvation,
he used the Phoenicians in building the first tem-
ple, and the uncircumcised Cyrus in building the
second temple.)

Because God is sovereign over all, it is folly to
build without his blessing. *‘Unless the Lorp
builds the house, they labor in vain who build it”’
(Ps 127:1). All houses and cities are at his dis-
posal as he displayed when he promised to give to
his elect cities and houses they did not build
(Deut 6:10f; Josh 24:13) and threatened to de-
stroy the cities of apostates (Deut 13:16 [H 17}).
Siege equipment and fortifications are without

117

255 33 (band)

profit apart from him (Ezk 17:17; cf. 21:22 [H
27]). David appropriately depended on God to
build the walls of Jerusalem (Ps 51:18 [H 20]).

2. Man as Builder. Structures built by man are
judged by God as either good or bad according as
they conform to his character and purpose. Thus
he accepted the altars built by Noah (Gen 8:20):
the Patriarchs (12:7-8; 13:8; 18; 22:9; 26:25;
35:7); Moses (Ex 17:15; 24:4); Joshua (Josh 8:30).
In contrast, he rejected the high places and altars
to foreign gods built by. Aaron (Ex 32:5); Sol-
omon (I Kgs 11:7); Rehoboam (I Kgs 14:23); etc.

Cities, the most frequent object of band, must
also be evaluated by the same criteria. Thus he
delights in the songs about Zion (Ps 122:3), but he
found no delight in the city built by Cain (Gen
4:17) or in Assur’s Nineveh (Gen 10:11). Though
Tyre was famous for its beauty brought about by
Its expert craftsmen (Ezk 27:3ff), it was de-
stroyed because of its sin (27:26ff). The same fate
befell Samaria though it contained houses of
dressed stone (Amos 5:1; cf. Isa 9:10 [H 9]) and
decorated with ivory (I Kgs 22:39; Amos 3:15).

Building activity ts frequently associated with
God's saving activity. Under God's blessing,
Solomon not only built up Zion but also built
Store cities and fortified others (II Chr 8:5).
Ezekiel anticipates the day when Israel will again
build houses (Ezk 28:26; 36:10, 33, 36), and the
Psalmist calls upon heaven and earth to praise
God because his servants will once again build
the cities of Judah (Ps 69:35 {[H 36]). The reader
rejoices with the singers of Nehemiah’s time who
built for themselves villages around Jerusalem
(Neh 12:29).

Houses became important in Israel's history
when they became sedentary. The first notice
that Jacob built a house and booths for his cattle
occurs after he returned from Padan Aram and
separated himself from Esau (Gen 37:18). An-
ticipating their settlement in the land, Moses in-
structed the people to make a parapet for their
flat roofs lest someone might fall off (Deut 22:8);
he excused a man from military service (20:5)
who had not dedicated his new house.

The word is also used for women who build a
family by bearing children. Rachel and Leah are
mentioned in marriage blessing as having built
the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). Levirate marriage
was instituted so a ‘“‘house’’ or family would be
built (Deut 25:9).

tabnit. Pattern, plan, form, image, likeness. (ASV
and rSv often vary: e.g. ASV “‘pattern,’ RSV
‘plan,’ I Chr 28:11, 12, 18, 19; asv ‘‘likeness’’
RSV ‘‘image’’ Ps 106:20). tabnit occurs twenty
times.

Synonyms for tabnit are not easily dif-
ferentiated from each other. t*mana from the
root min ‘‘kind’’ suggests ‘‘resemblance,™’ **rep-

256 O25 (bnt)

resentation” (Num 12:8). d°mut, from the root
dama “like,” is used in the sense of ‘“‘copy.”’
‘likeness.’ or “‘image.”* fo'ar refers to ‘‘attrac-
tive form’ (Gen 29:17; Jer 11:16). Wherever tab-
nit refers to structures it is best understood as
‘plan,’ e.g. David supplied Solomon with tabnit
(“*specifications, ’ ‘*blueprints’’) for temple items
(I Chr 28:11. 19). In other contexts tabnit is bet-
ter rendered *‘likeness** and is not essentially dif-
ferent from t*mund (Deut 4:16—18; cf. Ex 20:4).
The tabernacle and its furnishings were to be
made according to the tabnit (plan) God had
shown Moses in the Mount (Ex 25:9, 40). Specifi-
cations for the tabernacle. the ark of the coven-
ant, the table for the bread of the presence, etc.
included dimensions, material, design, and even
color (Ex 26:1) though not always’ were
measurements indicated (cf. lampstand, Ex
25:31).
Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 166-80. THAT.
I, pp. 325-26.
B.K.W.

256 33 (bnt). Assumed root of the following.
256a T8238 (‘abnet) girdle. (kv, ASV,
RSV render alike, “‘girdle(s).”*)

The word denotes the girdle of the high priest.
the ordinary priests, and high officials. There are
nine occurrences of this term in the oT; all but
one (Isa 22:21) are found in Exodus and
Leviticus. The ‘abnet was a ceremonial sash
worn by the high priest and his assistants. It was
made of embroidered linen in colors of blue, pur-
ple, and scarlet (Ex 28:4, 39-40). It was worn by
high officials as well (Isa 22:21). 'abnet is one of
five oT words translated ‘girdle.’ Only one other
refers to priestly apparel. Josephus affords some
details of the girdle as used in his day. It was
wrapped around the chest and after a number of
twinings It was tied, hanging freely to the ankles.
Such was the girdle which the high priest wore
while performing no service. While he was offer-
ing sacrifices, in order to allow greater freedom
of movement, he threw the sash to the left and
wore it over his shoulder (Josephus, Ant 3.7.2).
Some oT scholars think of the girdle as a loosely
woven scarf. Although Deut 22:11 expressly for-
bids mixing wool and linen in a garment, it was
permitted in this case, at least in the embroidery
wool, although Ex 39:2a calls it a girdle of linen.
The girdle was a usual part of the garments of the
priests. The ‘‘girdle of the ephod”’ (hésheb
ha’ épod) was specially embroidered and worn by
the high priest.

Bibliography: Levin, Moshe, Melekhet
Hammiskkan (in Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1968.
Wright, G. E., “Israelite Daily Life,” BA 18:
50-79.

C.L.F.

118

m33 (binya). See no. 255a.
3a (binvamin). See no. 254a.
93 (binyvan). See no. 255b.

257 "D3 (bsr). Assumed root of the following.

257a "03 (bodser) unripe or sour grapes.

258 “Y3 (b‘d). Assumed root of the following.

258a YS (ba‘ad) behind, through, round
about, in behalf of.

Used primarily as a preposition, ba‘ad is sig-
nificant theologically. First ba'ad occurs in con-
junction with petition ‘‘in behalf of’ (ba‘ad)
someone. Persons request a Spiritual leader to
pray (usually Hithpael of pd/a/) in their behalf,
e.g. Pharaoh to Moses (Ex 8:28 [H 24]); people to
Samuel (I Sam 12:19); Hezekiah to Isaiah (II Kgs
19:4); representatives to Jeremiah (Jer 21:2;
42:2). Or, assertions are made of spiritual leaders
that they have or will intercede, e.g. Abraham
(Gen 29:7) and Moses (Num 21:7; Deut 9:20).
Jeremiah 1s commanded not to pray for (ba‘ad)
the people (Jer 7:16; 11:14). The preposition
throughout underscores the mediating function of
leaders, including prophets, in intercession.

Instructions given to priests include the ex-
pression **make atonement for (ba‘ad)."° Aaron
is Instructed to make atonement (Adpar, q.v.) for
himself and his house (Lev 9:7). In the temple
which Ezekiel describes, sin offerings are to be
observed ‘‘to make atonement for’ (ba'‘ad) the
people (Ezk 45:17, 22). Descriptions of the ritual
for the Day of Atonement repeated the same ex-
pression (Lev 16:6, 11, 17, 24). It is perhaps pre-
sumptuous to argue merely from ba‘ad that sac-
rifice 1s to be understood as substitutionary. The
whole ritual must be considered. Prayer is also
spoken of as **making atonement for” (Ex 32:30).
Yet there can be no doubt that sacrifice, su-
premely Christ's sacrifice, is **for the benefit of’
and **in behalf of’ others.

Non-theological usages include: away from,
behind, out from or out through in various appro-
priate situations.

E.A.M.

amiys (bi'atim). See no. 26Sb.

259 mys (ba'a) seek out, swell.

ba‘d suggests a search for what is covered or
sealed (Isa 21:12: Ob 6). And it may suggest a
swelling up as of boiling water (Isa 64:2) or the
bulging of a wall (Isa 30:13). It has the same two

meanings in Arabic.
E.A.M.

260 ty3 (b‘z). Assumed root of the following.

260a tt¥5 (bd‘az) I, Boaz.

A wealthy landowner from Bethlehem who fig-
ures prominently in the book of Ruth (Ruth 2:1-
3). Through his considerate action for the
widowed Ruth, Boaz exemplifies justice of which
the Bible so often speaks (e.g. Deut 27:19). Since
Boaz functions as a kinsman redeemer (g0’'él,
q.v.) his action has been regarded as pointing to
Christ, the redeemer of mankind. As the great-
grandfather of David, Boaz receives mention in
geneaologies (I Chr 2:12) including those of
Christ (Mt 1:5; Lk 3:32).

Boaz was also the name of one of the two large
pillars flanking the entrance to Solomon's tem-
ple. Boaz stood to the north; the other pillar (va-
kin) stood to the south (I Kgs 7:15-21). The
majority of scholars believe that they had a
purely decorative and symbolic function. But
W. F. Albright suggested they were giant incense
stands (Archaeology and the Religion of Israel,
1949, pp. 138-48). Others hold that they sym-
bolized God's presence or that the pillars, to-
gether with the laver, symbolized Yahweh's lord-
ship over the natural elements (land and water).
R.B.Y. Scott appropriately notes that since the
king “‘stood by the pillar’* at important occasions
(II Kgs 11:14; 23:3) the inscriptions may have
dynastic significance. Boaz may recall: ‘‘In the
strength (b°‘6z) of Yahweh shall the king re-
joice’’ (Ps 21:1 [H 2]; JBL 58: 143ff.). Jean Ouel-
lette, however, has recently argued that they
were not freestanding but had a functional value
(‘‘The Basic Structure of Solomon's Temple and

Archaeological Research,” in The Temple of

Solomon, ed. by Joseph Gutmann, Scholars
Press, 1976). See also D. Ussishkin, **King Sol-
omon’s Palaces,’ BA 36: 84-88. See Busink, T.
A., Der Tempel von Jerusalem (Leiden, 1970),
pp. 312ff. for a convenient survey of the exten-
sive scholarly literature on the subject.

E.A.M.

261 ys (ba‘at) kick.

“YS (bir). See no. 264a.

262 YD (bd'al) possess, own, rule over, marry.
(ASV and rSv usually similar, though Rsv
prefers ‘“‘rule’” to asv “have dominion’”’
[e.g. Isa 26:13)).

Derivatives

262a thys (ba'‘al) owner, husband, Baal.
262b «th¥ys (ba‘ala) female owner.
262c tes (bel) Bel.

The verb with its derivatives, not counting its
usage in compounds or as proper names, occurs
more than one hundred times. One may own
(ba‘al) a house (Ex 22:7), or rule over (ba‘al)

119

262 >y> (ba‘al)

territory (cf. I Chr 4:22). A man may take (/agah)
a wife and marry (bd‘al) her (Deut 24:1).

A focus on the verb ba‘al from the theological
standpoint leads to a consideration of marriage
terminology employed by God in defining his re-
lationship to his people. *‘For your Maker is your
husband (ba‘al), the Lord of hosts is his name"’
(Isa 54:5ff.). In Jer the existing marriage relation-
ship becomes a motivation for repentance: “For I
am a husband unto you” (Jer 3:14, ASv: RSv ren-
ders ‘‘! am your master’’). In the justly famous
new covenant passage the former covenant is de-
scribed as a broken covenant, a situation which is
the more sobering and shocking because “‘I was a
husband (ba‘al) to them, says Jehovah’’ (Jer
31:32, asv; RSV similar; cf. Mal 2:11).

The future delights which God will have with
his redeemed people are stressed in Isa where the
land is said to be married (bd‘al, Niphal), appar-
ently to YHWH. The name of the land, Beulah
(passive participle of bd‘al), signifies both the in-
timacy and the joy of YHWH in conjunction with
the land (‘eres, q.v.; Isa 62:4). The background
which such language gives to the NT concept of
Christ as the bridegroom or husband of his
people, the church, should be obvious (cf. Eph
5:21ff.). In any case one must not miss the close
covenantal tie which this metaphor suggests, not
only of love but of loyalty between God and his
people.

ba‘al. Owner, possessor, husband, Baal. Uga-
ritic also has the double use of master and the
name of a deity. The root in most semitic lan-
guages means either “‘lord’’ or, when followed by
a genitive, ““owner.”’

In addition to ba‘al as owner of things, the
noun in the plural is used for citizens (ba‘alim) of
a city (Josh 24:11). In Jud 9 where the noun oc-
curs sixteen times, Asv consistently translates
‘*men,”’ but Rsv in addition to ‘‘men™” employs
“‘citizens’’ (Jud 9:2) and ‘people’ (Jud 9:46).
ba‘al can refer to partner or ally (Gen 14:13).
Idiomatically ba‘al as master of something
characterizes the person (e.g. ba‘al of wrath,
Prov 22:24; of appetite, Prov 23:2; of dreams,
Gen 37:19) or identifies occupation (e.g. officer,
ba‘al of the guard, Jer 37:13).

In addition to its appearance in compound
names of people and places (e.g. Jerubbaal, Jud
9:16; Baalzephon, Ex 14:2), ba‘al is the name of
a great active god in the Canaanite pantheon and
has other religious connotations.

The god Baal met in the oT 1s the West Semitic
storm god, b‘/ (sing.) and b‘/m (pl.), encountered
in Egyptian texts (from fourteenth century B.c.
on), Tell Amarna Letters (fourteenth century
B.c.), Alalakh Tablets (fifteenth century B.c.),
Ugaritic texts (fourteenth century B.c.), Amorite
proper names from Mari, Tell al-Rimah, and

262 >y3 (ba‘al)

Chagar Bazar, and later in Phoenician and Punic
texts. Both within the Bible and outside it the
name appears either absolutely or in construct
with place names; e.g. Baal-peor (Num 25:3, 5),
Baal-berith (Jud 9:40), Baal-zebub (II Kgs 1:2).
(Baal-zebub, ‘‘lord of flies,’’ is a parody on his
name found elsewhere, b‘/ zb/, ‘‘Prince Baal.’’)
These names do not denote various gods with the
epithet “‘lord,’’ but local venerations of the same
West Semitic storm and fertility deity called sim-
ply Baal, **Lord.”

Scholars used to think that the plural form with
the article, ‘the Baalim’’ denoted different local
numina, but the plural form of the name occurs
outside the Bible and the mention of ‘‘lovers”’
and ‘‘strangers’’ (Jer 2:25) suggest another use of
the plural than that of a numerical plural. The
article occurs frequently in Hebrew with proper
names whose meaning is transparent.

Since the biblical writers did not intend to
teach the Canaanite religion, we know more
about Baal’s roles, consorts, and cult from the
extra-biblical literature than from the oT; but the
picture of Baal presented in the oT comports well
with the extra-biblical sources.

He was also called Haddu (=Hadad). He is
above all the storm god who gives the sweet rain
that revives vegetation. Dry years were attrib-
uted to his temporary captivity or even death.
But at his revivification fields, flocks, and
families became productive. In addition, he is a
war god and fertility deity who consorts with
Anat (is later equated with Astarte). Both by re-
citing the myth of his role in reviving life at the
autumn new year festival and by magical ritual of
sacred marriage represented in the cult by the
king, the queen and a priestess, the West Semites
hoped to ensure the earth’s fertility. [This ritual is
witnessed to in Babylon but not clearly in Ca-
naan (cf. H. Frankfort Kingship and the Gods,
also Kitchen, K. A., Ancient Orient and the O.T..,
Inter-Varsity, 1966, p. 104). It should be noted
that the identification of Baal as an annually
dying and rising god with the Babylonian Tam-
muz has lately suffered. New Sumerian tablets
published by S. Kramer show that Tammuz died
once for all and C. H. Gordon has argued that
Baal too had no annual death and resurrection.
See the whole discussion with refs. in E. M.
Yamauchi, *‘Tammuz and the Bible’ JBL 84:
283-90. R.L.H.} Archaeological cultic objects
with exaggerated sexual features, as well as the
myths themselves, support the oT notices about
the degraded moral features associated with the
cult.

Throughout the period of the judges, Israel
succumbed to this infectious cult (Jud 2:11ff.;
6:25) and had to be rescued from its tragic conse-
quences by Yahweh's judges. During the period
of the Omrides, Baal worship became the official

120

State religion of the northern kingdom (I Kgs
16:31). Leah Bronner has presented convincing
argument that Israel’s miracles by Elijah and
Elisha served as a polemic for God against the
very powers attributed to this pagan nature deity,
namely, fire (I Kgs 18:17ff.; II Kgs 1:9-16), rain (I
Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46), food (I Kgs 17:1-6, 8-16; II
Kgs 4:1ff.); children (I1] Kgs 4:14-17); revivifica-
tion (I Kgs 17:17-23; I] Kgs 4:18-37; 13:20-22,
The Stories of Elijah and Elisha as Polemics
Against Baal Worship, Leiden, 1968.) But their
miracles did not rid the land of this degraded cult
and it brought about the captivity of the northern
kingdom (Hosea).

It also infiltrated the southern kingdom (II Kgs
11:18; 21:2ff.), and in spite of Josiah’s reform
(II Kgs 23:4ff.), brought the nation into exile (Ezk
16; 23, etc.).

The Hosea discourse describes how Israel,
who received gifts of grain and oil from YHWH,
used these for the worship of Baal (Hos 2:8 (H
10]). The chapter fairly turns on the term ba‘al,
not only in the mention of the Canaanite god(s)
(e.g. Hos 2:8 [H 10]; 2:13 [H 15}; and 2:17 (H 19),
but in the imagery throughout of God as Israel’s
husband. Israel will call the Lord her husband
(‘ish, Hos 2:16 (H 18]; cf. 2:2 [H 4]; 2:7 [H 9]) and
no longer call him, apparently along with the list
of other gods, my Baal (ba‘al).

God's supremacy over Baal is constantly af-
firmed. However man’s preoccupation from then
and until this day is rather with sex and technol-
ogy, than with devotion to the almighty God of
history, who is also the covenant God.

B.K.W.

ba‘al4. Female owner. Used infrequently,
ba‘ala signifies owner of something (e.g. a house,
I Kgs 17:17). Or like ba‘al, it is used to charac-
terize a person (e.g. enchantress, lit. ‘* possessor
of charms,’’ Nah 3:4; cf. I Sam 28:7). In contrast
to ba‘al, ba‘ala is not used in the OT of a god-
dess except as the feminine form appears in
names of localities (e.g. Josh 15:9).

bel. Bel. The name of an earlier Babylonian
god of heaven, parallel perhaps to the Sumerian
Enlil, who at a later date was merged with Mar-
duk. Bel (‘‘lord,’’ cf. Hebrew ba‘al) was then
added as title to Marduk. Bel, Babylon’s patron
deity, is incorporated in names like Belshazzar
(Dan 5:1). The Babylonian form of the name is
due to the loss of laryngeals in the Akkadian lan-
guage.

Bel, the Babylonian form, is mentioned only
three times in two prophets. Despite repeated
statements that no gods beside YHWH exist, the
OT mentions pagan deities in order to contrast
certain aspects of Yahweh (cf I Cor 8:5-6).

Isaiah, strongly polemical concerning pagan
gods and idols generally (cf. Isa 40:18f.; 41:20ff.;

45:20), names Bel and Nebo, both Babylonian
deities, and describes them as unable to save
their own statues in the hour ef disaster.

In a passage that distinguishes most clearly be-
tween a god and the representation of him by an
image, the writer contrasts the gods whose
statues must be carried, with God who carries
his people (Isa 46:1ff). Discussion of pagan
deities emphasizes the contrast with YHWH.
The statement about the defeat of Bel opens
Jeremiah’s oracle (Jer 50:2; cf. 51:44) and under-
scores another theme concerning pagan deities.
Here and elsewhere the oT insists that no pagan
deities are a match for YHWH; that YHWH is
supreme and fully God.

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., *‘The North-
Canaanite Poems of Al ‘eyan Ba‘al and the ‘Gra-
cious Gods’,’’ JPOS 14: 101-40. __, Yahweh
and the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday, 1968. Ap-
Thomas, D. R., “‘ Elijah on Mount Carmel,’’ PEQ
92: 146-55. Bronner, Leah, The Stories of Elijah
and Elisha as Polemics Against Baal Worship,
Leiden, 1968. Cassuto, U., ‘*Ba‘al and Mot in the
Texts of Ugarit,’’ BJPES 9: 45-51. , Baal
and Mot in the Ugaritic Texts,’ Israel Explora-
tion Journal 12: 77-86. , ‘The Death of
Ba‘al: Table I *AB from Ras-Shamra,”’ Tarbiz
12: 169-80. Dussand, R., ‘“‘Le vrai nom de
Ba‘al,’’ Rev Hist Rel 113: 5-20. Eissfeldt, O.,
‘*Ba‘alshamen u. Jahwe,’’ ZAW 16: 1-31. Men-
delsohn, [., ‘‘The Family in the Ancient Near
East,’’ BA 11: 24-40. Morgenstern, Julian, ‘‘The
Book of the Covenant, II,"° HUCA 7: 19-258.
, -'Beena Marriage (Matniarchate) in An-
cient Israel and its Historical Implications,”’
ZAW 47: 91-110. Oldenburg, Ulf, The Conflict
Between El and Baal in Canaanite Religion,
Brill, 1969. Pfeiffer, C. F., Ras Shamra and the
Bible, Baker, 1962. Rainey, Anson F., ‘Family
Relationships in Ugarit,’ Or 34: 10-22.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 138-40. Worden, T.,
‘‘The Literary Influence of the Ugaritic Fertility
Myth on the Old Testament,’’ VT 3: 273-97.
Yamauchi, E. M., ‘‘Tammuz and the Bible’ JBL
84: 283-90. Yaron, Reuven, ‘*Aramaic Marriage
Contracts from Elephantine,”’ JSS 3: 1-39.
TDOT, II, pp. 181-200. THAT, I, pp. 325-27.

E.A.M.

263 "¥2 (ba‘ar) I, to burn, consume, be kindled.
(ASV and RSV similar.)

Derivative
263a tmays (b°'éra) fire.

Of the several Hebrew words which are trans-
lated ‘‘to burn’’ two are most often used figura-
tively. These are bd‘ar and hard. The others, such
as §drap, yaqad, and yasat all have to do primar-
ily with literal burning, whereas these two are
commonly used to describe anger, passion, in-

264 s¥p (bd‘ar) I, be brutish.

121

264 “WD (ba‘ar)

trigue, etc. hHdrd is confined almost totally to
usage with anger, while bd‘ar stresses the con-
suming and contagious qualities of fire especially
in the religious context.

In the derived stems (Piel, Pual, and Hiphil) the
root is normally used literally. As might be ex-
pected from the nature of the stems, the emphasis
is upon ‘‘causing to burn,”’ or setting afire (e.g.
Ex 22:6 [H 5]). Almost all of these, however, are
special cases and have to do with ceremonial
burning. So the priests are commanded to burn
wood on the altar continually (Lev 6:12 [H 5};
Neh 10:35); the lamps in the sanctuary are to be
burning at all times (II Chr 4:20; 13:11). The pro-
totypes of these are the theophanies in which the
Lord’s appearances are associated with the con-
tinuously burning bush (Ex 3:2-3) and the burn-
ing on Mt. Sinai (Deut 4:11; 5:23; 9:15), both of
which seem to represent the very character of the
righteous and purifying God (II Sam 22:9; Isa
10:17; Ezk 1:13; cf. also Isa 33:14; Heb 12:29).
Thus bd‘ar is used with ‘‘fire’’ when it 1s God’s
instrument to consume the wicked (Num 11:1;
Isa 1:31; 9:18 [H 17]). To be of an alien nature to
God is to be as dry tinder before a flame (Isa
10:17). This, the prophets promised, was to be
rebellious Israel’s experience before a Holy God
(Isa 30:27; Jer 7: 20; Ps 83:14 ([H 15]; etc.).

The word is also used to describe intense emo-
tions (Ps 39:3 [H 4] Jer 20:9).

be‘éra. Fire. Appears once in Ex 22:6 [H 5]
where it is used as a cognate accusative with
ba‘ar, ‘‘the one who kindled the fire.’’

Denominative
verb.

Parent Noun

264a it °y2 (b°'ir) beasts, cattle.
264b TIS (ba‘ar) brutish person.

The verbal forms of this root may well be de-
nominative from the noun form ‘‘beast.’’ In turn,
it is tempting to see a connection between that
word and the Piel form of bd‘ar ‘“‘to graze.”’
However, such a connection must remain highly
tenuous. The root seems to contrast man’s ability
to reason and understand with the beast’s in-
ability to do so (Prov 30:2).

b‘‘ir. Beasts, cattle. Does not seem to stress
the brutish aspect of beasts, but is simply a
synonym for b&hémad or miqneh.

ba‘ar. A brutish person. Occurs five times in
Psalms and Proverbs. Such a person is one who
stubbornly refuses to accept God's grace (Ps
73:22). The use of the figure in Prov 30:2 shows
Agur’s humility.
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 201-204.
J.N.O.

264.1 *3y3 (ba‘ar)

264.1 *"3¥3 (bd‘ar) II, to put away, take away,
feed on, waste. (aSv similar. Rsv translates
‘*purge’’ in Deut, elsewhere with a variety
of words including ‘‘consume, destroy, ex-

9

terminate, devour.’’)

This root occurs twenty-seven times, twice in
the Hiphil and the rest in the Ptel stem. Other
lexicographers (cf. KB, GB, BDB) assumed that
it was a derivative idea from the root meaning
‘to burn.’* Such a derivation would be easily
understood, especially since bd@‘ar ‘*to burn”
seems to stress the consuming aspect of fire.
However, most recent studies assume a Separate
root, especially since bd‘ar ‘‘to burn” has a Piel
form meaning ‘‘to kindle, set afire.”’

The most common usage of the word has to do
with removing evil or evil influence from the land
(20 times, 10 of which are in Deut). If a person
has committed some flagrant sin (idolatry, murder,
fornication, prostitution, adultery, intranational
slavery) not only must he himself be removed, but
through his execution the evil which he has set
in train must be removed (Deut 13:1-5 [H 2-6];
I] Sam 4:11; I Kgs 14:10 etc.). The necessity for
this latter is seen in the provision made for purg-
ing the evil when a body is found and the murderer
is not known (Deut 21:1-9). Evil cannot be ex-
plained away nor wished away. It must be dealt
with and that in terms of life and death.

J.N.O.

265 *nys (ba‘at) to be overtaken by sudden ter-
ror, to terrify. (Niphal and Piel only.)

Derivatives

265a mnys (b°'ata) terror, dismay.
265b «=6BASYS) 6((biutim) terrors, alarms oc-
casioned by God.

Half of the occurrences (of fifteen) are in
poetry. Two synonyms are pahad *‘to tremble,”
and hatat ‘‘to be filled with terror.’’ ba‘at is
closest to hatat, though Rsv more consistently
and appropriately renders ba‘at with the stronger
term ‘“‘terrify.’’ asv occasionally uses ““make
afraid’’ (cf. Est 7:6; Job 13:11; 15:24).

Though men may be the occasion of terror (e.g.
Est 7:6; cf. Job 13:11), itis primarily Yahweh that
strikes terror. David is terrified (bd‘at) when
confronted with the sword-carrying angel (I Chr
21:30). Saul was terrorized (bd‘at) by an evil
spirit from Yahweh (I Sam 16:14). Visions, re-
garded as from God, bring terror, as shown in the
account of Eliphaz (Job 4:14ff.) and Job’s com-
ment (Job 7:14).

The coming of God, even via the angel Gabriel,
strikes terror into the heart of Daniel and this
devout servant falls to his face (Dan 8:17). This
experience is helpful in understanding the back-
ground against which Job makes his request, viz.,

122

that God not intimidate (b@‘at) him with his
power and dread (Job 9:34; 13:21). The wicked
have every reason to be terrified because they
stretch forth their hand against God (Job 15:24f.).

ba‘at is the reaction of both saint and sinner
who experience Yahweh. bd‘at underlines the
greatness and overpowering aspect of God. Be-
fore such a God reverence and awe at the least

are demanded.
E.A.M.

yd (bods). See no. 268a.
m3 (bissa). See no. 268b.
“33 (basir). See no. 270f.

266 %%5 (bsi). Assumed root of the following.

266a t9¥3 (basal) onion (Num 11:5).

267 Y3R (basa') to cut off, get, gain, be covet-

ous, greedy, finish (Piel).
Derivative
267a +tY¥3S (besa') profit.

basa‘ and its derivative occur thirty-nine times
in the ot. Dalman has argued that it is a technical
term used by weavers to designate the action of
cutting a piece of cloth free from the loom after it
has been woven (cf. also KB). Isaiah 38:12 bears
this out when it has Hezekiah contemplating the
end of his life in such terms. Job (6:9) also asks
that God would cut off his life. This explains the
Piel meaning “to complete, finish.’"’ However,
the more common connotation of the root is
based on a slightly different aspect of ‘cut off.”
That is to cut off what is not one’s own, or in the
slang of our day, to take a ‘‘rip-off,’* thus to be
greedy, covetous.

The derived uses in the cognate Semitic lan-
guages suggest that ‘‘to cut,’ ‘‘cut off,’ was the
original meaning.

besa‘. Profit, unjust gain, covetousness. Per-
sonal advantage derived from some activity.
Used largely in the negative sense, as in the case
of the racketeer who takes his “‘cut’’ from the
profits of an otherwise legitimate business. In
seven occurrences (out of a total of 23) the neg-
ative connotation is less apparent. E.g., Judah
queries his brothers as to the ‘‘profit’’ in killing
Joseph (Gen 37:26) and Job’s comforters argue
that it is no gain to God even if Job were blame-
less (Job 22:3), etc. But the predominance of the
negative usages indicates that it is very easy for
the acquisition of personal gain to become the
ruling motive of one’s life, obscuring duty, hon-
esty and the rights of others.

The contexts in which basa‘ and besa‘ occur
emphasize two points concerning the lust for per-
sonal gain. First, it is a special temptation to
leaders, and those showing any predilection in

that direction should be disqualified (Ex 18:21).
The leader who succumbs to this temptation to
use his position for his own ends will certainly
play his people false (Ezk 22:27). Again and again
in the oT, it was the desire of the leaders for per-
sonal gain which led Israel into disaster (cf. 1 Sam
8:3: Isa 56:11; Jer 8:10; 22:17, etc.).

Secondly, lust for personal gain is in direct op-
position to unselfish devotion to God (Ps 10:3;
119:36; Isa 33:15) and must inevitably destroy the
person who succumbs to it (Prov 1:19; 15:27; Hab
2:9). Perhaps its most disastrous result is its ten-
dency to dull the hearing of God's word (Ezk
33:31).

Bibliography: Dalman, G. H., Arbeit und
Sitte im Paldstina, V, p. 123f. Delling, G.,
‘“mkeovextyns, in TDNT, VI, p. 269f. TDOT, Il,
pp. 205-208.

J.N.O.

268 YS (bss). Assumed root of the following.

268a 3 (bos) mire (Jer 38:22).

268b 3=o83) (bissa) swamp (Job 8:11; Ezk
47:11).

269 83 (bdsaq) to swell (of feet) (ASV, RSV
translate similarly.)

Derivative
269a 983 (baséq) dough.

basaq occurs twice (Deut 8:4; Neh 9:21) in par-
allel passages where God’s care of the Israelites
during the wilderness period is recounted. Despite
all their walking, wandering from place to place,
their feet did not even swell nor did their clothes

or sandals wear out (Deut 29:5 [H 4]).
J.N.O.

270 “3X3 (basar) to gather, restrain, cut off,
fence, fortify. (asv similar. RSv translates
‘“fortified’’ where asv and kJv_ read
‘fenced, walled,’ etc.)

Derivatives

270a =o785 (beser) precious ore.

270b «= A383 (bosra) enclosure.

270c 3=—s NBB_s(bissarén) — stronghold.

270d =A 83D (bassoret) dearth.

270e m82 (bassadra) dearth, destitution.
270f 83 (basir) vintage.

270g “83% (mibsar) fortification.

KB holds that at least three separate but
homophonous roots are involved here, one mean-
ing ‘*to gather,’ another meaning *‘to reduce” or
‘*humble” (only Ps 76:12 (H 13]; KJV ‘“‘to cut
off’’), and yet another having only Niphal and
Piel forms, meaning ‘‘inaccessible,’’ *‘impossi-
ble.”’ There may be yet a fourth root, meaning

123

271 YDD (baga’)

“test, assay.’ as per Ugaritic 2067:3 (UT 19: no.
S00; cf. Jer 6:27).

Of the seventy-three occurrences of bdsar and
its derivatives, all but eight have to do with for-
tification (or inaccessibility). Of these eight,
seven have to do with the grape harvest. In Jer
6:9; 49:9 and Ob S it is indicated that when God in
judgment gathers the harvest from Israel his
vineyard, there will not even be gleanings left
(contra Deut 24:21).

For the most part, the term ‘‘fortified (or
fenced) city’ is utilized as a term of designation,
indicating the largest and most important habita-
tion sites (ct. [I Kgs 17:9). Such cities were very
important strategically since they were almost
impregnable until the perfection of siege tech-
niques by the Assyrians (Jer 5:17). This fact was
of special significance to the Israelite conquest
(cf. Josh 10:20, etc.).

Since fortified cities were so strong, it was a
great temptation for the Israelites to put their
trust in them instead of in their God. Thus the
prophets are at pains to show the folly of such
trust (Isa 17:3; Lam 2:5; Hos 10:13-14, etc.). God
alone is mankind's stronghold (cf. Ps 27:1,
ma‘0z).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., Ugaritic-Hebrew
Philology, Biblia et Orientalia, XVII, Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1965, p. 53.

J.N.O.

W382 (bissdrén). See no. 270c.
PBs (baqgbuq). See no. 273a.
y*ps (b°’qia’). See no. 27Ic.

271 Yo3 (baqa‘) tocleave, divide, break through,

break up, ripup,tear. (aSv and Rsv similar.)

Derivatives

27la types (beqa’) half shekel.

271b = myps (big'a) valley, plain.

271c =o psa. (bfqia‘), =a (bakia‘) fis-
sure, breach.

This root with its derivatives appears seventy-
three times tn the ot. Cognates are found in
Ugaritic (bg‘), Arabic (faqga‘a) and Ethiopic. The
basic idea seems to be ‘a strenuous cleaving of
recalcitrant materials’’ (Greenfeld, HUCA). Asa
result of the cleaving, the contents may ‘burst
forth’’ (cf. Isa 58:8, etc.), but it is clear that this
meaning is secondary and not primary as with
such roots as MP¥B (pasah), or P3P (paras).

bdqga‘ is used in five situations, all of which
express the forcefulness of the splitting action. Of
these, only the first sees the splitting action as
coming from within, as in the hatching of eggs
(Isa 34:15; 59:5), the splitting of wineskins (Josh
9:4, 13), the dawn rending the heavens (Isa 58:8;
cf. Mesha Insc. 1.15), etc.

272 P23 (baqaq)

The second usage expresses the splitting ac-
tions encountered in daily life as the splitting of
wood (Gen 22:3; I Sam 6:14) or of stones (Ps
141:7).

Thirdly, the word is used with reference to the
splitting of the earth. In all cases but I Kgs 1:40,
where the splitting is attributed to the noise of
jubilation over Solomon’s coronation, this is the
work of the Lord (Num 16:31, etc.). Two refer-
ences here are of special importance, for they
indicate that the earth will be split upon the re-
turn of the Lord (Micah 1:4; Zech 14:4). The cre-
ation will not be able to stand when the Creator
returns in his glory.

Fourth, bdga‘ is associated with warfare and
violence. It is used several times to express the
action of troops in breaking into a city, camp or
territory (II Kgs 25:4; I] Chr 21: 17; Ezk 30:16).
The results of such a conquest were often horrify-
ing. Captives and young children were frequently
thrown from high places so that they were “‘split
open’’ (Kjv ‘‘dashed to pieces’’) on the rocks
below (II Kgs 8:12; I] Chr 25:12). Pregnant
women were all too commonly “‘ripped up” (II
Kgs 15:16; Amos 1:13, etc.).

The final usage is associated with water pro-
duction and behind that lies creation. These crea-
tive activities were directly paralleled by God's
redemptive actions on behalf of Israel. The One
who first cleaved open brooks and springs (Ps
74:15) was able to do it again in the wilderness of
Sinat (Ps 78:13; Isa 48:21). The One by whose
knowledge the great deeps were first split up
(Prov 3:20) (and again in Noah’s day [Gen 7:11])
could once again exercise his mastery over the
waters by dividing the waters of the Red Sea for
his people (Ex 14:16; Isa 63: 12, etc.). In the Ak-
kadian creation epic, Marduk ts said to have split
the body of Tiamat, the Great Deep, as the basis
for creation. Whether some relation exists be-
tween the biblical and Akkadian material is dif-
ficult to ascertain (cf. Ps 74:12-17; Isa 51:9-11).
In any case God's creation was pictured as ex
nihilo and not as the result of some warfare of the
gods. However, the burden of these passages is
not simply that God is possessed of such terrible
power as to split rocks and waters, etc., but that
the possessor of such power is able to redeem a
lost creation. Of this the Akkadian knows noth-
ing. See the discussion under t*hém, no. 2495a.

beqa‘. Half-shekel. A “‘cloven” shekel. Ap-
pears only in Gen 24:22 and Ex 38:26. It is also to
be understood in the weight of Solomon’s gold
shields (11 Chr 9:16) which according to II Kgs
10:17 weighed three minas each (150 shekels, 300
beqas.

biq‘’a. Valley, plain. Originally a cleft in the
mountains. Thus the plain of Megiddo (Zech
12:11) is that valley which lies between the Car-

124

mel range on the south and the highlands of
Galilee on the north near the pass of Megiddo
through the Carmel range. As such the word is to
be distinguished from ‘émeq which means simply
‘‘low place.’” Of the twenty occurrences, eleven
are used to designate places (as above). The re-
mainder are often paralleled with ‘*mountains,’’
by which contrast, the entirety of the land ts indi-
cated (cf. Isa 40:4).

J.N.O.

272 pa (baqgaq) I, be luxuriant (Hos 10:1).

273 Pps (badqaq) I, empty.

Derivative
273a = 33) «(bagbiq) flask.

274 *3p3D (baqgar) Seek, inquire (only in the

Piel stem). (Asv and RSv generally similar
except Prov 20:25 where Rsv renders ‘‘re-
flect.”’)

Derivatives

274a +323 (baqar) cattle, herd, ox.
274b «61p'S) «(bégér) herdsman.

274c t323 (bdqger) morning.

274d tm5—2 (baqqard) a care, concern.
274e tna 3 (bigqgéret) compensation.

bagar is found seven times. Much more fre-
quent are synonyms bagash ‘‘seek,’’ ‘‘secure,”

and darash ‘“‘seek,”’ ‘‘study,”’ ‘‘seek (i.e. pray
to) a deity.”

baqar, it is suggested, from the Arabic cog-
nate, originally meant ‘‘split,’’ ‘“‘divide’’ and

hence ‘‘discern.’’ Its biblical use is largely in
worship contexts, e.g. ‘‘checking’’ for ritual pur-
ity (Lev 13:36; cf. Lev 27:33) or ‘‘inquiry,’’ in the
sense of meditation, possibly self-searching (Ps
27:4; cf. II Kgs 16:15). Only in Ezk does bagar
refer to search of animals (Ezk 34:11-12).

In the Aramaic, b° gar, found only in Ezr, re-
fers to “‘investigation,’’ chiefly of records.

baqar. Cattle, herd, ox. (asv and Rsv similar.)
bagar (180 times), often used collectively, is
doubtfully to be linked with baqgar (see above)
‘to split,"’ more particularly “‘to plow.”’ It is
used in the Mari letters, in Phoenician, Aramaic,
and Arabic. Though bdgar refers to draught ani-
mals such as oxen, the term is used for domestic
cattle, including bulls, cows, heifers, and calves.
baqar is distinguished from ‘‘flock’’ (s6’n) which
denotes small cattle such as sheep and goats.
so’n and bdaqar often denote all domesticated
animals. b*° héma also refers to livestock gener-
ally including sheep and goats.

For the peoples of the ancient near middle east,
including the Hebrews, cattle were a form of
wealth. Indeed for the semi-nomadic patriarchs,

wealth was measured in cattle. Hamor and
Shechem of the hill country had cattle (Gen
34:28) and so did the patriarchs such as Abraham
who were rich in cattle (Gen 13:2-7). Isaac was
envied by the Philistines for his cattle (Gen
26:12-—14). Nathan’s parable described the rich
man as one who owned bdgar (II Sam 12:2; cf.
Eccl 2:7). Herds of cattle were a prize in war
(Num 31:33; I Sam 27:9). In patriarchal times at
least, cattle were given at the time of covenant
making (Gen 21:27-31). baqdr are to be restored
fivefold when stolen (Ex 22:1). Fertility among
cattle was obviously important and the Canaanite
gods, worshiped as fertility bringers, held an ap-
peal to the Hebrews for that reason. But the
Scriptures insist that increase of cattle is due to
the Lord's blessing (Gen 24:35; Job 42:12).

As wealth, bdqgdr could be given as gifts (Gen
21:27). As a gesture of generosity Abraham pre-
pared a calf for the angelic messenger (Gen 18:7).
Joseph exchanged bread for cattle (Gen 47:17).
David had royal herds (I Chr 27:29). baqdr were
important in stewardship. A tithe of the herd
(bdqar) was holy to the Lord (Lev 27:32). Of
interest are the tallies recorded in Num 7:12ff.
For Israel the tithe could hardly be an exclusively
private affair about which the community was un-
informed. The revival in Hezekiah’s time brought
a sense of stewardship and the voluntary gifts of
baqar (II Chr 31:6).

The existence of a family usually depended on
its sheep and cattle. Thus Pharaoh felt secure in
letting Israel go if they left their livestock behind
(Ex 10:24). As part of the household, they par-
ticipated in Nineveh’s repentance (Jon 3:7) and
the servants who tended them are mentioned
after the animals (Gen 12:16; 26:14).

bdqar were given in sacrifice by the non-
Israelite, Balak (Num 22:40). bdqgdr are desig-
nated by God as appropriate for sacrifice primar-
ily no doubt because of the principle that the life
of the flesh is in the blood (Lev 17:11), but
perhaps also because bdqar represent a man’s
choice possession. Generally offerings were to be
from the herd (bdgq4r), or flock (Lev 1:2; cf. Num
15), and for the most part, the animals were to be
male, though not always (I Sam 16:2). Some-
times, as at the dedications, both a young bull
from the herd (bdaqgar) and a ram from the flock
were required (Ex 29:1; Lev 16:3). Burnt offer-
ings for vows and free will offerings (Lev 22:17-
19) but also sin offerings (Lev 4:3), required a
male animal. The abundance of Solomon's sac-
rifice of bdqgdr at the temple dedication is a trib-
ute both to his wealth and his piety (I Kgs 8:5,
63). The larger share of such offerings were eaten
by the worshipers. The great numbers of sac-
rifices were commensurate with the crowds of
people.

The baqar were used as work animals for the

125

274 **p3 (baqar)

settled farmer (I Sam 11:5; I Kgs 19:19; Job 1:14)
and as a source of meat and sour milk (Deut
32:14; Isa 22:13) in all economies in Palestine as
early as the late Stone Age (F. S. Bodenheimer,
Animal and Man in Bible Lands, 1960, p. 36f.).
As clean animals (Deut 14:4), they were used for
food on special occasions (Gen 18:7; I Kgs 1:9) at
the royal court (I Kgs 4:23 [H 5:3]) and in general
as a vital food supply (Joel 1:18). It is of some
interest that the larger cattle were evidently more
used in ancient Palestine than now. Cattle require
more pasture and feed than do sheep.

Note should be taken, in keeping with the
theology of ecology, of God's concern for ani-
mals. The book of Jonah cites God’s pity not only
for human beings but also for livestock (Jon
4:11). bagar and flocks at Nineveh were involved
in the fast proclaimed by the king (Jon 3:7). The
coming age of bliss is depicted as one in which
there will be a change also in the habits of the
animals, for ‘‘the lion will eat straw like an ox”
(baqar, Isa 31:7; cf. 65:25).

boger. Morning, dawn. (aSv and RSv similar.)
Linked with the root bagar, béger (c. 200 times)
denotes the breaking through of the daylight and
thus dawn or more usually morning. This noun is
peculiar to Hebrew though the assumed root is
not.

Frequent in narrative portions of the oT, béger
denotes a time marker as in the expression,
‘‘Joshua rose early in the morning’ (Josh 3:1).
boéger, when combined with evening (‘ereb) may
refer either to a full day (Gen 1:5), or in phrases
‘from evening to morning”’ designate night time
(Lev 24:3), or “from morning to evening’”’ (day-
time; Ex 18:13). Occasionally bdger refers to
‘the morrow.”’

In poetry, béger is more often mentioned than
evening (‘ereb). The voice of the worshiper will
be heard in the morning, in praise (Ps 59:16 [H
17]) or in petition (Ps 88:13 [H 14]}). The righteous
are attentive to God in the morning through
prayer and offerings (Ps 5:3 [H 4]); by contrast
the wicked are also active but with evil schemes
(Mic 2:1; cf. Isa $:11).

boger may denote ‘early’ or ‘‘promptly’’ as
in ‘‘God will help her right early’’ (lit. ‘‘at the
turning of morning,’’ Ps 46:5 [H 6]; cf. Ps 90:14;
101:8), etc. but the case can not be proved. On
the other hand in some of these passages bdger
may have a latent meaning, ‘‘the suitable time of
salvation.”

baqqara. Care, concern. A verbal form em-
ployed to compare God’s care in his search for
his flock with that of a shepherd (Ezk 34:12).

biqqoret. Compensation, scourging(?) (ASV
‘*punishment’’; rsv ‘“‘inquiry.’’) If one may
judge from an Akkadian root bagdru instead of

276 *wos (baqash)

badqar, compensation is to be paid in a case in-
volving a man and a betrothed, though unmar-
ried, slave girl (Lev 19:20; the only occurrence of
the term—see M. Noth, Leviticus).
Bibliography: Delekat, L., ‘*‘Zum Hebriais-
chen Worterbuch,’* VT 14: 7-66. TDOT, II, pp.
209-28.
E.A.M.

276 *wEe3p (baqash) to seek,
(Piel and Pual only.)

require, desire

ASV and RSv the same, except at I Sam 20:16
(RSV inferior); Est 2:21 (RSV superior); Dan 1:8 (no
preference). Both are inadequate at Zeph 1:6
(‘have not sought Jehovah, indeed have not
sought him’’; cf. Deut 4:29).

Derivative
276a tMWDD (baqqgashd) petition.

Our root basically connotes a person’s earnest
seeking of something or someone which exists or
is thought to exist. Its intention is that its object
be found (mdsa’') or acquired (Ex 4:19). The ob-
ject of this pursuit can be either specified or un-
derstood, either concrete or abstract. The spe-
cific meaning of bagash is determined by its ob-
ject in a given context. Unlike ddrash (q.v.) its
nearest synonym the activity of bagash is seldom
cognitive (but see Jud 6:29). Other words that are
parallel (and hence, synonymous) are rddap ‘‘to
pursue,” shd’al ‘‘to ask,’ pdqad ‘‘to visit,”
bahar ‘*to choose,”’ etc. Cf. Uganitic bgt, UT 19:
no. 505. Phoenician bgsh, KAI, p. 5.

The first significant theological theme of
baqgash is rooted in the concept expressed in
Deut 4:29 (cf. Deut 6:6; Mt 22:37; ddrash)
whereby God binds his people to love and serve
him as the first principle of their living. Pharoah
was unable (or unwilling) to see the relationship
between Moses’ (Aaron’s) request and the fact
that its conditions were divinely stipulated (Ex
10:11). Hence, he was willing to let the men go
‘‘worship”’ their God, but considered the rest of
their request to be an unwarranted ploy to escape
slavery. God’s covenants, however, require his
people to seek him where and how he stipulates
(Ex 33:7; cf. Isa 1:12). This ‘‘seeking’’ ultimately
finds its object in the Lord (Ps 24:6; Zeph 1:6) and
immediately in his covenantal provisions (Amos
8:12; Ps 34:14 (H 15]), promises (Ezk 7:26) and
requirements (Zeph 2:3; Mic 6:8). Since false
prophets direct ‘seekers’? away from God (Lev
19:31) depriving them of true life, they are
marked for capital punishment (Deut 13:10 (H
11]; cf. Gen 9:5). Israel eventually gave them-
selves to such false leaders but were repeatedly
challenged to seek God wholeheartedly (Jer
29:13; 50:4; Deut 30:1-10). Their feigned pursuit
of God (Ezk 7:25; Hos 5:6), his counsel (Ezk

126

277 33 (bar) I, son.

7:26), and his word (Amos 8:12), was in vain
since they did not seek him with pure hand (Ps
77:2 [H 3}, ner) and a clean heart (Ps 24:6). Ac-
cording to his grace God sought his people in
their exile judgment) reminding them of the an-
cient promise (Isa 45:19) and awakening them to
repentance and restitution (Isa 51:1; 65:1). The
NT attests the fullest sense of the preceeding
(Rom 9:30; 10:20) when he not only appeared
unexpectedly/suddenly in his temple (Mal 3:1; Jn
2:13ff.; Heb 12:22-24; 9:1-28), but resurrected
the Gentiles to true life (Zech 8:21-22; Jer
31:31ff.). [Some will also hold that these spiritual
fulfilments of the oT promises will be matched by
literal fulfilments to Israel as well (Rom 11:26).
R.L.H.]

It is noteworthy that Moses, who fled Egypt to
escape those who were ‘‘justly’’ seeking to kill
him (Ex 3:15; 4:19), had a confrontation with God
whereby he sought his life (Ex 4:24). So, cove-
nantal disobedience (Moses had not circumcised
his son) deserved the death penalty, and the
teaching also is (probably) that to exclude one’s
children from the covenant is tantamount to mur-
der (cf. Gen 9:5). The idea of God ‘‘seeking”’
(requiring) one’s life because of covenantal viola-
tion applies both to covenants God makes with
man (e.g. creational covenant of life, Gen 9:5; the
Mosaic covenant, Ezk 3:18, 20), and covenants
sanctioned by God (I Sam 20:16; II] Sam 4:11).

baqqasha. Petition, request. (ASV, RSV similar.)
Our noun, modelled on a Pael infinitive
(Aramaic), iS a technical term (frequently
synonymously parallel to sh*’éld) denoting a
petition or request by a subject to a king that he
grant a specific desire. It occurs seven times.
Bibliography: Sellers, O. R., ‘‘Seeking Good
in the Old Testament,’’ JBR 21: 234-37. TDOT,
II, pp. 229-41. THAT, I, pp. 333-35.
L.J.C.

(AsV and Rsv similar.)

99

The common Aramaic noun meaning ‘son
(Ezr 5:1; Dan 3:25; etc.). Occurs only three times
without question in the Hebrew ot, the more
common word being bén (q.v.). Three of the oc-
currences are in one verse, Prov 31:2, which
forms the introduction to the instruction of
Lemuel. Typical of such literature, the instruc-
tion 1s addressed from a father to a son (cf. Prov
1:8; 2:1, etc.).

The final occurrence is much more problema-
tic. It is found in Ps 2:12, ‘‘kiss the son lest he be
angry.’’ This has been taken to be a reference to
Christ since earliest Christian times. However,
with the exception of Syriac, none of the ancient
versions contain the reading (e.g. Lxx “‘accept
correction’). Yet there is little agreement among
the versions on the basis of which to reconstruct

a Hebrew text, nor have any variants come to
light at Qumran.

Secondly, it has been argued that since bén
appears in verse 7, bar in verse 12 must be a
corruption. This assumes however that bén and
bar were never contemporary, one always having
been used to the exclusion of the other. This as-
sumes too much, given numerous uncertainties in
our knowledge of the spread and usage of
Aramaic.

The reading remains problematic, but until
solid textual evidence comes to light, emendation
is an unwarranted expedient. If the reading is ac-
cepted, the action involved probably is kissing
the feet of the son, an act of homage well-attested
in Babylonian and Egyptian sources.

Bibliography: Barnes, W. E., *‘The Psalms,”
I, in Westminster Commentaries, ed. W. Lock
and D. C. Simpson, London: Methuen, 1931, p.
llf. Bertholet, A., ‘‘Eine Crux Interpretum,”’
ZAW 28: 58-59 (cf. also p. 193). Briggs, C. A.,
‘*Psalms,’’ I, in ICC, p. 23f. Dahood, M.,
‘Psalms, 1-50,’ in AB, p. 13f. TDNT, VIII, pp.
340-62. TDOT, II, pp. 308-12.

J.N.O.

"3 (bar) II, III. See nos. 288a,b.
33 (bor) I, Il. See no. 288c,d.
"3. (bar). See no. 288f.

278 S893 (bara’) I, create, make, Creator (Qal);
choose, cut down, dispatch, (Piel); be
created, be done (Niphal; rsv ‘“‘yet un-
born”’ in Ps 102:18 {H 19]; ‘‘clear ground”’
in Josh 17:15, 18; rsv and asv ‘‘mark’”’ in
Ezk 21:19 [H 24}).

Derivative
278a =fANNS (b¢ri’a) new thing.

The root bara’ has the basic meaning ‘‘to
create.”’ It differs from ydsar ‘‘to fashion”’ in that
the latter primarily emphasizes the shaping of an
object while bara’ emphasizes the initiation of
the object.

The question of the meaning of the root bara’
is complicated by its connotation in the Piel of
‘cut down” (Josh 17:15, 18; Ezk 23:47). This
meaning may also obtain in the use of the word in
Ezk 21:19 [H 24] where it need not connote carv-
ing a Signpost, but simply the act of cutting down
a branch or sapling as a marker). If this meaning
attests to the concrete form of the Qal, the word
may have meant ‘‘to form,’’ “‘to fashion’ in the
sense of carving or cutting out. But it is possible
that the Piel form may represent an entirely dif-
ferent root. KB (2d ed.) posits a second root used
in the Piel meaning ‘“‘to cut down.’’ THOT (in
loc.) follows KB (3d ed.) that there is one root

127

278 83 (bara’)

with the basic meaning ‘separate, ‘“‘divide.”’
This would explain the usages of the Piel, but, as
is often the case, is not decisive for the nuance of
the meaning ‘‘create”* in the Qal. And, since the
word is used in such a distinctive sense in the Qal
it is best to consider the meaning of the root sol-
ely on the basis of usage.

The word is used in the Qal only of God's activ-
ity and is thus a purely theological term. This
distinctive use of the word is especially appro-
priate to the concept of creation by divine fiat.

The root bard’ denotes the concept of **initiat-
ing something new” in a number of passages. In
Isa 41:20 it is used of the changes that will take
place in the Restoration when God effects that
which is new and different. It is used of the crea-
tion of new things (Addash0ot) in Isa 48:6—7 and the
creation of the new heavens and the new earth
(Isa 65:17). Marvels never seen before are de-
scribed by this word (Ex 34:10), and Jeremiah
uses the term of a fundamental change that will
take place in the natural order (Jer 31:22). The
Psalmist prayed that God would create in him a
clean heart (Psa 51:10 [H 12]) and coupled this
with the petition that God would put a new spirit
within him (See also Num 16:30; Isa 4:5; 65:18).

The word also possesses the meaning of
‘‘ bringing into existence” in several passages (Isa
43:1; Ezk 21: 30 [H 35]; 28:13, 15).

It is not surprising that this word with its dis-
tinctive emphases is used most frequently to de-
scribe the creation of the universe and the natural
phenomena (Gen 1:], 21, 27; 2:3, etc.). The us-
ages of the term in this sense present a clearly
defined theology. The magnitude of God's power
is exemplified in creation. This has implications
for the weak (Isa 40:26; cf. vv. 27-31) and for the
unfolding of God's purposes in history (Isa 42:5;
45:12). Creation displays the majesty (Amos
4:13), orderliness (Isa 45:18), and sovereignty (Ps
89:12 [H 13]) of God. Anthropologically, the
common creation of man forms a plea for unity in
Mal 2:10. And man is seen as created for vanity in
Ps 89:47 [H 48].

THOT argues that this word is used only in the
P document and other late literature. Of course
this view can only be sustained by dividing and
post-dating the documents.

The limitation of this word to divine activity
indicates that the area of meaning delineated by
the root falls outside the sphere of human ability.
Since the word never occurs with the object of
the material, and since the primary emphasis of
the word is on the newness of the created object,
the word lends itself well to the concept of crea-
tion ex nihilo, although that concept is not neces-
sarily inherent within the meaning of the word.

b’ri’a. Newthing (RSV “‘something new ). The
word connotes something new or extraordinary

279 853 (bara’)

(Num 16:30). It thus reflects a basic connotation
of the root bara’ (Ex 34:10; Isa 48:6; Jer 31:22).
Bibliography: Anderson, Bernhard W., *‘The
Earth is the Lord’s,”’ Interp 9: 3-20. Arbez, Ed-
ward P. and Weisengoff, John P., ‘‘Exegetical
Notes on Genesis 1:1-—2,’’ CBQ 10: 140-50. Han-
son, Howard E., ‘‘Num. XVI 30 and the Meaning
of Bara’,’’ VT 22: 353-9. Knight, Harold, ‘‘The
Old Testament Conception of Miracle,’ SJT S:
355-61. Lane, William R., ‘‘The Initiation of
Creation,’’ VT 13: 63-73. Stuhmueller, Carroll,
‘‘The Theology of Creation in Second Isaias,”’
CBQ 21: 429-67. Unger, Merrill F., ‘‘The Old
Testament Revelation of the Creation of Angels
and the Earth,”’ BS 114: 206-12. TDNT, III, pp.
1005-28. TDOT, II, pp. 242-48. THAT, I, pp.

336-38.
T.E.M.

279 S893 (bard’) II, be fat.
Derivative

279a t8°N3 (bari’) fat, fatter, fed, firm,
plenteous, rank.

This word occurs with its basic connotation
‘‘fat’’ in Jud 3:17. While always retaining this
original connotation it occurs with various
nuances. It is used to describe healthy human
beings (Dan 1:15), animals (Gen 41:2), and vege-
tation (Gen 41:5). It is used of the best portion of
edible meats (Ezk 34:3) and also bears the secon-
dary connotation of prosperity (Ps 73:4; Hab
1:16).

T.E.M.

p°13"53 (barburim). See no. 288g.

280 393 (barad) to hail. Probably a denomi-
native verb.

Parent Noun

280a . T5993 (bardd) hail.
Derivative

280b %53 (badrdd) spotted, marked.

barad is used as a verb in the Qal once (Isa
32:19).

barad. Hail. Occurs twenty-nine times, of
which twenty-two are in connection with the
sixth plague in Egypt (Ex 9:18-33; Ps 18:13-14,
etc.). Elsewhere, it is used either figuratively to
describe destructive force, especially that coming
upon disobedient Israel (Isa 28:2), or literally as a
manifestation of God’s power and glory (Ps
148:8).

J.N.O.

128

281 a3 (bard) I, to eat.

Derivatives
28la m3 (biryad) food (i Sam 13:5, 7,
10; Ezk 34:20).
281b mind (barat) food (Ps 69:22).

282 m3 (brh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

282a tms93 (bfrit) covenant (asv — and
RSV); between nations: a treaty, al-
liance of friendship; between indi-
viduals: a pledge or agreement; with
obligation between a monarch and
subjects: a constitution; between
God and man: a covenant accom-
panied by signs, sacrifices, and a
solemn oath that sealed the relation-
ship with promises of blessing for
keeping the covenant and curses for
breaking it.

The etymology of the word is uncertain. It may
be related to the Akkadian word burru which
means ‘‘to establish a legal situation by testimony
with an oath’ (CAD baru, p. 125); but some (O.
Loretz, VT 16: 239-41) tie it to the Akkadian
word birtu *‘a fetter’’ which is a derivative of the
word meaning ‘‘between.’’ L. Kohler claims the
word was related to the root brh which has to do
with the food and eating involved in the covenant
meal (JSS 1: 4-7). The root is nowhere used as a
verb in the oT nor is any other derivative of this
root used, but the action involving covenant mak-
ing employs the idiom ‘‘to cut a covenant”’ (Gen
15:18, etc.), that is making a bloody sacrifice as
part of the covenant ritual. Kohler then would
have the animal eaten in the covenant meal.

The covenant as a treaty or agreement between
nations or individuals should be understood on
the basis of whether the parties are equal or one
is Superior to the other. In Gen 14:13 Abraham
and the Amorites were equal parties to a treaty
but this is not true of Israel (under Joshua) and
the Gibeonites (Josh 9). Here the oath aspect of
the covenant is shown to be most important.
Even though the Gibeonite vassals were subject
to a curse for having lied (9:22-—23), Joshua and
Israel were still obligated to provide protection
for them. Much later when Saul failed in this
sworn covenant obligation, his family suffered
punishment (II Sam 21).

It was common practice to set up a stela (stone)
as a sign that a treaty had been established be-
tween two households or nations (cf. Jacob and
Laban, Gen 31:44-47). On both sides appeal is
made to the deity as a witness showing that the
covenant is unalterable. Moreover, as in the case
at Sinai, Jacob and Laban offered a sacrifice in
the mountain and shared a common meal (Gen
31:54-55). Other signs which sealed such a treaty

were used, such as a marriage between two royal
houses (1 Kgs 9:16). But the greatest tool for
covenant making came to be the written docu-
ment on which the words of the covenant, its
terms in the form of promises and stipulations
were spelled out, witnessed to, signed and sealed.
Such covenant documents abound (cf. D. R.
Hillers, Covenant: The History of a Biblical
Idea, Baltimore, 1969). Behm concludes: ‘*There
is no firmer guarantee of legal security peace or
personal loyalty than the covenant’ (TDNT, II,
p. 115; cf. Amos 1:9).

Apart from blood ties the covenant was the
way people of the ancient world formed wider
relationships with each other (Treaty and Coven-
ant, D. J. McCarthy, Rome, 1963, p. 175). The
accounts of the relationship between David and
Jonathan are the only unequivocal mention of a
compact between two individuals in the ot (I Sam
18:3; 20:8; 23:18). It is spoken of as *‘a covenant
of the Lord’’ because the Lord witnessed the
transaction and protected the legal order.

In Israel’s monarchy the covenant relationship
between the people and the king provided a kind
of limited constitutional monarchy which was
unique in the world in that early age (II Sam 3:21;
5:3; I Chr 11:3).

All of this covenant procedure provides the
cultural setting in which God’s relationship with
his people is formulated. Modern studies on the
meaning and the form of ‘“‘covenant”’ in biblical
theology have been vigorous since the appear-
ance of George Mendenhall’s Law and Covenant
in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Pittsburgh,
1955; see also BA 17: 27-46, 49-76 and Old Tes-
tament Covenant: A Survey of Current Opinions,
D. J. McCarthy, Richmond, 1972). McCarthy in-
cludes an excellent bibliography of covenant
studies, pp. 90-108. For an evangelical theologi-
cal treatment of this subject based on the source
materials see the volumes entitled Treaty of the
Great King (Grand Rapids, 1963) and By Oath
Consigned (Grand Rapids, 1967) by M. G. Kline.
Here Kline shows the suzerainty treaty found in
the ancient near east is the key to understanding
the form of God’s covenant with ancient Israel.
He maintains the Ten Commandments and the
entire book of Deuteronomy and such sections as
Joshua 24 are all based on a covenant pattern
which has: 1. A preamble in which the suzerain is
identified, 2. An historical prologue describing
previous relations between the parties, 3. Stipula-
tions and demands of the suzerain, 4. Swearing of
allegiance with curses and blessings, that is
Covenant Ratification, 5. Witnesses and direc-
tions for carrying out the treaty (see Treaty of the
Great King, pp. 14, 28). In addition to the stipula-
tions there may be a clause providing for the
preservation and regular re-reading of the cove-
nant.

129

282 393 (brh)

The notion that a covenant between God and
man did not exist in the formative stages of Israel-
ite history as presented in Genesis and Exodus
cannot be taken seriously any longer. Yahweh as
a tribal deity in early Israel bound to his people
by natural but not ethical ties, as a covenant rela-
tionship implies, is also a fading viewpoint.

D. J. McCarthy warns that the covenant con-
cept in the oT presents a very rich and complex
tradition and that the covenant is not primarily
legalistic or moralistic but cultic, that 1s, tied to
religious practice. He sees other analogies be-
sides the treaty form as important, especially the
family analogy—the father and son relationship
in the Davidic Covenant (II Sam 7) and the hus-
band and wife relationship as in Hosea. Covenant
theology which puts all biblical revelation in the
covenant framework now has the support of oT
specialists like W. Eichrodt who make the cove-
nant concept the central and unifying theme of
the ot (Theology of the Old Testament, London,
1967, cf. also J. Barton Payne, The Theology of
the Older Testament). Eichrodt finds that the co-
venant concept proves Israel's religion was his-
torical, that is, not the imagination of later gener-
ations. It also gave Israel great assurance of a
beneficent God at a time when the deities were
considered arbitrary originators of evil. Some
scholars hold that the b°rit was sometimes
monergistic, that is a one-sided unconditional
promise. This view is opposed by Eichrodt and
Kline, although espoused by J. Begrich, ZAW 60:
I-11 and Murray, The Covenant of Grace, Lon-
don, 1954. Kline maintains that all divine-human
covenants in the oT involve sanction-sealed
commitment to obey. The law and promise as-
pects of God's covenant relationship with his
people do not violate each other. Deuteronomy
29: 13-14 shows the Sinaitic Covenant was an ex-
tension of the Abrahamic Covenant, both of
which are called here *‘a sworn covenant.’’ The
Sinai renewal merely stressed man’s responsibil-
ity where the Abrahamic Covenant emphasized
God’s promise. Many agree with Hillers (Cove-
nant, pp. 129-31) that the covenant (treaty) tradi-
tion is carried into the writings of the prophets in
the so-called lawsuit (rib) pattern. The prophets
indict the people as covenant breakers, some-
times relating this to the covenant pattern by call-
ing heaven and earth to witness (cf. Isa 1:2-3,
10-20; Jer 2:4-12; Mic 6:1-8; Ps 50).

The Priestly Covenant of Num 25:12-13, the
Davidic Covenant of II Sam 7 and the New
Covenant of Jer 31:31 are all administrative as-
pects of the same covenant, God's Covenant of
Grace. This covenant reaches its climax at the
Incarnation where Christ representing his people
fulfilled all the stipulations of the covenant and
bore the curse they deserved for breaking it (cf.
F. C. Fensham, *‘Covenant, Promise and Expec-

283 193 (brz)

tation in the Bible,” Theologische Zeitschrift
23:305—22).

Bibliography: Albnght, W. F., ‘The Hebrew
Expression for ‘Making a Covenant’ in Pre-
Israelite Documents,’*’ BASOR 121:21-22. Beg-
rich, J., ‘‘Bernth. Ein Beitrag zur Erfassung einer
alt. Denkform,’* ZAW 60: 1-11. Braulik, Georg,
“Die Ausdriicke fiir ‘Gesetz im Buch
Deuteronomium,’ Bib $1: 39-66. Brown, P. E.,
‘‘The Basis of Hope,’ Interp 9: 35-40. Buis,
Pierre, *‘Les Formulaires D’Alliance,’** VT 16:
396-411. Campbell, K. M. ‘*Rahab’s Covenant,”
VT 22: 243-44. Delcor, M., ‘‘Les Attaches Lit-
teraires, l’Origine et la Signification de |’ Expres-
sion Biblique “Prendre a Temoin le Ciel et la
Terre’,’’ VT 16: 8-25. Coppens, J., ‘*La Nouvelle
Alliance en Jer 31, 31-34,’ CBQ 25: 12-21. Eich-
rodt, Walther, *‘Covenant and Law,” Interp 20:
302-21. Fensham, F. Charles, “Clauses of Pro-
tection in Hittite Vassal-Treaties and the Old
Testament,’ VT 13: 133-43. , The Cove-
nant as Giving Expression to the Relationship
Between Old and New Testament,’ Tyndale Bul-
letin 22: 82-94. , ‘Did a Treaty Between
the Israelites and the Kenites Exist?’” BASOR
175: 51-54. , ‘The Treaty Between Israel
and the Gibeonites,’° BA 27: 96-100. ;
‘‘The Treaty Between the Israelites and the Ty-
rians," Supp VT 17: 70-87. Freedman, David
Noel, ‘Divine Commitment and Human Obliga-
tion,’ Interp 18: 419-31. Frankana, R., ‘‘The
Vassal-Treaties of Esarhaddon and the Dating of
Deuteronomy,’’ OTS 14: 122-54. Gerstenberger,
Erhard, ‘‘Covenant and Commandment,’ JBL
84: 38-51. Hillers, Delbert R., ‘*‘A Note on Some
Treaty Teminology in the Old Testament,”
BASOR 176: 46-47. Kevan, E. F., ‘‘The Cove-
nants and the Interpretation of the Old Testa-
ment,’ EQ 26: 19-28. Kitchen, K. A. The Bible
in its World, Patermoster, 1977, esp. *‘The Co-
venant at Sinai and in Moab,” pp. 79-85. Kline,
Meredith G., *‘Dynastic Covenant,’’ WJT 23:
1-15. Kutsch, Ernest, ‘‘Gesetz und Gnade,”
ZAW 79: 18-35. L’Hour, Jean, ‘‘L*Alliance de
Sichem,’’ RB 69: 5-36, 161-84, 350-68. Lang, G.
H., **God’s Covenants are Conditional,’’ EQ 30:
86-97. Lincoln, C. F., ‘*The Development of the
Covenant Theory,’ BS 100: 134-63. ;
‘‘The Biblical Covenants,’ BS 100: 309-23,
442-49, 565-73. McCarthy, Dennis J., ‘Berit and
Covenant in the Deuteronomistic History,’ Supp
VT 23: 65-85. , ‘Covenant in the Old Tes-
tament: The Present State of Inquiry,’’ CBQ 27:
217-40. , "Hosea XII 2: Covenant by
Oil,’ VT 14: 214-21. , ‘Three Covenants
in Genesis,’’ CBQ 26: 179-89. Mendenhall, G.
E., ‘Covenant Forms in Israelite Tradition, ° BA
17: 50-76. Mitchell, John J., ‘‘Abram’s Under-
Standing of the Lord’s Covenant,’ WTJ 32:
24-48. Muilenburg, James, ‘“‘The Form and

130

Structure of the Covenantal Formulations,’> VT
9: 374-67. Rand, James Freeman, “Old Testa-
ment Fellowship with God,’ BS 108: 227-36,
323-33; 109: 47-54, 151-63, 226-38. Robinson, T.
H., ** ‘Covenant’ in the O.T.,'’ Exp T 53: 298-99.
Rogers, Cleon L. Jr., ‘*The Covenant with Ab-
raham and its Historical Setting,” BS 127: 241-
56. Rowley, H. H., “*Moses and the Decalogue,”’
BJRL 34: 81-118. Silving, Helen, ‘‘The State
Contract in the Old Testament,’ JR 24: 17-32.
Theil, Wilfried, “Sefer Berit,” VT 20: 214-29.
Thompson, J. A., The Significance of the Ancient
Near Eastern Treaty Pattern,” Tyndale House
Bulletin 13: 1-6. Tsevat, M., *“‘The Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian Vassal Oaths and the Pro-
phet Ezekiel,’ JBL 78: 199-204. Tucker, Gene
M., ‘“Covenant Forms and Contract Forms,’ VT
1S: 487-503. Van der Ploeg, J., ‘‘Studies in He-
brew Law,” CBQ 12: 248-59. Weinfeld, M.,
‘Covenant Terminology in the Ancient Near
East and its Influence on the West, JAOS 93:
190-99. , The Covenant of Grant in the
Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East,”
JAOS 90: 184-203. , ‘Traces of Assyrian
Treaty Formulae in Deuteronomy,” Bib 56:
417-27. Whiteley, C. F., ‘Covenant and Com-
mandment in Israel,” JNES 22: 37-48. Wide-
ngren, George, ““King and Covenant,’’ JSS 2:
1~32. TDNT, IJ, 106-24, 126-29. TDOT II, pp.
253-78. THAT, I, pp. 339-52.

E.B.S.

See no. 289a.
See no. 281b.

wind (bfrésh).
mind (barat).

283 33 (brz). Assumed root of the following.

283a t9I93) (barzel) iron.

A loan word from Sumenan BAR.ZIL via Ak-
kadian parzillum or possibly from Hittite. The
use of terrestrial iron (as opposed to meteorite
iron which has a different nickel content) has now
been attested in the third and fifth millennia B.c.
Thus it appears legitimately in Gen 4:22. The
wide use of iron, the Early Iron Age, in Palestine
evidently coincided with the coming of the Philis-
tines about 1200 bB.c. Their military successes
were doubtless due in part to ‘‘the Philistine iron
monopoly’ (Albright, W. F., Archaeology of
Palestine, Penguin, 1960, p. 110). This apparently
was due to their use of tron tempering which they
kept as a military secret from the Hebrews (1 Sam
13:19). In twenty of the seventy-five occurrences
of iron it is used in a figurative sense, usually in
construct with other nouns to denote affliction
(Deut 4:20; I Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4), slavery (Deut
28:48; Jer 28:14), barrenness (Deut 28:23), and
obstinacy (Isa 48:4).

Bibliography: Mellaart, J., Anatolian Studies
14: 111, 114. Kaiser, W. C., ‘*The Literary Form

of Genesis I-XI1,"° in New Perspectives on the
OT, ed. J. Barton Payne, Word, 1970, p. 55, nn.
30-33. Wright, G. E., “Iron in Israel,’’ BA 1:5-8.

W.C.K.

284 maa (barah) flee, run away, chase, drive
away, put to flight, reach, shoot (extend),
hurry away.

Derivatives

284a tmyD (bariah) fleeing.
284b ima (beriah) bar.
284c m3 (mibrah) fugitive.

Basically barah means to go or pass through,
and to flee or hurry. It occurs mostly in narra-
tives, referring to flight from an enemy.

(In Phoenician-Punic, Donner and Rollig inter-
pret a root brh to mean “to flee’’ or “to lose,”’
while Cyrus Gordon proposes “‘to control, rule
over.’’ For Ugaritic and Hebrew, Gordon UT 19:
nos. 514-516 proposes three homophonous roots:
brh 1, “‘to flee,” brh Il ‘‘evil’’ ( = bariah in Isa
27:1; cf. Arabic barh “‘evil’’), and brh III *‘shaft,
bar’ ( = bariah in Jon 2:7). Although Gordon's
analysis is contested, as seen below, it is obvious
that more than one Semitic root may be behind
the verbal, adjectival and nominal forms dis-
cussed in this entry. B.k.w.]

Almost all sixty-six uses of the verb refer to
fleeing from an enemy, enemies, or a place. The
first exodus is described as a ‘flight’’ from Egypt
(Ex 24:5). Perhaps Isaiah's command to the
exiles ‘‘to flee’’ Babylon (48:20) was a rhetorical
device to arouse the exiles to the new miraculous
opportunity to go home and rebuild Jerusalem. In
some instances the flight is to a person or place
(e.g. | Sam 22:20).

The verb has its basic meaning of ‘‘going
through’’ in Ex 26:28; 36:33 where the middle bar
holding together the boards of the walls of the
tabernacle extend through the boards the length
of the wall.

The causative form of the verb describes driv-
ing the residents of Gath out of their city (I Chr
8:13), the people of southern Palestine out of
their valleys (1 Chr 12:16), Nehemiah’s driving
away a son-in-law of Sanballat (Neh 13:28), levi-
athan who cannot be driven away by arrows, and
a shameful son driving away his mother (Prov
19:26).

barah is used synonymously with halak **go”’
(Ps 139:7), mdlat *‘escape’’ (I Sam 19:12, 18) and
nas “flee’’ (Jud 9:21).
bariah. Possibly an adjective meaning *‘fleeing,”’
“crooked” or “‘piercing.* In Isa 43:14 as a sub-
stantive it has been variously translated: nobles,
KJV; the bars, RSV, NAB; prison bars, JB; and as
they flee, NEB. It is used to describe a serpent in
Job 26:13 as ‘‘crooked”’ ksv; ‘‘fleeing’’ RSV. JB;

131

284 mI3 (barah)

‘‘fugitive’’ NAB; and ‘“‘twisting’’ NEB. But in Isa
27, KJv translates bdriah ‘‘piercing’’ and ‘dgqalla-
ton as ‘‘crooked,’* while others translate bdriah
here as ‘‘fleeing’’ or “‘twisting.”’

[The passage in Isa 27:1 has a close parallel in
Ugaritic (67 1:1-2) where it is applied to a *‘flee-
ing: serpent /tn (see discussion under liw“yatan).
Gordon (UT 19: no. 595) holds that there is a
barah II meaning *‘be evil,’* because of an Arabic
root, but others question this, pointing out that
the context of the Ugaritic reference is also un-
clear (L. Fisher, Ras Shamra Parallels, 1, p. 36).
The biblical authors use the name Rahab as a
symbol for Egypt (Job 26:12 Rsv; Ps 87:4; Isa
30:7, Niv), Leviathan may sometimes be so used.
It seems to be the same as /tn with different vow-
els. It was some kind of serpent and obviously
evil. Either adjective ‘‘fleeing’’ or ‘evil’? would
be applicable, but the meaning ‘“‘fleeing™’ in Job
26:13 and Isa 27:1 seems satisfactory.

In Job 26:13 Gameroni (TDOT, II, p. 252)
thinks it means a constellation presumably be-
cause of the parallel and a root brh in Akkadian
meaning ‘‘to shine, to be radiant’’ and sometimes
used with the determinative for star (CAD, II.
101). His suggestion, however is difficult to fit
into the immediate clause. B.kK.wW. ]

bfriah. Bar, something thrust through. Refers
to the bars which hold together the upright
boards forming the walls of the tabernacle (Ex
26:26,27,28,29: 35:11; 36:31,32,33,34; 39:33;
40:18; Num 3:36; 4:31), and the bars to
strengthen and lock city gates. The bars for the
boards of the tabernacle were five on each side,
set in gold rings and overlaid with gold.

The bars for the city gates were doubtless
mostly timbers, though some are mentioned as
bronze and others as iron. They invariably refer
to cities as strongly defended or enclosed or lack-
ing such defense if they are absent. When
Jerusalem is destroyed her bars are broken (Lam
2:9) and when restored her gates are rebuilt with
bars (Ps 147:13; Neh 3:3, 6, 13, 14, 15).

The bars of city gates are used figuratively for
the stability of the earth (Job 38:10; Jon 2:7) or
stubbornness (Prov 18:19). In Isa 15:5 some
grammartans and commentators translate b° riah
either as fugitives or in Isa 15:5; Amos 1:5 NEB as
nobles or great men.

mibrah. A masculine noun meaning ‘‘flight’’ or
‘‘fugitive’’ (Ezk 17:21) and so in kv, but from
contextual notions, NAB has ‘‘crack.”’

Bibliography: Rabin, C., “‘Bari#h, JTS 47:
38-41. TDOT, II, pp. 249-52.
E.S.K.
8°93 (bari’). See no. 279a.
mse (b’ri'a). See no. 278a.

93 (biryad). See no. 28la.

285

285 393 (barak)

s33 (bariah). See no. 284a.

maa (b£riah). See nos. 294a,b.

mesa (bfrit), See no. 282a.

m°53 (borit). See no. 288d.

392 (badrak) to kneel, bless, praise, salute,
curse (used euphemistically). (asv and Rsv
similar.)

Derivatives
285a T5393 (berek) knee.
285b tman3S (b’raka) _ blessing.
285c mpns (b*réka) pool, pond.

This root and its derivatives occur 415 times.
The majority are in the Piel stem (214) which is
translated ‘‘to bless.’’ The Qal passive participle
‘‘blessed’’ occurs sixty-one times. The meaning
‘‘to kneel’’ appears only three times, twice in the
Qal (II Chr 6:13; Ps 95:6) and once in Hiphil (Gen
24:11). On this basis some argue that badrak *‘to
kneel’* is a denominative verb from berek
‘*knee”’ and is unrelated to bdarak ‘to bless.”
However, there may have been a felt association
between kneeling and the receiving of a blessing
(cf. I] Chr 6:13, also Arabic baraka, which shows
the same range of meaning). To bless in the oT
means ‘‘to endue with power for success, pros-
perity, fecundity, longevity, etc.’’ It is frequently
contrasted with qgalal ‘‘to esteem lightly, curse”
(cf. Deut 30: 1, 19).

berek. Knee. Used in relation to submission
and obedience (Isa 45:23), fear and weakness
(Nah 2:10 [H 11]), prayer (I Kgs 8:54), motherly
care (the lap) (II Kgs 4:20), etc.

The great formula of blessing, the Aaronic
benediction still used on some occasions in
churches today, was primarily a prayer for the
Lord’s presence, grace, and keeping power. It
was summed up in the expression ‘‘they shall put
my name upon the children of Israel,’’ i.e. God
himself would be their God (Num 6:23-27).

In general, the blessing is transmitted from the
greater to the lesser. This might involve father to
son (Gen 49), brothers to sister (Gen 24:60), king
to subjects (I Kgs 8:14). The blessing might be
conveyed at departures on special occasions (II
Chr 6:3) or upon introduction (Gen 47:7, 10). Its
major function seems to have been to confer
abundant and effective life upon something (Gen
2:3; I Sam 9:13; Isa 66:3) or someone (Gen
27:27f.; Gen 49). (In this respect, notice that
Michal, despising her husband's blessing, was
afflicted with barrenness, II Sam 6:20-23). It
could, however, become merely a form. This was
especially true of the greeting (I Sam 13:10;
25:14; Ps 118:26).

The verbal blessing, as just discussed, was
normally futuristic. However, it could be descrip-
tive, an acknowledgement that the person ad-

132

dressed was evidently possessed of this power
for abundant and effective living (Gen 14:19; I
Sam 26:25, etc.). This address becomes a for-
malized means of expressing thanks and praise to
this person because he has given out of the abun-
dance of his life. Very commonly, the Lord is
addressed in this way. It is significant that hesed
‘*kindness’’ and ’émet ‘‘faithfulness’’ are very
frequently those attnbutes for which God is
praised (e.g. Ps 31:21 [H 22]; 106:48). It is clear
that for the oT the abundant life rests directly
upon the loving and faithful nature of God.

Whatever may have been the ancient near
eastern conception of the source of blessing, the
oT sees God as the only source. As such he con-
trols blessing and cursing (Num 22f.). His pres-
ence confers blessing (IJ Sam 6:11—20), and it is
only in his name that others can confer blessing
(Deut 10:8, etc.). Indeed, God’s name, the man-
ifestation of his personal, redemptive,
covenant-keeping nature, is at the heart of all
blessing.

As a result, those who are wrongly related to
God can neither bless (Mal 2:2) nor be blessed
(Deut 28) and no efficacious word can alter this.
Those who are blessed manifest God’s hesed and
"Eémet (Deut 15:14; I] Sam 23:21; I Kgs 10:9; etc.).
To rely upon the existence of the covenant be-
tween oneself and God without manifesting his
nature is to bless oneself and to court disaster
(Deut 29: 18f.).

The transposition of blessing and cursing with
life and death in Deut 30:19 and elsewhere
reaches the heart of the oT concept of blessing.
From Adam mankind has been under the curse of
death, in all his works, in all his relationships.
The power to beget life was understood by even
the pagan to be a supernatural blessing (cf. Ug.
128:111:17; If Aq 1:35; etc.). God demonstrates
from Gen 12 onward that he alone has power to
bestow this blessing. In the patriarchal narra-
tives, blessing is linked very specifically to re-
productive powers. The lesson ts clear. God
gives life. Neither god, nor man, nor rite can do
so. Nor does God have to be cajoled to give his
blessing. He wishes to give it to all who will trust
him (Gen 12:3). From this base the understanding
of God as the lifegiver is expanded to its ultimate
expression in Jn 3:16f.; 10:10; etc.

b'raka. Blessing. Either the verbal endue-
ment with good things or a collective expression
for the good things themselves (Ezk 34:26; Mal
3:10, etc.). Sixty-seven occurrences.
Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., Theology of the
Old Testament, Il, tr. J. A. Baker, Westminster,
1967, pp. 349-51, etc. Guillet, J., *“Le language
spontané de la bénédiction dans I’Ancien Testa-
ment,’ Recherches de science religieuse 517:
163—204. Hempel, J., ‘Die _ tsraelitische

Anschauungen von Segen und Fluch im Lichte al-
torientalischer Parallelen,’’ Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft,
79:20-110. Mowinckel, S. Psalmenstu-
dien, V, Amsterdam: Schippers, 1961.
, Ihe Psalms in Israel's Worship, I,
tr. D. R. Ap-Thomas, Oxford: Blackwell,
1962, pp. 44-51. Murtonen, A., ‘‘The Use and
Meaning of the Words I*barek and b‘rakah in the
Old Testament,’” VT 9: 158-177. Pedersen, J.,
Israel, its Life and Culture, I-IJ, London: Ox-
ford, 1926. Richardson, TWB, p. 33 Schar-
bert, J., ‘° ‘“Fluchen’ und ‘Segnen’ im Alten
Testament,’’ Biblica 39: 1-26. *‘Die Geschichte
der baruk Formel,’’ Biblisches Zeitschrift 17: 1-
28. Towner, W. S., ‘‘ ‘Blessed be Yahweh’ and
‘Blessed Art Thou, Yahweh’-The Modulation of
a Biblical Formula,’’ CBQ 30: 386-99. Wester-
mann, C., Das Segnen in der Bibel und im Han-
deln der Kirche, Miinich: Kaiser, 1968. TDNT,
II, pp. 755-61.TDOT, II, pp. 279-307. THAT, I,
pp. 353-75.

J.N.O.

286 ans (brm). Assumed root of the following.

286a Bv"93 (b*’romim) variegated cloth
(Ezk 27:24).

287 953 (badraq) cast forth (lightning).

Derivatives

287a tesa (bardq) I, lightning.
287b 46tp33 (bardq) I, Barak.
287c +tmpNS (bareqget) a gem.
287d tmp ya (bar’qat) agem.
287e Ox3P"93 (bargdnim) _ briers.

In MT bdragq occurs only once (Ps 144:6), but
BDB and others suggest that the Hebrew text
followed by Lxx had bérag also in IH Sam 22:15
and Ps 18:14 [H 15] (KB also in Ezk 21:33). ksv
seems to follow Lxx in Ps 18:14 by translating ‘*‘he
shot out lightnings.’’ rsv translates by ‘‘flash
forth.”’

The verbal form of the root brg in Akkadian,
Arabic and Ethiopic means “‘it lightens’’; the
Egyptian cognate denotes ‘‘glitter (of water).”’ Its
Ugaritic and Hebrew nominal forms mean
‘‘lightning.”’ Indeed, the Arabic verb baraga
may mean ‘“‘to emit bolts of lightning (from a
cloud).

baraq. Lightning, glittering, bright. The noun
form is used much more widely than the verb. In
the kJv it is fourteen times as ‘‘lightning,’’ and, in
a figure of speech, as ‘‘glittering’’ or ‘‘glitter’’ six
times, and once as “‘bright.”’

Regarding the noun bardqg, BDB rightly distin-
guish its literal use to denote “‘lightning”’ from its
metaphorical use to denote the ‘‘glitter’’ of a
weapon: of a sword (Ezk 21:10, 15, 28 [H 15, 20,

133

287 (293 (baraq)

33]), of a spear (Nah 3:3), of the metal tip of an
arrow (Job 20:25) and of a chariot (Nah 2:4 [H 5)).

Its fourteen occurrences to denote “lightning”
are theologically significant because in all of
these instances lightning is associated with the
Lorp. This awe-inspiring phenomenon in the
heavens reveals God's greatness and separation
from mortal man and accompanies him in his
theophanies.

To humble the intrepid fault-finder, Job, the
Lorp challenged him with the question: ‘‘Can
you send forth lightnings?’* (Job 38:35). Daniel
was left without strength when the Lorp ap-
peared to him ina vision as a man whose face had
the appearance of lightning (Dan 10:6ff.).

Lightning accompanied the Lorp when he
gave his righteous law to his people at Sinai (Ex
19:16). Elsewhere it is associated with his coming
in judgment against his wicked enemies. In
Ezekiel’s famous vision, the lightning flashing
forth from among the living creatures spoke of
the Lorp’s righteous judgment on the earth
(Ezk 1:13). Likewise Israel's poets describe the
Lorp of Hosts’ epiphanies when he judges his
enemies as being accompanied by lightning.
Probably with reference to the Lorp’s numer-
ous victories over his enemies by which he dis-
played his universal reign, the Psalmist cele-
brates the lightning that accompanied these
victories (Ps 97:4; cf. Ps 135:7). More specifically
his victory over Egypt at the Exodus (Ps 77:18
[H 19}), through David over his foes (IJ Sam
22:15 = Ps 18:14[H 15]), and of Israel over Greece
(Zech 9:14) are all heightened by being described
as having occurred with lightning.

The association of lightning with the Lorp
also serves as a polemic against Baal, the princi-
pal Canaanite nature deity. The Ugaritic texts
and artifacts portray Baal as the god of lightning,
fire and rain. Thus one text reads: **Baal flashed
his thunderbolts”’ (‘nt, 1V, 70), and another says:
‘*He flashed lightning to the earth” (Text 5/,
V, 71). In a stele he is pictured as brandishing
a club in one hand, and holding a stylized thun-
derbolt ending in a spearhead in the other (C. F.
A. Schaeffer, The Cuneiform Texts of Ras
Shamra-Ugarit (1936), plate XXXII, fig. 2). The
stele indicates that Baal had power over the fire
and lightning. It is against this background that
one must read Jeremiah’s warning: **Do not learn
the ways of the nations, and do not be dismayed
at the signs in the heavens.... But the Lorp is
the true God; he is the living God, an everlasting
King; at his wrath the earth trembles. ... The gods
that have not made the heavens and the earth,
these shall perish from the earth, and from under
the heavens.... When the Lorp utters his voice
there is a tumult of waters in the heavens... ; he
makes lightnings for the rain, and bringeth forth
the wind out of his treasuries’’ (Jer 10:2-13; cf.

288 "53 (barar)

51:16). Indeed Baal has perished from the earth,
but the LORD, the Creator-Redeemer continues
to be worshiped as King:

barag. Barak. The name of the son of Abinoam,
a military commander from Kedesh in Naphtali
who was summoned by the prophetess Deborah
to form an army of northern Israelites to wage war
against the Canaanites.

The man Barak mentioned ten times in Jud 4
and three times in chapter 5 called out ten
thousand men from the northern tribes of Zebu-
lun and Naphtali and with this army routed and
destroyed the Canaanite armies of Jabin under
the command of Sisera. Though Barak has suf-
fered in comparison with Deborah and Jael, two
notable women of that time, his prowess and
victory is extolled in the Song of Deborah and
Barak, and in the New Testament book of He-
brews where he is listed in the roster of men of
faith, doubtless as one who ‘‘conquered king-
doms’’ (Heb 11:32).

bareget. A gem, carbuncle? This noun occurs
twice (Ex 28:17; 39:10) to designate the third gem
in the first row of precious stones in the
breastplate of the high priest.

bar°qat. A gem, carbuncle. Doubtless the
same noun as the one above with alternate vocal-
ization. It is a gem in the covering of the prince
of Tyre (Ezk 28:13). KJV translates these words
as carbuncle but most moderns consider them to
be emerald.

B.K.W.

D293 (barqanim). See no. 287e.

288 “53 (bdrar) purge, purify, choose, cleanse
or make bright, test or prove.

Derivatives

288a 33 (bar) II, pure, clean.

288b 33 (bar) IH, grain.

288c 33 (bor) I, lye, potash, alkali used
in refining metals.

288d +33 (bor) HI, cleanness, pureness.

288e mesa (borit) lye, alkali, potash,
soap, used in washing.

288f 13 (bar) field.

288g O9353 (barburim) birds fattened for

table of Solomon.

Whereas BDB relate our verb to the Arabic
barra ‘to be reverent, dutiful, devoted; to be
kind, charitable, benevolent, virtuous, good,”’
GB think that this Arabic word in turn goes back
to the Arabic barira, ‘‘to be free, clear (with
‘from’ esp. of guilt or blame).’’ The Akkadian
verb bardru means ‘‘to glitter’’ and its adjective
barru means ‘‘pure’’ (of metal). The Ugaritic
cognate means “‘to be pure, clean’’ and is related

134

by Gordon to two other roots, brr I and brr II,
meaning ‘metal’ and ‘*be free’’ respectively but
he suggests that all the meanings may be derived
from the one root (UT 19: no. 526). In Old South
Arabic brr (causative) means ‘“‘to purify.”’ The
Medieval Hebrew and Aramaic cognates mean-
ing ‘‘to separate, select’’ are probably a second-
ary development, a meaning attested both in the
oT and at Qumran. There is another Arabic root
bwr “‘be uncultivated, possibly the root of the
noun bar “‘field.”’ Although the situation is
obscure, we may present the derivatives under
one root as does BDB.

‘*Purge’’ or ‘‘purify’’ is found in Ezk 20:38
where the Lord God says he will purge the rebel-
lious transgressors out of scattered Israel. In Dan
11:35; 12:10 it is said that many people in the
future will purify themselves. Zephaniah speaks
of a pure language (3:9). But in Job 33:3, while
KJV translates Elihu as saying that his lips know
that they speak clearly, rsv and later translators
render barar as ‘‘sincerely.”’ In David's Song of
Deliverance barar occurs twice, with a fine word
play juxtaposing the Niphal and Hithpael *‘with
the pure thou wilt show thyself pure’’ (‘im nabar
titbarar) (Il Sam 22:27; Ps 18:26 [H 27]), and in
his statement that the Lord had rewarded him
according to the cleanness of his hands and re-
compensed him according to his cleanness in
God's eyes (II Sam 22:21, 25; Ps 18:20 [H 21], 24
[H 25]).

The chronicler and Nehemiah use participial
forms to indicate ‘“‘choice’’ or “‘chosen”’ men or
sheep (I Chr 7:40; 9:22; 16:41).

Isaiah uses barar to depict the servant as the
‘‘polished’’ shaft of an arrow (49:2), a figure that
Jeremiah also uses in 51:11. Here GB and Holla-
day CHL cite these passages under brr II ‘“‘to
sharpen’ possibly related to the Arabic bary
sharpen (a pen, etc.). The ministry of the servant
would then be likened to a sharp arrow-equally
fitting. Isaiah 52:11 declares that those who bear
the vessels of the Lord should be ‘‘clean.’’ An
enigmatic command not to cleanse is found in
Jer 4:11.

While kJv translates barar as ‘‘manifest’’ in
Eccl 3:18, asv and modern versions speak of God
proving or testing men so that they can see that
they are like beasts.

bar. (Nounoradjective) kernel, grain of wheat;
or clean, pure. The noun bar is fourteen times
in various places a “‘kernel’’ or a ‘‘grain of wheat.”’
In Ps 65:13 {H 14]; 72:16 it refers to grain stand-
ing in the field.
The psalmists use the adjective to describe
those with a single mind toward God as “‘the pure
in heart’? (Ps 24:4; 73:1), and to praise the
Lorp’s commands as pure (Ps 19:8). Zophar re-
proves Job for his claim that his ethical behavior

is pure (free from moral fault) (Job 11:4—here it
is parallel to zkk ‘‘to be bnght, pure, clean’’).
Whereas in all these three passages the adjective
denotes a quality of moral purity, the disputed
bar in Prov 14:4 is translated by the Nniv as
‘“empty’ with reference to a manger.
Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 308-12.
E.S.K.

289 ws3 (brsh). Assumed root of the following.

289a twins (b*rosh) fir, cypress, juniper,
pine. b*rét is an Aramaic form of
the same.

An evergreen anciently common in Palestine
and Lebanon. kJv consistently translated ‘‘fir.”’
Modern translators give fir, juniper, cypress and
pine, but are not consistent. The word is attested
also in Akkadian. The Aleppo Pine because of
usefulness and size best fits the biblical data,
though KB prefers Phoenician Juniper.

Hiram the Tyrian king sent b*résh and cedar
to Solomon for temple construction. It was used
for flooring the temple (I Kgs 6:15) and for the
double doors of the entrance (6:34). The main
temple was ceiled with b°résh overlaid with gold
(II Chr 3:5).

The pines of Hermon were used for ships at
Tyre (Ezk 27:5) and for making musical instru-
ments (II Sam 6:5).

These trees are mentioned as the house of the
stork in Ps 104:17. Isaiah says that Sennacherib
destroyed the choice pine trees of Lebanon (II
Kgs 19:23; Isa 37:24), that the pine trees will re-
joice over Babylon’s fall, and in a time of restitu-
tion the pine trees, among others, will be set in
the desert (41:19) and will come up instead of the
thorn (55:13).

When Israel returns to the LORD, Ephraim
will say, “‘I am like a luxuriant pine tree’’ (Hos
14:8), but in Zechariah there is howling because
‘‘the pine is fallen’’ (11:2).

In Nah 2:4 b°résh evidently refers to a spear
shaft, though recent translators, following Lxx,
read parashim ‘‘horsemen.”’

E.S.K.

290 pws (bsm). Assumed root of the following.

290a TBWS (bdsem), BYS (besem), BYD
(badsam) spice, sweet, sweet smell,
sweet odor. Its cognates in Aramaic
and Akkadian mean ‘‘be sweet,”
‘be pleasant’’ respectively. KB de-
rive Greek balsamon from the Arabic
root bshm.

bodsem usually means “‘spice’’ but when used
with a particular spice is ‘“sweet’’ (KJv). In Ex
30:23,25 where the ingredients of the holy anoint-
ing oil are given, KJv has sweet cinnamon, and

135

291 "Wa (basar)

sweet calamus (rSv ‘‘sweet-smelling’’ cinnamon
and *‘aromatic’’ cane; NEB ‘‘fragrant’’ cinnamon
and ‘‘scented’’ cane). GB identifies the ginn¢-
mon besem and the qg‘ néh besSem as fragrant pure
cinnamon and calamus odoratus of the Greeks
and Romans respectively.

Isaiah prophesies (3:24, Kjv) that Zion will
have instead of a ‘sweet smell,”’ a stink (Rsv,
NEB, NAB “‘perfume’’). Where KJv says that the
girls of King Ahasuerus are purified six months
with sweet odors (Est 2:12), NAB, NEB have *‘per-
fumes’’; RSV, JB “‘spices.”’

Moses’ request for materials for the taberna-
cle, its furnishings and its service included spices
(especially for the anointing oil, Ex 25:6).

Spices were a significant part of the luxury and
riches of the time. The Queen of Sheba gave Sol-
omon an abundance of spices as a royal gift (I
Kgs 10:2,10; II Chr 9:1,9,24), and Solomon re-
ceived spices annually as tribute (I Kgs 10:25).
Hezekiah showed his riches including spices to
the envoys from Babylon as a token of his wealth
(II Kgs 20:13), and spices are part of the mer-
chandise coming to Tyre (Ezk 27:22). Levites re-
turning from Babylon are made overseers of
stores of spices.

Asa was laid in death on a bed of spices (II Chr
16:14).

Spices are often mentioned as alluring in the
Song of Solomon (Song 4: 10-16; 5:13; 6:2; 8:14).
BDB, G-B, KB and Holladay HCHL all identify
basam in Song 5:1 with the balsam shrub Bal-
samodendrium Opolbasamun. Some of these lex-
icons also think balsam is in view in 5:13; 6:2; and
8:14 (cf. Immanuel Low, Die Flora der Juden,
I,p. 299ff.).

E.S.K.

291 "W3 (bdsar) publish, bear (good) tidings,

preach, show forth. (asv and Rsv similar.)

Derivatives

29la t3W3 (basar) flesh.
291b IWS (b*Sséra) tidings.

This root and its derivative occur thirty times
in the oT. Sixteen of these are in Samuel-Kings
and seven are in Isaiah. The root is a common
one in Semitic, being found in Akkadian, Arabic,
Ugaritic, Ethiopic, etc. The root meaning is ‘‘to
bring news, especially pertaining to military en-
counters.’’ Normally this is good news, but (con-
tra Friedrich, TDNT, II, p. 707) it need not
necessarily be so (I Sam 4:17; II Sam 18:20 where
t6b is specifically appended). The Akkadian
bears this out, for the word is largely neutral
there.

In the historical literature, the occurrences of
basar cluster around two events: the death of
Saul (I Sam 31:9; II Sam 1:20; 4:10), and the de-

292 °Wa (bashal)

feat and death of Absalom (JI Sam _ 18:19f.)
Although David received them differently, both
were felt by the messenger to be good news.

This concept of the messenger fresh from the
field of battle is at the heart of the more theologi-
cally pregnant usages in Isaiah and the Psalms.
Here it is the Lord who is victorious over his
enemies. By virtue of this success, he now comes
to deliver the captives (Ps 68:11 [H 12]; Isa 61:1).
The watchman waits eagerly for the messenger
(Isa 52:7; cf. If Sam 18:25f.) who will bring this
good news. At first, only Zion knows the truth
(Isa 40:9; 41:27), but eventually all nations will
tell the story (Isa 60:6). The reality of this con-
cept is only finally met in Christ (Lk 4:16-21; I
Cor 15:54-56; Col 1:5, 6; 2:13—15).

basar. Flesh (rarely skin, kin, body). (asv and
RSV Similar.) This word occurs 273 times in the
oT. One hundred fifty-three of these are found in
the Pentateuch. It seems to be a West Semitic
root, no clear cognate existing in Akkadian (con-
tra BDB and TDNT, cf. Chicago Assyrian Dic-
tionary B 270a). In Arabic basara means ‘‘skin”’
and there is a corresponding verb meaning ‘‘to
peel off,”’ etc. The Ugaritic cognate (bSr) occurs
only four times, but it shows a range of meaning
quite similar to that of the Hebrew. In Hebrew
the word refers basically to animal musculature,
but by extension it can mean the human body,
blood relations, mankind, living things, life itself
and created life as opposed to divine life.

basdar occurs with its basic meaning very fre-
quently, especially in the Pentateuch, in litera-
ture concerning sacrificial practices (e.g. Lev
7:17), but also in the prescriptions for dealing
with skin diseases (Lev 13, etc.) The common
paralleling with ‘esem ‘“‘bone’’ to convey the idea
of *‘body’’ denotes the central meaning of the
word clearly (cf. Job 2:5, etc.).

But basar can be extended to mean ‘‘body”’
even without any reference to bones (Num 8:7; II
Kgs 4:34; Eccl 2:3, etc.). As such it refers simply
to the external form of a person. This is seen as
one of the components of the human being, the
others being especially /éb ‘‘heart’’ and nepesh
**soul’’ (Ps 16:9; etc.). However, it would be in-
appropriate to think that the Hebrews conceived
of a living soul inhabiting an otherwise dead
body. Rather they saw the human reality as per-
meating all the components with the totality
being the person.

Thus *‘soul’’ and ‘“‘body”’ are directly paral-
leled in several places, notably in the Psalms (cf.
84:2 [H 3], ‘‘My soul longs, yea faints for the
courts of the Lord, my heart and my flesh cry out
for the living God’’). In this way, to refer to
someone as being of one’s own ‘‘flesh and bone”’
(Gen 2:23) was to say more than that they shared
the same bodily heritage. Again, to say that a

136

man and woman become one flesh in the sexual
embrace (Gen 2:24) is to say more than that they
are united bodily.

If *“‘body’’ can refer to man, it can also refer to
mankind (Isa 66:16, 24, etc.) and even further to
all living things (Gen 6:19, etc.). It is in this sense
that ‘‘flesh”’ is seen in contrast to the spirit (ruah)
of God (Gen 6:3; Ps 56:4 [H 5]; Isa 31:3; 40:6; Jer
17:5). Flesh is transitory, weak, mortal. How
then shall those who are fleshly exalt themselves
against God? This does not mean that the oT uses
‘‘flesh’’ as the symbol of man’s rebellion, how-
ever. The problem is not with man’s flesh, it 1s
with his ‘‘heart’’ (Ezk 11:19; 44:7), a will to rebel
which forgets that it is only flesh (Eccl 5:5). To be
sure, the basis for Paul’s nT usage of ‘‘flesh’’ is
present in the oT in the sense that the spiritual
God is contrasted with fleshly man. However,
the idea that the principle of sin is somehow resi-
dent in the flesh is an intertestamental idea.

Bibliography: Brueggemann, Walter, *‘Of the
Same Flesh and Bone (Gen 2, 23a),’’ CBQ 32:
532-42. Burton, E. G., Spirit, Soul and Flesh,
University of Chicago, 1918. Johnson, A., The
Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of An-
cient Israel, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1949,
pp. 39-41. Lys, D., La Chair dans I’ Ancien Tes-
tament, Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1967.
Murphy, R. E., ‘‘Bsr in Qumran Literature and
Sarks in the Epistle to the Romans,’’ Sacra
Pagina 2: 60-67. North, Robert, **Flesh, Cover-
ing and Response, Ex xxi 10,’ VT 5: 204-206.
Pedersen, J., Israel: Its Life and Culture, I-II,
London, Oxford, 1926, pp. 170-81. Richardson,
TWB, p. 83. Sander, O., *‘Lieb-Seele-Dualismus
im AT?’ ZAW 77: 29-32. Scharbert, J., Fleisch,
Geist und Seele im Pentateuch, Stuttgart Biblical
Series: 19, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk,
1967. TDOT, II, pp. 313-31. THAT, I, pp. 376-
78.

J.N.O.

292 °WD (bashal) seethe, bake, boil, roast, and

grow ripe. «JV translates bashal, when it
means boil, as seethe, sod, sodden or boil.
A cognate verb in Akkadian, Ethiopic and
Arabic (IV stem) means ‘‘cooked’’ and in
Syriac and Akkadian means ‘‘ripe.”’

Derivatives

292a tows (bashél) cooked, boiled.
292b iowa = (mbashsh*lét) cooking
places.

In the more than a dozen places where bashal
is used to describe the preparation of cakes or
animals in the sacrificial system, it can describe
any kind of cooking procedure: **baking’’ (Num
11:8), ‘‘roasting’’ (Deut 16:7; II Chr 35:13) or
‘‘boiling’’ (Lev 8:31; Ezk 46:20, 24). This does

not mean that the word is used indiscriminately.
The passover must be roasted (bashal) with fire
(II Chr 35:13), but the holy offerings should be
boiled (bashal) in pots. Even clearer distinction
is made in Ex 12:9 where boiling in water (bd-
shal) is contrasted with roasting with fire (sala),
which is required for the passover.

The sons of Eli broke the law by demanding
raw flesh as their part of certain sacrifices rather
than accepting the boiled meat (I Sam 2:13, 15).
Some women arranged to boil and eat their chil-
dren during the Syrian siege of Samaria (II Kgs
6:29) and in the final siege of Jerusalem the same
kind of gruesome event took place (Lam 4:10).

Where bashal relates to a ripe stage (Gen
40:10; Joel 3:13 (H 4:13]), the reference seems to
be to the harvest or grapes being ready for use,
just as cooking makes the meat ready to be eaten.

bashel. Boiled. This adjectival form, occurs
only twice in the sense of boiled (Ex 12:9; Num
6:19).

E.S.K.

293 IW3 (bshn) Assumed root of the following.
293a TI¥2 (bashan) smooth, fertile, Bashan.
Sixty occurrences.

The fertile country bounded by the Jabbok
River on the south, the Sea of Galilee on the
west, a line from Mount Hermon eastward on the
north and the Hauran range on the east. This was
the country of Og before capture by Israel under
Moses. It became the territory for the half-trbe
of Manasseh or Machir (Josh 13:30; 21:6). Golan
was a city of refuge for that area (Josh 20:8).
Levitical cities were also there (Josh 21:6).
Though controlled by David and Solomon, it later
was subject to changing rulership under the
northern kingdom and Syma. Jeremiah
prophesies that Israel will feed again in Carmel
and Bashan (Jer 50:19).

Range animals and oak trees are subjects of
figurative expressions. In the Song of Mases
(Deut 32:14) reference is made to ‘‘rams of the
breed of Bashan’’ and in Ps 22:12 ‘‘the strong
bulls of Bashan,’’ are a figure of the vicious
enemies of the Messiah. Ezekiel prophesies that
in the overthrow of Gog and Magog the flesh and
blood of people and animals ‘‘as the fatlings of
Bashan’’ shall be devoured by birds and beasts
(Ezk 39:18).

Tyre made oars from ‘‘the oaks of Bashan’’
(Ezk 27:6). Isaiah 2:13 says the proud like the
oaks of Bashan will be ‘‘brought low”’ in the day
of the Lord.

E.S.K.

myw2 (bdshna). See no. 222b.

137

294 pDYwZ (bashas).

295 ©n3 (dtl)

Occurs only in Amos 5:11,
béshas’kem ‘your trampling.”’

mwa (bdshet). See no. 222c.

ms. (bat) I, Il. See nos. 254b, 298a.

MAS (batta), 9p (bata). See nos. 298
»C..

moins (b¢tala). See no. 29Sa.

pins (b¢rilim). See no. 295b.

295 %mS (btl). Assumed root of the following.

295a tmyina (b¢ tala)
295b toxins (b¢ralim)

b°tal4. Virgin, maid, maiden; probably from
an unused verb batal ‘‘to separate.’’ Although
Hebrew lexicons and modern translations gener-
ally translate b¢tuld as ‘‘virgin,’’ G. J. Wenham
(*Betdlah ‘A Girl of Marriageable Age,’ VT 22:
326—48) and Tsevat (TDOT II, p. 338-43) contest
this as the general meaning but prefer ‘‘a young
(marriageable) maiden.’’ But whereas Wenham
does not concede the meaning “‘virgin’’ in any
text, Tsevat allows this meaning in three out of its
fifty-one occurrences (Lev 21:13f; Deut 22:19;
Ezk 44:22). In any case, a strong case can be
presented that b°ta/d is not a technical term for
virgo intacta in the oT, a conclusion that has im-
portant bearing on the meaning of ‘a/mdé in Isa
7:14.

The Cognate Languages. A study of the word
in the cognate language sustains C. H. Gordon's
contention that b€rila in the near eastern lan-
guages by itself does not mean virgo intacta (JBR
21: 240-41).

The Egyptian word especially parallel to our
Hebrew word is hwn.t. While the word may de-
note ‘‘girl,’’ “‘virgin,’’ it can also denote a young
marriageable woman, or a young woman who has
had sexual relations. Thus the word is used in the
Pyramid Texts of the king's protectress who is
explicitly called his mother, and of Isis, of whom
it is said in a sarcophagus oracle that she is mys-
teriously pregnant. Tsevat concluded: ‘It can be
stated that hwn.t is not used to denote biological
virginity, but rather youthful vigor and potential
motherhood”’ (P. 339).

The Akkadian cognate, batultu, denotes
‘primarily an age group: only in specific con-
texts... does it assume the connotation ‘virgin’ ”’
(CAD II: 174). J. J. Finkelstein (*‘Sex Offences in
Sumerian Laws,’ JAOS 86: 355:72) and B.
Landsberger ‘‘Jungfraulichkeit: Ein Beitrag zum
Thema ‘Beilager und Eheschliessung’’’ in Sym-
bolae juridicae... M. David... edid. J. A. An-
kum..., II (Leiden, 1968, pp. 41-105) have un-
derscored in independent studies that the word is
normally best understood as *‘ young (unmarried)
girl.’’ In fact, there is no one word for *‘virgin’’ in

virgin.
virginity.

295 ®n3 (bil)

Sumerian or Akkadian; that concept is expressed
negatively by ‘‘who is not deflowered.”

In Ugaritic btlt is a frequent epithet for Anat,
Baal’s wife, who repeatedly has sexual intercourse
(cf. A. van Selms, Marriage and Family Life in
Ugaritic Literature, London, 1954, pp. 69, 109).

In a Shiite tradition, Fatima, though the
mother of Hasan and Hussein along with other
children, bears the title batal (C. Virolleaud, Le
Théadtre Persan, Paris, 1950, p. 37). And in an
Aramaic text from Nippur, Montgomery inter-
prets the phrase, brwit “‘travailing and not bear-
ing,’ to denote a hapless wife suffering from mis-
carriages and other female complaints (Aramaic
Incantation Texts from Nippur, Philadelphia,
1913, p. 131).

Tsevat concluded that the word “‘does not
mean ‘virgin’ in any language exclusively
(Aram.), mainly (Heb.), or generally (Akk. {and
Ugar.?})"” (p. 340).

OT usage. Whether b‘tala is used in a gen-
eral sense, ““young woman” or a more particular
sense ‘‘virgin’’ cannot be decided for Ex 22:16f.
(H 15f.}; Deut 22:28-29; Lev 21:2-3; etc. But in
Lev 21:13-14 and Ezk 44:22 where 6° tulad is con-
trasted with various classes of women who have
had sexual experience, it seems probable that the
concept of ‘‘virgin’’ is in view.

Wenham’s argument that qualifying clauses of
b*tula, such as “‘that has had no husband”’ (Lev
21:2-3) or “‘whom no man had known” (Gen
24:16: Jud 21:12), are pointless if the word means
‘‘virgin’’ is less than convincing, for it cannot be
decided whether these are non-restrictive or re-
strictive clauses, cf. IJ Sam 14:5 for a somewhat
similar repetition.

But Wenham does call into question the con-
clusion that our word must mean ‘‘virgin” in
Deut 22:13-21! because he offers a plausible in-
terpretation assuming the general meaning of
‘‘nubile adolescence.” In the first place, b° tulim
‘tokens of virginity’’ (vv. 14, 15, 17, 18) is
morphologically the regular form for abstract
nouns in biblical Hebrew designating age groups
(cf. n‘aurim “‘youth’ z°*qunim “‘old age’’).
Moreover, according to him, the ‘tokens of
virginity’’ called for by the elders are not the
sheets of the wedding night but garments stained
by blood during her last period, and by producing
these the girl's parents could refute the jealous
husband's complaint that his wife was with child
by another man while she was still in her father’s
house. Finally, he argued that this interpretation
admirably suits the sentence that if such tokens
could not be produced she should be. stoned to
death ‘‘because she wrought folly in Israel by
playing the harlot in her father’s house’ (Deut
22:21). Thus the *‘tokens’’ served as a test, prov-
ing that she was not pregnant when she was
married. If she was not pregnant, she was pre-

138

sumed to be a virgin. If this interpretation of b*
tulim is correct then this would further sustain
the thesis that b*ri/a is a ‘girl of marriageable
age,’’ since the onset of menstruation would
be the clearest sign that she had attained that
age.

Since Wenham has presented a strong case that
the interpretation test is not one of virginity but
chastity, one must concede that b°talim or b&
tala does not clearly speak of virginity in this
disputed text.

In eight places our word bald is contrasted to
or combined with the Hebrew word for young
man (Deut 32:25; II Chr 36:17; Ps 148:12; Isa
62:5: Jer 51:22: Lam 1:18; 2:21; Zech 9:17). In
these places the phrases signify no more than
young men and women. In Ezk 9:6 it (in plural)
refers to girls together with little children and
women who will be killed because of Israel's
wickedness.

But in Joel 1:8, where the 5° tala is called upon
to lament the death of her ba‘a/ ‘*husband,”’ it
probably does not mean ‘‘virgin’’ for elsewhere
ba‘al is the regular word for ‘‘husband”’ and its
usual translation by ‘‘bridegroom’’ in the ver-
sions is otherwise unattested. Likewise in Est
2:17 the b°ralot who spent a night with King
Ahasuerus are not virgins, unless it 1s a ‘’short-
hand’’ for ‘‘those who had been virgins.’ In a
parable Ezekiel speaks of Oholah and Oholibah
playing the harlot and their b¢ talim breasts being
handled (23:3). Here too the notion of virginity
would be inaccurate. Finally in Job 31:1 even the
NEB translated our word by “‘girl’’ because it
would not be sinful for Job to look on a virgin.
Unless it is an epithet for a Canaanite goddess it
probably designates a young married woman (cf.
vv. 8ff).

Like Greek parthenos, Latin virgo and Ger-
man Jungfrau, b‘ tilda originally meant **young
marriageable woman" but since she was nor-
mally a virgin it was not difficult for this meaning
to become attached to the word. This more tech-
nical meaning is a later development in Hebrew
and Aramaic and is clearly its meaning by the
Christian era. When the change took place is not
clear.

What is clear is that one cannot argue that if
Isaiah (7:14) in his famous oracle to Ahaz had
intended a virgin he could have used b‘ tulad as a
more precise term than ‘alma.

berala is used in a number of figurative ex-
pressions referring to cities or countries as young
women: Zion (Isa 37:22); Babylon (Isa 47:1); Is-
rael (Jer 18:13) etc. Cf. the frequent expression
‘the daughter of Zion.”’

Bibliography: Beegle, Dewey, M.., ‘Virgin or
Young Woman?’’ Asbury Seminarian 8: 20-34.
Gordon, C. H. ** *Almah in Isaiah 7:14," JBR 21:
106. Knight, G. A. F., **The Virgin and the Old

Testament,’ RTR 12: 1-13. Young, Edwin J.,
‘The Immanuel Prophecy,’ WTJ 15: 97-124; 16:
23-50. TDNT, V, pp. 831-34. TDOT, II, pp.
338-43.

B.K.W.

296 *Sn3 (bataq) cut, cut off, cut down.
curs only in the Piel, in Ezk 16:40.

Oc-

297 “MD (batar) cutintwo (Gen 15:10).

298 ANS (bit)

Derivative
297a "Nd (beter) part, piece.
298 mms (bit) Assumed root of the following.
298a mB (bat) a liquid measure, about
twenty-two liters. See ZPEB, V, p. 916.
298b AD (batta) precipice, steep (Isa
7:19).
298c sms (bata) end, destruction (Isa
5:6).

139

NI (gé’). See no. 299a.

299 M82 (ga’a) rise up, grow up, be exalted in
triumph. (Rsv and ASv are similar.)

Derivatives

299a TR (gé') proud.

299b TANA (gé'eh) proud.

299c TASA (gé'a) pride.

299d TINA (ga’dwa) majesty, pride.
299e T1832 (gd’6n) exaltation.

299f tmISA (gé'ut) majesty.

299g TSA (ga’dydn) proud.
299h Ma (géwa) pride.

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘to rise.”’
It occurs seven times in the orf. In two of these
passages (Ezk 47:5; Job 8:11) the traditional ren-
dition is preserved. The root also appears four
times in the ‘‘Song at the Sea,’ i.e. Ex 15:1;
15:21. In this case we encounter a familiar phe-
nomenon of the Hebrew language in which for
emphasis the finite form of the verb is preceded
by the infinitive absolute. Thus most of our ver-
sions translate the two verbal forms together as
‘triumphed gioriously.’’ The sense is that God
has “‘risen up (like a wave)"’ over his enemies.
The seventh usage of this root is Job 10:16. The
exact translation is problematical. Literally the
passage reads, “‘If he lifts himself up, you (God)
hunt me as a lion.”’

The basic idea of rising or growing is reflected
in the following passages: (1) Isa 9:17 refers to an
ascending ‘‘column’’ (gé’ut) of smoke, a
metaphor of the effects caused by sin on anything
it touches; (2) Ps 46:3 [H 4] refers to the **raging”’
or “‘tumult’* (ga’awd) of mountains in a scene of
cataclysmic disturbance; (3) Ps 89:9 [H 10] talks
of the ‘raging’ (gé’ut) of the sea, a territory
ruled by the Lord. Job 38:11, part of God’s
speech to Job, refers to “‘proud’’ (ga’6n) waves.
In connection with these references to frothing
waters, one may also compare the phrase the
“swelling jungle (ga'd6n) of the Jordan,’ in Jer
12:5; 49:19; 50:44; and Zech 11:3. The latter is a
description of the area of rich and thick vegeta-
tion on both sides of the southern sections of the
Jordan valley. (Cf. N. Glueck, The River Jordan,
p. 63.) The jungle may be so called because of
high growth or high water in flood. The Arabic
name is the Zor.

The word ‘‘pride’’ (or its synonyms) can be
used either positively or negatively in the Old
Testament. In the positive category one can dis-

143

cern two applications of this. First would be
those verses that speak of the land of Israel in
terms of excellency, Ps 47:4 [H S]; Ezk 24:21;
Deut 33:29; Nah 2:3; Isa 4:2. In each of these
cases the land's significance becomes such only
because of her relationship to Yahweh. This is
not an indigenous characteristic.

In the second place we could list those verses
that speak of God’s **pride/majesty/excellency”’:
Ex 15:7; Isa 2:10, 19, 21; 24:14; Mic 5:3; Job 37:4;
40:10 (ga’6n); Deut 33:26; Ps 68:35 (ga’adwa); Ps
93:1; Isa 12:5; 26:10 (gé’at). In most of these pas-
sages the particular Hebrew word is translated in
the Lxx by doxa or an equivalent and not by hub-
ris. Finally we may note the name of the spy sent
out by Moses from the tribe of Gad, Geuel (Num
13:15), **El is majestic.”

Preponderantly, however, it is in the negative
sense that the oT uses this concept. The sections
of the Bible that employ the term most frequently
in a condemnatory context are (1) the prophets,
Isa, Jer, and Ezk, and (2) Ps, Prov, and Job.
There are fifty-three examples of this in these six
books. The charge is laid often against noncove-
nant peoples such as: Moab (Isa 16:6): Egypt
(Ezk 30:6); the Philistines (Zech. 9:6); Assyria
(Zech 10:11) and so forth.

It is Israel, however, that comes under
heaviest judgment. The attitude is as old as
Sodom (Ezk 16:49 and cf. Ps 10:2). The precise
charge 1s arrogance, cynical insensitivity to the
needs of others, and presumption. It is both a
disposition and a type of conduct (both of which
are inextricably connected). Pride inevitably
leads to destruction (Prov 15:25; 16:18; Jer 13:9;
Isa 13:11, et al).

Thus we can observe that pride is not intrinsi-
cally wrong. It describes a part of God’s charac-
ter. It is to become a part of the life style of the
believer (Job 40:10; Deut 33:29). Sin enters the
picture when there is a shift of ultimate confi-
dence from God as object and source to oneself
as object and source.

ge’a. Pride. This word is found only in Prov

8:13.

ge’eh. Proud. The adjective is descriptive of
the presumptuous man.

ge’. Proud. This word is found only in Isa 16:6
and is obviously to be related to gé’eh as the
exact parallel in Jer 48:29 will indicate.

ga’dyon. Proud. Only in Ps 123:4.
Bibliography: Driver, G.R.,** “Another Little
Drink’ in Isaiah 28:1-22,°° in Words and Mean-

300 583 (2a’al)

ings, eds. P. Ackroyd and B. Lindars, Cam-
bridge: The University Press, 1968, pp. 48-50.
On the use of the root g’h in Ugaritic, 2 Aght VI,
42-45, cf. S. Loffreda, *‘Raffronto fra un testo
ugaritico (2 Aqht VI, 42-45) e Giobbe 40, 9-12,”
Bibliotheca Orientalis 8: 103-16. TDNT, VIII,
pp. 299-305. TDOT, II, pp. 344-49. THAT, I, pp.
379-82. TWNT, VIII, pp. 299-302. M. Har-El,
‘‘The Pride of the Jordan,’’ BA 41:68-69.
V.P.H.

See no. 299d.

See no. 300a.
See no. 299e.
See no. 299f.
See no. 299g.

MN (ga’dwa).
INS (8 Uiay).
N32 (ga’dn).
MIND (gé'Ut).
82 (ga'dyén).

300 83 (gda’al) I, redeem, avenge, revenge, ran-
som, do the part of a kinsman. (asv and
RSV similar, except that they translate ‘‘av-
enger of blood’’ instead of ‘‘revenger of

blood.’’)
Derivatives
300a_S3ND (g°'alay) redemption (Isa
63:4 only).

300b PNA (2° 'ullad) redemption, right of
redemption, price of redemption,
kindred.

300c «= 88a (gd!) =~‘, redeemer.

The participial form of the Qal stem of the verb
has practically become a noun in its own right
though it may properly be considered as merely a
form of the verb.

The primary meaning of this root is to do the
part of a kinsman and thus to redeem his kin from
difficulty or danger. It is used with its derivatives
118 times. One difference between this root and
the very similar root pddd ‘‘redeem,"’ is that
there is usually an emphasis in gd@’al on the re-
demption being the privilege or duty of a near
relative. The participial form of the Qal stem has
indeed been translated by some as ‘‘kinsman-
redeemer’’ or as in KJV merely ‘‘kinsman.’’ The
root is to be distinguished from g@’al II, *‘defile”’
(which see).

The root is used in four basic situations cover-
ing the things a good and true man would do for
his kinsman. First, it is used in the Pentateuchal
legislation to refer to the repurchase of a field
which was sold in time of need (Lev 25:25 ff.), or
the freeing of an Israelite slave who sold himself
in time of poverty (Lev 25:48ff.). Such purchase
and restitution was the duty of the next of kin.
Secondly, but associated with this usage was the
‘‘redemption”’ of property or non-sacrificial ani-
mals dedicated to the Lord, or the redemption of
the firstborn of unclean animals (Lev 27:11ff.).

144

The idea was that a man could give an equivalent
to the Lord in exchange, but the redemption price
was to be a bit extra to avoid dishonest ex-
changes. In these cases, the redeemer was not a
relative, but the owner of the property. Thirdly,
the root is used to refer to the next of kin who is
the ‘‘avenger of blood’’ (Rsv “‘revenger’’) for a
murdered man. The full phrase ‘‘avenger of
blood’’ is almost always used (cf. Num. 35:
12ff.). Apparently the idea is that the next of kin
must effect the payment of life for life. As a house
is repurchased or a slave redeemed by payment,
so the lost life of the relative must be paid for by
the equivalent life of the murderer. The kinsman
is the avenger of blood. This system of execution
must be distinguished from blood feuds for the
go'él was a guiltless executioner and not to be
murdered in turn.

Finally, there is the very common usage prom-
inent in the Psalms and prophets that God is Is-
rael’s Redeemer who will stand up for his people
and vindicate them. There may be a hint of the
Father's near kinship or ownership in the use of
this word. A redemption price is not usually
cited, though the idea of judgment on Israel’s op-
pressors as a ransom is included in Isa 43:1-3.
God, as it were, redeems his sons from a bondage
worse than slavery.

Perhaps the best known instance of redemption
of the poor is in the book of Ruth which is the
most extensive oT witness for the law of levirate
marriage. According to Deut 25:5—10, a widow
without issue should be taken by her husband’s
brother to perpetuate seed and thus insure the
succession of the land which was bound to the
male descendants. The near relative here is called
a yabam. The root g@’al is not used. In the situa-
tion in Ruth two things are mentioned, the field
and the levirate marriage. The near kin was will-
ing to buy the field, but not to marry Ruth.

The point is that when Naomi in her poverty
had to sell the field the next of kin was obligated
to buy it back for her. This he was willing to do
for his brother’s widow without issue. The land
would presumably revert to him anyway at last.
When he learned that he must marry Ruth and
raise children who would maintain their inher-
itance, he refused and Boaz stepped in. But the
two things, kinsman redemption and levirate
marriage, are to be distinguished. The word g6’él
‘‘redeemer,’’ does not refer to the latter institu-
tion.

In the famous verse Job 19:25 the word g6’él is
translated *‘redeemer’’ in the av and some have
taken it to refer to the coming of Christ in his
work of atonement. This would be expressed
more characteristically by the Hebrew word
pada (which see). This word in Job 19:25 is now
more accurately referred to the work of God who
as friend and kinsman through faith will ulti-

mately redeem Job from the dust of death. The
enigmatic ‘‘after my skin’’ of v. 26 could well be
read with different vowels ‘‘after I awake’’ (see
NIV footnote and Job 14:12-14 where Job’s ques-
tion about resurrection is climaxed by his hope
that God will have regard for him at last and that
Job like a tree will have a second growth—
hdlipad, v. 14, which answers to the hdlap of v. 7).
In any case Job expects with his own eyes to see
God his go’é/ at last.

Bibliography: A. R. Johnson, **The Primary
Meaning of the Root g’/,°’ Supp VT 1: 67-77. AI,
11-12, 21-23. Leggett, Donald A., The Levirate
Goel Institutions in the OT, Presbyterian & Re-
formed Press. TDOT, II, pp. 350—SS.

R.L.H.
30! 98) (ga’al) H, defile, pollute. (asv, RSV
similar.)
Derivative
30la S83 (g0'él) defiling, used only in

Neh 13:29, the ‘‘defiling of the
priesthood” by the faithless priests.

This root doubtless is to be distinguished from
ga'al\, *‘toredeem.”’ It appears that this root is a
secondary formation from the similar root gd‘al
found also in Aramaic, meaning ‘‘abhor,’’
‘‘loathe.’’ It is used twelve times.

The pollution specified by the verb is due to the
blood of murder (Isa 59:3; Lam 4:14), the blood
of vengeance (Isa 63:3), or by sin in general (Zeph
3:1; Neh 13:29). The word is used of the ceremo-
nial pollution of imperfect sacrifices (Mal 1:7,
12), of the pagan king’s diet (Dan 1:8), and of the
uncertain lineage of the priests after the exile
(Ezr 2:62; Neh 7:64). Thus the pollution specified
is from any breach of moral or ceremonial law.
The classification of Job 3:5 is uncertain. av
translates it ‘‘stain,’’ taking it as gd@’al II. asv and
RSV translate it ‘‘claim,’’ taking it as gd'al I. The
context perhaps favors the latter translation. The
dark day of his birth is, according to Job’s curse,
to be ‘‘purchased’’ by darkness and dwelt in by
the shadow of death.

R.L.H.
33 (gab). See no. 303a.
23 (géb) I. See no. 304a.
32 (géb) II, WI. See nos. 323a,b.

302 833 (gb’). Assumed root of the following.
302a = 833 «(gebe’) cistern, pool (Isa
30:14; Ezk 47:11).

305 134 (gabah)

The substantive is used thirteen times tn the
oT. Seven of these are in Ezk (1:18; 10:12; 16:24,
31, 39; 43:13). The word may be either masculine
or feminine in gender. Thus, Ezk 1:18 reads: **As
for their rings/rims (gabbéhem)...and_ their
rings/rims (gabbotam) were....° In the singular
it is always masculine. In the plural it is mas-
culine six times but feminine twice (Ezk 1:18 and
Lev 14:9).

Although the meaning given above for gab was
‘*back”’ this translation appears only in Ps 129:3.
The poet, speaking for Israel, complains of the
roughshod treatment to which she has been sub-
jected by her enemies: *‘They have plowed upon
my ‘back’.’’ Similar sentiment and phraseology
are used in Isa 51:23 but there the word for
‘*back/body”’ is gaw, a synonym for gab.

The basic meaning seems to be something like
‘‘curved’’ or ‘‘rounded.”’ Job 15:26 mentions
God's thicked-bossed shield (gabbé mdginnaw)
and the futility of Job’s attempt to run headlong
into it. In the visions of Ezekiel this word de-
scribes the rims (KJv-"‘rings’’) on the wheels of
the chariot drawn by the four living creatures:
Ezk 1:18; 10:12; and cf. I Kgs 7:33.

Three times in Ezk (16:24,31,39), Judah is con-
demned for building for herself, in the fashion of
a harlot, a ‘‘vaulted chamber’’ (KJv ‘‘eminent
place’’) and a lofty place (rama). This may be a
reference to an artificially constructed hill on
which illegal cultic acts were performed (perhaps
a word play between rdmda and bamd). Thus the
Lxx translates gab here as oikéma pornikon
‘‘brothels.”’

gab appears in Job 13:12, “Your ‘defenses’
(Kjv ‘‘strongholds’*) are ‘defenses’ of clay.’ In
the context Job is refuting the idea that there is
any substantiality to his critics’ diagnoses and so-
lutions.

Bibliography: Cohen, A., ‘Studies in Hebrew
Lexicography,”’ AJSL 40: 153-85, esp. 165-66,
connects gab in Job 13:12 with the rabbinic root
gbb, *‘to rake leaves,’ and translates Job 13:125b
as ‘‘like useless bits of clay is your array of argu-
ments.’ Guillaume, A., *‘The Arabic Back-
ground of the Book of Job,”’ in Promise and Ful-
fillment, Edinburgh: Clark, 1963, pp. 106-27,
esp. p. 112, translates Job 13:126 as ‘‘your re-
plies are dusty answers.”

V.P.H.
304 353 (gbh). Assumed root of the following.
304a 33 (géb) I, locust (Isa 33:4 only).

304b «6333 «(26b) locusts (Nah3:17, only).
304c 932 8 (gdbay), 313 (gdbday) lo-
custs (Amos 7:1; Nah 3:17).

303 333 (gbb). Assumed root of the following.

303a 33 (gab) back. 305 3a (gabah) be high, exalted.

145

306 N22 (gbh)

Derivatives

305a = 332 «(gaboah) high, exalted.

305b) 3.32 (gdbah) -height, exaltation.

30Sc = B3MS2 (gabhit) haughtiness (Isa
2:11, 17, only).

The root gabah and its derivatives are used
ninety-four times in the ot. The verb appears in
the Qal twenty-four times, meaning basically “to
be high or lofty’’ and in the Hiphil ten times,
meaning ‘to make high, to exalt.’” ga@béah ap-
pears forty-one times, the noun gdbah seventeen
times, and the noun gabhut twice. The root is
used only three times in the Pentateuch (Gen
7:19; Deut 3:5; 28:52), but by contrast in the
prophets cf. Isa, fourteen times; Jer, seven times;
Ezk, twenty-two times.

As the root is used in its basic sense it de-
scribes the height of persons, objects, places, and
natural phenomena. Thus, the verb ga@bah sig-
nifies the growing of a tree (Ezk 17:24; 31:5, 10,
14); the stem of a vine (Ezk 19:11); the heavens in
respect to the earth (Ps 103:11; Job 35:5). Saul is
described as being *‘taller’* than any of his people
(I Sam 10:23). It describes the high wall Manas-
seh built around Jerusalem (II Chr 33:14). It may
mean ‘“‘to fly high” as an eagle (Jer 49:16; Ob 4).

Similarly the adjective gabdah describes a high
mountain(s) (Gen 7:19; Isa 30:25; 40:9; 57:7; Jer
3:6; Ezk 17:22; 40:2; Ps 104:18); high hills (I Kgs
14:23; If Kgs 17:10; Jer 2:20; 17:2); the high gates
of Babylon (Jer 51:58); high battlements (Zeph
1:16); high towers (Isa 2:15); the high gallows in-
tended for Mordecai (Est 5:14; 7:9); the horns in
Daniel's vision (Dan 8:3). Similar documentation
could be made for the use of the noun gdbah.

In several places the word is used in a very
positive sense both with respect to man as a qual-
ity of life worthy of possession and as descriptive
of God himself. In the former category compare
God's word to Job, ‘‘Deck yourself with majesty
(ga'dn) and dignity (gdbah) (40:10; cf. 36:7) and
II Chr 17:6, **Jehoshaphat’s heart was lifted up
(“‘encouraged ’’) in the ways of the Lord.’’ Sec-
ondly, God's position is said to be *‘on high”’ (Ps
113:5; Job 22:12) and his ways are ‘‘higher’* than
those of mankind (Isa 55:9).

The usual nuance behind the words under dis-
cussion is pride or haughtiness. Of interest is the
negative usage of this word in connection with
some part of the human body. For example, pride
is linked with the heart in: Ezk 28:2, 5, 17; Ps
131:1; Prov 18:12; 1f Chr 26:16; 32:25 (all with the
verb); Prov 16:5; II Chr 32:26 (with adjective and
noun). Isaiah 2:11; 5:15 and Ps 101:5 connect
pride with the eyes. Proverbs 16:18 and Eccl 7:8
tie pride with man’s spirit, and Ps 10:4 with man’s
‘nose’ '/countenance. On a few occasions indi-
viduals are said to be guilty specifically of this sin
of pride: Uzziah (II Chr 26:16); Hezekiah (II Chr

146

307 333 (gabal) to border.

32: 25-26); the prince of Tyre (Ezk 28:2, 17).
Conversely, Isaiah speaks of the suffering ser-
vant who will be exalted (ram), lifted up (ndsa’)
and be very high (gd@bah) (52:13).

In the Lxx the word is translated as Aupsos or
hupsélos, but never as hubris.

Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 356-60. THAT,
I, pp. 394-97.

V.P.H.

306 m32 (ghh). Assumed root of the following.

306a 386933 «(gibéah) having a bald
forehead (Lev 13:41, only).

306b 4 «=omms3 (gabbahat) bald forehead
(Lev 13, only).

mimsa(gabhat). See no. 305c.

"932 (g°bal), 9953 (g*bala). See nos.
307a,b.

3332 (gibbér). See no. 310b.

M932 (g°burd). See no. 310c.

"33 (gdbay). See no. 304c.

m°3sa (gtbind). See no. 308b.

Ysa (g°bia'). See no. 309b.

M932 (g°bird). See no. 310d.

ws3 (gabish). See no. 31 la.

Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

307a T9932 (g“bul) border.

307b tmP333 (g"bula) border.

307c = 953 (gablut) twisting.

307d =o ndaa (migbalot) the twisted, i.e.
cords.

The verb appears only five times: Deut 19:14;
Josh 18:20; Zech 9:2, Qal; Ex 19:12,23, Hiphil
**to set bounds.”

The root gb/ is found in the place name Gebal
or Byblos, the Phoenician maritime city on the
coast of the Mediterranen, probably in the sense
of Arabic Jebel *‘mountain’’—mountains making
a natural boundary.

g°bal. Border, boundary, territory. Very fre-
quently used in the books of the Old Testament in
which a significant amount of attention and detail
is devoted to geographical divisions such as the
last half of Joshua.

This substantive appears 216 times in the oT. It
is found most frequently in Josh (66 times); Ezk
(39 times, and preponderantly in 40-48); and
Num (25 times). The noun is used to designate
either a geographical boundary or the territory as
a whole. On a few occasions it is used in a figura-
tive sense.

There are three major usages of 2“ bul.

1. g*bul indicates a boundary at one of the
four major points on the compass: **south’” Num
34:3; Josh 15:2,4; “north” Num 34:7; Josh 15:5;

“east’’ Num 34:10; Ezk 45:7; ““west’’ Num 34:6;
Josh 15:4,12.

2. A boundary formed by a body of water:
Num 22:36, the Aron; Josh 15:5, the sea.

3. A boundary of a land belonging to a nation
or to a subdivision within that nation. Here it may
take on the meaning of **border’’ as in the case of
Egypt (I Kgs 4:21 [H 5:1]); Edom (Josh 15:1);
Moab (Num 21:13); Ammon (Num 21:24).

The noun may also be translated by ‘‘terri-
tory’ as in Gen 47:21 (Egypt); Jud 11:18 (Moab);
Jud 1:36 (Amorite). We may also note the refer-
ences to the expression ‘‘in (all) the g“bal of
Israel: (Jud 19:29; I Sam 11:3,7; 27:1 inter alia)
which are always to be translated ‘‘in (all) the
territory of Israel," except for II Kgs 14:25.
Hence the phrase is synonymous with the ex-
pression ‘‘the land (eres) of Israel.”’

4. The word can designate the boundary or
farthest extension of possessions of individuals
or groups of individuals: “‘area of your land”
(Deut 19:3); **the boundary of their inheritance”
(Josh 16:5), “‘the terntory of their lot’ (Josh
18:11), “the bounds of his city of refuge’ (Num
35:26).

5. Whenever g“ bul is used with a city name it
is to be translated as ‘territory’: Ashdod: I Sam
5:6; Tiphsah: II Kgs 15:16; Gaza: iI Kgs 18:8;
inter alia.

6. Figuratively the word is used to describe
‘‘the territory of darkness" (Job 38:20); *‘the ter-
ritory of wickedness, (Mal 1:4); ‘‘the territory
of God's holiness** (Ps 78:54).

In the ancient near east there was, at least on
paper, a great respect for another's boundaries
whether these were national boundaries or indi-
vidual and private boundaries. To violate them is
to violate something God has ordained. He has
established the boundaries of all peoples (Deut
32:8). He has arranged the borders of the whole
earth (Ps 74:17; 104:9). He has placed the sands
as a boundary to the sea (Jer 5:22).

It is little wonder then that the Bible prohibits
the moving of a neighbor's ancient landmark
(2° bul) (Deut 19:14). Whoever does this is to be
‘*‘cursed*’ (Deut 27:17). The offense, of course,
was not violation of tradition, but stealing of real
estate—and unalienable real estate at that. Noth-
ing less than a biblical imprecation leveled
against the violator is strong enough. Cf. also
Hos 5:10; Job 24:2-4; Prov 22:28; 23:10. In such
crimes the perpetrators are the strong and the
wealthy and the victims the weak, the orphans
and the widow. From the various scrolls found at
the Dead Sea we have learned that those who
defected from the Qumran sect were known_as
‘removers of the landmark.”

In light of the Ugaritic root gb/ and the Arabic
cognate several instances of Hebrew g° bul may
be more accurately translated as ‘‘mountain™’: I

147

309 yx (gb‘)

Sam 13:18, **The mountain which looks over
Zeboim,”’ and Ps 75:54, **So he brought them to
His holy mount, the mountain which his right
hand had created.”

e*bula. Border, boundary, landmark. With the
exception of Isa 28:25 all usages of this word are
in the plural.

Bibliography: Dahood, M. **Hebrew-

Ugaritic Lexicography II,’ Bib 45: 383-412, esp.
p. 396. Elon, M., ‘‘hassagat gevul,”” in Encyclo-
pedia Judaica, VII, pp. 1460-66. Rabin, C., The
Zadokite Documents, Oxford, Clarendon, 1954,
pp. 4, 20, 42. Ross, J. F., ‘“*Landmark,”’ in IDB,
III, pp. 66-67. TDOT, II, pp. 361-66.

V-P.H.
308 353 bn). Assumed root of the following.
308a = 133) (gibén) humpbacked (Lev 21:20,

only).

308b = 99933 «(e°bind) curd (cheese, Job
10:10, only).

308c 33233 (gabnon) peak, rounded sum-
mit (Ps 68:16, only).

1233 (gabnon). See no. 308c.

309 ys: (ghb‘). Assumed root of the following.
309a tmysa (gib'a) hill.
309b sopss3a) (gabia‘) cup, bowl.

309c = TMivSaI (migba'dt) turban.
309d 3 psa (gib'ol) bud.

gib‘a. Hill. The noun, used sixty times in the
OT, may refer to a natural eminence smaller than
a mountain but most often, as we shall see, it
becomes a place of illicit worship. The same
spelling is also used for the place name Gibeah,
the Benjamite city and birthplace of Saul.

Of the sixty uses of gib‘a in biblical Hebrew
the heaviest clusters are to be found in the
prophets (Isa thirteen times, Jer nine times; Ezk
eight times). Particularly interesting here is the
use of the phrase *‘on every high hill (gib‘a) and
under every green tree,’ or its variants, as a ref-
erence to the location of fertility cult practices in
Israel and Judah.

This phrase occurs sixteen times in the ot.
Some of these passages are: Deut 12:2; I Kgs
14:23; I] Kgs 16:4; 17:10; Jer 2:20; 17:2; Ezk 6:13;
Hos 4:13; II Chr 28:4. Each of these verses con-
demns a pagan Canaanite practice which has
been adopted by the Hebrews.

If this unorthodox practice is to be equated
with similar practices in which the Israelites en-
gaged in connection with the “high place(s)”
(badma), then the reason for the prophetic denun-
ciation becomes clear. There is nothing inher-
ently wrong with worshiping God on “‘hills.”’ The
people's experience in the wilderness would sub-
stantiate that! But in this case it appears that the

310 933 (gabar)

Israelites adopted immoral cultic ntes, popular
among agricultural groups who pinned their faith
to the Baal(s), the god of fertility and the giver of
rain and crops, and to Asherah, the goddess of
fertility. Why such indulgences were viewed by
the prophets with abomination and horror is not
difficult to surmise.

migba‘ét. Turban, head gear, is used only four
times: Ex 28:40; 29:9; 39:28: Lev 8:13, convex in
shape perhaps, translated by the rsv as “*cap.”’ It
is worn by the ordinary priests and is to be dif-
ferentiated from the turban worn by the high
priest (misnepet).

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., “‘The High
Place in Ancient Palestine,’ Supp VT 4: 242-58.
Hamlin, E. John, *‘The Meaning of ‘Mountains
and Hills’ in Isa. 41:14-16,°° JNES 13: 185-90.
Holladay, W. L., “On Every High Hill and
Under Every Green Tree,” VT 11: 170-76.
McCown, C. C., ‘‘Hebrew High Places and Cult
Remains,'* JBL 69: 205-19.

V.P.H.

°¥33 (gib‘dl). See no. 309d.

310 533 (gabar) prevail, be mighty, have strength,
be great. (ASV and Rsv similar.)

Derivatives

310a +933 (geber) man.

310b 5533 (gibbér) mighty man.

310c «6fM9333 (g°burd) might.

310d = =om5°33 (e°bird) lady, queen
lord, Gen 27:29,37).

310e masa (g°beret) lady, queen.

(masc.

This root and its derivatives occur 328 times in
the oT, of which the verb accounts for but 26. The
cognate is well attested in the semitic languages,
appearing in Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic,
Phoenician, and Moabite. At present it is only
known in a proper noun in Ugaritic. In general
the same meaning is shared throughout. In
Arabic the basic meaning of the root is *‘to rise,
raise, restore,’ with the idea of being strong, or
prevailing over coming only in the derived stems.
That the Hebrew may share a similar range of
meaning is seen in the Hithpael where the idea is
not so much to make oneself prevail over God, as
it is to raise oneself up in arrogance and stand in
his face (Job 15:25; 36:9; Isa 42:13). The Hebrew
root 1s commonly associated with warfare and
has to do with the strength and vitality of the
successful warrior.

In the first analysis, might and mighty men
were causes for celebration in the oT. During
much of the biblical period Israel was in a heroic
age. Thus the feats and exploits of her champions

148

were causes for delight and storytelling. Such an
exploit was that of David’s three mighty men as
they broke through the Philistine lines to bring
him water from Bethlehem (I Chr 11:15-19). I
Samuel | is a lament for the fallen heroes, Saul
and Jonathan, extolling their valiant deeds. Simi-
larly II Sam 23 records the glories of various
mighty men. I and II Chronicles contain many
references to the mighty men of Israel, com-
monly employing the phrase gibbdér hayil
**mighty man of valor’ to describe them. AIl-
though Chr generally uses the term to express
**warrior’ or ‘soldier,’ there are indications
that originally this was a technical term for men
of a certain social class, ‘‘nobles’’ who had the
privilege of bearing arms for their king (cf. Ruth
2:1; I Sam 9:1; II Kgs 15:20, etc. where ‘‘war-
rior’ is too narrow a translation).

It is not surprising that in such a society God
was often depicted as a warrior. God is the true
prototype of the mighty man, and if an earthly
watrior’s deeds are recounted, how much more
should God's be. Thus the psalmists recount
God’s mighty acts (106:8; 145:4,11,12; etc.) and
in various places those attributes which a
warrior-king might be expected to possess—wis-
dom, might, counsel and understanding—are
attributed par excellence to God (Job 12:13; Prov
8:14). Isaiah (9:6; cf. 10:21) indicates that these
will be the attributes of the Coming King, whose
name is the Mighty God as well as the Prince of
Peace, but he also makes it plain that justice and
righteousness will accompany his might (cf. Ps
89: 13-14 [H 14-15}).

God's might draws the limits to man’s might,
for man’s prowess 1s to be gloried in just so long
as it does not overstep itself. When man sees his
might as all he needs for successful living, he is
deluded (Ps 33:16; 90:10; Eccl 9:11). When he, in
the arrogance of his strength, pits himself against
the Warrior-God, he will be destroyed (Ps 52; Jer
9:22; 46:5; etc.). Rather might must be tempered
with wisdom (I Sam 2:9; Prov 16:32; 21:22) and
the greatest wisdom of all is to trust God. Thus it
is said that he is a geber (a male at the height of
his powers) who trusts God (Ps 40:4 [H 5]). The
man possessed of might who yet distrusts his own

powers and instead trusts those of God is most

truly entitled to the appellation ‘‘man’’ (Job 38:3;
Jer 17:7; Mic 3:8). This is the ‘‘new man” of Paul,
for he will have discovered that although trans-
gressions have prevailed over him (Ps 65:3 [H 4),
the Lord’s mercy will prevail over them (Ps
103:11) and that the Lord is indeed ‘‘mighty to
save’’ (Ps 80:3).

geber. Man. _ As distinct from such more gen-
eral words for man as ’Gdam, ‘ish, ’endsh, etc.,
this word specifically relates to a male at the
height of his powers. As such it depicts humanity

at its most competent and capable level. Sixty-six
occurrences.

gibbor. Mighty, strong, valiant, _—mighty
man. (RSV often translates ‘‘warrior.’’) The
heroes or champions among the armed forces.
Occurs 156 times.

g’birad. Might. Refers especially to royal
power. As such it is commonly ascribed to God.
Sixty-three occurrences.

Bibliography: Fredriksson, H., Jahwe als
Krieger, Lund: Gleerup, 1945. Kosmala, Hans,
Hebraer-Essener-Christen, Brill, 1959, pp. 208-
39. , ‘The Term geber in the Old Testa-
ment and in the Scrolls,” Supp VT 17: 159-69.
Kraeling, E. G., **The Significance and Origin of
Gen 6; 1-4,” JNES 6: 193-208. Miller, Patrick
D., ‘‘The Divine Council and the Prophetic Call
to War,’’ VT 18: 100-107. __-____., “God the
Warrior,’ Interp 19: 39-46. Palache, J., Seman-
tic Notes on the Hebrew Lexicon, Leiden: Brill,
1959, p. 18. Van der Ploeg, J., **Le sens de gibbor
hail,”” RB 50: 120-25. Wright, G., The Old Tes-
tament and Theology, Harper, 1969, pp. 121-50.
TDOT, II, pp. 367-81. THAT, I, pp. 398-401.

J.N.O.

311 wa (gbsh). Assumed root of the following.
31la wsd (gdbish) crystal (Job 28:18,
only).

312 43 (gag) roof, housetop.

This word appears thirty times in the oT and it
usually signifies the highest point of an edifice,
except for Ezk 30:3; 37:26 (the ‘top’ of the altar of
incense) and Ezk 40:13 (the measuring of the
outer court’s east gate from the ‘back’ of one side
to the ‘back’ of the other).

The roof that is referred to is flat, not peaked.
This is obvious from several passages. The re-
turned exiles erected booths and observed the
feast of tabernacles o the roofs of their houses
(Neh 8:16). Saul slept on the roof when, as a
young lad, he visited Samuel (I Sam 9:25~26). It
was from this vantage point that David spied
Bathsheba bathing, and lust was spawned in his
imagination (II Sam 11:2). Uriah’s house was
built most likely around a central courtyard
which was left open to the sky. David’s palace,
the highest building of the complex, would com-
mand a view of the houses below. In the case of
Samson (Jud 16:27) the roof was large enough to
support 3,000 people. Rahab hid the spies among
the stalks of flax on her roof (Josh 2:6,8). Proba-
bly she had laid out the flax to be retted by the
dew.

Perhaps the Hebrew word means more than
the roof itself. Proverbs 21:9 and 25:24 suggest
(or affirm!) that it is better to accept solitariness

149

313 333 (gadad)

and discomfort (in Hebrew, pinnat gdg *‘acorner
of the housetop’’) than to put up with a nagging
(NIV: quarrelsome) wife. This might well mean it
is better, in such a situation, to be perched pre-
cariously on the corner of a roof (cf. the 1.xx
hupaithrou ‘in the open air’’). Or it may be a
reference to a cramped attic such as a guest might
use in an emergency (cf. I Kgs 17:19; II Kgs 4:10
though the root gdg is not used here).

The roof ts a place where idolatry is invoked:
Isa 15:3; 22:1; Jer 19:13; 32:29; 48:38. Three
times (Ps 129:6; II Kgs 19:26; Isa 37:27) in the
form of a curse, appears the formula *‘let them be
like the grass on the ‘housetops’.”’ The analogy 1s
to grass which springs up quickly on the flat roof
of homes which are covered with packed earth.
Having no depth of soil to take strong root in, the
grass withers and dies (cf. Jesus’ parable of the
sower in Mt 13:3f.).

Bibliography: On the use of the root gg in
Ugaritic, see Gordon, UT, 19: no. 556. Koehler,
L., ‘‘Hebraischen Etymologien,’’ JBL 59: 35-40,
esp. pp. 37-38 derives both Hebrew and Ugaritic
gg from Egyptian p3p3 ‘‘head, roof.”

V.P.H.

33 (gad) I, Il. See nos. 313c,d.
3a (gad). See no. 313e.

313 3 (gadad) cut, invade.

Derivatives

313a 59 (g°dud) I, marauding band.

313b ta (g*dad) H, ma (2°%dida)
furrow, cutting.

313c 693. «(gad) ZI, coriander.

313d 3 (gad) Hl, fortune.

313e a (gad) Gad.

This verb is used eleven times in the oT. Seven
of these are in the Hithpoel stem, and with two
exceptions, they all refer to an act of self-
laceration in an act of worship or to a custom of
mourning. The most familiar passage will be the
dramatic episode on Mount Carmel between
Elijah and the prophets of Baal. In an attempt to
invoke the power of Baal the prophets cried
aloud and “‘cut themselves" after their custom
with swords and lances (I Kgs 18:28). What
exactly was the praxis behind these self-inflicted
wounds is not sure. Everything has been
suggested from the idea that this act was a substi-
tute for human sacrifice to the idea that the effu-
sion of blood established a covenant bond be-
tween the deity and the worshiper. More likely,
since blood was so vital, the self-laceration was
an act of imitative magic, and as the worshipers
have relinquished a part of their essential self, so

314 M53 (gdh)

the deity will be prompted to unleash his power in
whatever fashion it is called for at the moment (in
this case, fire).

Since the Bible rejects the pagan idea that God
can be coerced, it will also forbid such practices
as are described in I Kgs 18:28. Thus, cf. Deut
14:1, *“You shall not cut yourself.’ Three times
there is a reference to this behavior in Jeremiah:
16:6; 41:5; 47:5, in the latter case with reference
to the Philistines.

Two times in the Hithpoel stem the verb has
nothing to do with the idea of cutting oneself.
These are: (1) Jer 5:7, *‘And they ‘trooped’ to the
houses of harlots,° and (2) Mic 5:1 (H 4:14},
‘‘Now gather yourself in troops, O daughter of
troops (g°dud)..’ (For the niv footnote here,
‘Strengthen your walls, O walled city,” cf. the
Aram. giidda’ ‘‘wall’’—Heb root gedda?)

This reference from Micah is the usual nuance
of gddad when it is used in the Qal: cf. Mic 6, Ps
94:21. Both times it is the invaded who speaks of
the invader in a situation of uncertainty. Finally,
we may note the use of the verb ga@dad in Gen
49:19 in connection with the ‘blessing of Jacob”’
upon Gad. The text reads: *‘As for Gad (gad), a
troop (g°diud), shall raid him (y giédenniz), but
he shall raid (yagéd) at the rear (‘agéb).’’ Obvi-
ously, this verse is full of puns as is illustrated by
the deliberate alliteration.

g‘did. A marauding band, troop. This noun
appears thirty-two times in the ot excluding Ps
65:10 (H 11] where g‘diid is to be translated as
‘‘ridge,'’ and is parallel to t‘lameyha, “its fur-
rows, and Jer 48:37, 2°dudor “‘cuttings.”’

The word usually refers to those who take part
in a military raid, but occasionally it may refer to
the raid itself: If Sam 3:22. More often than not,
the noun refers not to Israel's own troops but to
those of her enemies: I Sam 30:8,15,23; I Kgs
11:24; II Kgs 5:2; 6:23; 24:2. In certain situations
God may allow these unbelievers to inflict dam-
age on his own people for chastisement (Jer
18:22).

A gtdid could operate officially under royal
sponsorship: II Sam 3:22 (David); H Sam 4:2
(Ishbosheth); II Chr 22:1! (Ahaziah); II Chr 25:9-
10 (Amaziah); II Chr 26:11 (Uzziah). The func-
tion of such troops, perhaps mercenaries, was
not to acquire land, but rather to put pressure for
conformity on peoples already reduced to vassal-
age. In some cases these bands became primarily
looters. This is the case of the ‘‘band’’ of the
Amalekites mentioned in I Sam 30:8,15,23. There
are a few references in the Bible to ¢’did who
operate independently; thus, ‘‘troop of robbers”’
in Hos 6:9; 7:1.

Two times the book of Job refers to God's
g° did: 19:12; 25:3, analogous to Yahweh s°¢ ba’-
ot, **Lord of hosts/armies.** Job says that he him-

150

self was once like a king among his ‘‘troops’’ (Job
29:25).

gad JI. Fortune. This word appears only
twice in the ot. In Gen 30:11 it is a word play on
the name of Gad. And Leah said, ‘‘Good for-
tune!"’, or as the kJv has it, *‘a troop comes’”’
dividing the mt bdagdd into something like ba’/
gad. Speiser’s translation in the Anchor Bible is
**how propitious!’’ It seems preferable to trans-
late it as an appellative and to connect it with
such proper names as Gaddiel (Num 13:10), “EI
is my fortune’; Gaddi (Num 13:11), ‘“‘my for-
tune’’; Gadi (II Kgs 15:14-17); and the prophet
Gad (I Sam 22:5).

The only other place where this word is used is
Isa 65:11, ‘You who forsake the Lord... who
set up a table for Gad (rsv ‘*Fortune’’), and fill
cups of mixed wine for Meni (rsv, *‘Destiny’’).”’
Gad here seems to be a reference to a deity of
fortune equivalent in meaning to the Greek
Tyche. The rite described here is lectisterium,
i.e. one in which food was spread before an image
of the deity.

gad. Gad. The name of the first child born
to Jacob by Zilpah, the maidservant of Leah
and subsequently, one of the tribes to settle in the
Transjordan area. His name is to be connected
with gddad/g* dud. We have already discussed
Gen 49:19 which points to Gad’s capabilities in
the area of military exploits. Deuteronomy 33:20
compares Gad to a crouching lion, ready to tear
his victim to pieces. According to I Chr 5:18, Gad
is ‘‘expert in war.’’ Gad’s leonine appearance is
also stressed in I Chr 12:8. They were also as
beautiful and swift as a gazelle.

V.P.H.

314 ma (gdh). Assumed root of the following.

314a M33 «(gada) bank of river.
314b fa (g°di) kid.
314c = m3 (etdiya) = kids,

g°di. Kid, a young goat. The etymology of
the word is uncertain. In the husbandry of Israel
a young male kid was the most expendable of the
animals, less valuable than, say, a young lamb.
The young males were used for meat; the females
kept for breeding. Thus, a kid served admirably
as a meat dish: Gen 27:9, 16; Jud 6:19; 13:15; 15:1;
I Sam 10:3; 16:20 (and cf. Lk 15:29, although as
far as delicacy goes, not in the same class as a
‘*fatted calf’’). The kid could also serve as a pre-
sent as in the case of what Judah gave to his
daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:17,20,23). When
Isaiah gives us a glimpse of the eschatological age
he says that ‘‘the wolf will lie down with the lamb
(kebes) and the leopard shall lie down with the
kid (2° di, Isa 11:6).

Of special interest is the thrice repeated injunc-

only plural.

tion against boiling *‘a kid in its mother’s milk”
(Ex 23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21). Until recently the
reason for this prohibition was enigmatic. This
law is the basis for the Jewish Kashrut prohibi-
tion against preparing or consuming any food in
which meat or milk or-certain derivatives of the
two are mixed.

Kids could be used for sacrifice as Num
15:11ff. indicates. But they could not be boiled in
milk. The answer comes from the Canaanite
Ugaritic texts, especially the story now popularly
known as ‘The Birth of the Gods”’ or ‘*The Story
of Shahar (‘dawn’) and Shalim (‘dusk’),”’ in
Gordon UT, 19: no 52. Lines 15, 16 of this story
are:

1S: ‘1 - ‘ist - Sb‘d - gzrm -
‘nnh - bhm't

15: Over the fire seven times the sacrificers
cook a kid in milk, a lamb/mint (?) in butter.

The context indicates that a kid is cooked in
milk at certain pagan sacrifices, possibly of first
fruits, as part of a sacrificial meal to ensure good
crops for the ensuing years. The Bible will re-
pudiate this orientation to fertility cult practices.
The blessing of fertile soil is from God, not
magic.

Bibliography: Daube, D., *“‘A Note on a
Jewish Dietary Law,’ JTS 37: 289-91. Radin,
M., ‘The Kid and Its Mother’s Milk,’’ AJSL 40:
209-18. TDOT, II, pp. 382-89. TWBAT, I, pp.
922-26.

th(h » g)d + bhib -

V.P.H.

“193 (g° dud). 1,11. See nos. 313a,b.
b1n2 (gaddl). See no. 315d.

masta (e°dila). See no. 315e.

meta (gdipda). See no. 317a.
Beats = (e°dipim). See no. 317b.

2 (g°di). See no. 314b.

maa (g°diya). See no. 314c.

wea (gdadish). See nos. 319a, 320a.

315 553 (gddal) grow up, become great or im-
portant, promote, make powerful, praise,
(magnify), do great things. (ASV and RSV simi-
lar.)

Derivatives
315a +853 (gdadél) becoming great, growing

up.
3156 t9%3 (gddel) greatness.
315c = 9A (g¢dilim) twisted threads.
31Sd tsa (gdddl) great.
315e tmbisa (g*dalla) greatness.
315f +53 (migdal) tower.
315g 99537 «(migdédl) tower.

The root is used for physical growth of people
and other living things as well as for the increase
of things tangible and intangible whether objects,

151

- 316 v53 (gada‘)

sounds, feelings or authority. It overlaps in mean-
ing with rabab and rabaé but unlike these roots it
never refers to being numerous, only to being
great in size, importance etc. It is combined with
the divine name to form personal names, the
most frequent form being Gedaliah meaning *‘the
LorD ts great’ (If Kgs 25:22~25). In I Sam 26:24
the word means to set a high value on one’s life.
In Job 2:13 it is used for expressing intense grief
while in I Kgs 10:23 it refers to the importance
(greatness) of a king. It often speaks of God's
greatness (11 Sam 7:22) and Messiah is descnbed
as one who ‘‘will be great unto the ends of the
earth’ (Mic 5:4 [H 3)).

The meaning ‘‘cause to grow’ or “‘rear’’ chil-
dren, plants etc. is limited to the Piel stem. In
both Piel and Hiphil stems, however, it bears the
meaning ‘‘to magnify’ or ‘‘consider great.’’ This
is how the psalmists frequently use the word,
calling on the worshiper to ascribe greatness to
the Lord and to his name (Ps 35:27; 40:16 [H 17];
70:4 [H 5}).

In Ezk 38:23 the verb is used reflexively to
show how God magnifies himself by means of his
acts in nature and in history, to show the nations
that he is the Lord. But in Isa 10:15 the same
form is employed to show how evil man attempts
to magnify himself against the Lord and in Dan
11:36-37 this is precisely the word used to de-
scribe what the Antichrist will do at the end of the
age as he seeks to show himself omnipotent.

gadel. Becoming great, rich (Gen 26:13), grow-

ing up (I Sam 2:26).

godel. Greatness of a king ora tree (Ezk 31:2,-
7,18), the arm of God (Ps 79:11), the mercy of
God (Num 14:19), and of God himself (Deut 3:24;
5:21 (H 24]; 9:26; 11:2; 32:3; Ps 150:2). Isaiah
uses the word for the pride (insolence) of the
human heart (Isa 9:8; 10:12).

gad6él. Great, an adjective with somewhat the
Same range of meanings as the verb (above)
meaning ‘‘many’’ in number and other intensified
concepts like ‘‘loudness,”’ in sound, being old in
years, great in importance.

g°duila. Greatness,
of God.

migdal. Tower, probably deriving from early
times when the tower was the largest (greatest)
structure In a town.

Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 390-415. THAT,
I, pp. 402-408.

especially as an attribute

E.B.S.

316 Ysa (gdda‘) hew down, cut off, cut in two,

shave off.
Derivative
316a tsa (gid‘6n) Gideon.

317 433 (gadap)

The verb gdda‘ frequently refers to the hewing
down of idols (Ezk 6:6; Deut 7:5; 12:3; II Chr
14:2; 31:1; 34:4, 7). In Deut 7:5 and II Chr 14:2;
31:1 the objects that are to be hewn down are the
Asherah poles, cult objects in honor of this
Canaanite fertility goddess. Isaiah uses the verb
to describe the cutting down of the king of Baby-
lon who makes himself a god (Isa 14:12). The
wicked treasurer Shebna is likened by Isaiah to a
securely fastened peg that will be hewn down. On
the other hand Isaiah predicts that the iron bars
of cities will be cut in two so Cyrus can conquer
them (Isa 45:2). In other places the verb simply
means to cut down trees (Isa 9:9; 10:33). Isaiah
also uses it to mean shave off the beard as a sign
of mourning (Isa 15:2).

gid‘én. Gideon, the judge (Jud 6-8). Several
other proper names are derived from this root:
Gideoni from the tribe of Benjamin (Num 1:11;
2:22; 7:60, 65) and Gidom, a place in the terntory
of Benjamin (Jud 20:45).

We may safely assume that Gideon’s name
came from the fact that he was a gibbér hayil
which is rendered ‘‘a mighty man of valor’ in
KJV. This term could also be rendered ‘‘a hero of
the army.’’ His name, Gideon, is connected with
this occupation, that is, he was a “‘hacker’’ or
‘*one who hewed down’ the enemy. He was cer-
tainly not living up to his name at first when the
angel of the LORD appeared to him in Jud 6:11,
12. But Gideon's breaking down the altar of Baal
was much in keeping with his name. But then as a
taunt to the followers of Baal his name was
changed to Jerubbaal (‘let Baal plead"). He be-
came one of the major judges or rulers of Israel
after his long-remembered victory over Midian
(Isa 10:26; Ps 83:11).

E.B.S.

TWwsa (gid‘'én) See no. 316a.

317 "53 (gddap) revile men, blaspheme God.
Derivatives
317a oTMpITa (e’ dupa) taunt.
317b so teses3a =(giddipim) reviling words.

The verb appears to derive from a root which
means to cut or to wound.

Psalm 44 tells us what the believer's attitude
should be when God allows him to become an
object of **scoffing and derision’’ (v. 13 {H 14])
from ‘‘the voice of him who reproaches and re-
vHes”’ (v. 16 [H 17]). **While all this happened to
us, the Psalmist says to the Lord, ‘*We did not
forget you, nor were we untrue to your covenant.
Our hearts did not turn aside, nor did our steps
leave your way... No, for your sake we are kil-
led all day long and considered as sheep to be
slaughtered” (vv. 17 [H 18], 18 [H 19], 22 [H 23}).

This latter verse contains the very words Paul
quoted in Rom 8:36 when he presents the ulti-
mate spirit of Christian triumph over the world,
the flesh and the devil, saying, ‘*Nay in all these
things we are more than conquerors through him
that loved us”’ (v. 37).

The root gddap also means ‘‘to blaspheme,”’
that is revile God. The classic illustration of this
is in the parallel passages in II Kgs 19:22 and Isa
37:23. There the servants of the king of Assyria
stood outside the walls of Jerusalem and
preached a whole sermon of blasphemy in the
Hebrew language against the God of Israel. The
Lorp’s oral response came through his prophet
in Isa 37:22-36 (II Kgs 19:21-34). His historical
response came through his angel that destroyed
the army of Sennacherib.

g‘dipa. Taunt. Compare Ezk 5:15 where of
Jerusalem the prophet says, ‘‘She shall be a re-
proach and a taunt...to the nations round
about....”’

giddipim. Reviling words. God warns through
the prophet Isaiah that he will allow Israel to be
abused with reviling words (Isa 43:28). But God
also comforts the nation when it becomes the ob-
ject of such abuse (Isa 51:7). He even promises to
punish those nations that do it. Through Zepha-
niah he says, ‘‘I have heard... the revilings of
Ammon... they shall become as Gomorrah”

(Zeph 2:8).
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 416-18.
E.B.S.
318 S33 (gaddar) wall up or off.
Derivatives
318a "53 (gadér) wall.
318b oo mnsta (g’dérad), Aaa (g°deret)

wall.

319 wea (gdsh) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing
319a (Ex

wes (gddish) heap, stack

22:5; Jud 15:5; Job 5:26).

320 wna (gdsh) HU. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

320a wa. (gddish) tomb (Job 21:32,
only).

321 mma (gahd) be cured, healed. Based on

Aramaic usage the root means ‘‘to be set
free from guilt, pain or disease’’ (cf. Hos
5:13).

Derivative

321a mma (géha) acure, healing. This
noun is used in Prov 17:22. **The

happy heart brings about a good

152

cure,’ or ‘‘A happy mind is good
medicine’ (Beck).

322 "m3 (gahar) bend, crouch (J Kgs 18:42;
II Kgs 4:34-35).

323 333 (gab) dig (II Kgs 25:12).

Derivatives

323a 46 333 «(géb) UH, pit, ditch, trench (e.g.
Jer 14:3; II Kgs 3:16).

323b 0 «6 533 (géb) Ul, beam, rafter (1 Kgs
6:9, only). Meaning uncertain.

333 (g6b). See no. 304b.

324 343 (g6g) Gog is the ruler of the land of
Magog and prince of Rosh, Meshech and
Tubal (Ezk 38 and 39). Gog is also the name
of a Reubenite in I Chr 5:4.

324a +3339 (magédg) Magog, the name of
the land ruled by Gog (q.v.).

Ezekiel envisions this prince as the leader of a
vast horde of armed troops that includes people
from Persia, Cush, Put, Gomer, and Beth-
togarmah. They will march against Israel at a
time when the people of God have returned to
their land and Jive in peace completely unde-
fended. But this will all be allowed by the Lord
that he might display his holiness among them.
The people of God will not have to fight, for God
himself will destroy the armies of Gog (Ezk
38:19-23). Revelation 20:7-9 places this event
after ‘‘the thousand years are over,’’ when *‘Sa-
tan will be released... and deceive all the
nations... Gog and Magog, and mobilize them
for war.”

All attempts to trace the origin of the name Gog
must be held to be tentative. Some see the name
in Gyges of Lydia who drove away the Cimme-
rians (Gomer). Others see it in a name mentioned
in Assyrian records, G4gu, the chief of a
mountain tribe north of Assyria (cf. BDB). It is
not important theologically that we be able to
trace the name linguistically or identify it histori-
cally. Most Christians intrepret these passages
eschatologically. Precise interpretations differ.
Some see the passage as highly symbolic of the
final struggle between the Church and the forces
of evil. Others taking it quite literally say the na-
tion Israel will be attacked after the millenium
when Satan is released only to be finally de-
stroyed by being cast into the lake of fire. Others
consider the references in Rev 20:7-9 to be allu-
sions, not decisive as to the time of fulfilment and
they identify the time of fulfilment as the battle of
Armageddon before the millennium.

153

326 m3 (gwh)

Magog. Magog. It is used in Ezk 32:2; 39:6
and Rev 20:8 in this eschatological sense. How-
ever, in the table of nations in Gen 10 (paralleled
by I Chr 1:5) Magog is the name of a nation that
descended from Japheth (v. 2). Here Magog has
some connection with others related to Japheth,
such as Gomer (Cimmerians?), Madai (Medes?),
Javan (Ionians), Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras,
some of whom are also mentioned in Ezk 38
and 39. They are all people who lived north of
Israel, more or less, and who are of non-semitic

origin.
Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 419-25.
E.B.S.
325 332 (gid) invade, attack (e.g. Gen 49:19;
Hab 3:16).
32 (gaw). See no. 326a.
13. (géw). See no. 326b.

326 m3 (gwh). Assumed root of the following.

326a = 1a (gaw)~=sback.

326b «633 «(géw) back, midst.

326c 8=—s M3 (gewa) back.

326d tm33 (eg wiyd) body, corpse.
326e +2 (gdy) nation, people.

g°wiya. Body, carcass, corpse, dead body. The
term refers to a body as an object, whether dead
(as in the case of the lion's body, Jud 14:8-9, and
Saul’s corpse, I Sam 31:10,12), or else as alive
(Egyptians so speak of themselves in Gen 47:18).
Living bodies of creatures (Ezk 1:11, 23) and the
angelic ‘‘man’’ (Dan 10:6) appear in visions; thus
the objectivity of a vision is supported.

goy. Gentile, heathen, nation, people. asv and
RSV differ and agree in various instances, e.g. Gen
10:5; goy appears twice. Both translate ‘‘na-
tions’’ in one instance, but rsv has **peoples”’ in
the other. It is difficult to ascertain the exact def-
inition of the term. However, if one takes the
various usages into consideration, as well as
some seemingly related terms, gaw, géw, géwa,
the back part of the body; gew, Aramaic for
midst; and g“wiyd, living body or corpse (see
below), one must conclude that the basic idea is
that of a defined body or group of people, or
some specific large segment of a given body. The
context will generally indicate the specific quality
or characteristic which is to be understood.

[The synonym ‘am is used largely for a group
of people or for people in general. However
sometimes, especially in poetic parallel with
goyim, it may refer to a nation, whether a foreign
nation or Israel. gdyim on the other hand more
usually refers to nations, especially the surround-
ing pagan nations. /“’6m is mainly used as a poe-
tic synonym of either of the above words in either
of their usages. R.L.H.]

327 134 (gaz)

The term goy is used especially to refer to spe-
cifically defined political, ethnic or territorial
groups of people without intending to ascribe a
specific religious or moral connotation. Thus, in
Gen 10:5 the writer speaks of defined groups of
people according to their territories. When God
speaks to Abraham about Egypt as a strong na-
tion the term goy is used. Elisha prayed that in-
vading Syria, this géy, might be blinded (II Kgs
6:18). In this general ethnic sense the term may
even be used of Abraham's seed. Thus God said
to Abraham, **I will make of you a great nation,”
l.e. a political, territorial, identified people (Gen
12:2; 17:20; 21:18). In Ex 33:13 Moses, referring
to Israel, a distinct body of people, says, *‘This
poy (i.e., nation) is thy people (‘am).”’ In Deut
4:6-7, Moses speaks of the Israelite nation as a
political, ethnic body (g6y) which is a wise and
understanding people (‘am), existing as, and rec-
ognized by other nations as, a specific national
identity (Ps 83:4 [H 5]). It is necessary to stress
that the Scriptures speak of Israel's existing as a
distinct nation in Moses’ time because of the
widespread misapprehension that Israel became
a nation only after entering Canaan. Israel was a
nation in Moses’ time, just as it was in Joshua's
time (Josh 3:17; 4:1; 5:6). So also in Jeremiah’s
time and thereafter, in spite of the exile (Jer
31:36).

The term (géyim) is used in a number of spe-
cific ways. When a number of specific nations are
referred to, it is this plural form that is used and
the translators have rendered it as ‘‘nations”’
(Gen 10:31; Jud 2:23; Isa 61:11) or as ‘‘people”’
(Zech 12:3, kjv). The plural form is employed
also to refer to the people dwelling in and around
Canaan; these were definite ethnic, political, ter-
ritorial groups, whom Israel as a nation was to
dispossess (Deut 4:38; Josh 23:13) or among
whom, for testing and judgment, Israel was to
live (Jud 2:21, 23). But the plural form is also
used occasionally to refer to the various national
entities that were to proceed from Abraham (Gen
17:4-6). Sarah also was to be a mother of nations
(Gen 17:16).

Once the descendants. of Abraham had become
a distinct, recognized, political, and ethnic group
of people who were in a specific covenant rela-
tionship with Yahweh, the term goy and goyim
increasingly takes the meaning of ‘‘gentiles’’ or
‘‘heathen,’’ in reference to the non-covenant,
non-believing peoples considered as national
groups. However, Israel is still repeatedly spo-
ken of as goy also, e.g. when Israel is spoken of
as taking possession of territory (Josh 3:17) or
when foreigners speak of her (Deut 4:6). Israel is
spoken of as an holy nation (géy,) because of her
covenant status, her redemption and circumci-
sion (Josh 5:8). However, the rule is that the un-
circumcised are the goyim (Jer 9:25).

154

327 «ta

The surrounding nations exhibit their heathen
character by their wickedness (Deut 9:4—5), their
abominations (Deut 18:9; II Chr 33:2), and the
making of their own gods (II Kgs 17:29). These
nations are said to rise up against God and op-
press his covenant people, yet the Lord holds
them in derision (Ps 59:8 {|H 9]) and causes them
to perish (Ps 10:16). Moses, and the prophets par-
ticularly, warned Israel that if they lived and
worshiped as the géyim, they would share in the
judgment due the heathen (Deut 32:28; Isa 1:4;
Mal 3:9).

It must not be concluded from the fact that the
surrounding nations, the gdyim, although re-
ferred to as gentiles and heathen, are to be con-
sidered per se as helplessly lost, without God and
hope. Rather, they are eventually to participate
in all the blessings God promises to give to Ab-
raham and his progeny upon condition of faith.
The covenant people of Israel are God's people,
but through them the gdéyvim are destined to be
blessed of God in future days (Gen 12:1-3). In the
meantime God will use the nations to punish his
unfaithful covenant people (Jer 4:7; Hab 1:5ff.);
on the other hand they will some day contribute
to the glory of Israel (Isa 60:10ff.; Hag 2:6ff.).
They too are invited to seek the Messiah that he
may be a light to them (Isa 11:10; 42:6). Indeed,
the gdyvim are to join in the great procession to
Mount Zion (Isa 2:2ff.) and of their children it is
said that this one and that one were born in her
(Ps 87:4 [H 5]). Thus there will be basically just
one people of God, made up of believers from
every tribe, tongue, people and nation; however,
in OT times, it was through the covenant people,
the ‘am, that the blessings of God were revealed
to and bestowed upon the gdyim.

Bibliography: Cody, Aelred, *“When Is the
Chosen People Called a Goy?’” VT 16: 1-6.
Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms of the Old Testa-
ment, Eerdmans, 1951. Moran, William L., “*"A
Kingdom of Priests’,’’ in The Bible in Catholic
Thought, Herder and Herder, 1962, pp. 7-20.
Rost, L., ‘‘Die Bezeichnungen fur Land und
Volk im Alten Testamentum,”’ in Festschrift
Otto Procksch, Leipzig, 1934. Speiser, E. A.,
***People’ and ‘Nation’ of Israel,’’ JBL 79: 157-
63. Watts, John D., *‘The People of God,’’ Exp T
67: 232-37. TDNT, II, pp. 364-69. TDOT, II, pp.
426-37.

G.V.G.

m2 (géwa). See nos. 299h, 326c.

(g4z) bring, cut off. (asv and RSv
similar.)

guz conveys the idea (in various Semitic lan-
guages, such as Arabic £4za) ‘‘to pass.’* The life
of aged people passes away (Ps 90:10). A wind

made the quail pass over (Num 11:31). In the oT
this verb refers to an acting source other than
man.

G.V.G.

9Na (gdzal). See no. 337c.
mad (gdah). See no. 345.
m™3a (e°wiyad). See no. 326d.
42 (gd6y). See no. 326e.

mia (g6ld). See no. 350a.

328 pia (gdawa') be dead, die, give up the ghost,
perish, yield up the ghost, ready to die.

It is often used in connection with mat (Gen
25:8,17; 35:29; cf. 49:33; Num 20:29; Job 3:11,
14:10; Lam 1:19). In Num 17:12f. [H 17:27f.] it is
parallel to ‘dbad.

Abraham was “‘well on in years,” i.e. facing
death, when he sent Eliezer to Padan-Aram to
find a wife for Isaac (Gen 24:1; 25:8). Isaac
‘*knew not the day of his death’’ when he at-
tempted to bless Esau (Gen 27:2). Speiser
suggests that Isaac did not necessarily consider
that his end was near, but was in effect making a
will using legal terminology paralleled in Nuzi.
However, he had death in prospect. Jacob ex-
pired after setting out certain prospects for his
sons (Gen 49:1,33).

Job was prepared to die if anyone could bring
charges against him (Job 13:19) and promised his
false friends that he was ready to maintain his
integrity until he died (Job 27:5). God’s afflic-
tions, when resisted, end in death, a fate Israel at
first feared after the Lord had vindicated Moses
and Aaron against their complaint (Num 17:12-13
(H 27:27-28]), but a fate they later longed for
when the water failed at Zin (Num 20:3). Achan
died because of his iniquity (Josh 22:20), and all
life is dependent upon God (Ps 104:29).

Bibliography: TDOT, Il, p. 438. Speiser, E.
A., “I Know Not the Day of My Death,’ Orien-
tal and Biblical Studies, Univ. of Penn., 1967, pp.
89-96.

H.G.S.

329 *H39 (gup) shut, close. This verb occurs
only once, in the Hiphil (Neb 7:3).

Derivative
329a MBSA «(gupa) body, corpse.
330 "33 (gur) I, abide, be gathered, be a

stranger, dwell (in/with), gather together, re-
main, sojourn, inhabit, surely, continuing.

Derivatives

330a 32 (gér) Sojourner.
330b mma (gerut) lodging (place).
330c §3=6tS3% «(magoér) I, sojourning place.

155

330 9533 (gar)

330d A311 (Mm gurad) storehouse,
granary.

330e = MINI = (mammgirét) storehouse,
granary.

The root means to live among people who are
not blood relatives; thus, rather than enjoying na-
tive civil rights, the gér was dependent on the
hospitality that played an important role in the
ancient near east. When the people of Israel lived
with their neighbors they were usually treated as
protected citizens; foreigners in Israel were
largely regarded as proselytes.

Often because of famine the people of Israel
lived as protected citizens outside the promised
land: Abraham in Egypt (Gen 12:10); Israel in
Egypt (47:4); Isaac with Abimelech of Gerar
(26:3). In the case of the Patriarchs, however,
they became “‘protected’’ citizens in the prom-
ised land through the call of God (Gen 17:8; 20:1;
23:4). Hebrews 11:9,13 describes them as pil-
grims and strangers, evidence that they did not
regard themselves as members of the sinful
world. Many passages illustrate this meaning.
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob only sojourned in
Canaan (Ex 6:4), although Isaac and Jacob were
born there. The land had not been given to them
because the iniquity of the Amorites was not yet
full (Gen 15:16). The Israelites are called
sojourners (gérim) in Egypt (Deut 10:17—19; Ex
22:20); being outsiders at the beginning and
virtual slaves at the end of their stay.

Jacob describes his stay with Laban as a
sojourn, for he expected to return to Canaan. Lot
dwelled in Sodom, but when he quarrelled with
the men of Sodom he was scornfully called a
sojourner, 1.e. a foreigner, one without voice in
community affairs (Gen 19:9).

Israe] in exile in Mesopotamia was said to
sojourn there (Ezr 1:4) because exiled from their
covenant home. wthe Canaanites became gérim
after the conquest (Ex 20:10; 22:20; 23:9), be-
cause their sin had voided any privileges con-
ferred upon them under the common grace of
God. Even Israel is termed a sojourner in the
sense that their tenure in the land was effective
only as long as they honored the Covenant.

In the age to come the wolf will be the pro-
tected citizen of the lamb (Isa 11:6). Evil never
enjoys that status with God (Ps 5:4 |H 5]); but the
Psalmist regards himself as such before the Lord
(Ps 39:1-13; I Chr 29:15). Indeed, even after the
Conquest Israel is still a sojourner in the land, for
the land belongs to the Lord (Lev 25:23).

ger. Alien, sojourner, stranger, referring to
someone who did not enjoy the rights usually
possessed by the resident. The clearest sense of
the noun gér is seen when used of Israel in their
sojourn in Egypt (Ex 23:9; Gen 15:13). Moses
named his son Gershom in memory of his stay in

331 933 (gar)

Midian (Ex 18:3), for he had been exiled from
both Egypt and Canaan. Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob lived as strangers in Canaan (Ex 6:4) mean-
ing that they had no property rights there.

The vér in Israel was largely regarded as a
proselyte. He was to be present for the solemn
reading of the Law (Deut 31:12) showing that he
was exposed to its demands. The law concerning
‘‘unleavened bread" applied to him as well as the
native (Ex 12:19), and a circumcised gér could
keep Passover (Ex 12:48f.; Num 9:14). He was
also included in the festival of the Great Day of
Atonement (Lev 16:29) and was expected to cel-
ebrate the Feast of Booths (Deut 16:14). With the
native he was threatened with the death penalty if
he offered a sacrifice to a foreign god (Lev 17:8f.)
and was forbidden to eat blood (17:10,12,13).
Though in contrast to the native he was allowed
to eat what had died or was torn (Deut 14:21), like
the native Israelite he underwent special cleans-
ing (Lev 17:15f.). He was also included in the
rites of cleansing with the ashes of the red heifer
(Num 19:10). The laws of sexual chastity applied
to him as well as the native (Lev 18:26) along with
the Sabbath laws (Ex 20:10; 23:12). In a word he
was to show the same fidelity to the Lord (Lev
20:2).

He also enjoyed many of the same rights as the
native and was nof to be oppressed (Ex 22:2! [H
20]; Lev 19:3; Jer 7:6; 22:3). He is mentioned in
connection with,the poor (Lev 19:10; cf. 23:22)
and with orphans and widows (Deut 14:29; 16:11,
14; 24:17; 26:13; 27:19). With them he shared the
sheaf left in the field (24:19) and the gleanings in
the olive trees and in the vineyards (24:20-21)
along with the tithe every three years (14:27;
26:12). He was to be treated righteously in judg-
ment (1:16; 24:17; 27:19) and the six asylum cities
were also cities of refuge for him (Num 35:15). In
a word the Lorp loves the gér (Deut 10:18).
Israel should not oppress him because they them-
selves were oppressed and know his soul (Ex
22:21; [H 20}; Deut 10:19). They were to love him
as themselves (Lev 19:34).

David employed them as stonecutters (I Chr
22:2) and they served in the army (II Sam 1:13).
Solomon made them stonecutters and burden-
bearers (II Chr 2:17f. (H 16f.}). In the curse for-
mulae of Deut 27 it ts predicted that the social
order would be reversed and the gér become the
head, the Israel the tail.

magor. Dwelling, pilgrimage, where they sojourn,
wherein one is a stranger. It occurs only in the
plural, m“gurim. This is used of the places
where Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob dwelled in
their pilgrimage (Gen 36:7). Job's figure of an
empty house as a judgment (Job 18:19) indicates
it has become a place of pilgrimage, a temporary
abode. Psalm 119:54 shows a similar usage. The

156

331 3a (gar) UL

point seems to be that wherever man lives, his
existence is essentially transient, and dependent
on the grace of God. But when he lives in obed-
ience to the divine will, his life is full of expec-
tancy and assurance of that eternal life to come
(cf. Heb 11:9-10,13-14, 16).

Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp. 8-28, 842-51;
VI, pp. 728-42. TDOT, II, pp. 439-49. THAT, I,
pp. 409-12. Levison, Nahum, ‘The Proselyte in
Biblical and Early Post-Biblical Times,’ SJT 10:
45-56. Marmorstein, Emile, **The Origins of Ag-
ricultural Feudalism in the Holy Land,’ PEQ 85:
118-23. Neufeld, Edward, ‘The Prohibitions
against Loans at Interest in Ancient Hebrew
Laws,” HUCA 26: 355-412. North, Robert,
‘*Biblical Jubilee and Social Reform,” Scripture
4: 323-35.

H.G.S.

(The RSV variously trans-
lates seven occurrences of this root as band
selves together, gather together, gash, stir
up wars, Stir up strife.)

Derivatives

33la 52 (gdr) whelp.
331b «633 «(guar) whelp, young.

In Arabic this root means ‘‘to act wrongfully
against.’’ [t is probably a subordinate form of
gara ‘‘to attack.”

The root means to stir up trouble or difficulties
for someone or among people.

In Isa 54:15 the infinitive absolute with the im-
perfect occurs, but is indistinguishable in form
from guar I (q.v.), so that it could be translated
either ‘“gather together’’ or ‘‘stir up strife.’’ The
‘‘crowd together’’ of KD favors the former. But
cf. NIV “‘attack.”’

The rsv translation of **band together’’ in Ps
56:6 [H 7]; 59:3 [H 4] would be more expressively
translated as ‘‘stir up strife,”’ along with “‘they
have waited for my life.*’ Cf. the Arabic expres-
sion gar ‘al ‘‘to act wrongfully against’’ with Ps
59:3 gur.

In Ps 140:2 [H 3] the rsv ‘‘stir up strife’’ agrees
well with the other half of the parallelism, *‘plan
evil things in their heart.”’

In Hos 7:14, the rsv translates yitgérarui as
‘*gash”’ as though from gdda, which is based on
reading daleth for resh.

H.G.S.

332 993 (gar) HI, be afraid, fear, stand in awe.

It is probably a by-form of ygr ‘‘to be
afraid.’’ The rsv translates in addition “*be
in great dread, tremble.”’

Derivatives

332a =t799% «(magoér) HU, fear, terror.
332b TANIA «(Mm géra) fear, terror.

This root means to be intimidated before a
stronger or superior being or thing. It is used of
fear toward men, animals and God. The Moabites
feared the Israelites when the Moabites appeared
on the horizon, because of their great numbers
(Num 22:3).

Judges are instructed not to fear ‘‘the face of
men,” 1.e. not to let the social position of any
adversary in litigation intimidate them nor sway
them in judgment (Deut 1:17).

The threats of a false prophet were not to turn
the people from God (Deut 18:22).

Although David was only a stripling, the gifts
bestowed on him impressed and then frightened
Saul (I Sam 18:15).

Job rejects the implied charge of secret sin,
avowing his innocency and claiming that he
would see God in the flesh; therefore his slander-
ers should fear judgment (Job 19:29).

Leviathan strikes fear in even the mighty men
of the earth (Job 41:25 [H 17]).

The Lord is pictured as fearing the boasters of
the heathen if they chasten Israel (Deut 32:27).
But Samaria is to fear the consequences of the
idols in Bethel (Hos 10:5).

magoér, m°gora. Fear, terror. This noun, “‘hor-
ror,’ in KB, occurs less frequently than ydré’
or pdhad. magor has the more extreme sense of
terror, in contrast to yaré’ which is more re-
strained (Ps 31:13, (H 14]: cf. Ps 111:10 and 19:9
[H 10]; Jer 20:4; cf. Prov 14:26. Deliverance from
the terror of human caprice rests in God (Ps 34:4
(H 5]; cf. v. 1 [H]; cf. also the familiar phrase in
Jeremiah, mago6r missdbib, terror on every side,
6:25, etc.).

H.G.S.

’i2 (géral). See no. 38la.
Yeia (gumas). See no. 362a.

333 wsa (gwsh). Assumed root of the following.

333a =o waa (gush) clod, lump (Job 7:5,
only).
12 (géz). See no. 336a.

337 533 (gazal)

graven and ornamental altar might become the
object of worship instead of the Lord of the altar.
A similar idea is present in I Kgs 6:7 where the
shaping of the stones of the temple was to be
done before they were brought to the site. ‘So
that there was neither hammer nor axe nor any
tool of iron heard in the house, while it was being
built."” Such stones were used in Solomon's
palace (I Kgs 7:9, 11) as in all large buildings of oT
times (Amos 5:11; Isa 9:10). The only reference
to hewn stone in Ezekiel’s visionary temple is in
40:42 where four tables of hewn stone were pre-
scribed for preparing the burnt offering.

E.B.S.

Mma (gizza). See no. 336b.

336 12 (gazaz) shear (a sheep), mow (grass),

cut off (hair or a nation).

Derivatives

336a ttl (géz) shearing.
336b «=6fMt3 «(gizza) fleece.

geéz. shearing or mowing. Amos 7:1 may refer
to either but Ps 72:6 clearly refers to mowing.

gizza. fleece. Used only of Gideon’s fleece in
Jud 6:37—-40.

Job tore his garments and cut off his hair as a
symbol of mourning when he received word of
the violent death of his children. Likewise Micah
(1:16) calls on the nation, and Jeremiah (7:29)
calls on Jerusalem to cut off the hair and be bald
in mourning over pending destruction. Nahum
uses the verb ga@zaz to describe the cutting off
(destruction) of Assyria. Isaiah uses the term to
illustrate the meekness with which the Suffering
Servant receives punishment in behalf of those
who have gone astray into sin. **Like a ewe that
is dumb before those who shear her so he does
not open his mouth” (Isa 53:7).

E.B.S.

mvta (gazit). See no. 33Sa.

337 %3 (gazal) seize, tear off, pull off, take

334 "913 (gizbar) treasurer (Ezr 1:8, only). away by force, rob.

Derivatives

337a = 412, (gazél) robbery (Lev 5:21; Ps
62:11; Isa 61:8), something plundered
(Ezk 22:29).
337b morta «(eg zéla) robbery (Ezk 18:7),
stolen goods (Ezk 33:15; Isa 3:14;
Lev 5:23).
132 (gdzal) young (of birds). Deri-
vation uncertain.

335 Ma (gaza) cut, cut off, sever.
Derivative
335a TA’3 (gdazit) a cutting, hewing

The word is used especially of hewn stones.
This kind of stone was forbidden on the original
altar prescribed in Ex 20:25. Lifting up a tool to 337¢
shape the stones of the altar was polluting it. The
reason was not that iron was a tabu metal as some
have suggested on the basis of Deut 27:5 (note
that Ex does not mention iron), but simply that a

In Jud 9:25 the picture is one of people who lie
in wait and rob those who come along the road.

157

338 ta (gzm)

This root has in its meaning the violence that goes
beyond mere stealing or taking another's belong-
ings but includes robbing by force, tearing off.
One of the most violent horrors of the ancient
world was the practice of flaying people, that is,
literally skinning them alive. It was one of the
atrocities committed by the armies of Assyria.
Although using the verb somewhat figuratively
the prophet Micah has such flaying in mind when
he uses this verb in Mic 3:2, ** You who hate good
and love evil, who tear the skin from off
them... and who flay their skin.”’

In other contexts the verb refers to deeds of
similar horror. For example, tearing a fatherless
child from the breast (Job 24:9), seizing by vio-
lence wells of water (Gen 21:25), houses (Job
20:19), and fields (Mic 2:2). As noted above, Eccl
uses the root to speak of political violence, the
tearing away of justice and righteousness in a
country (5:8). Proverbs 4:16 describes the truly
wicked people as *‘those who are robbed of their
sleep unless they do evil and cause someone to
fall.”

Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 456-60.

E.B.S.

338 ota (gzm). Assumed root of the following.
338a fOr (gazam) locust.

A name derived from the verb gdzam ‘‘to cut
off.” It occurs in but three passages: Joel 1:4;

2:25; Amos 4:9. The kJv translates it as the:

‘‘palmerworm,”’ i.e. a processional caterpillar
like a *‘palmer’’ or a pilgrim with a palm branch.
The Lxx translates the term as kampé *‘caterpil-
lar.”

The gadzam may be an immature locust in a
certain stage of development. Ordinarily locusts
do not attack olive leaves until everything else
has been consumed. Thus Amos 4:9 describes a
situation of complete devastation.

E.M.Y.

339 ta (gz'). Assumed root of the following.
339a sta (geza') stock, stem (Isa 11:1;
40:24; Job 14:8).

340 “12 (gdzar) cut down, cut off, cut in two,
divide, snatch, decree. (ASV and RSV simi-
lar.)

Derivatives

340a ita) (gezer) part.

340b tata (g°zéra) separation.

340c = MBIA (gizrad) cutting, separation.

340d = 51979 «(magzerd) cutting instrument,
ax.

The root with its derivatives occurs forty-one
times, sixteen of which are represented by the
proper noun Gezer, a Levitical city on the border

158

of Ephraim. Like its synonym karat, this root has
the basic meaning ‘‘to sever.”

The verb describes the division of an object
into parts (I Kgs 3:25; II Kgs 6:4) and even the
chewing of food (Isa 9:19). When followed by the
preposition min (from) it connotes a violent
severance from a former way of life. The cutting
off might be from the fold (Hab 3:17), worship (Il
Chr 26:21), the protective care of God (Ps 88:5
[H 6]), or life itself (Isa 53:8). The Niphal without
the preposition refers more generally to death or
destruction (Ezk 37:11; Lam 3:54). In Est 2:1 and
Job 22:28 the verb has the connotation common
in Aramaic, of making a pronouncement; cf. our
English word ‘“‘decide’’ from the Latin, ‘‘to cut
off from.”’

gezer. Part, piece, in sunder. Used only in the
plural of the halves of animals (Gen 15:17) and
the divided portions of the Red Sea (Ps 136:13).

g°zera. Separation, not inhabited. Used in Lev
16:22 of the ‘land of separation’ (asv and Rsv
‘*solitary land"’) into which a live goat was taken
and abandoned on the day of atonement.

It was so called because the area was cut off
from water (KB) or from habitation. Later Jewish
teachers interpreted ¢°zérd to mean a precipice
from which the goat was to be hurled down.

J.E.S.

ima. (gahdn). See no. 342a.

341 %ma (ghl). Assumed root of the following.

341a tnoma (gahelet) coal, burning coal,
coals of fire, hot coals. (asv and RSV
similar except once “‘hot embers’’
and once ‘‘glowing coals.’’)

Wood coals (as opposed to pehem, black
coals, charcoal) were used for cooking (Isa 44:19),
heating (Isa 47:14), and burning incense (Lev
16:12). Burning coals are figurative of lightning
(Ps 18:9), a single heir of a dying house (II Sam
14:7), strife (Prov 26:21), shame (Prov 25:22), and
divine judgment (Ps 120:4; 140:10 [H 11]).

Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 461-65.

J.E.S.

342 m3 (ghn). Assumed root of the following.

342a = im2-s (gahdn) belly, of reptiles (Gen
3:14; Lev 11:42).

343 NB (gay’) valley.

Several Hebrew words are used to designate
the various kinds of valleys which are part of the
topography of Canaan. The larger plains are
called big‘ad and ‘émeq. nahal suggests a valley
which has a gully. gay’ seems to be restricted to
elongated and flat-bottom depressions.

Perhaps the most famous valley in the oT is the

Valley of Hinnom just south of Jerusalem. Here
Moloch was worshiped with immolations of chil-
dren (11 Chr 28:3; 33:6). After Josiah abolished
this practice and desecrated the valley (II Kgs
23:10), it came to be associated with the judgment
of sinners (Jer 7:32; 19:6). Later the place was
made a garbage dump. The nT writers transliter-
ated gay’ hinndm (via Aramaic) into Greek and
applied the term géenna to the place of eternal
punishment.
gay’ is used figuratively of an obstacle which
must be overcome (Isa 40:4) and of a grave
danger which one might experience (Ps 23:4). In
oT eschatology the ‘valley of passengers’’ (RSV
‘‘travelers’’) east of the Dead Sea is designated as
the burial site for the hostile armies of Gog (Ezk
39:11, 15). A valley-like escape route is provided
for the people of God at the Second Coming of
Christ (Zech 14:4-5).
J.E.S.

344 3° (gyd). Assumed root of the following.
344a o33 (gid) sinew (e.g. Gen 32:33;
Isa 48:8).

345 m3 (giah), Mia (gaah) burst forth.

Derivative

345a trim’. «6(gihén) Gihon. A proper
noun derived from a root signifying
‘“‘to burst forth or draw forth”
(BDB), and hence has the meaning
“the Gusher” or ‘‘the Bubbler.”’

Gihon is used once of a river and five times of a
spring of water. The second-named of the four
tributaries which joined to form the river of Eden
is called Gihon (Gen 2:13). It is said in the KJv to
compass the whole land of Ethiopia (asv and Rsv
Cush). While ku&sh in the ot usually refers to
Ethiopia, the reference here is to the land of the
Kassites located east of the Tigris. The verb
sdbab rendered ‘*compass”’ (Kiv, ASV) or “flow
around’ (RSV) iS better rendered “to wind
through or meander.’’ The primeval Gihon river
must have been one of the several rivers which
descend from the eastern mountains to join the
Tigris river in the Mesopotamian plain. Most
likely the Gihon is to be identified with either the
Diyala or the Kerkha river.

By the spring Gihon, on the eastern side of
Jerusalem, Solomon was proclaimed king (I Kgs
1:33ff.). From earliest times this spring was a
prominent part of the waterworks of Jerusalem.
Hezekiah constructed a rock hewn tunnel which
carried the water of Gihon into the fortifications
of the city (II Chr 32:30). Gihon is usually iden-
tified with the Spring of Steps which gushes in-
termittently throughout the day.

Bibliography: Harris, R. L., ‘‘The Mist, the
Canopy and the Rivers of Eden,’ JETS 4: 177-

159

347 993 (gyr)

79. Simon, J., Jerusalem in the Old Testament,
Brill, 1952. Speiser, E. A., ‘‘The Rivers of
Paradise, in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 23-34. TDOT,
1, pp. 466-68.

J.E.S.

wma «(gihén). See no. 34Sa.

346 593 (gil) rejoice, be glad.

Derivatives

346a =t°2 (gil) I, rejoicing.
346b «093s (gil) Id, circle, age.
346c «(tm (gilda) rejoicing.

Root meaning is *‘to circle around”’ from which
such ideas as “‘to circle in joy” are readily de-
rived. The root meaning is more applicable to
vigorous, enthusiastic expressions of joy; but, in
the oT, it and its derivatives serve as poetic and
prophetic terms for various kinds of joy.

gil most often refers to rejoicing at God's
works or attributes. Typical examples are rejoic-
ing at God’s work in general (Ps 118:24), his res-
toration of his people (Isa 49:13), his delivering
from enemies (Ps 9:14 [H 15]) and protection
from enemies (Ps 31:7-8), God's glory and judg-
ment (Ps 97:8), and God’s rule (I Chr 16:31).
Other occasions for such rejoicing are a wise son
(Prov 23:25), a beautiful bride (Song 1:4), divid-
ing the spoils (Isa 9:3 [H 2]), and the enemy's
misfortune (Ps 13:4 [H 5]). The wicked rejoice in
evil (Prov 2:14).

“Rejoice with trembling’’ (Ps 2:11, asv) may
allude to the physical movement associated with
the term's root meaning.

gil. Joy, rejoicing, gladness (in the preposi-
tional phrase, ‘for joy,’ it may be translated
‘*preatly’’ or “‘exceedingly,’’ Prov 23:24). This
term expresses a wide range of joys ranging from
the exuberant joy of an oriental wedding proces-
sion (Ps 45:15 {H 16]) to the quieter joy of the
discouraged whose woes are ended by death (Job
3:22). Other joys expressed by this term are those
of the satisfied father (Prov 23:24), the worshiper
of God (Ps 43:4), and God-given prosperity (Ps
65:12 [H 13]). It also expresses the joy removed
by judgment (Isa 16:10; Joel 1:16).

gil. Age (from ‘‘to circle’; Ksv ‘‘sort’’). Refers
to Daniel's circle of contemporaries (Dan 1:10).

gila. Joy, rejoicing. | Feminine of gil above.
Twice refers to the joys to come when God re-
stores his people (Isa 35:2; 65:18).

J.P.L.

347 S93 (gyr). Assumed root of the following.

347a “3 (gir) chalk, lime (Isa 27:9,
only).

348 393 (glib)

%2 (gal). See no. 353a.
%3 (gél). See no. 353b.

348 353 (g/b). Assumed root of the following.
348a 869353 (gallab) barber (Ezk 5:1).

2393 (galgal). See no. 353i.
9293 (gilgal). See nos. 353),k.
nbaba (galgdlet). See no. 3531.

349 343 (gid). Assumed root of the following.
349a "93 (geled) skin (of man, Job
16:15).

350 3a (gala) uncover, remove.
Derivatives

350a tdi. (g6la) captivity.
350b tm) (galut) captivity.
350c 3=—-:11993 (villaydn) table, tablet.

Hebrew gaia in its transitive meaning “‘to un-
cover’ has its closest connections with North-
west Semitic (cf. Phoenician in the Ahiram In-
scription, ‘*...and uncovered this - sar-
cophagus,'’ and Imperial Aramaic in the Word of
Ahigar, *‘Do not reveal your secrets to your
friends’’) and with Arabic gala ‘‘to make/become
clear.”

In its intransitive meaning *‘to remove, go into
exile’ it is remotely related to the Ugaritic verb
of motion gly “‘to leave’ (Gordon) or ‘‘to arrive
at’’ (Aistleitner), as well as to the Arabic gala
‘*to emigrate.’’ It occurs as a loan word with this
meaning in late Aramaic and Akkadian.

The meaning “‘to uncover’ occurs in the Qal,
Niphal, Piel, Pual and Hithpael stems, and the
meaning ‘to depart, to go into exile’ occurs in
the Qal, Hiphil and Hophal stems.

In the light of this evidence it must remain at
this point an open question whether we are deal-
ing with one or two roots. In any case, we will
discuss the verb under these two main meanings:
‘*to uncover, ' and ‘‘to depart, to go into exile.”

‘**To uncover.”’ In the Qal the verb is used fre-
quently with the organs of sense as the object: the
ear (I Sam 9:15, passim) and the eye (Num 24:4).

The idiom ‘‘to uncover the ear’’ means simply
‘to show, to reveal”’ and occurs with either man
or God as its subject. With man as its subject it
occurs in connection with Saul to Jonathan (I
Sam 20:2), of Jonathan to David (I Sam 20:12-
13), of aides to Saul (I Sam 22:8), of priests to
Saul (I Sam 22:17); of Boaz to the nearer kinsman
(Ruth 4:4). With God as its subject: to Samuel
(I Sam 9:15); to David (II Sam 7:27 = I Chr
17:25) to ordinary humans (in the Elihu
speech—Job 33:16; 36:10). Since it is used of men
as well as of God, it must not be thought of as a
technical term for God's revelation. To Samuel

160

he reveals himself directly (cf. Isa 22:14) and to
David he sometimes mediated his revelation
through the prophet Nathan. To ordinary folk he
reveals himself in dreams or visions (Job 33:16)
and in trying experiences (Job 36:10).

Amos used gala with séd ‘‘secret”’ as its ob-
ject in this classic statement about God’s revela-
tion to his prophets: *‘Surely the Lorp God
will do nothing but he revealeth his secret unto
his servants the prophets’’ (Amos 3:7). (The verb
also has séd as its object in Prov 20:19.)

When God revealed himself to Balaam it is said
that Balaam’s eyes were ‘‘uncovered,”
‘“opened’’ (Num 24:4,6). It appears that in this
manner Balaam saw something which he oth-
erwise could not see.

In addition to these private disclosures, the Qal
of gala is used for widespread communication.
During the intrigue and contest between Haman
and Mordecai the letters of the king were pub-
lished to all the people of the provinces proclaim-
ing what both Haman (Est 3:14) and Mordecai
(8:13) had written. The Qal passive participle is
used in Jer 32:11, 14, to denote an ‘“‘open’’ docu-
ment in contrast to a sealed: one.

In the Niphal the action happens to the subject
itself in either a passive or reflexive way. Thus in
a passive sense it means ‘‘to be uncovered’’: of
nakedness (Ex 20:26; Isa 47:3), of skirts (Jer
13:22), and of foundations (II Sam 22:16 = Ps
18:16) where it is parallel to the Niphal of ra’a
‘to be visible.”’ Thus it also means ‘‘to be
known’’ (Isa 23:1) and ‘to be revealed’’—of a
word from God to Daniel (Dan 10:1).

In the reflexive sense it means ‘‘to expose one-
self’ (three times of David in II Sam 6:20) or ‘‘to
show/reveal oneself,’ of Jonathan to the Philis-
tines (1 Sam 14:8), of the gates to death to Job
(Job 38:17) and of God. With God it is used to
designate his theophany to Jacob (Gen 35:7; cf.
Gen 28). The word is also used of God's revela-
tion three times in the stories of Samuel’s child-
hood: of his revelation to Eli's fathers (I Sam
2:27), to Samuel (I Sam 3:21; cf. I Sam 3:7).
Here, as in the idiom ‘to uncover the ear’’ and in
Amos’ classic statement it denotes the revelation
of God to a prophet.

The Niphal participle with a passive notion is
used in Deut 29:28 to denote God’s open threats
and promises revealed to Israel in that book. Ac-
cording to Isa 40:5 the glory of the Lorp—his
triumphant victory on earth thrqugh his rule in
Israel—will be revealed to all flesh. It has the
same meaning in Isa 56:1. It is used in Isa 53:1 for
the revelation to mankind of God’s work through
the Suffering Servant.

Thus, though not a technical term for divine
revelation, the verb gala frequently conveys this
meaning.

Likewise tn the Piel it always denotes ‘‘to un-

cover’ something which otherwise is normally
concealed. Thus it means ‘‘to open”’ the eyes—to
see an angel (Num 22:31) or wonderful things in
the law (Ps 119:18); “‘to make known, revealed,
manifest’’: of Jeremiah in his complaint to the
Lorp (Jer 11:20; 20:12), of the LORD in his re-
velation of peace and truth to Israel (Jer 33:6) and
his righteousness to them (Ps 98:2); *‘to betray”:
of fugitives (Isa 16:3), of secrets (Prov 11:13;
25:9); *‘to uncover, expose’’: of Esau's hiding
place (Jer 49:10), the mysteries of darkness (Job
12:22), foundations (Mic 1:6), sin (Job 20:27; Lam
2:14; 4:22), and feet (Ruth 3:4,7).

But it is used most frequently in this stem for
designating proscribed sexual activity. It occurs
twenty-four times in Lev 18 and 20 in the expres-
sion **to uncover the shame” which denotes sex-
ual intercourse in proscribed situations, usually
incest, also Deut 22:30 {H 23:1]; 27:20. It is also
used of uncovering or removing that which cov-
ers: the woman's skirt (Isa 47:3; Nah 3:5), of
Judah’s protective covering (Isa 22:8), and
Leviathan’s outer armor (Job 41:13 [H 5]). In
many passages, then, it has the connotation ‘‘to
shame.”

Alongside of Lev 18 and 20 it occurs in the
prophetic complaint that Israel has ‘‘uncovered
her nakedness, a metaphor denoting that she
threw off her loyalty to the Lorp. Against this,
the Lorp or her former lovers will **expose the
nakedness”** = ‘to shame”’ of the faithless nation
(Hos 2:12; Ezk 16:36); cf. the threat against
Nineveh (Nah 3:5) and against Babylon (Isa
47:3).

‘*To remove, go into exile.’’ The basic meaning
of the intransitive ga/a@ appears in Ezk 12:3 where
the prophet receives the commandment ‘‘go
forth’’ and in the lament of Phineas’s travailing
wife: **The glory of Israel is departed.’* A similar
meaning is found in Isaiah's lament: **The mirth
of the land is gone” (Isa 24:11) and in this de-
scription by Zophar of the fate of the wicked:
’*The increase of his house shall depart’’ (Job
20:28). It also has this simple meaning *‘to de-
part’ in Prov 27:25 and Hos 10:5.

In the remaining twenty passages in the Qal it
has the more precise meaning *‘to be led into cap-
tivity.”’ In addition it occurs thirty nine times in
the Hiphil with the meaning *‘to carry away into
exile’ and seven times in the passive Hophal
with a similar meaning as in Qal. The verb figures
prominently in the announcement of judgment by
Amos (1:5; 5:5,27; 6:7; 7:11,17) and Jeremiah
(13:19; 20:4; 22:12; 27:20; cf. Lam 1:3; see also
Isa 5:13).

In several passages the Lorp is designated as
the subject who leads Israel into captivity (Jer
29:4,7,14; Ezk 39:28; Amos 5:27; Lam 4:22; I Chr
5:41—the only place where the human agent
[Nebuchadnezzar] is explicitly mentioned; cf. of

161

351 M23 (galah)

other people in I] Kgs 17:11). Usually, however,
Israel (Judah) or its glory is the subject of the
verb.

The Lorp’s judgment of leading Israel out of
the land into captivity functions as an appropriate
contrast to his carrying out his promise to give
them the land as a gift at the beginning of their
history. Likewise, his repeated promises to the
fathers to give them the land stand out sharply
against his repeated warnings through the
prophets to lead them out of the land. In II Kgs
17:11 Israel's expulsion from the land is explicitly
paralleled with the fate of the Canaanites whom
he expelled in favor of Israel when they entered
the land.

It is instructive to note that the verb never oc-
curs in Deuteronomy. In this book the threat of
eviction from the land is expressed by other ex-
pressions such as “‘to perish quickly (’bd) from
upon the land’’ (Deut 4:26; 11:17), and pus
(Hiphil) “‘to scatter.” If the putative Mosaic ad-
dresses contained in Deuteronomy are in fact of
late origin, aS is commonly alleged, it seems
Strange that gala, the common term for eviction
from the land in the ninth to seventh century
prophets, does not occur.

gola. Captivity, captive, those carried away, or
removing. This feminine noun referring to any-
one carried away captive or to captivity itself oc-
curs forty-one times scattered throughout the
prophets and Kgs, Chr, Ezr, Neh, and Est. The
reference for the most part is to the Babylonian
captivity of the kingdom of Judah, which was the
result of their sinful disobedience to God.

galat. Captivity, captive, or carried away captive.
In the fifteen occurrences of the feminine noun
ealut, reference is made to a group of captives
(Isa 20:4; 45:13; Jer 24:5; 28:4; 29:22: 40:1: Amos
1:6,9; Ob 20) or a period of captivity variously
specified as the captivity of Jehoiachin (II Kgs
25:27; Jer 51:31; Ezk 1:2) or our captivity (Ezk
33:21; 40:1), almost all of which refer to the cap-
tivity of Judah in Babylon.

Bibliography: TDOT, Il, pp. 476-88. THAT,
I, pp. 415-17.
B.K.W.
mp2 (gulla). See no. 353c.
bos (gillal). See no. 353h.
piva (el6m). See no. 354c.
mioa (galut). See no. 350b.
351 m93 (galah) poll, shave, shave off.
(ASV and rSv similar, except “‘cut’’ replaces

‘*poll.”’) The root seems to mean “‘to be bare,
smooth, naked.** It is broader in meaning than
qarah which refers to baldness of the head. The
verb occurs twenty-two times in the intensive
stems.

352 %%3 (gl)

Among Semites shaving off hair or the beard
was a Sign of lamentation and distress (Jer 41:5;
cf. Amos 8:10). Israelite priests, however, were
forbidden to follow these mourning customs (Lev
21:5; Ezk 44:20). Sometimes shaving symbolized
purification, as tn the case of a person cured of a
skin ailment (Lev 13:33; 14:8) or a captive woman
who was about to marry an Israelite (Deut 21:12).
At the time of hts consecration, a Levite was to
‘*cause a razor (he‘ébir ta‘ar) to pass over his
whole body”’ (Num 8:7). Opinions differ as to
whether he was to merely trim his hair or shave it
off completely. When a Nazirite terminated his
vow, the hair of his head was shaved off and
burned in the fire of the altar (Num 6:18-19).

Under other circumstances, shaving of the
beard was considered a great indignity (11 Sam
10:4). A different custom, however, prevailed in
Egypt (Gen 41:14). It is not altogether clear why
Absalom shaved his head periodically (II Sam
14:26).

Used figuratively. shaving referred to the com-
plete stripping of a land by the enemy (Isa 7:20).

Bibliography: Fensham, F. Charles, ‘‘The
Shaving of Samson: A Note on Judges 16:19,"
EQ: 97-98.

J.E.S.

13993 (gillayén). See no. 350c.
653 (galil) I, Il. See nos. 353e,f.
sovby (gilda). See no. 353g.

352 %5a (gil) I. Assumed root of the following.

352a_ 993 «(galal) account. Occurs only
in the construct state with the prepo-
sition b°*, biglal ‘‘on account of,”
‘for the sake of.”

353 993 (galal) IT, commit, remove, trust, run
down, seek occasion, wallow, roll, and roll
down, away or together.

Derivatives

353a +93 (gal) heap, wave.

353b 0 93) (gél) «dung.

353c 60 tma (galla) basin, bowl.

353d = 993 (gdlal) dung.

353e =t5%539) (galil) I, turning, folding.

353f «699983 «(galil) UH, cylinder, rod, circuit.

353g mora (g¢lila) circuit, boundary, ter-
ritory.

353h 3=ts%3 (gillal) idols.

3531 +9393 (galgal) wheel, whirl, whirlwind.

353; a3 (gileal) I, wheel.

353k +9393 (gilgal) I, Gilgal.

3531 tm2a%a (galgdlet) skull, head.

353m MPa (mgilla) roll.

galal means to roll some object on, upon,
away, in, against, from, together, unto, or down.

162

This figure is used for rolling oneself on the Lord
and so to trust the Lord (Ps 22:8 [H 9]) or to
commit one’s behavior or life to the Lord (Ps
37:5; Prov 16:3) or remove such non-material
things as reproach and contempt (Ps 119:22).

The physical act of the rolling of something or
someone (gdlal) appears in only four episodes
and possibly two or three observations. The first
is in the story of Jacob meeting Rachel at the well
in Paran, mentioning the necessity of rolling the
stone from the well and of Jacob doing this (Gen
29:3,8,10).

When Joshua caught the five Amorite kings in
a cave during the Gibeonite battle, he ordered his
men to roll great stones on the mouth of the cave
to incarcerate them until the battle’s end (Josh
10:18).

Saul, knowing his hungry people were eating
meat with blood still in it, directed his men to roll
a great stone to him upon which the animals
could be slaughtered (I Sam 14:33).

After Joab had thrust his sword treacherously
through Amasa, Amasa wallowed in his blood tn
the road (II Sam 20:12).

Jeremiah in a figure likens Babylon to a
mountain when he says of her, “I will roll thee
down from the rocks” (30:14). Surely the wise
man writes metaphorically, ‘‘He that rolleth a
stone, it will return upon him” (Prov 26:27).
When Isaiah employs the verb in two effective
figures: the heavens shall be ‘‘rolled together like
a scroll’’ (34:4) and *‘garments rolled in blood”’
(9:5), depicting warfare in contrast to the reign of
the prince of peace.

Joshua used gdlal symbolically when he said,
after the circumcision of the Israelites, ‘‘This day
have I rolled away the reproach of Egypt’’ (Josh
5:19) and the place was named Gilgal—a word
play on gdlal.

Close to the meaning of rolling an object is
Amos’s metaphor, “‘But let judgment run down
as waters and righteousness as a mighty stream”
(Amos 5:24).

Other uses of gala/ are more remote from rol-
ling an object. Among the indignities that Job suf-
fers is the action of young men who rolled them-
selves upon him—probably as an army breaking
through defenses (Job 30:14). Joseph's brothers
fear that Joseph is seeking occasion (gdlal)
against them to enslave them (Gen 43:8).

galal becomes trust, commit or remove in four
places. The thought is to ‘‘roll one’s trouble”
upon someone or away from oneself (cf. KB).
Those who stigmatize the victim of Ps 22 says,
‘‘He trusted on the Lord that he would deliver
him, let him deliver him’ (v. 8 {H 9]) while in Ps
37:5 and Prov 16:3 we are urged to commit our
works and way unto the Lord. In Ps 119:22 the
Psalmist requests, “‘Remove from me reproach
and contempt: for I have kept thy testimonies.”’

gal. Heap, wave, billow and spring. A mas-
culine noun apparently coming from the idea of
rolling, piling or heaping one thing upon another.
It is used of a heap of stones as the wreckage of a
city (II Kgs 19:25) or as a memorial (Gen 31:46-
52). In the same fashion water pushed up into
waves or billows (Ps 42:7 {H 8]; Isa 48:18; Jer
§:22; Jon 2:3) and the bubbling up of a spring can
be indicated by gal (Song 4:12).

The parting place of Laban and Jacob was a
heap of stones which Jacob's men piled up as a
witness to the covenant between Laban and him-
self. Jacob called the place Galeed ‘the heap of
witness’’ (Gen 31:46-52). Laban’s name for it
means the same thing in Aramaic. A great heap of
stones was placed over the remains of Achan and
his family (Josh 7:26). The king of Ai received the
same treatment after his capture (Josh 8:29) and
so did Absalom after he was killed (II Sam 18:17).

The Lord sent a message through Isaiah and
Hezekiah to Sennacherib telling him that the
Lord used him to make ‘fenced cities into ruin-
ous heaps”’ (II Kgs 19:25; Isa 37:26).

Isaiah praises the Lord because it was he who
‘made of a city an heap” (25:2), and Jeremiah
says both Jerusalem and Babylon will become
heaps (51:37) while Hosea declares that Gilgal’s
‘‘altars are as heaps in the furrows of the field”
(12:11).

gulla. Springs, bowls or pommels. Rolling
water in Josh 15:19; Jud 1:15 describes springs or
pools (or possibly so called from being round
pools).

At the top of the pillars in front of the temple
bowl-like capitals or mouldings were placed
(bowls I Kgs 7:41, but pommels II Chr 4:12,13);
cf. bowl on Menorah (Zech 4:2,3). In Eccl 12:6
‘the golden bowl be broken*™ describes death in
old age.

galil. Folding or rings. An adjective describ-
ing the leaves of the doors of the temple in
Jerusalem (kJv ‘‘folding,’’ but variously trans-
lated in modern versions) (I Kgs 6:34).

A masculine noun translated *‘rings,’ to which
decorative hangings were fastened (Est 1:6). In
Song 5:14 the bmdegroom’s hands are gold
‘‘rings’’ (KJV; KB, BDB cylinder or rod).

gillal. Idols, images. One of about ten basic
words for idol in the ot. The word means logs,
blocks, shapeless things (BDB). Thus it is used as
a polemic against pagan religion. This masculine
plural form occurs sparingly (nine times) outside
of Ezk (thirty-eight times).

In Lev 26 kjv Moses at Sinai warns the Israel-
ites about turning from the Lord and worshiping
idols, saying tf this happens, the Lord will throw
their carcasses on the carcasses of their idols
(26:30). The Nesp freely translates, ‘‘I will pile
your rotting carcasses on the rotting logs that

163

353 993 (galal)

were your idols.’* In Deut Moses speaks in this
vein when he renews the covenant and refers to
the idols (gillulim) of Egypt, and those of wood,
stone, silver and gold which they saw on their
journey (29:17).

Asa, a grandson of David, removed out of the
land all the idols that his father Abijam had made
(I Kgs 15:12). To the contrary Ahab did very
abominable things at the instigation of Jezebel in
following idols as the Amorites did (I Kgs 21:26).

The northern kingdom is indicted for serving
idols, specifically disobeying the Lord’s com-
mand not to do so (IJ Kgs 17:12). Later, Manas-
seh was more wicked than the Amorites in mak-
ing Judah sin with his idols, and Amon his son did
the same (II Kgs 21:11, 21). Josiah, however, in
obedience to the Lord put away these idols after
he had read the book which Hilkiah found in the
temple (II Kgs 23:24).

Jeremiah says that Babylon's images ( gillalim)
would be destroyed. Here gillilim translated im-
ages (only place in KJv) is parallel with ‘dsabbim
translated idols or images and cognate with a
verb meaning to grieve or cause sorrow.

Ezekiel who has thirty-eight of the forty-seven
occurrences of gillulim denounces idolatry as in-
fidelity and prostitution (16:36; 37:23). Good Is-
raelites have not “‘lifted up their eyes to idols,”
while the wicked have done so (18:6,12,15).
Ezekiel reminds the people that God told them
not to defile themselves ‘“‘with the idols of
Egypt.’’ Nevertheless ‘‘their heart went after”
them (20:7,8,16,18,24). They were not to ‘‘pollute
themselves” with idols (20:31). In dramatic irony
the prophet says: “‘Go ye, serve ye everyone his
idols’’ (20:39). Again he declares that Israel
works against herself by idolatry and defiles her-
self (22:3,4; 23:7). They are polluted with idols of
Babylonia and Assyria (23:30) and have followed
heathen idolatry to the extent of killing their chil-
dren in sacrifice to idols and so they will *‘bear
the sins of their idols’’ (23:39, 49), but the Lord
will destroy the idols of Egypt (30:13).

When Ezekiel hears that Jerusalem is de-
stroyed, he says that the people do not possess
the land because of their idolatry (33:25; 36:18,
25). Only twice more does Ezekiel refer to idols
and in quite a different vein. He predicts that
Judah and Israel will be united in their land and
will not defile themselves any more with idols
(37:23). In the restoration the priests and Levites
who went astray will be punished by a lowering
of rank and given a less important activity in the
new sanctuary. Only the Zadokite priests who
remained true to the Lord will serve in the high
office of priest (44:10,12). [There is not any one
word for ‘‘idol’’ in the ot. The idols are named
variously by the prophets depending on the
characteristization they felt would be most effec-
tive at the time. Five words are mainly used: 1!)

353 553 (galal)

gillul “‘logs, blocks’’ (though KB suggests that it
is a pejorative word calling the idols dung pel-
lets); it is used the most often, but mainly in Ezk.
2) pesel, ‘carved image.’ 3) masséka ‘‘cast im-
age.’ 4) massébda ‘standing stone image.” 5)
‘asadb “thing of grief.’ It is of interest that the
first four are characterizations arising from the
physical nature of the image, especially referring
to how it was made. The prophets scorned the
idols as things made by the hand of men. Indeed,
that phrase is sometimes used as a substitute for
the word idol (e.g. Isa 2:8). They did not admit
that the idol was a mere representation of the
god. They declared that the material object itself
was the pagan’s god—and with the prevailing
animism, they were doubtless correct. In this
vein, Isaiah pours scorn on the idolater who uses
half a log for firewood and the other half to make
a god (Isa 44:9-20).

Other words for idols are: selem “image,”
which emphasizes its representational character
(used seven times); séme/ of uncertain etymology
(used five times); t°rdpim, apparently meaning a
“thing of shame” used for Laban’s household
gods stolen by Rachel; mipp* leset ‘thing of hor-
ror’; ‘élil *‘empty or meaningless thing’’; and
‘a@wen ‘sinful thing’ BDB (KB suggests, a
‘thing of mystery’’ from a possible etymology,
but BDB is better on the basis of the usage of
"awen). Also to be mentioned are the ‘dshérd,
which are indeed cult objects, perhaps sacred
poles, but are more symbols of the goddess ‘dsh-
éra rather than idols in the normal sense. R.L.H.|

galgal. Wheel. Nine times in kjv, but Isa 17:13
is *‘a rolling thing’? and Ps 77:18 [H 19] in the
heavens. Modern translations in Ps 77:18 [H 19]
generally, use whirlwind (NEB has “‘thistle down”
in Ps 83:13 [14]); niv has tumbleweed).

Various wheels are: those for war chariots (Isa
5:28; Jer 47:3; Ezk 23:24; 26:10), for drawing
water (Eccl 12:6) and wheels of Ezekiel’s vision
of departure of God's glory (Ezk 10:2,6,13)
though more often Ezekiel uses another word for
these wheels of his vision (see '6pdn).

gilgal JJ. Gilgal (a circle of stones?). There
seem to be five’ places called Guilgal.
Deuteronomy 11:30 locates Ebal and Gerizim
“over against Gilgal’’ which appears to be near
Shechem.

The Gilgal of Elijah and Elisha is near Bethel
(II Kgs 2:1; 4:38). Here Elisha purifies the **death
in the pot’’ food for the sons of the prophets.

The king of the nations of Gilgal is thought to
have lived on the border of the plain of Sharon.

A border city of Judah mentioned in Josh 15:17
is on the road from Jericho to Jerusalem (Josh
18:17).

The Gilgal most often referred to was the first
camping place after the Israelites crossed the

164

Jordan. It was east of Jericho (Josh 4:19), but its
exact location is still uncertain. Muilenburg pro-
posed Khirbet el-Mefjir on the basis of the oT, the
onomastica in Josephus and Eusebius and the ar-
chaeological remains (BASOR 140: 11-27). Here
a pile of twelve stones from the Jordan
memorialized their crossing. Here also that gen-
eration was circumcised and ‘‘rolled away the re-
proach of Egypt,” the first Passover in the new
land was celebrated and the manna ceased (5:9-
12). The Gibeonites came to Joshua's headquar-
ters here and later Joshua divided part of the
country by lot in Gilgal (Josh 9:6; 10:6,7,9,15,43;
14:6).

In Jud 2:1 the angel of the Lord goes up from
Gilgal to Bochim to prophesy against the Israel-
ites. Gilgal is on Samuel’s circuit (1 Sam 7:16;
10:8) and remains an important center during the
time of Saul (I Sam 11:14,15; 13:4,7,8,12,15;
15:12,21,33) and David (1I Sam 19:15,40).

Hosea and Amos refer disparagingly to the sin-
ful and wicked worship at Gilgal in their day (Hos
4:15; 9:18; 12:12; Amos 4:4; 5:5).

[In harmonizing the accounts of the conquest
found in Joshua with the ensuing settlement of
the land presented in Judges, Y. Kaufmann
makes the salient point that Joshua's wars aim to
destroy and exterminate the enemy and not to
occupy the land. He wrote: ‘Joshua separates
the wars entirely from the occupation of the ter-
ritory. He keeps the people in camp (for some
time at Gilgal] for the whole duration of the war.
No matter where the army fights, it always re-
turns to the camp. ... He is compelled to prevent
the people from occupying its portions until the
end of the war, because he cannot be sure that he
will be able to muster them for the general war if
they are engaged in claiming land”’ (The Biblical
Account of the Conquest of Palestine, 1953, p.
92). B.K.W.]

gulgolet. Skull, head or person. The Akkadian
cognate, i.e. gulgullu and gulgullati. In kiv every
man, poll, skull, or head. Usually used for count-
ing people (Ex 16:16; 38:26; Num 1:2, 18; 3:47; I
Chr 23:3, 24). But it also refers to the breaking of
Abimelech’s skull (Jud 9:53), Jezebel’s skull (i!
Kgs 9:35), and Saul’s head when it was fastened
to the wall of the temple of Dagon (I Chr 10:10).
Cf. the Aramaic Golgotha in the Gospels (Mt
27:33; Mk 1$:22; Jn 19:17).

m‘gilla. Volume, roll (kv), scroll. m°gilla
occurs with séper ‘‘book,”* the scroll of the book
(Jer 36:2,4: Ezk 2:9, Ps 40:7 [H 8]).

Jehoiakim cut and burned Jeremiah’s scroll
(Jer 36). Ezekiel sees a scroll at his call (2:9;
3:1-3) and Zechariah a flying scroll containing
God's curse against wickedness (5:1,2). Ezra
mentions the scroll recording Cyrus's decree to
rebuild the temple (6:2).

Egyptian scrolls and probably many of those
used in Palestine were made of papyrus (note
how easily Jeremiah’s scroll burned). The Dead
Sea Scrolls were made of skins stitched together.
The book (codex) came into use in the first and
second centuries after Christ. The Scroll was
written ‘“‘within’’ (recto) and, when necessary,
‘‘without’’ (verso) (cf. Ezk 2:10).

E.S.K.

354 993 (galam) to wrap up, fold, fold together
(II Kgs 2:8; only).

Derivatives

3S4a ahd (g*l6m) wrapping, garment
(Ezk 27:24, only).

354b «823 (gdlem) embryo (Ps_ 139:16,
only).

354c 90997992 (galmiid) hard, barren (i.e.
Isa 49:21; Job 15:34).

317993 (gaulmiid). See no. 354c.

355 *p23 (gala') to expose, lay bare. Occurs
only in the Hithpael (e.g. Prov 17:14; 18:1).

356 3y%3 (gil'dd) Gilead.
Derivative
356a tsy>a (gil'adi) Gileadite.

Gilead sometimes refers to the area in Trans-
jordan between the Arnon and Jabbok rivers,
sometimes to that between the Jabbok and the
Yarmuk and sometimes to the whole area.

Laban overtook Jacob as Jacob returned to
Canaan at Mount Gilead (Gen 31:21, 23, 25), and
Ishmaelites from Gilead bought Joseph and took
him to Egypt (Gen 37:25).

Because Gilead was good pasture land, Gad
and Reuben got the southern part (Num 32:1, 26,
29). Moses gave northern Gilead to Machir, son
of Manasseh (Num 32:39,40). This allocation is
corroborated in Deut 3:13,15,16; 4:43.

Sihon, King of the Amorites, ruled over half
Gilead (Josh 12:2) and Og, King of Bashan, over
the other half (12:5). Joshua 13:25 says that
Moses gave Gilead to Gad, but verse 31 says half
was given to Machir.

The song of Deborah and Barak makes a dis-
paraging reference to the men of Gilead for their
failure to join in the battle against Jabin King of
Hazor (Jud 5:17).

Jair, a Gileadite, judged Israel for twenty-two
years (Jud 10:4).

The men of Gilead, seeking a man to lead them
against the Ammonites, appealed to Jephthah
whose father was Gilead and whose half-brother
had thrust him out of the country years before

165

356 SP93 (gil‘ad)

(Jud 11:1,.2; 10:8-18, 11:5—29). Jephthah, success-
ful in defeating the Ammonites, incurred the op-
position of the Ephraimites in the process, so the
Ephraimites fought him. During this fray the
Gileadites identified the Ephraimites by their in-
ability to pronounce shibboleth properly (Jud
12:4,5,7 see E. A. Speiser, ‘The Shibboleth In-
cident, Oriental and Biblical Studies, Univ. of
Penna., 1967, pp. 143-50).

The men of Gilead served in the war against
Benjamin (Jud 20:1). However, because no men
from Jabesh-gilead fought in those battles, the
Israelites killed all its citizens except four hun-
dred young unmarried women, to provide wives
for some Benjamites who survived the war (Jud
21:8—14).

Gilead was ruled by Ishbosheth during David's
reign in Hebron (II Sam 2:9), but David took ref-
uge there during Absalom’s rebellion and the bat-
tles leading to Absalom’s death were fought in
Gilead (II Sam 17:26). Gilead was among the
places in which David's sinful census was taken.

Jabesh-gilead had cause to favor Saul because
he broke an Ammonite siege and saved the men
and the city from debasing humiliation and agony
(I Sam 11:1,9). The men of Jabesh-gilead, in turn,
rescued the bodies of Saul and his sons from the
wall of Beth-shan (I Sam 31:11; II Sam 2:4, 5; I
Chr 10:11). Later David brought the bones of
Saul and Jonathan up from Jabesh-gilead and
buried them in the sepulchre of Saul's father.

Ramoth-gilead was prominent in the wars with
the Syrians and Ahab was killed near there (I Kgs
4:13; 22:3-29; If Chr 18:2-28). Ahab’s son Joram
was wounded at Ramoth-gilead (II Kgs 8:28; I
Chr 22:5). A young prophet is sent by Elisha to
Ramoth-gilead to anoint Jehu king (II Kgs 9:1, 4,
14; I Chr 6:80). Later Jehu loses Gilead to Hazael
({I Kgs 10:33) and still later Tiglath-pileser cap-
tures Gilead from Pekah (II Kgs 15:29).

Jeremiah cries out, “Is there no balm in
Gilead?" to emphasize the availability of the
Lord's healing (8:22). Gilead’s balm itself, how-
ever, will not heal the people (46:11). In any case
its balsam was proverbial. Rich woodlands cov-
ered its hills and served as a symbol of luxury
along with Lebanon and Carmel (Jer 22:6; 50:19;
Zech 10:10). Its goats also were famous (Song
4:1; 5:5).

Amos curses the Ammonites for ripping up the
pregnant women of Gilead (1:13), and the people
of Damascus because they threshed Gilead with
iron threshing instruments. Hosea says that
Gilead is a wicked city (6:8).

When Israel returns from captivity Gilead will
be possessed again (Ob 19; Zech 10:10) and they
will feed in Gilead (Mic 7:14) and be satisfied
there (Jer 50:19). In Ezekiel’s vision of recon-
struction, Gilead is on the eastern border.

Mention is made of Gilead the Gadite (I Chr

357 23 (galash)

5:14) and Gilead son of Machir son of Manasseh
(Num 26:29,30; 27:1; 36:1; Josh 17:1,3).

gil‘adi. Gileadite. The patronymic occurs
eleven times (Num 26:29; Jud 10:3; 11:1,40; 2:7;
II Sam 17:27; 19:31; I Kgs 2:7; I] Kgs 15:25; Ezr
2:61; Neh 7:63).

Bibliography: Kraus, Hans-Joachim, ~*‘Gil-
gal,’ VT 1:181-99. Mauchline, John, ‘*Gilead
and Gilgal: Some Reflections on the Israelite Oc-
cupation of Palestine," VT 6:19-33. Muilenburg,
J., “The Site of Ancient Gilgal,”” BASOR 140:
11-27. Baly, Denis, The Geography of Palestine
Harper, 1957, pp. 225-31.

E.S.K.

357 w3 (gdlash) to sit, sit up, possibly to re-
cline. Occurs only in Song 4:1; 6:5.

83 (gam). See no. 36lfa.

358 *S8I3 (gama) swallow (liquids). Occurs
in the Piel (Job 39:24) and Hiphil (Gen
2417);

Derivative

358a =823 (gdme') rush, reed, papy-
rus (e.g. Isa 18:2; Job 8:11).

359 "%1 (gmd). Assumed root of the following.
359a 9.3 (gdmed) cubit (Jud 3:16,
only).
359b )=ad2— (gammdadim)
(Ezk 27:11).

valorous men

292 (g°mal). See no. 360a.

360 7733 (gamal) to deal, to recompense, to ripen
(asv: do, deal, requite, reward: rsv: deal,
requite, deal bountifully.)

Derivatives

360a_ t993 «(g° mul) recompense.
360b tm993 (g° mula) recompense.
360c t53h (tagmil) benefit.

360d +593 (gama!) camel.

This verb occurs in the Qal and Niphal stems.
In the Qal it signifies to render either good or evil
to someone. In some passages the two are con-
trasted (Prov 31:12; I Sam 24:17 [H 18}); in others
evil is done (Gen 50:15,17; Prov 3:30); in still oth-
ers good is done (Isa 63:7). At times the idea is to
deal bountifully with (Ps 13:6; 116:7, etc.), or to
deal out reward (II Sam 19:36 [H 37}). At times
there is a recompense or a requital in a bad sense
(Ps 7:4 [H 5]); Deut 32:6; Ps 137:8).

The Qal form may mean to wean a child (I Sam
1:23-24; I Kgs 11:20; Hos 1:8) so that one reads
of the weaned child (g@miail; Ps 131:2) or the child
weaned from milk (g° malé méhalab).

166

gamal in the Qal may also mean to bear ripe
almonds (Num 17:8 {H 23]) or to ripen, of grapes
(Isa 18:5).

gamal occurs in the Niphal three times, twice
of the weaning of Isaac (Gen 21:8) and once of
Samuel (I Sam 1:22).

gemul. Recompense, reward, benefit, dealing.
This noun occurs eighteen times. It is the recom-
pense given by God (Isa 3:11; 35:4; 59:18; 66:6;
Jer 51:6; Lam 3:64; Ob 15; Joel 3:7 (H 4:7]) and
by man (Joel 3:4 [H 4:4]; Ps 137:8); the benefits
God has given (Ps 103:2; II Chr 32:25), and the
deeds one does (Jud 9:16; Prov 12:14; Isa 3:11).
The Psalmist invokes God, the God of recom-
pense (Jer 51:56; cf. Deut 28), to give the wicked
his due (Ps 28:4; 94:2).

gmiala. Dealing, recompense. This feminine
noun is used of the reward which David offered
to Barzillai in return for a favor which he showed
to David when he was fleeing from Absalom (II
Sam 19:37). A plural form in the prophets de-
scribes God's retribution to his adversaries (Isa
59:18), in particular to Babylon, for the Lord is a
God of recompense (Jer 51:56).

tagmiél. Benefit. This is an abstract masculine
noun (GKC 85r) from the root ga@mal. It occurs
in the plural with an Aramaic suffix, tagmalohi
(GKC 91/; Ps 116:12). The asv renders ‘‘bene-
fits, and the rsv, “‘bounty.’’ Having recovered
from an illness, overwhelmed with God's good-
ness toward him, the Psalmist asks what he
should return for such benefits. He answered
with self-dedication, sacrifice, and payment of
vows.

gamal. Camel. xx, kamélos. A beast of bur-
den mentioned throughout the oT, from the pa-
triarchal accounts to the postexilic age. Used
primarily for riding (Gen 24:61! ,63; 31:17; I Sam
30:17; Isa 21:7) and carrying loads, camels were
also milked (Gen 32:15-—16). Camel flesh is con-
sidered edible by Arabs. But Israel's dietary laws
prohibited it, since the camel chews the cud, but
has no parted hoof (Lev 11:4; Deut 14:7).

The camel’s ability to go long periods without
water suited him for the spice trade (II Chr 9:1),
carrying food some distances, transporting prod-
ucts of Gilead to Egypt (Gen 37:25), transporting
tribute (II Kgs 8:9f.; I Chr 12:41, and transporting
gifts to the Lord (Isa 60:6). Caravans were of
various sizes (Gen 24:10). Making the camels
kneel (Gen 24:11), unloading them, and providing
food for them (Gen 24:32) was a regular part of
the trip. Drawing water for camels at a well at a
stopping place was a big task; Rachel's willing-
ness to do it showed her character and answered
Eliezer’s prayer (Gen 24:10, 19, 20, 44, 46).

Raiders rode camels (Jud 6:5; 7:12; 8:21,26)
and often seized the camels of their enemies (Job

1:17; Jer 49:29, 32; 1 Sam 15:3; 27:9; II C r 14:15
[H 14]); Isa 30:6). One episode lists a booty of
fifty thousand camels (I Chr 5:21). Sennacherib
lists camels among the booty he took from Judah.
Camels were a means of rapid escape (I Sam
30:17). Rabbah of Ammon is threatened with be-
coming a pasture of camels (Ezk 25:5).

The wealth of men like Abraham (Gen 12:16;
24:35), Jacob (Gen 30:43), and Job was counted
(along with other livestock) in the number of their
camels. Job had three thousand before his afflic-
tion, but six thousand afterward (Job 1:3; 42:12).
David had a special overseer of camels (I Chr
27:30). Like other livestock, camels were victims
of the plague in Egypt (Ex 9:3; cf. Zech 14:15).
Those who returned from exile are said to have
had 435 camels (Ezr 2:67; cf. Neh 7:68).

Albright has argued that the camel was not ex-
tensively domesticated until the Iron Age (about
1200). He holds that the patriarchal references
are somewhat anachronistic and that the common
nomad of that day depended on the ass (SAC, p.
164-65). He does, however, allow that ‘partial
and sporadic domestication may go back several
centuries earlier.’ J. P. Free gathered evidence
of earlier use of domesticated camels, though his
proof need not be pressed to say that ass
nomadism was not the more common (J. P. Free,
JNES 3: 187-93.) K. Kitchen since then has
brought out additional evidence to demonstrate
that the came! was domesticated already in the
Early Bronze Age (see Andre Parrot, Syria 32:
323).

Bibliography: Free, Joseph P., **Abraham’s
Camels,” JNES 3: 187-93. Isserlin, B. S., “On
Some Possible Occurrences of the Camel in
Palestine,"*” PEQ :50-53. Lambert, W. G.. **The
Domesticated Camel in the Second Millennium:
Evidence from Alalakh and Ugarit," BASOR
160: 42-43. THAT, I, pp. 426-28.

5:P.L:

361 831 (gmm). Assumed root of the following.

36la 83 (gam) again, alike.

361b =a «(im gamma). Meaning uncer-
tain, perhaps ‘“‘hordes’’ (Hab 1:9).

gam. Again, alike, as, but, even, likewise, in like
manner, so much as, then, though, with, yea. A
particle occurring over 750 times, gam denotes
addition. It is often repeated in a sentence, in
which case the most frequent translations are
both... and; either... or; nay... neither;
so... and. Sometimes in English translations
gam is completely ignored.

gam has at least ten distinctive ysages in the
oT. (1) Sometimes gam simply serves as a parti-
cle of addition or accumulation (Gen 7:3). (2)
When two or more persons or objects are viewed
as functioning together, gam may serve as a

167

363 “tad (gamar)

comprehensive particle (Jud 9:49; Prov 17:15). (3)
Like the connective particle waw, gam may
function conjunctively to join two nouns (Joel
1:12) or two verbs (Ps 137:1) or two clauses (Jud
5:4). (4) Like ’ap, gam may serve as an intensive
particle at the beginning of an emphatic statement
(Prov 17:26; Joel 2:29 [H 3:2]). (S) As an emphatic
particle gam is used to stress a particular word
within the sentence, especially pronouns and
nouns with pronominal suffixes (Gen 4:26; 10:21;
27:34).

(6) In addition gam has a correlative use which
indicates correspondence between two actions
(Gen 20:6). (7) Sometimes gam has a consequen-
tial force and is used to introduce an action which
is a logical consequence of some antecedent ac-
tion. gam is frequently used to introduce the just
and appropmate response of God to transgression
(Jud 2:21; Jer 4:12) or repentance (II Sam 12:13).
In the same sense gam is used to indicate man’s
reasonable response to God's grace (Josh 24:18; I
Sam 1:28). (8) gam also has an adversative use in
which it introduces contrariety or antithesis (Ezk
16:28; Ps 129:2). (9) In its confirmatory use gam
serves to underscore or confirm a direct state-
ment or an impression which has just been made
(Gen 29:30; Hos 9:12). (10) gam is also used to
indicate a climax (Gen 27:33; Deut 23:3-4). [An
interesting use of gam apparently for emphasis is
in the series of uses of gam hi’ in I Sam 19:19-
24. Saul had sent messengers to Ramah three
times to arrest David. Each time the messengers
saw Samuel and the others prophesying they also
prophesied, or, better, even they prophesied.
Finally, Saul ‘‘also he’ went and ‘‘also he’
prophesied and ‘‘also he’ lay down naked all
night. But the use of gam ha’ does not necessar-
ily mean that the others also stripped themselves
when they prophesied, nor that such behavior is
inherent in prophesying. The phrase may be used
here for emphasis and mean that even Saul
prophesied and even Saul stripped himself. Prob-
ably kJv is too extreme in saying that he lay down
naked. He had thrown off his royal robes and
especially his sword and armor thus allowing
David to get away with a twelve hour start! Saul’s
action was a special case for a special purpose
and the gam merely emphasizes this fact. R.L.H.]

JES.

362 ra (gms). Assumed root of the following.

362a Ss prea «=(gumads) pit (Eccl 10:8; Prov

26:27).

363 “fa (gamar) cease, come to an end, fail,

perfect, perform. (asv similar; Rsv renders
*‘fulfill’’ instead of ‘‘perfect™’ or ‘‘per-
form. **)

364 333 (ganab)

Derivative
363a 23 (gdmer) Gomer,aproper name.

gamar occurs only five times (all in the book of
Psalms), and has the basic meaning **to complete
or finish.”* It is similar in meaning to ‘dpés, pdsas
II, and shabat. Negatively, the verb refers to the
abrupt and seemingly permanent termination of
that which previously existed.

The Psalmist is concerned that godly men have
ceased to be in the land (Ps 12:1 (H 2]). He prays
that God will terminate wickedness (Ps 7:9
[H 10]) and wonders if the promise made to Ab-
raham has been permanently canceled. Posi-
tively, gdmar refers to how the Lord finishes or
accomplishes in the life of his saints all that he
undertakes (Ps 57:2 [H 3]; 138:8).

Gomer was the name of Hosea’s unfaithful
wife (Hos 1:3). His relationship to her was sym-
bolic of God's relationship to wayward Israel.
Japheth’s eldest son also bore the name Gomer
doubtless from a non-semitic original (Gen 10:2-
3). His descendants are usually idéntified as the
Cimmerians who moved onto the stage of history
from the area north of the Black Sea in the eighth
century B.c. Gomer is named as one of the con-
federates of Gog in the eschatological battle
against the people of God (Ezk 38:6).

Bibliography: Dahood, Mitchell, “The Root
GMR in the Psalms,’ TS 14: 595-97.

J.E.S.

1 (gan). See no. 367a.

364 333 (gdanab) carry away, Steal, steal away.
(ASV and RSV similar except the latter renders
once ‘‘outwit’’ and twice ‘‘cheat.”’)

Derivatives

364a M323 (ge néba) theft, thing stolen.
364b «333 (gannab) thief.

Basically the verb means “to take that which
belongs to another without his consent or knowl-
edge.’ It ts restricted to acts of theft done se-
cretly. The related verbs gdzal and ‘dshag em-
phasize the violent aspect of seizing the property
of another. gdnab and its derivatives occur some
sixty times.

The eighth commandment condemns stealing
(Ex 20:15: Deut 5:17) including burglary (Ex 22:2)
and kidnapping (Ex 21:16). Thievery was re-
garded with the utmost disdain in Israel (Lev
19:11: Jer 2:26; cf. Prov 6:30). In one case alone
is ganab commended (II Kgs 11:2).

Punishment for theft in Israel was not as severe
as that of some neighboring nations, where the
death penalty was inflicted. The Law required
the thief to return to his victim twice the amount
he had stolen (Ex 22:7). Thus the thief lost the

168

367 123

exact amount he had hoped to gain. The penalties
were doubled and more if the thief slaughtered or
sold a stolen animal. Only in the case of kidnap-
ping (Ex 21:16) or theft of *‘devoted things’’ (Josh
7:11, 25) was a thief executed.
gdnab is used figuratively to describe wind
sweeping something away unexpectedly (Job
21:18; 27:20). In the Hithpael the word is used to
depict the thief-like movements of military de-
serters (II Sam 19:4). ‘*To steal the heart”’ is an
idiom which means *‘to deceive.”’ It is correctly,
rendered by the rsv in Gen 31:20 (‘‘outwit’’) but
missed by both rsv and asv in Gen 31:26—27 and
Il Sam 15:6.
J.E.S.

ma (ganna). See no. 367b.

365 32 (gnz). Assumed root of the following.

365a td (g*nadzim) chests (meaning
uncertain, Ezk 27:24); treasury (Est
3:9; 4:7).

366 ‘133 (ganzak) treasury (I Chr 28:11). Per-

sian loan word.

(gdnan) defend. (asv and Rsv also
render ‘‘put a shield about,” and ‘‘pro-
tect.”

Derivatives

367a 2 (gan) enclosure, garden.

367b =6m33. (ganna) garden.

367c = t33% «=(madgén) shield.

367d tI «(mginnd) covering.

367e *t13 (magan) deliver up. Denomi-
native from mdagén. Occurs only in
the Piel.

The verb and its derivatives occur about 130
times. The basic idea of the verb is to cover over
and thus shield from danger.

gdnan is used only in reference to the protec-
tive guardianship of God. Of its eight occur-
rences, six have to do with the Assyrian crisis in
the days of Hezekiah. Isaiah assured the king that
God would care for Jerusalem like a mother bird
hovering with wings spread over her young in the
nest (Isa 31:5). God would protect Jerusalem in
this crisis for his own sake and for the sake of
David (Isa 37:35). The deliverance of Jerusalem
would demonstrate to the world that God was
faithful to his promises and mighty to deliver his
people from their oppressors. Zechariah twice
uses the same verb to describe the divine protec-
tion of God's people in their wars against the sons
of Greece (9:15) and of Jerusalem in the last days
(12:8).

gan, ganna. Garden. A garden(gan, ganna) is
a plot of ground protected by a wall or a hedge.

These areas were often irrigated (Isa 58:11) and
were used to cultivate flowers, fruits, and veget-
ables (Song 5:1; 6:2). During the hot summer
months such gardens provided a refuge from the
stifling heat (Song 5:2; 8:13). The king's resi-
dence probably included an elaborate garden or
private park (II Kgs 25:4). Frequently gardens
were used as burial places (II Kgs 21:18, 26).
Isaiah condemned the people of his day for turn-
ing their gardens into centers-for pagan worship
(Isa 1:29: 65:3; 66:17). An enclosed and fruitful
garden became the figure of a chaste woman
(Song 4:12) and of national prosperity (Num 24:6;
Jer 29:5; Amos 9:14). The destruction of such
gardens typified desolation (Amos 4:9).

The primeval garden of Gen 2-3 is perhaps the
most famous garden in the oT. This garden was
located in an area called Eden (q.v.; Gen 2:8, 10)
and consequently came to be known as the gar-
den of Eden (Gen 2:15; 3:23-24). A careful study
of the geographical details of Gen 2 suggests that
the garden was located near the mouth of the
Persian Gulf. It is not unlikely that the original
site lies under the waters of the gulf. In later
times this garden, known also as the ‘“‘garden of
the Lorp,”’ came to be used as a symbol of land
that was covered with lush vegetation (Gen
13:10; Isa 51:3; Ezk 36:35; Joel 2:3). In one pas-
sage the ‘‘garden of God’’ represents the created
world and the trees of the garden, the kings of the
earth (Ezk 31:8-18). A primeval garden appears
in Ezk 28:12-19. This passage is notoriously dif-
ficult. It is probably best regarded as a mocking
allusion to a corrupt Canaanite version of the
Eden story.

magen. Shield, buckler, defense, ruler, armed,
scales, now also suzerain is suggested. The noun
mageén refers to an object which provides cover-
ing and protection to the body during warfare. Of
the six Hebrew words rendered in kJv as
‘‘shield’’ or ‘‘buckler’’ only mdgén, sinnd, and
possibly shelet refer to what may properly be
called shields. It is obvious that mdgén and sinna
refer to different types of shields, but English
versions have not consistently maintained the
distinction, rendering both words _ indiscrimi-
nately as ‘‘shield”’ or ‘‘buckler.”’ mdgén refers to
the smaller and more common type of round
shield carried by light infantry and officers. sinna
is the rectangular shield which covered the whole
front of the body.

In view of the fact that God is always the one
who protects (gdnan) his people, it is no surprise
that he is so often called the shield (mdgén) of
Israel. He is the shield about his servants (Gen
15:1), the house of Aaron (Ps 115:10), the nation
of Israe} (Deut 33:29) and all those who walk up-
rightly and put their trust in him (Prov 2:7; 30:5).
The word mdgén is also used figuratively of princes

169

368 mpa

369 ya (ga‘al)

as protectors of the realm (Ps 89:18 [H 19]; 47:9
[H 10]: Hos 4:18).

Though not specifically listed in the vocabulary
of Gordon (UT 19) or Aistleitner (AisWUS),
magén may also mean ‘‘suzerain.”’ Dahood has
argued the case convincingly in AB, Ps I (p. 17
and elsewhere, see indices). He argues from the
meaning of mdgan “‘bestow a gift’? amply wit-
nessed in Punic and Ugaritic (UT and AisWUS in
loc.), that the noun refers to the giver of gifts, the
suzerain, the benefactor (from the suzerain’s
viewpoint!). He remarks that the Carthaginian
generals were called mdgon, translated into
Latin by imperator. There are indeed places
especially in the Pss, where the translation
‘‘suzerain”’ fits very well, though it is difficult to
be sure, for a suzerain claims to be both a bene-
factor and a protector. So a passage like Ps 89:18
could be ‘‘shield’* used figuratively of a prince,
or could be translated directly as **suzerain.”

m‘ginna. Sorrow. Occurs only once in the ex-
pression “‘sorrow of heart,’’ a figure for obsti-
nacy or blindness of heart (Lam 3:65). The asv
translates it “hardness of heart’ and the Rsv
‘*dullness of heart.”

magan. Deliver, deliver up. (RSV “bestow,”
‘*hand over’: asv “‘cast off’). A denominative
from magén used only three times, all in the Piel,
or, according to Dahood, a separate verb. The
idea is that a person is so hemmed in that there is
no way of escape from the particular danger en-
visioned. This verb is synonymous with the Piel
of sdgar.

J-E.S:

(ga‘a) low (of cattle, Job 6:5: I Sam

6:12).

369 5ya (gd‘al) abhor, loathe, be vilely cast away,
fall.

Derivative
369a sO 3

This root indicates an intense aversion which Is
expressed often in punitive or adverse action.

If Israel kept the Lord’s law, the Lord would
not abhor them but continue to dwell among them
(Lev 26:11), but if they abhorred the divine stat-
utes, then God would bring judgments on the
people (26:15). The attitude which the Lord
would hold toward those on whom he would visit
judgment is expressed by this root (26:30), indi-
cating a rejection of those persons. The divine
abhorrence is paralleled on the part of the people
by their abhorrence and their contempt for the
Lord’s statutes and ordinances (26:43). But the
Lord's abhorrence of them would not extend to
their destruction in the land of their exile or to

(2g0'al) loathing.

370 3¥2 (ga‘ar)

forgetting them (26:44). The judgment predicted
in Lev 26 finds its fulfillment in the time of
Jeremiah who used this word to describe the
Lord’s attitude toward Israel when he afflicted
them in accordance with the cursing formulae of
the covenant. The abhorrence of the sanctity of
marriage obligations is the root from which arises
progressively deeper transgressions illustrated by
the worsening spiritual state of the *‘daughters”’
Sodom and Jerusalem in comparison with their
‘‘father,’’ the Hittite and their ‘‘mother,”’ the
Amorite (Ezk 16:45). David implies that the vile
death of Saul and Jonathan Is inconsistent with
their status (II Sam 1:21), except that rejection of
God may result in that kind of death.

B.K.W.

370 “22 (gd‘ar) corrupt, rebuke, reprove.
Derivatives

370a_ tMNYd (g°‘drad) rebuke.
370b Oo tmayar «(mig'eret) rebuke.

This root indicates a check applied to a person
or peoples through strong admonitions or ac-
tions.

Jacob rebukes Joseph v'hen he relates the
dream of sun, moon, and eleven stars bowing to
him (Gen 37:10). Aggressive nations flee before
God when he checks their deed against his people
(Isa 17:13). God rebukes Satan’s attempt to hin-
der worship in Jerusalem (Zech 3:2).

Ruth is not prevented from gleaning in Boaz’s
fields even though she is from Moab (Ruth 2:16).
God prevents the normal action of water and
wave when he rolls back the Red Sea (Ps 106:9).

g“ara. Rebuke, rebuking. The seas cannot
prevent the revelation of secrets buried in their
depths, for God’s rebuke can roll them back to
expose all that is there (II Sam 22:16). g° ‘ard
describes the rejection of wise counsel by the
scoffer (Prov 13:1). It likewise describes the
power in the command of God to dry up the sea
(Isa 50:2), to make the heavens tremble (Job
26:11), to overthrow the warrior (Ps 76:6 [H 7}),
and to destroy morale which results in flight be-
fore the enemy (Isa 30:17). Wise rebuke is effec-
tive in the hearts of those who accept it (Prov
17:10; Eccl 7:5), but the scoffer rejects wise
counsel. In contrast to the rich man who may
have to ransom his life, the poor man does not
even hear a threat (Prov 13:8).

mig‘eret. Rebuke (RSV frustration). This
noun is used once in parallelism with the words
cursing and vexation (hamm’érd and ham-
m¢ehamd, Deut 28:20), indicating the fruitless
conclusion of the activities of a people which
turns away from God.

Bibliography: Macintosh, A. A., ‘‘A Consid-

170

371 Wy32 (gd‘ash) shake, quake

eration of Hebrew 5y3,°° VT 19: 471-79. THAT,
I, pp. 429-30.
H.G:S.

(e.g. Ps 18:8;
IY Sam 22:8).

AI (gap). See no. 373c.

372 B23 (gpn). Assumed root of the following.

372a 3BA SC (gepen) vine, vine tree.

It has the same meaning in Ugaritic. In Akka-
dian it denotes a ‘shrub, plant with tendrils.”
This root designates the grape vine of whatever
species (cf. Job 15:33; Jer 8:13).

Noah was the first after the flood to grow
grapes, though this word is not used in that con-
nection. The vine was cultivated in predynastic
Egypt, and pictures of grape vines were shown
laden with grapes.

The planting and care of a vineyard (kerem
q.v.) is described in Isa 5:1-6, which indicates the
grapes could be good (sweet) or wild (sour).
Ground was prepared by gathering out the
stones, the larger ones used to make up the en-
circling walls. Sometimes the vineyard was the
only source of income, which would explain Na-
both’s refusal to sell to Ahab (I Kgs 21:1-4).

The Lord's favor is expressed in the gift of
vines and vineyards (Hos 2:15 [H 14, 17]). The
vine figures in visions (Gen 40:9-10) and parables
(Jud 9:12), indicating its prominence; it is figura-
tive for a fruitful wife (Ps 128:3). Vineyards could
be rented. (These are not gepen). The grapes
were preserved as raisins as well as being made
into wine.

Behm notes that the metaphor of the vine is
common in Israelite and Judaic literature. ‘‘It 1s
used,”” he writes, ‘‘for the people of Israel in Hos
10:1; Jer 2:21, Ez 15:1ff.; 19:10ff; Ps 80:9ff. .. .;
for the messiah which is like a vine’; for wisdom
in Sir. 24:17; for the wife in Ps. 128:3°*’ (TDNT,
I, p. 342). It is against the failure of Israel to
produce the fruit that the Lord was looking for,
namely, justice and righteousness (Isa 5:1-6),
that Jesus’ proclamation that he is the true vine
must be interpreted (John 15:1ff.).

Bibliography: Brown, J. P., **The Mediterra-
nean Vocabulary of the Vine,”’ VT 19: 146-70.
Forbes, R. J., Studies in Ancient Technology 3:
70-78.

H.G.S.

373 53 (gpp). Assumed root of the following.

373a 3 (gap) body, self (Ex 21:3-4);
height, elevation (Prov 9:3).

374 SBA (géper) with PY (‘és) gopher wood.

Meaning unknown.

The only use of this word in the oT occurs in
Gen 6:14. Because it is similar to kdpar ‘to cover
over,’ some have believed that the g is mis-
written for k, and that therefore gdper should be
translated resinous wood, like fir or pine (cf.
BDB; A. Heidel, Gilgamesh Epic and O.T.
Parallels, Univ of Chicago Press, p. 233). If the
word were derived from Akkadian gipdru, it
might be a Sumerian loan word (Heidel, ibid.),
but the equivalent in Hebrew would be gip4ar.
Hebrew goper presumes an Akkadian form
gupru (analogues: Audpru: képer, Gen 6:14).
gupru has been found in two or three passages
(Heidel, p. 234) but with the meaning ‘‘tables’’;
and once in the Old Babylonian version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, Tab II, col 2, line 33 (ibid, p. 28;
Orientalische Literaturzeitung 24: col 269). The
use of the wood in Noah's ark (q.v.) may be ex-
plained as follows: the word ‘‘nests’’ (KJV
‘‘rooms’’) should perhaps be translated ‘‘reeds”’
since other uses of the root for this word are in
the singular, and since construction tn general is
under consideration. If **reeds’’ were accepted, it
would follow that gopher wood was the frame-
work with reed interlacing. Actually the brief bi-
blical account can hardly be used to give the de-
tails of construction. (cf. Ullendorf, E. *‘The
Construction of Noah’s Ark,’’ VT 4: 95-96).

H.G.S.

375 mba (goprit) brimstone (e.g. Gen 19:24;
Ps 11:6; Niv, sulfur).

fA (ger). See no. 330a.
44 (gir). See no. 347a.

376 353 (grb). Assumed root of the following.
376a = 3393 «(gardb) itch, scab (Lev 21:20;
22:22; Deut 28:27).

"393 (gargar). See no. 386c.
ninasa_ (garg*rot). See no. 386d.

377 *993 (garad) scrape, scratch. Occurs
only once, in the Hithpael (Job 2:8).

378 "33 (gard) stir up, be stirred up, contend,
meddle, strive.

Derivatives

378a =o 93) «(gdrén) neck, throat.
378b = M9 ((tigrad) contention, strife.

The root is often used in connection with war-
fare. Thus Israel was commanded to involve him-
self in battle with Sihon, the Amorite, so that the
Amorites should be dispossessed and his land
taken by the Israelites (Deut 2:24). Warfare is
also explicitly in view in Israel's relation with
Moab at the time of the Conquest (Deut 2:9), and
implied in its relation with Edom and Ammon

171

381 953 (gerl)

(Deut 2:5,19). However, Israel was prohibited
from involving himself in battle with Edom,
Moab and Ammon because they were blood rela-
tives. Involvement in war is also the purpose of
Amaziah of Judah in his challenge to Jehoash of
Israel, that Amaziah (per Johoash) might increase
his territory (II Kgs 14:9-10). Likewise the uses
in Dan 11 clearly point to warfare: in this case
between Egypt and Syria (vv. 10, 25).

The word is used apart from war to denote the
opposition of God's people to those who forsake
God’s law (Prov 28:4). A characteristic of the
proud (Prov 28:25) or angry (15:18) is to stir up
strife. Blinded by her strife against God, Babylon
is caught unawares in a snare (Jer 50:24).

Psalm 39:10 [H 11} has the only use of tigrd,
descriptive of the blow of God’s hand levelled
against David.

B.K.W.

ma (gérad) I, Il. See nos. 386a,b.
In3 (gdrén). See no. 378a.
mwisa (g°rashad). See no. 388b.

379 *t53 (gdraz) cut, cut off. Occurs only

once, in the Niphal (Ps 31:23).

Derivative
379a = NA (garzen) axe (e.g. Deut 19:5;
I Kgs 6:7).

380 esa (ertl). Assumed root of the following.

380a bSIN «('dgartal) basin, basket (Ezr
1:9; II Kgs 10:7).

381 %53 (gril). Assumed root of the following.

38la_ tos32 (géral) lot, portion.

Occurs seventy-seven times (without Prov
19:19 Kethiv; Qere gd/) and is always translated
‘lot’ or ‘lots’ (kjv). Probably the noun is re-
lated to Arabic garwal ‘pebble’ (KB) and by
metonomy came to be used for “‘lot’’ because
little stones were used in lasting lots. BDB call
attention here to Greek pséphos = ‘‘pebble,”
“vote,” and Auamos = “*bean,” “‘lot.’* It refers
then to some article like a stone which was
thrown or allowed to fall in a way to determine a
choice. In some cases not only the lot itself but
what was chosen is called lot (Jud 1:3), and one’s
circumstances or even life as a whole is one's lot
(Ps 16:5). Recompense or reward may be one’s
lot (Isa 17:14; Dan 12:13).

While the Hebrew oT uses six verbs meaning
throw, give or fall describing the method of de-
termining choice by lot, ksv translates each of
them as casting lots (Lev 16:8; Josh 18:6, 8; Prov
16:33; Isa 34:17; Joel 4:3). The lot is said to come
up, out, upon, or for a person or thing.

Nowhere does the oT explain either what a lot

382 B33 (gdram)

is or how casting lots was accomplished. Prov
16:33 mentions that ‘‘the lot 1s cast into the lap”’
and Micah speaks of casting ‘‘a cord by lot”’
(2:5); but these observations provide no real
clues to the nature of the lot nor to the method of
casting lots. Quite possibly we ought to assume
differing techniques for various places, times and
occasions. Its exact connection with Urim and
Thummim is not known.

The use of the lot to determine the mind and
the will of God continues throughout the otf and is
explicitly declared to be in his control in Prov
16:33: ‘‘The lot is cast into the lap; but the whole
disposing thereof is of the LORD.”’

One of the most important uses of the lot oc-
curred in the division of the land of Palestine
among the Israelites after the conquests of Moses
and Joshua. Under Moses direction, Reuben,
Gad, and a half-tribe of Manasseh received land
east of the Jordan. Under Joshua the land west of
the Dead Sea, the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee
was distributed by lot to the remaining tribes.
This casting of lots was done partly at Gilgal
(Josh 14-17) and partly at Shiloh (Josh 18, 19).
The Levites were granted cities for themselves in
various tribal areas. These cities also were appor-
tioned by lot (Josh 21).

The retention of family patrimonies is illus-
trated in the case of Zelophehad’s daughters who
were not to marry outside their tribe so that their
inheritance would not be taken from the lot of
their father’s tribe (Num 36:1-2). By metonymy
the word is used for the portion of land assigned
to a tribe or family and therefore becomes an
equivalent for nahdlad ‘‘inheritance,”’ heleg
‘portion, y‘rishsha “‘possession,” ‘Ghiizza
‘‘possession,”’ etc. From this the noun comes to
denote in general *‘portion, fate, destiny”’ (cf. Isa
17:14; 34:17; 57:6; Jer 13:25; Ps 16:5). At the end
of the days the resurrected man will stand in his
lot (Dan 12:3).

On the day of atonement the destiny of two
goats was determined by lot (Lev 16:8-10)—one
lot for the LORD and the other lot for the
scapegoat. The goat on which the LORD 's lot fell
was offered on the altar, while the sins of the
Israelites were confessed over the other goat and
the goat was sent away into the wilderness. This
act indicated that the sins were taken away—
removed from the Israelites. After this fashion
atonement and removal of their sins was effected.

Victors cast lots in dividing the spoils of the
booty in general, of Jerusalem (Ob 11), of the
honorable men taken in Thebes (Nah 3:10), of the
ravaged people of Israel (Joel 3:3 [H 4:3]}) and of
the Messiah’s clothing (Ps 22:18 (H 19}; cf. Jn
19:24). Lots were also cast for assignment to ser-
vice: of the men to fight against Gibeah (Jud
20:9), of the priests to serve in the temple (I
Chron 24:5), of the people to dwell in Jerusalem

172

383 33s (ern).

(Neh 11:1) and of those to supply wood for the
altar fire (Neh 10:34 [H 35]). In addition, it was
used to discover God's will for the detection of a
guilty person: of Achan (Jos 7:14) (?) and of
Jonah (Jon 1:7). Rooted in the awareness that
God controlled Israel’s history and the individu-
al’s portion, the lot served to settle disputes
(Prov 18:18).

The casting of the lot to decide governmental
or judicial matters was practiced by other ancient
peoples, as by Haman in the time of Esther. It
was by a decision called casting Pur (lot, géral)
that Haman, the enemy of the Jews, determined a
proper time for their massacre, whereupon he
sent word throughout the provinces ruled by
Ahasuerus that the Jews should be destroyed
(Est 3:7; 9:24). But because Mordecai with the
help of Esther was able to frustrate this attempt
of Haman, the day of Purim became a time of
rejoicing rather than one of sadness. Throughout
the book the providential timing of events deci-
sively favors the Jews against Haman.

Bibliography: J. Lindlom, **Lot-casting in the
OT.”” VT: 12: 164-66.

E.S.K.

382 ena (gdram) lay aside, leave, save. Oc-

curs only in Zeph 3:3.

Derivatives
382a ana) (gerem) bone (Prov 17:22),
strength, (Gen 49:14), self (II
Kgs 9:13).

382b 06*BIa =(gdram) break bones. This
denominative verb occurs only in
the Piel (Num 24:8; Ezk 23:34).

Assumed root of the following.

383a 193 (godren) barn, barnfloor, corn,
floor, threshingfloor, threshing place,
void place. This word signifies the
place where grain was threshed from
the stalk and chaff.

The threshing floor when full was at once the
symbol of plenty and wealth and the target of
raiders (I Sam 23:1). It was vulnerable to attack,
because it had to be open to breezes which facill-
tated winnowing the grain. The threshing place of
Arauna, which David bought and where Solomon
later built the temple, was such a place. If near
the town, the goren was a communal thing and
therefore near the gate (I Kgs 22:10, a ‘‘void
place’). Ruth finds Boaz on the threshing floor,
presumably guarding the newly harvested
sheaves or threshed grain.

The blessing of God is symbolized by the full
threshing floor (Joel 2:24). From it was taken the
heave offering to the Lord (Num 15:20) and the

tithe of the increase (over what was planted
18:30).

The sheaves were spread out on the hard sur-
face and either trampled by animals or by a
sledge or roller machine to separate the kernels
from the stalks, the whole being turned over a
sufficient number of times to effect the separa-
tion.

Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G. W., ‘Der Pro-
phet Nathan und der Tempelbau,”” VT 11: 113-
27. Gray, John, “‘Tell El Fara by Nablus: A
‘Mother’ in Ancient Israel,’ PEQ 84: 110-13.
, The Goren at the City Gate: Justice and
the Royal Office in the Ugaritic Text ‘AQHT,”’
PEQ 85: 118-23. Lambert, W. G., **Two Akka-
dian Cognates,’” JJS 5: 40-41. Marget, Arthur
W., “3193 154 in I] Sam 6,6,’ JBL 39: 70-76.
Smith, Sidney, ‘‘The Threshing Floor at the City
Gate,"” PEQ 78: 5-14. Wright, G. E., Biblical
Archaeology, 1957, p. 182.

H.G.S.

B13 (garas). See no. 387.

384 ya (gara‘) clip, diminish, restrain, take
from, withdraw, abate, do away, keep back.

Derivative

—-4 A

384a Apa «(migra‘a) recess.

This root signifies a reduction of quantity of
things or of social or religious activities.

The Israelites, during their bondage in Egypt,
were not permitted to lower their production of
bricks, even when they were forced to gather
their own straw (Ex 5:7-8). The inevitable re-
duced count was attributed to idleness on their
part (5:17).

Women were not allowed to marry outside
their tribes if they were heirs to property, in order
to avoid diminishing the tribe's economic stand-
ing (Num 36: 1-7). A person who had become un-
clean from contact with a corpse was not prohib-
ited from eating the Passover, but was to do soa
month later (Num 9:7). The ordinances of God
must not be diminished or added to in their small-
est parts that Israel might have the larger blessing
(Deut 4:2; cf. Rev 22:18-19). The many progeny
promised to the faithful would be cut down if they
turned away from God (Ezk 5:11).

Whereas Eliphaz accuses Job of repressing
meditation before God and limiting wisdom to
himself, Job learns that God does not forsake
(withdraw from) the righteous, which widens his
perspective. (Job 36:7).

In the marriage relationship the rights of a sec-
ondary wife to food, clothing or conjugal rela-
tlons may not be diminished (Ex 21:10).

H.G:.S.

173

385 ASA (gdrap) sweep

386 "33 (gdrar) drag, drag away

388 W43 (gdrash)

(Jud 5:21, only).

Derivatives
385a = ASIN (Cegrop) fist (Ex 21:18; Isa
58:4).
385b. «MDI «6(megradpa) shovel (Joel
1:17, only).

(e.g. Hab
1:15; Prov 21:7).

Derivatives

386a «=a «6((gérd) 1, cud (e.g. Lev 11;
Deut 14).

386b «653 «((gérad) =H, gerah, a weight, a
twentieth part of a shekel (e.g. Ex
39:13; Lev 27:25).

386c 863493 «(gargar) berry (Isa 17:6,
only).

386d = Ainana «(garg’rét) neck (e.g. Prov
1:9; 3:22).

386e 86 MAA (me géra) saw (I Kgs 7:9; I
Sam 12:31).

387 was (gdras) be crushed (Ps 119:20; Lam

3:16 there spelled with samekh).

Derivative

387a =6 92 «(geres) acrushing (Lev 2:14,

16).

388 Ws (garash) cast up, drive out/laway, di-

vorce, expel, put away, thrust out, trouble.
Derivatives

388a twha (geresh) thing put forth.
388b tmysna (gtrushd) act of expulsion.
388c twas «(migrdsh) suburb.

The root denotes an effective separation be-
tween persons or groups, expulsion. Ugaritic at-
tests the meaning ‘‘to drive out.”’

Adam and Eve were driven from the garden of
Eden and prevented from returning by the angel
with the flaming sword (Gen 3:24). Cain was ex-
pelled from God’s presence and forced to become
a defenseless wanderer among men (Gen 4:14),
the penalty of his fratricide. Israel was to dispos-
ses the Canaanites from the promised land and
eject them (Ex 23:31). Balak hoped to expel the
Israelites (Num 22:11) by force. David used the
word to describe his flight from Saul (1 Sam
26:19) because it was affected by violent means
(hence the word gdrash, forcible or violent ex-
pulsion). The men who petitioned Pharoah to re-
lease the Israelites were driven from his presence
(Ex 10:11), probably whipped away by the royal
bodyguard and his officers. It would appear that
although the context must supply the method, the
word does include some idea of the use of physi-

389 *awa (gasham)

cal means. An illustration of the means used is
seen in Josh 24:12, where the hornet is the means
(figuratively) of spurring on the exodus of the
Canaanites from before Israel. Of course the
word of authority of king or judge was sufficient
to effect expulsion from office. I Kings 2:27
states Solomon expelled Abiathar from the
priesthood because of machinations against
David. Deuteronomy 24:1-4 deals with the bill of
divorcement which separated husband and wife.

gadrash expresses the execution of divine wrath
in respect to the Canaanites’ expulsion from the
land (Ex 23:31) and later on, Israel’s (Hos 9:15).
Envy is the cause of the expulsion of Jephthah by
his brothers (Jud 11:7). Fear and consternation
led Pharoah at last to expel the Israelites (Ex
11:1; 12:31).

garash is applied figuratively to the wicked in
Isa 57:20. They will not always be hidden, but as
the sea casts up flotsam and jetsam on the beach,
so will the wicked be exposed. Paul (Gal 4:29-30)
refers to the expulsion of Hagar (Gen 21:10) al-
legorically, describing the basic difference be-
tween those who work for salvation and those
who believe God's promises, inferring that in the
same way the former will be ejected from the
kingdom of God.

geresh. Thing put forth, produced. A poetic
term, used of produce arriving in its season, as if
produced by the sun or moon (Deut 33:14).

g’rasha. Act of expulsion, a violence. Used of
oppressive actions against peoples (Ezk 45:9).

migrash. Suburb, cast out. Descriptive of a
principle city or town and used of the subordinate
villages as separate entities around a principle
city. Perhaps derived from gdrash ‘‘drive,’’ then
the pasture land to which the flocks were driven.
The relation to the root is unclear.

H.G.S.

389 *DBW3 (gdsham). This denominative verb
occurs in the Pual ‘‘be rained upon’’ (Ezk
22:24), and in the Hiphil ‘‘cause or send
rain’” (Jer 14:22).

174

390 Wa (gdshen) Goshen.

391 *wwa (gashash) feel with the

Parent Noun

389a BW (geshem) rain,
Gen 7:12; Amos 4:7).

Shower (e.g.

A district in Egypt.

It is synonymous with the ‘*land of Ramesses”’
(Gen 47:6,11). The location of the district de-
pends on the location of the city of Avaris (also
called Tanis), capital of the Hyksos dynasty.
Later known as Pi-Ramesses, Avaris was the seat
of the pharoahs during the time of Joseph. There-
fore, the district of Goshen must have been near
Pi-Ramesses, which some have located in the
ruins of Khata‘naQantir on the Bubastite Nile.
The city Tanis on Lake Menzaleh is not a likely
candidate since it was not founded until the
Twenty-first Dynasty (1065 B.c. and later). The
direct land connection to Asiatic areas of the cap-
ital city implied in the Joseph narrative would not
be true of the latter Tanis.

It has been shown that the name ‘*Goshen”’ is
found in the name Phacusa (modern Faqus). This
name, read by some from the Egyptian as S§mt, is
actually to be read gSmt, Hebrew goshem, Greek
gesem. According to the narrative of Abbess As-
theria, Gaqus is only four miles from Pi-
Ramesses (thus locating it), which places Goshen
close to the Egyptian seat of government.

Bibliography: Uphill, E. P., ‘*Pithom and
Raamsees: Their Location and Significance,”’
JNES 27: 291-316; 28: 15-39. Stigers, H. G.,
Genesis, Moody, 1975. Van Seters, John, The
Hyksos: A New Investigation, Yale, 1966.
Kitchen, K. A., “‘Raamses,’’ in ZPEB, V, p. 14.
, The Bible in its World, Paternoster, 1977,
pp. 76-78.

H.G.S.

hand,
stroke. This verb occurs only once, in the
Piel (Isa 59:10).

See no. 84la.
See no. 841b.

m3 (gat).
PA. (gittit).

392 383 (da’éb) become faint, languish (Jer
31:13, 25; Ps 88:10).

392a MONT «(d°'aba) faintness, dismay
(Job 41:14).

392b 0 BRT (d°'abén) faintness, languish-

ing (Deut 28:65).
NWaxt (d°‘abdn). See no. 392b.

393 ANT be afraid, careful.

Derivative

(da'ag)

393a TRAST (d"’Ggd) care, anxiety.

The root da‘ag signifies anxiety, witha shading
toward the meaning of fear in some cases.

Saul left off searching for his father’s asses be-
cause he feared that his father would feel anxiety,
arising out of the time spent in the search (I Sam
9:5; 10:2). Jeremiah portrays the attitude of a man
who trusts in God in the midst of invasion as
untroubled (non-anxious) by such events (17:8,
paraphrasing Ps 1), for he draws nourishment and
strength from divine resources.

Zedekiah refuses to surrender to the Babylo-
nians (Jer 38:19) because he is concerned about
the Jews who have gone over to the Babylonians,
fearing that they will harm him.

Isaiah asks the harlot, Israel, who it was that
brought such fear and worry on her that she
turned to idolatry without thinking of the Lord
(Isa 57:11).

d°’aga. Care, carefulness, fear, sorrow, heavi-
ness. The tribes which settled east of the Jor-
dan expressed a proper anxiety that their children
would forget God. Therefore they set up an altar,
not for sacrifice, but rather to remind future gen-
erations of their duty to serve the Lord together
with the tribes living west of the Jordan.

H.G.S.

394 BRT (da'd) fly swiftly, dart through the
air (e.g. Deut 28:49; Ps 18:11).

Derivatives

394a MNT «(da'da) birdofprey (Lev 11:14;
Deut 14:13).
39460 om (davya) bird of _ prey (Isa
34:15).
323 (dob). See no. 396b.
395 x3" (db’). Assumed root of the following.
395a = 83% «(ddbe’) rest (Deut 33:25).

Meaning uncertain.

396 332 (ddbab) move gently, glide, glide over.

Derivatives
396a t3% (dob) bear.
396b =fm33 (dibba) defaming, evil report.
dob. Bear, Ursinus Syriacus (the Syrian bear).

When deprived of its cubs this animal is a
dangerous creature (I1 Sam 17:8; cf. Prov 17:12);
at times it roars out in frustration (Isa 59:11). On
occasion they attacked people (cf. Amos 5:19);
once they attacked in fulfillment of Elyah’s curse
on people who were insolent toward God (II Kgs
2:24).

The bear is used as a metaphor for the activity
of both the wicked and of God. In the former use
it denotes the wicked as essentially bestial—
cruel, insensitive, self-seeking, and without a
Spiritual consciousness (Prov 28:15; cf. other
passages where the wicked are described as bes-
tial: Ps 22:12ff.; Dan 7:1-8). In the latter usage it
denotes the ferocity of God's wrath unleashed
against sinful Israel (Lam 3:10; Hos 13:8).

dibba. Defaming, evil report, infamy, slander.
This word refers to defamation, perhaps whis-
pered slander, if the connection is with the root
dabab *‘to move gently.’ It is used for a report of
evil character (Gen 37:2). The fainthearted spies
give a bad report on Canaan (Num 13:32). The
utterance of dibba@ marks the fool (Prov 10:18).
Israel is a dibba, a public scandal, and will be
judged by God (Ezk 36:3).

The root in Akkadian means “‘to speak,
charge, plot’; in an Aramaic compound ‘to
slander’’; in Egyptian “lawsuit.”

H.G.S.
m3% (dibba). See no. 396b.
msia3 (d*bdra). See no. 399f.
“935 (d' bir). See no. 399g.
397 %3"% (dbl). Assumed root of the following.
397a = MPO7 «(d°*béla) lump of pressed figs
(e.g. I Sam 39:12; 1 Chr 12:40).

398 35 (dabaq) cleave, cling, stick to, stick
with, follow closely, catch, keep close to, join
to, overtake.

Derivative
398a 493% (debeq) joints, soldering.

dabagq is used quite often in the oT of physical
things sticking to each other, especially parts of

177

399 927 (dabar)

the body. Job says that his bone cleaves to his skin
(19:20) and that formerly the tongue of leading
men cleaved to the roof of their mouths when he
was present (29:10). This figure of the tongue
cleaving to the roof of the mouth in silence occurs
also in Ps 137:6 and Ezk 3:26. In another place Job
asserts his innocence by saying that nothing
cleaved to his hands Job 31:7—a figure well-
known in the modern world.

In God's description of leviathan, he mentions
that ‘‘the flakes of his flesh are joined together”
(Job 41:23 {H 9]), referring to the plates of a
crocodile’s skin or the scales of a snake(?).

Elsewhere it is said of an unfortunate situation:
‘*My bones cleave to my skin™’ (Ps 102:5 |H 6}) and
‘*The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the
roof of his mouth for thirst’’ (Lam 4:4), a figure
also employed in Ps 22:15 for the suffering Mes-
siah in his thirst (cf. Lk 23:36).

Parts of the body are said to stick to various
objects. Psalm 44:25 says ‘our belly cleaveth unto
the earth” and Ps 119:25, ‘My soul cleaveth unto
the dust.** Of one of David’s mighty men it is said
that he slew Philistines until ***his hand clave unto
the sword” (IJ Sam 23:10).

dabaq also carries the sense of clinging to
someone in affection and loyalty. Manis to cleave
to his wife (Gen 2:24). Ruth clave to Naomi (Ruth
1:14). The men of Judah clave to David their king
during Sheba’s rebellion (II Sam 20:2). Shechem
loved Dinah and clave to her (Gen 34:3) and Sol-
omon clave in love to his wives (I Kgs 11:2).

Most importantly, the Israelites are to cleave to
the Lord in affection and loyalty (Deut 10:20;
11:22; 13:4 [H 5]; 30:20: Josh 22:5; 23:8) if his
blessing is to be theirs. In Jer 13:11 it is said that
the Lord caused the Israelites to cleave to him.
and Hezekiah is approved because he clave to the
Lord. In these verses parallel words and phrases
that describe this proper attitude to the Lord are:
fear, serve, love. obey, swear by his name, walk in
his ways, and keep his commandments.

dabaqg also means to keep close to someone,
and doubtless this sense is included in references
admonishing God's people to cleave to him. But
God is never the subject of the verb.

Boaz counsels Ruth to keep “‘fast by my
maidens” (2:8. 21) and so she did (v. 23). In the
causative form. d@baq means to pursue or even
overtake someone, usually in a hostile sense.
Laban overtakes Jacob in Gilead (Gen 31:23), and
Micah overtakes the children of Dan (Jud 18:22),
but the Israelites ** pursued hard” after a group of
the Benjamites (Jud 20:45) and later, after the
Philistines (1 Sam 14:22). Also, the Philistines
‘followed hard*’ upon Saul (J Sam 31:2: I Chr
10:2).

Sickness or pestilence or evil, too, is said to
overtake or adhere to people (Gen 19:19; Deut
28:21, 60; II Kgs 5:27). But the iron and the clay of

178

the toes of the image in Dan 2 will not stick to (K)v
‘*cleave’’) each other (v. 43).

debeq. Joints, soldering. | Occurs only three
times; twice as the joints of the protective armor
worn by Ahab when attempting to thwart God's
prophecy of his death (1 Kgs 22:34; II Chr 18:33)
which BDB translates attachment of appendage
between armor plates, and as soldering in Isa 41:7
describing the construction of idols. Reference is
obviously to one thing attached to another.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 421-32.
E.S.K

399 "35 (dadbar) to speak, declare, converse,

command, promise, warn, threaten, sing, etc.

Derivatives

399a i133 (dabar) word, speaking, speech,
thing, etc.

399b t93" (deber) pestilence.

399c 323% (ddber) pasture.

399d mina3% (ddbrot) floats, rafts.

399e tmnas (dibra) cause, reason, manner.

399f mist (d°béra) bee.

399g = ossas (d‘bir) I, oracle.

399h 1 t3935 (d°bir) HT, Debir, a city in
Judah.

3991 913% (dibbér) speaker, word.

399) tmass (dabberet) words.

399k “35% (midbar) I, mouth.

3991 tama (midbar) UH, wilderness.

Some lexicographers distinguish two roots for the
Hebrew dbr: I. ‘to be behind, to turn back” re-
lated to Arabic dub[u]r with the same meaning and
Akkadian dabaru *‘to push back.’ Derivatives of
this root include d“bir “back chamber,”’ dober
‘*(remote place) pasture,’ ddberét ‘raft [dragged
behind the ship],"° and midbar ‘steppe.’ II.
**word,’’ mostly found in the noun da@bar ‘word,
thing’ and the verb in Piel ‘‘to speak, address.™
Etymologically related to dbr II are dibra
“thing, and dibbér a rare nominal form of the
verb, and midbar ‘“‘mouth” with instrumental
mem. Although Seeligman (VT, 14: 80) derives
dabberet ‘‘word” from root I, it appears more
plausible to see it as a derivative of root II. While
BDB and GB do not differentiate dbr as occurring
as a Verb in two different roots, KB assigns dbr to
root I in the Piel for Job 19:18; 11 Chr 22:10 and in
Hiphil for Ps 18:47 [H 48] and 47:3 [4]. We will
limit our discussion of the verb to the putative root
II.

No convincing etymology for dbr has been of-
fered to this time. Akkadian possesses the vocabte
dabaébu—noun and verb—with meanings strik-
ingly similar to those of Hebrew. As a substantive
it Means ‘speech,’ or “‘legal matter’ and as a
verb **tospeak”’ (CAD. D.2-14). But Hebrew also
has a root dbb attested in the noun dibbd **whis-

pering, slander.” It is questionable whether the
similarity between Akkadian dbb and Hebrew dbr
is due to chance or to a true etymological connec-
tion.

The root occurs in the Lachish ostraca and in
the Siloam Tunnel Inscription. Outside of Hebrew
it occurs in Phoenician-Punic with the same mean-
ing as Hebrew and in Biblical Aramaic in a nomi-
nal dibrad **matter.””

dabar is probably a denominate verb from
dabar, as it is used almost exclusively in the Piel,
Pual, Hithpael, and Qal participle. Ugaritic evi-
dence shows no use of dabar *‘to speak” (nor of
‘amar *‘tosay’’), but does have instance of the use
of midbar II, wilderness.

In any language the words which represent the
basic verb for speaking and the noun for “‘word”™
cannot but be of supreme importance. The verb
dabar and the noun dabar have these important
spots in the Hebrew Bible. Procksch in TWNT
states that the noun is the basic form and the verb
stems from. it.

These two words occur more than 2500 times in
the oT, the noun more than 1400 times and the verb
more than 1100. The source of the words is unclear
though they are common in Semitic languages.

Some words cover much territory, spreading
into many areas of thought and in the process
compounding problems for communicators—
especially for those who try to translate ideas into
other languages. In the kv dabar is translated by
about thirty different words and dabdar by more
than eighty. Some of these are synonyms but
many are not. All, however, have some sense of
thought processes, of communication, or of sub-
jects or means of communication. The noun dabar
stretches all the way from anything that can be
covered by the word thing or matter to the most
sublime and dynamic notion of the word of God.

Many synonyms are found in Ps 1]9 where the
message from God is eulogized. Doubtless the
most important synonyms are ’dmar “‘tosay and
the masculine and feminine ‘émer and ‘imra
which are almost always translated ‘‘word.”’ In
his discussion on synonyms for the word of God,
Girdlestone mentions ‘amar “to say,” milla
“word,” n@’am “utter,” peh ‘“‘mouth,” tora
“law,” dat “edict.” hdg ‘statute, sdadwa
“command,” piggadim “charge,” ‘Orah ‘*way,”
derek “path, mishpat ‘judgment, and ‘6d
“testimony.”

In this list of synonyms, the first four refer to the
ordinary use of the root dabar. The word ‘amar
‘to say’ is very like dabar but is usually followed
by the thing said. milla ‘‘word* was long called a
late Aramaizing synonym, but now is recognized
as simply a poetic and less common expression for
WORD. nd'am is mostly restricted to the nominal
form n“’&m meaning a prophetic oracle. The word
peh**mouth” is a mere figurative use of the organ

179

399 37 (dabar)

of speech for the speech. The rest of the words in
Girdlestone’s list, edict, statute, command, etc.
are variant expressions for the authoritative word
indicated by dabar (or ’Omer or ’imra) in some
contexts.

[Although ‘mr **to say”’ is the closest synonym
to dbr, its basic meaning stands out clearly against
dbr (Piel). In the case of ‘mr the focus is on the
content of what is spoken, but in the case of
dbr primary attention is given to the activity
of speaking, the producing of words and clauses.
While ‘mr cannot be used absolutely (without
giving the content of what is said), dibber can
be so used (cf. Gen 24:14: Job 1:16; 16:4, 6).
Moreover, while ‘mr can have a diversity of sub-
jects by personification (land, animals, trees,
night, fire, works, etc.), dbr almost always has
personal subjects or designations of their organs
of speech (mouth, lips, tongue, etc.). They are
also distinguished with respect to the one ad-
dressed. While in the case of ‘mr it is sufficient to
use the weaker preposition /°, dbr normally de-
mands the stronger preposition ‘e/ (about ten
times more frequently than /"). These differences,
however, do not detract from the importance of
what is said as the object of dbr which includes
most matters pertaining to moral and ideal values.
As insome other verbs used mainly in the Piel, the
Qal occurrences are almost exclusively tn the ac-
tive participle and designate mostly one who
speaks something as a commandment or on ac-
count of an inner compulsion. Thus it is used with:
truth (Ps 15:2), lies/falsehood (Jer 40:16; Ps 5:6 {H
7); 58:3 [H 4]; 63:11 [H 12]; 101:7), right (Isa 33:15;
45:19; Prov 16:13), well-being (Est 10:3), folly (Isa
9:17 [H 16]), insolence (Ps 31:18 (H 19]). It is also
used of angels who bear God's message (Gen
16:13; Zech 1:9,13,19|H 2:2, etc.) and of speech of
abiding relevance (Num 27:7; 36:5). B.K.W.]

In the kJv some of the less common translations
of the dabar include: *‘answered™ (II Chr 10:14)
as parallel to ‘dnd ‘answer’ in v. 13 (where Re-
hoboam answers his critics); “‘uses entreaties”
(Prov 18:23); ‘give sentence’ or ‘give judgment’
in Jer 4:12 and 39:5 (with mishpatim); ** publish”
(Est 1:22) and ‘*be spoken for’* (Song 8:8). The Kv
has **subdues”’ in Ps 18:47 where some such no-
tion is necessary to parallel "avenge in the first
part of the sentence. This psalm occurs also in II
Sam 22 and there (v. 48) the Hebrew word for
‘*bring down”’ is used in the place of da@bar. This
corroborates the rare meaning of ‘‘subdue’’ for
ddabar in Ps 18:47 and Ps 47:3. Modern translations
also give this meaning in these passages.

A most important declaration, which is reiter-
ated over and over again (about 400 times), in the
ot use of ddbar, is that God *‘spoke.”’ The Pen-
tateuch is loaded with such statements as ‘The
Lorp said,’ *‘The Lorp promised” and ‘The
Lorp commanded,” all translations of ddbar.

399 127 (dabar)

God's spokesmen are often challenged as Moses
was challenged by Miriam and Aaron saying.
‘**Hath the Lorp indeed spoken only by Moses””’
(Num 12:2). But the Lorp always supports his
word and his spokesman.

dabar. Word, speaking, speech, thing, anything,
everything (with Ad/), nothing (with negatives),
commandment, matter, act, event, history, account,
business, cause, reason, and in construction with
prepositions: on account of, because that. This
noun is translated in eighty-five different ways in
the kjv! This ts due to the necessity of rendering
such a fertile word by the sense it has in vary-
ing contexts. As *“‘word’’ dabar basically means
what God said or says.

The decalogue, ‘‘the ten words’ (Ex 34:28,
Deut 4:13; 10:4), are ten declarations or state-
ments, as in Deut 10:4, the ten words (d*barim)
which the Lord spoke (dibbér). The ten words are
commandments because of the syntactical form of
their utterance. The ten words are what God said;
they are ten commandments because of how God
said them.

The ddbar is sometimes what is done and some-
times a report of what is done. So, often in Chr,
one reads of the acts (dibré) of a king which are
written in a certain book (dibré). ** Now the acts of
David the king... are written in the book of
Samuel the seer, and in the book of Nathan the
prophet, and, in the book of Gad the seer.’ In the
KJV of I] Chr 33:18 acts. words, spake and book are
all some form of ddbar/dabar. And in the next
verse, sayings is added to this list! The Hebrew
name for Chronicles 1s ‘‘the book of the words
(acts) of the times” (séper dibré hayyamim). Here
‘words (acts) of the times’ is equal to
**history’’—'‘annals.””

The revelatory work of God is often expressed
by “the word of the Lord came” to or upon a
person (I Chr 17:3 and often in the prophets).
Jehoshaphat says of Elisha that “the word of the
Lord is with him” (II Kgs 3:12). When prophecy
was Stilled as in Samuel's childhood, **The Word
of the Lorp was precious” (KJv; RSV ‘‘rare’’). But
Moses says that Israel has the word very near,
because he refers to the book of the law which had
recently been given to them. as the immediately
preceding context shows. In I] Sam 16:23 the
counsel of Ahithophel is said to be like the counsel
of an oracle (K)v, RSV). Here dabar is “oracle,”
though massa’, Kjv ‘“‘burden,”’ is often used for
oracle in modern translations.

[Gerleman notes that the singular construct
chain d‘bar YHWH “‘the word of the LorpD”™ oc-
curs 242 times and almost always (225 times) the
expression appears as a technical form for the pro-
phetic revelation (THAT, I, p.439). He also notes
that the plural construct chain dibré YHWH “the
words of the Lorp’’ occurs seventeen times and

180

much more frequently than the singular construc-
tion after verbs of speaking ngd [Hiphil] (Ex
4:28); spr [Piel] ‘to recount’* (Ex 24:3); dbr [Piel]
‘*to tell’ (Num 11:24; Jer 43:1; Ezk 11:25); ‘mr
“to say’ (I Sam 8:10), gr’ “‘to cry out” (Jer 36:6,
8; THAT, 1:439). In seven passages the d°bar
YHWH has a juristic character (Num 15:31; Deut
5:5; I] Sam 12:9; 1 Chr 15:15; I Chr 30:12; 34:21;
35:6). B.K.W.]|

Certain characteristics of the word of the Lord
are enunciated in Ps. Among them are: **The word
of the Lord is right” (33:4), ‘settled in heaven”
(119:89), ‘‘alamp unto my feet and a light unto my
path’’ (119:105) and “true” (119:160).

The efficaciousness of the word of the Lord is
often cited by certain phrases like ‘‘according to
the word of the Lord” (I Kgs 13:26), or *'] will
perform my word” (I Kgs 6:12).

The chronicler says that the Lord stirred up
Cyrus ‘that the word of the Lorp spoken by the
mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished”
(36:22). Through Isaiah the Lorp says that his
word will be like the rain and the snow making the
land productive. “It shall not return unto me void,
but it shall accomplish that which I please, and it
shall prosper in the thing whereto I sent it’’ (Isa
55:11). Jeremiah also promises that the Lord's
Spirit and word shall never depart from his people
and is ‘‘like a fire’’ and *‘a hammer that breaketh
the rock in pieces’ (Jer 23:29).

{In addition, the word of the Lord is per-
sonified in such passages as: **The LORD sends
his message against Jacob, and it falls on Israel”
(Isa 9:8 [H 7]); “‘He sent his word and healed
them™ (Ps 107:20); **He sends his command to
the earth” (Ps 147:15). Admittedly, because of
the figure it appears as if the word of God had a
divine existence apart from God, but Gerleman
rightly calls into question the almost universal
interpretation that sees the word in these pas-
sages as a Hypostasis, a kind of mythologizing.
Gerleman suggests that this usage is nothing
more than the normal tendency to enliven and
personify abstractions. Thus human emotions
and attributes are also treated as having an inde-
pendent existence: wickedness, perversity, anx-
iety, hope, anger, goodness and truth (Ps 85:1 If..:
107:42; Job 5:16; 11:14: 19:10) (THAT, I. p. 442).
B.K.W.]|

deber. Pestilence, murrain, and plague. This
masculine noun is commonly mentioned together
with such words as famine, evil, blood, judg-
ment, sword, and noisome beast (KJV; RSV “‘evil
beast’). Jeremiah in his predictions of dire
events quite often combines sword, famine, and
pestilence (14:12;21:7,9; 24:10; 27:8,13; 29:17-18;
32:24,36; 34:17; 38:2; 42:17,22; 44:13).

Any kind of pestilence which results in death is
meant. Aside from about five instances, all uses

of deber relate to pestilence as sent by God as
punishment. Solomon in his prayer at the temple
dedication speaks of the possibility of pestilence
as a basis for prayer (I Kgs 8:37; II Chr 6:28).
However, God in his response says, “If I send
pestilence’ (I Chr 7:13). Jehoshaphat speaks like
Solomon but he puts the statement on the possi-
bility of pestilence as a basis for prayer towards
the temple in the mouth of the people (II Chr
20:9). Psalm 91:3, 6 refers to God saving from evil
pestilence. All other references are statements of
historical occurrences, or threats or prophecies
of punishment from the Lord.

dibra. Cause, sake, intent, order, estate, end, re-
gard. dibrd occurs seven times (Job 5:8; Ps
110:4; Eccl 3:18; 7:14; 8:2; Dan 2:30; 4:17). In Ps
110:4 dibra is usually translated ‘‘order of Mel-
chisedek"’ but in NEB “‘succession.”’

For the compound ‘a/ dibrat see M. Dahood
Bib 33: 47f.

dibbér. Speaking or one who speaks (?). A
form in Jer 5:13 which is uniformly translated as
dabar *‘The word is not in them.”

dabberet. Words. A feminine singular noun;
cognate of dabar found only in Deut 33:3. Proba-
bly a poetic collective for all Moses said.

dir. Oracle, sanctuary, Debir. As a proper
noun Debir is: (1) the name of a king of Eglon who
joined the southern coalition against the Gibeon-
ites and the Israelites under Joshua, (2) the name
of a prominent Canaanite city, formerly called
Kirjath-sepher (Josh 15:15, 49; Jud 1:11), (3) a
city of the Gadites east of Jordan (Josh 13:26) and
(4) another city on the northern border of Judah
(Josh 15:7).

d®bir also refers to the holy of holies and is
translated sixteen times in KJv and ASv as “‘ora-
cle,’’ but Rsv and modern versions translate as
sanctuary, inner sanctuary, inner temple, inner
room and other such terms. It is not used of the
holy of holies of the wildnerness tabernacle.

Debir (Kirjath-sepher) was a prominent city in
the Judean hills near Hebron. Joshua totally de-
stroyed Debir in the southern campaign (Josh
10:38-39; 11:21; 12:13) but either the city was
rebuilt and retaken by Othniel or else the destruc-
tion by Joshua is a general statement and Othniel
actually took the town. Judges 1:11 says that
Caleb gave Achsah his daughter to Othniel as
wife because he conquered Debir in battle. Debir
was later given to the sons of Aaron (Josh 21:15).

midbar. Wilderness or desert. midbar is used
to describe three types of country in general: pas-
tureland (Josh 2:22; Ps 65:12 [H 13]; Jer 23:10),
uninhabited land (Deut 32:10; Job 38:26; Prov
21:19; Jer 9:1), and large areas of land in which
oases or cities and towns exist here and there.

181

400 was (dbsh)

The wilderness of Judah has at least a half-dozen
cities in it. The wilderness of Jordan (the alluvial
plain) contains cities, and the wilderness of Sinai
has within it a number of oases. midbar is also
used figuratively (Hos 2:5; Jer 2:31).

The largest tracts called midbar are Sinai, the

Negeb, the Jordan Valley, and the Arabian des-
ert.
_ Specific wilderness areas are: Beer-sheba (Gen
21:14), Paran (Gen 21:21; Num 10:12; 12:16; 13:3,
26; I Sam 25:1), Sin (Ex 16:1; 17:1; Num 33:1] 1]-
12), Sinai (Num 1:19, etc; Ex 19:1-2; Lev 7:38);
Zin (Num 13:21 etc.; Deut 32:51; Josh 15:1),
Beth-aven (Josh 18:12), Judah (Jud 1:16; Ps 63
title), Ziph (I Sam 23: 14, 14; 26:2), Maon (I Sam
23:24-25), Gibeon (II Sam 2:24), Damascus
(I Kgs 19:15), Edom (II Kgs 3:8), Jeruel (II Chr
20:16) Shur (Ex 15:22; 16:1; Num 1:19 etc.),
Etham (Num 33:8), Kedemoth (Deut 2:26),
Tekoa (II Chr 20:20), Kadesh (Ps 29:8; Ps 63 ti-
tle), and Egypt (Ezk 20:35).

The wilderness is often described negatively as
without grapes, fountains, pools of water, rivers,
pleasant places—or as in a notable statement:
‘‘Can God furnish a table in the wilderness?’ (Ps
78:19).

Bibliography: Braulik, Georg, ‘‘Die Aus-
driicke fiir ‘Gesetz’ im Buch Deuteronomium, ”
Bib 51: 39-66. McKenzie, John L., ‘‘The Word of
God in the Old Testament,” TS 21: 183-206.
Milik, J. T., ‘“‘Deux Documents Inédits du Désest
de Juda,’ Bib 38: 245-68. Mowinckel, S., **The
‘Spirit’ and the ‘Word’ in the Pre-exilic Reform-
ing Prophets,’ JBL 53: 199-227. , ‘The
Decalogue of the Holiness Code,’> HUCA 26:
1-27. , ‘A Postscript to the Paper *The
Spirit and the Word in the Pre-exilic Reform
Prophets’,” JBL 56: 261-65. O’Connell,
Matthew J., “*The Concept of Commandment in
the Old Testament,’ TS 21: 351-403. Ouelette,
Jean, “‘The Solomonic D*bir according to the
Hebrew Text of I Kings 6,°° JBL 89: 338-43.
Plossman, Thomas, *‘Notes on the Stem d-b-r,"’
CBQ 4: 119-32. Richardson, TWB, pp. 232,
283-85. THAT, I, pp. 433-42.

E.S.K.

400 ws" (dbsh). Assumed root of the following.

400a_ twas (d°bash) honey.
400b mwas (dabbeshet) hump (of
camel).

d*bash. Honey. Of the fifty-three occurrences
of d® bash, seventeen are in ‘‘the land flowing
wih milk and honey” and are anticipatory of the
land God was to give to Israel, or reminiscent of
that anticipation.

Si-nuhe, an Egyptian official of the Middle
Kingdom who went into voluntary exile in Syria-
Palestine, gives this description of the land in the

401 a3 (daga)

Patriarchal period: “‘It was a good land, named
Yad. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine
than water. Plentiful was its honey, abundant its
olives. Barley was there, and emmer. There was
no limit to any (kind of) cattle’’ (ANET, p. 19).

Honey was among the products Jacob sent to
Egypt for grain (Gen 43:11). It was even more
prized then than today because, since they had
no sugar, it was their chief sweetener.

Manna tasted *‘like wafers made with honey”’
(Ex 16:31).

No honey was to accompany meat offerings; it
was not to be burned on the altar (Lev 2:11), but
it was included in the tithes and firstfruits (IJ Chr
31:5).

Moses’ song says that God made Israel to
“suck honey out of the rock”’ (Deut 32:13; cf. Ps
81:16 [H 17]). Honey was part of Samson’s riddle
which his'wife enticed him to tell her and reported
to her people (Jud 14:8-9, 18).

Jonathan's taste of honey brought Saul face to
face with defiance from his army and consequent
frustration of his vow (I Sam 14:25-29, 43).

The wicked shall not see **brooks of honey and
butter,’ says Zophar. Pleasant words and love
are as honey and the honeycomb (Prov 16:24;
24:13; 25:16, 27; Song 4:11; 5:1). In Ps 19:10 [H
11) and 119:103 God’s words are sweeter than
honey and the honeycomb, and Ezekiel found
that the scroll God gave him was in his mouth ‘‘as
honey for sweetness’’ (Ezk 3:3).

The child Immanuel will have butter and honey
to eat (Isa 7:15) and in a happier day to come
everyone left in the land will have the same
(7:22).

E.S.K.
1% (dag). See no. 40la.
401 mas (dagd) multiply, increase.
40la tas (ddg) fish.
401b thas (dagd) fish.
40lc a (dig) fish for, catch. Denomi-

native verb.

401d 333 (dawwag), 4°3 (dayydg) fish-
erman.

40le Ma9% (duga) fishing, fishery.

dag, dagaé. Fish. The masculine dag and the
feminine dadg4 appear in the oT with no apparent
difference in meaning. Fish are referred to as
creatures low in intelligence or in control of their
destiny (Gen 9:2; I Kgs 4:33; Job 12:8; Eccl 9:12;
Hab 1:14; Gen 1:26, 28; Ex 7:18, 21), or as food
(Num 11:5, 22; Neh 13:16). The word was used
for a gate in Jerusalem, the fish gate (II Chr 33:14;
Neh 3:3; 12:39; Zeph 1:10). In biblical times they
were caught by spears (Job 41:7), hooks (cf. Job
41:1, 2; Isa 9:8) and nets (Hab 3:15; Eccl 9:12).
See pictures in ANEP, p. 34.

182

402 435 (ddgal) look,

Fish without fins and scales were unclean for
Israel. Albright has suggested that this law pro-
tected Israel from the parasites and diseases car-
ried by mudburrowing fish, clams, snails, etc.
(Albright, YGC, p. 178; Harris, R. L., Man-
God's Eternal Creation, Moody, p. 140).

A graven image in the likeness of any fish is
prohibited (Deut 4:18). God’s wrath will extend
to fish (Ezk 38:20; Hos 4:3; Zeph 1:3), but in the
new age waters from the temple will heal the
Dead Sea so it will have many fish of many kinds
(Ezk 47:9, 10).

The Lord prepared a great fish to teach Jonah
the impossibility of fleeing from him (Jon 1:17;
2:1, 11). The identity or biological classification
of this great water monster is unknown, as Jonah
does not give us details about the miracle. See
ZPEB, V, p. 925.

E.S.K.

Was. (dagén). See no. 403b.

behold (Song 5:10,
only).

Derivatives
402a 433 (degel) standard, banner (e.g.
Num 1:52; 2:3, etc.).

402b 93% (ddgal) carry, set up a stan-
dard (Ps 20:6; Song 6:4, 10).

403 335 (dgn). Assumed root of the following.

403a 123 (dadgdn) grain.
403b tia% (ddgén) Dagon.

dagan. Grain, translated ‘‘corn”’ in the kKJv in
all forty occurrences except Num 18:12 and Jer
31:12 where it is translated ‘‘wheat.’’ ‘‘Corn’’ is
old English for cereal grain.

dadgdn does not specify what grain is meant,
but it was a desirable and valuable crop. In de-
scriptions of the productivity of the land, grain
(KJV ‘“‘corn’’), wine (firésh, q.v.), oil and live-
stock are usually mentioned, but ‘‘grain, new
wine and oil (NIV),’” or just corn and wine occur
as the fresh products of the field. Grain as well as
other products was to be tithed and the tithes
given to the priests and Levites (Num 18:12; Deut
18:4) who were to make a heave offering of the
tithes (Num 18:27). Tithes of grain were not to be
eaten in their homes but only ‘‘before the Lorp”’
(Deut 12:17; 14:23).

The increase of grain, wine, oil and livestock
came as blessing from God consequent upon the
people’s obedience (Deut 7:13; 11:14). A de-
crease or cessation of such productivity was
punishment for disobedience (Deut 28:51; Lam
2:12; Hos 2:11; Joel 1:10, 17; Hag 1:11).

After his reform Hezekiah built storehouses to
hold the abundance of grain, wine, and oil (II Chr

31:5; 32:28). The prophets predict that grain,
wine, oil and livestock will be abundant in the age
of blessing (Jer 31:12; Ezk 36:29; Joel 2:19; Zech
9:17).

E.S.K.
dagoén. Dagon. The name of the god of the
Philistines referred to only twice aside from the
eleven occurrences in I Sam 5 where the story of
the capture of the ark of the covenant is told.

Scholars debate whether Dagon is etymologi-
cally related to Heb. dag ‘‘fish’’ and was thus a
fish-god, or to Heb. dagdn ‘‘grain’’ and thus a
vegetation deity, or to Arabic dagga, daga,
dagana, ‘‘to be cloudy” ‘“‘rainy’’ and thus a
storm-god. No modern scholar since the turn of
the century follows Jerome and Kimchi who
suggested on the basis of popular etymologizing
that he was a fish-god. Many moderns follow
Philo Byblios and W. F. Albright who view him
as a grain-god, but Albright thinks that the Heb.
word for grain was derived from the name of the
god and not vice-versa (Archaeology and the Re-
ligion of Israel, 1953, pp. 77, 22).

F. J. Montalbano, however, though recogniz-
ing the weakness of the Arabic evidence, brings
together strong evidence, at least for Meso-
potamia, that Dagon was a storm-god. ‘*Canaan-
ite Dagon: Origin, Nature,’’ CBQ 13: 381-97).
His evidence includes: 1.) An Akkadian text from
the time of Hammurabi says: *‘Dagan is Enlil’
(the Sumerian storm-god). 2.) At Larsa he }s men-
tioned alongside of Enlil and called one of the
great gods, a title not given to fertility deities in
Mesopotamia 3.) On a seal from the Neo-
Sumerian period (2070-1960) his name appears
before that of his wife Sha-la-ash possibly the
same as Sha-la, wife of Adad, the weather-god.
4.) Gelb had earlier concluded that Dagan of the
Hurrians is none other than the MHurrian
weather-god Teshup. But Montalbano thinks that
the West Semites assumed him into their pan-
theon as a god of grain, even though at Ugarit he
was identified as the father of Hadad, the cele-
brated storm-god in the Levant. The evidence for
this thesis is the fact that in one of the Ugarnitic
texts, the name of the god is synonymous with
the word for grain. The association of a weather-
god with grain is obvious.

We first encounter Dagon in our literary
sources from Mesopotamia in an important his-
torical inscription of Sargon in which he tells us
that he stopped at Tutuli (on the Upper Eu-
phrates) to worship Dagan. Naram-Sin, grandson
of Sargon, attributes his conquest from the Eu-
phrates to the coast of Syria to Dagan. From this
point on throughout the history of Mesopotamia
we find proper names compounded with the ele-
ment Dagan. Hammurabi (1728—1530) calls him-
self: ‘*‘The warrior of Dagan, his creator... ,”’
and at Man, Zimri-Lim offers him rich gifts in

183

404 “a3 (dagar)

response to a revelation from Dagan enabling him
to defeat the Benjaminites. Shamsi Adad !
(1748-1716), king of Assyria, built a temple to
Dagan at the site sixty km north of Man. More-
over, his name is frequently invoked by the Assy-
rian kings in the later Assyro-Babylonian inscrip-
tions (900-640).

In the West, Dagan is mentioned among the
gods at Ebla (2400-2250 B.C.). We may mention
here ‘‘Dagan of Tuttul,’* ‘‘Dagan of Sivad,”
‘‘Dagan of Canaan’’ exactly like *‘Dagan of the
Philistines.”’ Note also the mention of Canaan at
this early period (Giovanni Pettinato, **The Royal
Archives of Tell Mardikh-Ebla,’’ BA 39: 48).
Paolo Matthiae lists Dagan as one of the great
gods at Ebla (‘‘Ebla in the Late Early Synan
Period,’’ BA 39: 110). At Ugarit on the north Sy-
rian coast archaeologists have uncovered two
commemorative stelae bearing his name, and in
their texts Baal is called *‘Dagan’s son’ twelve
times; four times his name appears alone.

In Palestine he was the principal deity of the
Philistines during the biblical period. He was
worshipped by them at Gaza (Jud 16:21-23),
Ashdod (I Sam 5:2-3; I Macc 10:83-85) and at
Beth-shan (I Sam 31:10; I Chr 10:10). According
to Sanchuniathon he played a prominent place in
the Phoenician pantheon. Other shrines belong-
ing to him are indicated by their place names.
There was a Beth-Dagan in Judah (Josh 10:41),
another in Asher (Josh 19:27). The name appears
in the list of towns conquered by Rameses III
(1197-1167), although this may be copied from an
earlier one of Rameses I] (1301-1234). This Byr-
dgn is probably the same as the one spoken of by
Sennacherib (704-681) as bit-daganna located in
the plain of Sharon. Mazar unearthed a Philistine
temple at Tel Qasile whose artifactual remains,
including two pillars separated by a space the
length of a very large man’s arm span and in front
of the altar, comports most favorably with the
literary description of Dagan’s temple at Gaza
(Jud 16:23-31) (IEJ 24: 77-88).

Thus Dagan’s cult was prominent in Assyria,
Babylonia, Syria and Palestine from at least 2400
B.c. on through the pre-exilic period. Against this
history the Lorp’s victones over Dagan through
Joshua (Josh 19:27), Samson (Jud 16) and above
all through his ark containing his moral law (II
Sam 5) becomes the more glorious and significant
in his history of establishing his rule on the earth
through Israel.

Bibliography: Delcor, M., “‘Jahweh et Da-
gon,’ VT 14: 136-54. Montalbano, F. J.,
‘‘Canaanite Dagon: Origin, Nature [with com-
plete Bibliography),°’ CBQ 13:381-97.

B.K.W.

404 "3% (ddgar) gathertogetherasabrood (Jer

17:11; Isa 34:15).

405 53 (dad)

405 3% (dad) breast, teat, nipple (e.g. Prov
5:19; Ezk 23:3, 21).

406 *ms1 (dada) move slowly. Occurs in the
Piel (Ps 42:5) and Hithpael (Isa 38:15; Ps
42:5).

mats (déda). See no. 410b.

407 *ams (daham) astonish, astound. Occurs
only once, in the Niphal (Jer 14:9).

408 sms (ddhar) rush, dash (Nah 3:2, only).

Derivatives
408a mans (dahdrd) rushing,

(Jud 5:22, only).
408b osmim (tidhar) elm (Isa 41:19).

dashing

409 335 (dub) pass away (Lev 26:16; I Sam
2:33).

41% (dawwag). See no. 40!d.
mawt_ (digdad). See no. 40le.

410 "% (dwd). Assumed root of the following.
410a t33% (ddd) beloved, uncle.
410b ma% (dédd) aunt.
410c I (dawid), ‘TIS (dawid) David.
410d “35% (diiday) mandrake.
410e 5 (did) pot, jar.

dod. Beloved, love, uncle. Of fifty-eight occur-
rences in KJV thirty-eight are ‘‘beloved’’ (all in
Song except Isa 5:1), eight are ‘‘love’’ and seven-
teen “uncle.” ddd is used by the Shulamite for
her lover, or by those who speak of him. He calls
her ra‘ya *‘companion”’ or “‘love’’ (lover).

Isaiah refers to the Lord as ‘‘beloved”’ in his
Song of the Vineyard (5:1).

dod as ‘‘love”’ itself is extolled or described by
‘thy love is better than wine’’ (Song 1:2), ‘We
will remember thy love more than wine’ (1:4),
‘*How fair is thy love’’ and ‘‘How much better is
thy love than wine’’ (4:10) and ‘‘There will I give
thee my love” (7:12).

Ezekiel speaks of the Lord’s kindness toward
Israel when “thy time was the time of love’’
(16:8). But the Babylonians *‘came to her into the
bed of love,’’ and defiled her (23:17).

In Prov 7:18 the harlot says to the foolish
young man, *‘Come, let us take our fill of love
until the morning.”

déd is ‘‘uncle’’ in Lev 20:20 where lying with
One’s aunt is prohibited (see gala). This uncovers
his ‘‘uncle’s nakedness.*’ Among those who
should redeem a man sold to another because of
poverty are “‘his uncle or his uncle's sons’’ (Lev
25:49). Other references to “‘uncle’’ are simple
identifications.

184

dawid. David, dawid David son of Jesse, king
of Israel. The name is conjectured to come from
déd *‘beloved”™ but the etymology is uncertain. It
has been compared with the Mari term dawidum
‘‘leader,’’ but this too is unsure JNES 17: 130.

Most of the more than a thousand occurrences
of the name appear in the historical books which
tell of his life and reign: Sam, Chr, and Kgs. Be-
cause of his prominence, the ideal nature of his
person and reign, and the messianic covenant
made with him, references to him occur also in
Ps, Prov, Eccl, Song, Isa, Jer, Ezk, Hos, Amos,
and Zech.

His name is mentioned in the superscriptions
of seventy-five psalms and also thirteen times in
the body of individual psalms. References in the
superscriptions indicate Davidic authorship or to
the inclusion of certain psalms in an earlier
Davidic collection.

The name of David first occurs in I] Sam 16:13
in the narrative of Samuel's semi-private anoint-
ing of him to be king. His life can be divided into
the early years which include his anointing by
Samuel, his service to Saul (soothing Saul’s spirit
by his music), and his defeat of Goliath; the years
of his exile while being pursued by Saul, during
which he gathers a private army to himself and
solidifies his control over a large part of Judah;
the seven years of his rule over Judah as king
with Hebron as his capital, and of growing influ-
ence over the north; and then the thirty-three
years of his rule over all Israel, with its successful
wars, extension of Israel’s boundaries, religious
and administrative centralization in Jerusalem,
and growing influence and affluence in the world
of that day.

The theological impact of David’s life is of ut-
most importance. Though he is obviously a man
of his time in the brutality of warfare and the
arrogance of authority, he is, nevertheless, the
epitome of devotion to his Lord and to the ideals
of the revealed word of God. This is shown not
only in the Psalms but also in the narratives of the
historical books. It is David who brings the ark
into Jerusalem and makes every attempt to estab-
lish the religious life revealed through Moses. It
is David who leads the people devotionally by his
Psalms constantly directed to faith and obedience
to the Lord. It is David who makes preparation
for the construction and service of the temple,
even though the actual construction is denied
him.

However, the greatest theological significance
of David rests in his recognition of the relation-
ship of the anointed king to the Lord. Out of this
understanding comes the doctrine of the messiah
(from mashah ‘‘to anoint’’). David was a perfect
recipient of the covenant which promised not
only an eternal dynasty, but a son who would
also be ‘‘son of God”’ ruling forever over the

kingdom of God (II Sam 7:11-16; I Chr 17:10-14).
Specific references to David as prefiguring the
Messiah are: Ezk 34:23-24: 37:24-25: Hos 3:5;
Jer 30:9. There are in addition figurative ex-
pressions for great David's greater Son, the
‘‘stem”” or “branch” or ‘‘root of Jesse’ (Isa 11:1,
10). The “righteous Branch” of David (Jer 23:5;
33:15), the tabernacle (sukkG@) of David (Amos
9:11) and the tabernacle ('6hel) of David (Isa
16:5).

The name of David is used in these descriptive
phrases: city of David (11 Sam 5:7, 9), house of
David (II Sam 3:1, 6), throne of David (II Sam
3:10; I Kgs 1:37), sepulchre of David (Neh 3:16;
II Chr 32:33), tower of David (Song 4:4), musical
instruments of David (Neh 12:36), God of David
(II Kgs 20:5), and mercies of David (II Chr 6:42;
Isa 55:3).

Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., ‘*Saul’s
‘Uncle’, VT 11: 240-45. Stamm, J. J., ‘‘Der
Name des kénigs David,’ Supp VT 7: 165-83.

E.S.K.

swt (diiday). See no. 410d.

411 ms (dawd) infirmity.
Derivatives

4ila i (d°way) languishing.
41lb ms (daweh) faint.
4llc tmyva (madweh) disease.
41d i393 (dawway) faint.
41le 3 (d*yd) ink.

Ugaritic dw and Arabic dawiva mean ‘to be
sick.”

In Lev 12:2 the discharge after the birth of a
baby is said to render a woman unclean. Contact
with a corpse also rendered unclean. The latter
required purification through sprinkling with
water mixed with the ashes of a red heifer (Num
19:14-19). The avoidance of contamination by
menstrual discharge was part of the general
avoidance of discharges from the body, many of
which are dangerous as the results of infection.
This general avoidance of contamination contrib-
uted to the public health of Israel. At the same
time, it received religious sanction being adminis-
tered by the priests. All uncleanness became a
type of sin which had to be cleansed by redemp-
tion. Watchfulness against contamination is in-
culcated by the law concerning menstruation
(Lev 15). As the context shows, the danger en-
visioned in the law is the unnatural discharge due
to sickness. Those who demanded sexual inter-
course at that time were liable to punishment
(Lev 20:18). But the details of the law are not
clear—whether it refers to relations within mar-
riage (it does not say “his wife’’) or to a particu-
lar case of rape or adultery.

185

415 pis (dwm),.

415 a (dwm)

dawway. Faint, indicating a temporary weak-
ness of body or soul. The meaning of faint for
dawway (Isa 1:5) is appropriate, since Israel has
poured out her strength in idolatry. The doom
facing Israel makes Jeremiah faint (Jer 8:18) be-
cause he can see no relief for his people.

d‘way. Languishing, sorrowful. Job, who is
counselled to accept his afflictions as proper re-
tribution for secret sin, rejects the counsel as
loathsome (d°way, 6:7), seeing no reason for
these afflictions.

madweh. Disease. Ugaritic mdw: ‘‘illness.”’ In
Deut 7:15 and 28:60 madweh accents the loath-
some character of the diseases of Egypt: elephan-
tiasis, dysentery, and opthalmia (Kline, Treaty of
the Great King, p. 69).

H.G.S.

412 ms (diah) cast out, purge, wash.

The root signifies cleansing through washing.

The sacrificial ritual in Solomon’s temple, un-
like that of the tabernacle, provided separate
facilities for cleansing offerings. There were five
lavers on the north and five on the south in which
the burnt offerings (‘v/@) were washed before
being placed on the altar (II Chr 4:6). The legs
and internal organs of the burnt offering were
washed in order to remove contamination from
contact with the feces in slaughter and dismem-
berment.

Isaiah (4:4) picks up this image in describing
the future cleansing of Israel. God will wash
away their sins, transgression and idolatry when
through affliction and judgment they repent and
turn to him.

Nebuchadrezzar’s destruction of Judah and
Jerusalem is called a purging in Jer 51:34.

The picture of washing is repeated tn the nT,
becoming the central thought in the phrase
‘‘washing of regeneration’ (Tit 3:5) through
which the old man of sin is cleansed away.

H.G.S.

3 (d*way).
33) 0 (dawway).
S13 (dawid).

See no. 4la.
See no. 411d.
See no. 410c.

413, 39% (dak) pound, beat (in mortar, Num

11:8).

Derivative
413a maa (m*ddkad) mortar.
414 mpssis (dukipat) unclean bird, perhaps

hoopoe (Lev 11:19; Deut 14:18).

Assumed root of the following.
415a tment (dama) silence.

417 31% (dwg).

416 pss (dis)

415b tment |= (dimiva), M7
silence, repose.
415c toss (damam)

(dumiya)

silent.

dama. Silence. In Ugaritic it means ‘to keep
silence’’; in Arabic ‘‘to last,’ *‘to be motionless”’
(of water); and in Ethiopic ‘‘to be stupified.”’

The word connotes the “silence of death.’* The
Psalmist praises the Lord for his narrow escape
from the land of silence (Ps 94:17) and notes that
the Lord’s glory is not enhanced by those whose
praise is silenced in death (115:17).

damiya. Silence, repose. Sometimes it is good
to keep silence, but at other times it is bad. The
Messiah laments that since God apparently fails
to answer his prayer, he finds no rest or relief
from his situation (Ps 22:12). David found that
when he kept silent out of fear of his enemies, his
distress grew worse (Ps 39:2). It would be wrong
to keep silence when praise is due, so praise
awaits God in Zion (Ps 65:1). On the other hand,
it is good to wait on God in silence (Ps 62:1).
However, the form here may be taken from
damad *‘to be like’’ (so kJv). Perhaps, *’Praise
awaits you O God in Zion” (Niv, footnote **be-
fits’).

dimam. Dumb, silent. Used to describe dumb
idols (Hab 2:19). Sometimes silence is brought
about by judgment, but at other times it is the
fruit of faith. Thus Babylon must henceforth be
silent because God has ended her glory (Isa 47:5).
But an attitude of non-complaint should charac-
terize those who trust in God (Lam 3:26).

mrs (diamiya). See no. 415b.
pris (dumam). See no. 41Se.
133% (dénag). See no. 444a.

416 9% (dus) spring, leap, dance (Job 41:14,

only).

Assumed root of the following.
417a 95 (dayéq) bulwark, sidewall (e.g.
I] Kgs 25:1; Ezk 4:2).

418 35 (dur) heap up, pile, dwell.

Derivatives

418a 95 (dur) circle, ball.

418b t993 (ddr), “35 (ddr) generation.

418c omit (mdurd) pile (of wood,
etc.).

Occasionally there is a Hebrew word wherein
etymology, aS a route to discovery of ancient
thought patterns, is all-important in discovering
the true life-situation in which the word must be
understood. Such ts the case here. Authorities all
agree that dor, the noun, ts derived from dar, the
verb. The simple primitive sense, not expressly

186

found in any biblical text, is to move in a circle,
surround. Since ashes, grain, meal, etc., when
heaped up form a circle on the floor, ancient Se-
mites used this word for ‘to heap up”’ or “‘to pile
something’ ’—thinking graphically of the shape of
the heap at its base, rather than as we, of the
height or outline of the elevation created. Also,
since houses were usually a group of rooms sur-
rounding a central court, and perhaps since some
very early houses were circular, the word was
employed with the meaning, to dwell. This
analysis is provided strong support by the fact
that dur, a noun appearing only twice, and
likewise from dér (verb) must be translated a ball
(Isa 22:18), round about (Isa 29:3) and pile (Ezk
24:5). In this manner an original meaning of **go
in a circle’ (as attested by its appearance in cog-
nate Arabic and Assyrian, and inferred by a
posteriori reasoning for a common link between
the ideas of pile and dwell), though apparently
out of use in oT times, provide the basis for a
word of important theological meaning.

dor, dor. Generation. By a thoroughly under-
standable figure, a man’s lifetime beginning
with the womb of earth and returning thereto
(Gen 3:19) is a dor; likewise from the conception
and birth of a man to the conception and birth of
his offspring is a dor. A period of extended time
and several other related meanings would be in-
evitable in a language prone to metaphors.

Thus the following analysis of the actual use of
dor in the OT unfolds quite naturally.

1. The circle of a man’s lifetime, from birth to
death. This is the apparent meaning at Gen 15:16,
where four generations cover an epoch of 400
years (cf. Gen 15:13). This conforms to the long
length of life among the Hebrew patriarchs (Keil,
Commentary p. 216). “In the times of the pat-
riarchs it was reckoned at a hundred years....
So among the Romans the word seculum origi-
nally signified an age or generation of men and
was later transferred to denote a century’’ (Ge-
sentus Lexicon, trans. Edw Robinson, 26th ed.,
1891). This idea is present in the passages which
speak of a generation as passing away, rather
than as being succeeded by another (Deut 1:35;
2:14).

2. More frequently, of the circle of a man’s life
from his conception and birth until the concep-
tion and birth of his offspring. Familiar examples
are in the recurring phrase, *‘Even to the tenth
generation’ (Deut 23:2 [H 3}; 3 [H 4]) and ‘‘the
children of the third generation’’ (Deut 23:8 [H
9}). Extended uses listed below rest on this.

3. A period or age of time. dér is used in vari-
ous combinations to express this: ddérét
sh® lamim (Is 51:9); dér wadér (Deut 32:7); 1 ddr
dér (Ex 3:15), b*kol dor wador (Ps 45:18); ‘ad
dor wador (Psa 100:5); b®dér dorim (Ps 102:25).

419 ws (dash),

There are others. In some dor indicates an age or
period of past time (Isa 51:9), future time (Ex
3:15), past and future (Ps 102:24). Many occur-
rences are employed to indicate endless time, i.e.
eternity, often paralled with other concrete terms
as ‘Olam ‘forever’ (Ps 89:1 [H 2]) or ‘im shemesh
and w‘lipné ydréah, literally, *‘with the sun and
before the moon.”

4. One group—as opposed to a single per-
son—as related to another by natural descent
(Jud 2:10). This is a group of posterity, as in the
case of ‘‘four generations” of Job’s offspring (Job
42:16) and in references such as ‘‘throughout
their generations’’ (Gen 17:7, 9) and *‘throughout
your generations’’ (Gen 17:12; see also Ex 12:14,
17, 42 et al.).

5. A special use of the fourth sense above is to
mean simply “‘contemporaries,”’ viz. ‘‘and of his
generation, who considered’? (Isa 53:8); cf. Gen
6:9 dordtayw ‘‘in his own generation and those
immediately contiguous’? (BDB).

6. By a natural transition this word is used
widely with a metaphorical sense to indicate a
class of men distinguished by a certain moral or
spiritual character. Thus God is ‘‘in the genera-
tion of the righteous’’ (Ps 14:5) and those whose
‘*hands’: and “‘heart’’ are clean are ‘‘the genera-
tion of them’’ that seek God's face (Ps 24:6). The
wicked ‘‘fathers’’ of Israel were ‘‘a stubborn and
rebellious generation; a generation that set not
their heart aright’ (Ps 79:13). This usage is fre-
quently employed (see Prov 30:11, 12, 13, 14; Jer
2:31; 7:29).

This usage via Lxx becomes, in the word
genea, a Hebraism of frequent striking occur-
rence in the mouth of Jesus in the Greek nT (e.g.
Mt 11:16; 12:29,45; 16:4; 17:17, etc.). John the
Baptist and Jesus employed gennéma, genéma
similarly (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33; Lk 3:7).

In the Lxx dér is most frequently rendered
genea, rarely genésis; never gennéma genéma
(Hatch and Redpath, Concordance to the LXX).

In the oT, the chronological use is predomi-
nant, (number three above) though the metaphor-
ical (number five) is the most significant theologi-
cally.

It ought to be noted that this word in the
chronological sense 1s only one of the many bibli-
cal terms for time demonstrating that revelation
presents time as a durative, measurable phenom-
enon. Duration may not be excluded from the
biblical idea of time.

Bibliography: Ackroyd, P. R., **The Meaning
of Hebrew 135 Considered,’’ JSS 13: 3-10. Neu-
berg, Frank J., “*An Unrecognized Meaning of
Hebrew DOR,” JNES 9: 215-17. THAT, I, pp.
443-44.

R.D.C.

wes (dish) tread, thresh.

187

420 mms (daha)

Derivatives

419a owe (dayish) threshing.

419b mwa (mdasha) that
threshed.

419c =o pw") (dishdn)

Aramaic is the same, and in Akkadian it Is **to
tread on” (of threshing oxen). This root basically
means “‘to thresh.’’ Only two references to actual
threshing occur (I Chr 21:20; Isa 28:27-28).
Hosea (10:11) uses dash to indicate an attitude.

Isaiah 28:27 mentions that different methods
were used for different size grains, threshing for
larger sizes, and the rod for tapping out the cum-
min.

The instruments of threshing are seldom men-
tioned, although Isaiah speaks of the cart wheel
(28:28) and the threshing sledge with teeth
(41:15). Grain was separated from chaff by win-
nowing, when the wind was favorable. The fan
(30:24) or the whisk broom was used to sweep
away the dust as it settled out or blew away.
Finally the grain was passed through a sieve to
separate the dirt (cf. Amos 9:9; Isa 30:28; Lk
22:31).

dush is also used figuratively. The breaking ac-
tion of threshing speaks of the defeat of the ad-
versaries of Hazael of Damascus (II Kgs 13:7).
dish is used in Gideon's threat against the elders
of Succoth (Jud 8:7), and of the subjugation of
Gilead by Syria (Amos 1:3). It is also used of
Israel's victory over her enemies (Mic 4:13; Isa
41:15). On the latter verse, see E. J. Hamlin,
JNES 13: 185-90. Hamlin argues that in Isa
41:15ff. the mountains and hills are mentioned
because they were the sites of pagan worship.

H.G.S.

which is

a clean animal.

420 mms (daha) chase, overflow, thrust, totter,

sore, drive away/out, be outcast, cast down.

Derivatives

420a oom (dthi) falling.
420b am (midheh) ruin.

This root connotes “to pursue and cast down”
with the intent to harm. Twice it occurs as an
intensive infinitive absolute. In Arabic it means
‘to drive.”

The Psalmist pictures Israel as one who was
being pushed hard by his foes in order to bring
about his downfall (Ps 118:13). On one occasion
David likens himself to a tottering wall as he is
being assaulted by the wicked (Ps 62:3 {H 4]). On
another occasion he complains that the wicked
are attempting to trip his feet, i.e. to bring about
his downfall (Ps 140:4 {H 5]). But elsewhere he
praises God for keeping his feet from falling (Ps
56:13 [H 14]; cf. 116:8). Jeremiah predicts that
the pursuit of wickedness by the wicked prophets

421 *nn3 (dahah)

and priests will lead finally to slippery paths in
darkness where they will be driven and fall (Jer
23:12), and the sage avers that whereas the right-
eous find a refuge at the time of death, the wicked
are brought down to final ruin at the time of their
calamity (Prov 14:32). He also concludes that a
flattering tongue works havoc (Prov 26:28).
David prays that the angel of God will pursue the
wicked and bring them to destruction (Ps 35:5).
Isaiah envisions the day when the outcasts of Is-
rael will be gathered together from the Diaspora
(Isa 11:12; 56:8).

H.G.S.

421 *mms (dahah) to be thrust down. Occurs
only once, in the Niphal (Jer 23:12).

sma(d°hi). See no. 420a.

422 3m (dhn). Assumed root of the following.

422a m3 (ddhan) millet (Ezr 4:9,
only).

423 sms (ddhap) drive, hasten (e.g. Est 3:15;

6:12).
Derivative
423a mpmva (madhépa) thrust (Ps
140:12, only).

424 pms (dahaq) thrust, crowd, oppress (Joel
2:8: Jud 2:18).

425 %% (day) sufficiency, enough, combined with
prepositions: °33, ‘9, etc.

‘a"% (dig). See no. 40Ic.
23 (dayydg). See no. 401d.
ma (dayya). See no. 394b.
Ww (d*yd). See no. 41 le.

426 3% (din) judge, contend, plead.
Derivatives

426a 3 (din) judgment.

426b 3% (dayvan) judge.

426c 91909 (madén) - strife, contention.
426d mv (mdind) province.

This word, with its derived noun din is nearly
identical in meaning with shdpat (q.v.) and its
derived noun mishpdat (q.v.). It appears only
twenty-three times, a fraction of the times
shaphat and mishpat appear. Of the twenty-three
appearances, five are in parallel with shdpat (Jer
5:28; 22:16; Prov 31:8; Ps 7:8 [H 9]; 9:8 [H 9]) and
twice more it 1s associated in the text with mish-
pat (Ps 72:2: Jer 21:12). Thus nearly a third of its
occurrences show how closely the idea of din

188

was identified or associated with the root shapat.
The verb also occurs in Ugaritic and in parallel
with tpt (the cognate of shdpat) (Fisher, RSP,
vol. I, p. 166). Likewise a similar—nearly identi-
cal as far as it goes—list of terms is associated
with din, demonstrating the near identity of
meaning: with méshdarim “‘uprightness,’’
‘equity’ (Ps 96:10; cf. Ps 75:2); and with gasha’
(Ps 54:1 [H 3]; cf. Ps 72:4). As with shdpat it
represents God's government as both among his
people [Israel] and among all peoples (Ps 135:14
‘‘people’’; Ps 7:8 [H 9] ‘‘peoples”’ cf Ps 72:2; Ps
9:8 [H 9]). As far as the small number of occur-
rences allows a test, the range of meanings Is
exactly the same: to govern, in the whole range of
activities of government: legislative, executive,
judicial or otherwise. See the discussion of
shadpat and mishpat. The difference between the
terms is simply that din is poetic, probably also
an archaic and more elegant term. Of the twenty-
three occurrences, only one Is outside the Protes-
tant grouping of poetical and poetical-prophetic
literature. The exception is the single passive
form—a Niphal participle (II Sam 19:9 {H 10)).

The chief theological significance of this word
is that apparently like shapat it embodies the idea
of government, in whatever realm, in all its as-
pects.

Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., “-YDWN, Gen
6,,. JBL 75: 126-29. THAT. I, pp. 448-50.

R.D.C.

ps (dayéq). See no. 417a.
ws (dish). See no. 419.

wes (dayish). See no. 419a.
Wwe (dishén). See no. 419c.
33 (dak). See no. 429a.

427 *s93 (daka’) be crushed, contrite, broken.

Derivatives

427a tS 95 (dakka’) I, contrite, crushed.

427b N33) (dakka’) II, dust (that which is
crushed). According to Ps 90:3,
God turns man back into dust.

daka’ is used in the Piel and Pual, and twice in
the Hithpael (Job 5:4; 34:25). This verb is used
only in poetry. (Cf. dakak, dakaé, and Akkadian
dakaku.)

daka’ and its derivatives are applied only to
people except for Ps 89:10 [H I1], which men-
tions the crushing of Rahab, probably a reference
to God’s victory over Egypt. God is frequently
the subject of the verb. He ts the one who crushes
the oppressor (Ps 72:4) and the wicked (Job
34:25), but he does not crush the prisoner under-
foot (Lam 3:34). Job requests God to crush him
and put an end to his misery (6:9). According to

Isa 53:10, God did crush his servant. Verse 5 in-
dicates that he “‘was crushed for our iniquities.™
This emphasizes the emotional and spiritual suf-
fering of the Savior as he became sin for us (cf. Ps
51:8 [H 10}).

Several times it is the wicked or the enemies
who are crushing the righteous (Ps 94:5; 143:3).
Even the leaders of Israel were guilty of crushing
their people (Isa 3:15). The poor and needy were
sometimes crushed in court (Prov 22:22; cf. Job
5:4).

Man's frailty is seen in the brevity of life, as he
returns to the dust (Ps 90:3). Job 4:19 contrasts
man with the angels and notes that he is crushed
more easily than a moth.

dakka’ I. Contrite, crushed. ‘‘Crushed’’ can
also have the positive nuances of ‘*humble, con-
trite.’ God is close to those who are
brokenhearted and contrite (Isa 57:15; Ps 34:18
[H 19]). He condemns Israel for her failure to
humble herself even after Jerusalem's collapse
(Jer 44:10).

H.W.

428 max (daka) be crushed, broken, contrite.

Derivative
428a 35 (ddki) crushing, dashing (Ps
93:3, only).

This verb is a by-form of the verb dh’, which also
means ‘to crush,”’ and of dik *‘to pound, beat.”’
It is used only in Ps, twice in the Niphal (38:8 [H
9]; 51:17 {H 19]) and twice in the Piel (44:19 [H
20); 51:8 {H 10]). The form in Ps 10:10 is dis-
puted, though it is possibly a use of the Qal. Most
versions render it ‘‘he crouches” (kKJv, ASV), al-
though ‘‘he is crushed”’ is also plausible.

The verb appears only in laments and is consis-
tently used of one who its physically and emotion-
ally crushed because of sin or the onslaught of an
enemy. In Ps 51:8 [H 10] and probably 38:8 {H 9],
the psalmist speaks of his bones being broken
because of involvement in sin. Psalm 51 refers to
David's adultery with Bathsheba and the sub-
sequent conviction of sin that he experienced. In
verse 17 [H 19] he notes with some consolation
that God does not despise a broken and contrite
(‘‘crushed*’) heart. The same parallel (using dk’)
occurs in Ps 34:18 [H 19]. In Ps 74:21 ‘‘op-
pressed’ is parallel to “the afflicted’ and
“needy.”

In Ps 44:19 [H 20] the situation seems to refer
to a military defeat in which the nation has been
‘‘crushed.’’ No sin is mentioned in the entire
psalm, and yet the land has been humiliated, and
overrun with jackals (cf. Jer 9:11). Proverbs 26:28
notes that a liar hates the people he crushes.

H.W.

189

431 mos (dala)

429 s35 (dkk). Assumed root of the following.

429a 33 (dak) crushed, oppressed (e.g.
Ps 74:21; Prov 26:28).

429b mp (dakkd) crushing (Deut 23:2,
only).

os (dal), %3% (dal). See nos. 43la, 433a.

430 395 (ddlag) leap (e.g. Zeph 1:9: I Sam

5:5).

431 mon (dala) draw (water).

43la %% (dal) door.

431b mos (dala) door.

431c 999 (d‘li) bucket.

43td mises (daliyét) branch, bough.
43le tm23 (delet) door.

delet. Door, gate, leaf (of adoor). This noun is
used eighty-six times in the oT and in all but one
passage it refers to the door on a house, a room of
the house, a temple, or the gates of a city. Some-
times it is used metaphorically (Song: 8:9; Job
3:10; 38:8; 41:14 [H 6]; Ps 78:23). In one passage,
Jer 36:23, it seems to describe some kind of tablet
on which Baruch took dictation from Jeremiah.
This latter meaning of delet is now confirmed by
evidence from Ugantic and Phoenician in which
dit may mean both “door” and “‘tablet.*’ Also in
the. Lachish letters (in Hebrew, sixth century
B.G.), letter no. 4, line 3, is the phrase Atbty ‘I hdlt
‘IT have written upon the tablet.”’ One can also
compare the Greek word deltos *‘writing tablet.”

Doors in biblical times were made of strips or
planks of wood bounded by metal strips, usually
bronze or iron. Actually the door was an as-
semblage including beside the door itself the fol-
lowing: two doorposts (m°zuza) which are the
door’s vertical sides; a lintel (mashgdp), the
door’s upper horizontal side; and a sill or a
threshold (sap), the door’s lower horizontal side.
Wider doorways such as those used in city gates
or large buildings had a third vertical column on
which two doorleaves, one attached to each of
the doorposts, converged when shut. This is im-
plied by the number of times deler is used in the
dual in the Bible. The door, which usually opened
inward, did not have hinges like ours. The butt
edge of the door consisted of an upright post
which swung in sockets. The lower socket was
usually a hollowed stone. The upper socket con-
sisted of a metal frame or a hollow made in the
lintel.

delet is to be differentiated from other words of
approximately the same meaning. In relation to
sha‘ar ‘gate,’ delet represents only the swing-
ing door, while sha'ar denotes the entire struc-
ture of the gate (Neh 3:1,6,13-15). In relation to
petah *‘door, entrance,” petah is the entrance to
the house. delet is a device for closing and open-

432 mos (dalah)

ing the entrance. Also, delet is used only in con-
nection with a built house. Thus compare God's
word to Cain, *‘Sin is crouching at the door
(petah, Gen 4:7). *‘And the Lord appeared to
Abraham... as he sat by the door (petah) of his
tent’ (Gen 18:1).

One will recall that God told his people, just
before the exodus from Egypt, to smear the
doorposts (m° zu#za) and the lintel (mashqgép), but
not the door itself, with blood (Ex 12:7). The
death angel would pass over those houses in
which such steps had been taken.

In Deut 6:4ff. and 11:20 there is a reference to
the ancient and still prevailing custom of hanging
the m*zuza to the doorpost. In contemporary
Judaism the m°za#za@ refers not to the doorpost
itself but to the parchment scroll which is affixed
to the doorpost. On one side of the scroll is the
appropriate words from Deut. On the back of the
parchment is the Hebrew word shadday, which
is not only a name for God, **Almighty,”* but ts
also an acronym for shdmér daltét yisra'él
‘““Guardian of the doors of Israel... How
appropriate it is then in the nt for Jesus to say, *'I
am the door of the sheep” (Jn 10:7).

V.P.H.

ms (dalla). See nos. 433b,c.
432 mon (ddlah) make turbid (Ezk 32:2).

o3 (d°li). See no. 431c.
nis93 (daliyét). See no. 431d.

433 953 (ddalal) to be low, hang down. The
RSV and ASv translate the same except when
rendering the verbal form.

Derivatives

433a +55 (dal) one who is low.
433b sb (dalla) I, thrum.
433c son (dalla) IL, poorest, lowest.

This root connotes lowness as a State or a goal.
It occurs sixty-two times. Used metaphorically,
the verb describes a state of deprivation which in
its extremity issues in a cry to God. It sometimes
refers to physical distress (Jud 6:6). The noun
dalla I describes hair (Song 7:5 [H 6]) and thread
hanging from a loom (Isa 38:12). ddlal is appar-
ently applied to miners suspended by ropes (Job
28:4) and the legs of the lame (Prov 26:7) which
‘*hang down (and nothing more).’’ It also de-
scribes dried up streams (Isa 19:6).

dal. One who is low. This root occurs most
frequently in the adjectival form. Unlike ‘dani, dal
does not emphasize pain or oppression; unlike
‘ebyén, it does not primarily emphasize need,
and unlike rdsh, it represents those who lack
rather than the destitute. We might consider dal

190

as referring to one of the lower classes in Israel
(cf. I] Kgs 24:14; 25:12). In dal the idea of physi-
cal (material) depnvation predominates. Com-
pare, also, dalla denoting the opposite of fatness
(Gen 41:19), and the poorest and lowest of Israel
whom the Babylonians left behind (II Kgs 24:14).
Gideon cites the weakness (dal) of his clan when
he questioned God's call to him to deliver Israel
(Jud 6:15, cf. II Sam 3:1). dal describes the ap-
pearance of Amnon as he pined for Tamar (II
Sam 13:4).
dal denotes the lack of material wealth (Prov
10:15) and social strength (Amos 2:7). Such
people are contrasted with the rich (Ex 30:15;
Ruth 3:10) and the great (Lev 19:5). God enjoins
their protection (Ex 23:3; Lev 14:21; Isa 10:2),
and promises to them justice (Isa 11:4). Only in-
frequently is dal used of spiritual poverty (cf. Jer
5:4), and in most cases such usages parallel
‘ebyon, needy (Isa 14:30).
L.J.C.

434 Hos (dalap) drop, drip (Job 16:20; Ps

119:28; Eccl 10:18).

Derivative
434a 95 (delep) a dropping (Prov
19:13; 27:15).
435 pos (ddlaq) hotly pursue (e.g. Gen 31:36;
Ob 18).
Derivative
435a mp3 (dalleget) inflammation (Deut
28:22).

nos (delet). See no. 43 le.

436 os (dam) blood.

This important word appears 360 times in the
OT, most often in Lev (88 times) and Ezk (55
times), followed by Ex (29 times), Deut (23 times),
and Ps (21 times). These occurrences can be di-
vided roughly in a two-to-one ratio, into two gen-
eral categories: (1) the shedding of blood through
violence and havoc resulting usually in death, asin
war or murder; (2) the shedding of blood, always
resulting in death, in a sacrifice to God.

The theological debate today centers around the
significance of what is symbolized by the biblical
word, ‘‘blood’’ in a context of sacrifice. Briefly,
two suggestions have been made. One is that
blood symbolizes life. The blood of the victim is
the life that has passed through death. Thus, to say
that one is saved by ‘the blood of Christ’’ means
that we are saved by Christ's life, by participating
in his life. Much emphasis is placed here on sev-
eral oT verses which all say substantially the same
thing: ‘‘The life of the flesh is in the blood’’ (Gen
9:4; Lev 17:11,14; Deut 12:23).

The second interpretation and the one adhered
to in this article, emphasizes that blood in the oT
denotes not life, but death, or more accurately, life
that is offered up in death. Having said this, it
should be pointed out that there is absolutely noth-
ing inthe oT akin to the morbid preoccupation with
the sinister deities of the netherworld such as one
finds in the blood nituals of Israel’s neighbors
where the emphasis is also on ‘*blood-death.”*

The three passages quoted above should pre-
sent no problem. Rather than saying that blood is
life they simply say that blood is the source of life,
the means by which life is perpetuated. To remove
the blood is to terminate life. Hence, in the oT a
threefold prohibition emerges from this: (1) the
sanctity of life; a man may not shed the blood of
another man. In such cases of homicide it is the
responsibility of one of the kinsmen to act as a
‘blood redeemer’”’ (g6’él ha-’ddadm) for the de-
ceased by killing the slayer (Num 35:19; Deut
19:12). In such cases where God is the avenger of
blood the verb used is never g@’al but nagam—
take vengeance (Deut 32:43); or dadrash—seek,
require (Gen 9:5). Related to this are those in-
stances where an individual has committed an in-
fraction of the moral law that necessitates the
death penalty. The expression used in the Bible to
describe such a person is, ‘‘His blood is upon
him’ (Lev 20:9,11—13,16,27) or ‘‘his blood shall
be upon his head”* (Josh 2:19; I Kgs 2:37).

(2) The second principle that emerges from the
relationship between blood and life is that before a
sacrifice of an animal could be offered to God, all
of its blood must be drained and disposed of either
on the altar, the ground, or elsewhere (Lev 1:5;
4:6; Deut 12:24; Ex 12:7). (3) Eating blood is pro-
hibited (Lev 3:17; 17:10-13; I Sam 14:31-35; Ezk
33:25). The reason is simple enough. Atonement
for sins was made by the sacrifice of the life of
animals as a substitution for one’s own life; and
the shedding of blood was the most important
element in the expiation of sin. Hence, the prohi-
bition on human imbibing. It was too sacred for
ordinary man to handle.

There can be no doubt that theologically the
primary teaching of the oT about the blood is its
role in the forgiveness of sins. God promises
atonement for sin and cleansing by the blood of a
guiltless substitute. How logical it will be then for
the NT to take this concept to its fullest fulfillment
and extension. We are reconciled to God by the
death of his Son, and we shall be saved by his life
(Rom 5:10).

Bibliography: Dewar, L., *‘The Biblical Use
of the Term ‘Blood’,’’ JTS 4: 204-208. Koch, M..,
‘Der Spruch ‘Sein Blut bleibe auf seinem Haupt’
und die israelitischen Ailffassung vom vergosse-
nen Blut,’’ VT 12: 396-416. McCarthy, D., ‘'The
Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice,’’ JBL 88:
166-76. , ‘Further Notes on the Sym-

19]

437 mas (damda)

bolism of Blood and Sacrifice,’’ JBL 92: 205-10.

Morris, L., ‘‘The Biblical Use of the Term
‘Blood’,”’ JTS 3: 216-27. , JTS 6: 77-82.
Reventlow, H., ‘‘Sein Blut Komme Uber sein
Haupt,’ VT 10: 311-27. Richardson, TWB, p. 33.
Steinmuller, J., ‘Sacrificial Blood in the Bible,’
Bib 40: 556-67. Stibbs, A., The Meaning of the
Word ‘Blood’ in Scripture, 3d ed., London: Tyn-
dale, 1962. Wood, Bryant, G., ** ‘In the Blood is
Life—A Common Belief in Ancient Times,:’

Bible and Spade 2: 105-14. TDNT, I, pp. 172-77.
THAT, I, pp. 448-50.

V.P.H.

437 mes (dama) I, be like, resemble.

Derivatives

437a tm (d°miut) likeness.
437b 379% (dimy6n) likeness.

This verb appears thirty times in Biblical He-
brew and twice in Biblical Aramaic (Dan 3:25;
7:5). In the Qal stem the verb is used mostly in
reference to man and by man, either in the form of
a direct statement (Ps 144:4; 102:6[H7]; Isa 1:9) or
in the form of a rhetorical question (Ezk 31:2,18,
cf. v.8, inconnection with the Egyptian Pharaoh).
A similarly structured question is found in Isa 46:5
with God expressing his own incomparability. The
verb is also an ideal one for the author of the Song
of Solomon where the respective lovers search for
appropriate figures of speech to convey their
depth of love for each other: 2:9, 17; 7:8; 8:14; 1:9
(Piel).

In the Piel stem the verb assumes the meaning
‘‘to compare, imagine, think, intend.’ Of special
interest here are those references in the Jatter
chapters of Isaiah where the Lord says of himself
that there is nothing or nobody to whom he can be
compared (Isa 40:18 ,25; 46:5; cf. Ps 50:21 where
God chides the people for attempting to make him
in man’s image). The corollary of this theme in
Isaiah would be something like, *‘I am the Lord,
and besides me there is no savior’ (Isa43:11). The
point of these verses in Isaiah Is not that God says
no one is comparable to him in appearance or
being, but that no one is comparable to him in
ministry and function.

d'mat. Likeness. Although this substantive is
used only twenty-six times in the oT, it is a very
important word. It appears in the theophanic
section of Ezekiel (1:5,10,13,16,22,26,28;
10:1,10,21,22), and quite often in juxtaposition
with k° maré ‘like the appearance of.’’ Ezekiel is
very careful never to say that he saw God, ‘é/dhim
(as did Isaiah in his prophecy, Isa6:1, the object or
content of Isaiah's vision is "dddndy), but only
that he saw the likeness of God or the likeness of
the entourage that surrounds God. In such prac-
tice he is comparable to Daniel (Dan 10:16) and

438 mat (dama)

John in the Apocalypse (Rev 1:13), and perhaps
Heb 7:3 (the introduction of Melchizedek). All of
the above references in Ezekiel refer to visual
similarities, but Isa 13:4 shows that d° mat can be
used also for audible similarities, and structural
similarities in the sense of being a pattern or model
(11 Kgs 16:10, parallel with tabnit).

Finally we note two important passages in
which man ts said to be created in ‘*(the image and)
likeness of God” (Gen !:26; 5:1), and one passage
where Adam fathered a son, Seth, ‘‘in his like-
ness” (Gen 5:3).

Our purpose here is not to examine per se the
doctrine of imago Dei. The studies on this have
been legion. Specifically, we shall attempt to as-
certain the relationship between se/em ("‘image,”™’
q.v.) and d“mart (‘‘likeness’’) in Gen. Nowhere
else in the or do these two nouns appear in paral-
lelism or in connection with each other. The fol-
lowing suggestions have been made. (1) Roman
Catholic theology has maintained that *‘image™’
refers to man’s structural likeness to God, a
natural image, which survived the Fall and **like-
ness refers to man’s moral image with which he
is Supernaturally endowed; and it is this likeness
that was destroyed inthe Fall. (2) The more impor-
tant word of the two ts ‘‘image’’ but to avoid the
implication that man is a precise copy of God,
albeit in miniature, the less specific and more
abstract d‘mat was added. d“ mut then defines
and limits the meaning of se/esn (Humbert, Barr).
(3) No distinction is to be sought between these
two words. They are totally interchangeable. In
Gen 1:26. which is God's resolution to create,
both words are used. But in v. 27, the actual act of
creation, only se/em is used, not d° mut. The two
words are so intertwined that nothing is lost in the
meaning by the omission of d@“ mut. Also, the Lxx
translates d°miat in Gen 5:1 not by the usual
homotosis but by eikon, the Greek counterpart for
Hebrew selem (Schmidt). (4) Itis not selem which
is defined and limited by ad‘ mit but the other way
around. Two things are important here: (a) the
similarity between d‘ mut and the Hebrew word
for “blood’* dam; (b) in Mesopotamian tradition
the gods in fact created man from divine blood.
Genesis then represents a conscious rejection of
and polemic against pagan teaching by asserting
that sc/em specifies the divine similarity to which
d° mut refers, viz., man’s corporeal appearance
and has nothing to do with the blood that flows in
his veins (Miller). (5) The word ‘‘likeness** rather
than diminishing the word “image” actually
amplifies it and specifies its meaning. Man Is not
just an image but a likeness-image. He ts not sim-
ply representative but representational. Man is
the visible, corporeal representative of the in-
visible, bodiless God. d° mui guarantees that man
is an adequate and faithful representative of God
on earth (Clines)..

192

Bibliography: Ausselin, David Tobin, **The
Notion of Dominion in Genesis 1-3,'°° CBQ 16:
277-94. Barr, J., ‘The Image of God in the Book
of Genesis—A Study of Terminology,’ BJRL 51:
11-126. Clines, D.J.A., ‘‘The Image of God in
Man.” Tyndale Bulletin 19: 53-103. Humbert, P.,
Etudes sur le récit du paradis et de la chute dans la
Genése, Neuchatel: Sécretariate de Il’ Université,
1940. Jenni, E., in THAT, pp. 451-56. Labus-
chagne, C. J., The Incomparability of Yahweh in
the O.T., Leiden: Brill, 1966. Miller, J. M., ‘Inthe
‘Image’ and ‘Likeness’ of God,’ JBL 91: 289-304.
Piper, J., ‘The Image of God: An Approach from
Biblical and Systematic Theology, Studia Bib-
lica et Theologica 1: 15-32 (arguing for the on-
tological, substantialistic interpretation of the
**image of God*’ doctrine). Schmidt, W. H., Die
Schépfungsgeschichte der _—_ Priesterschrift,
Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1964.
Wynkoop, M. B., A Theology of Love, Beacon
Hill Press, 1972, esp. chaps. 6—/ (arguing against
the ontological interpretation of the ‘“‘image of
God"’ doctrine). Buswell, J. O., A Systematic
Theology, vol. I, pp. 232—42. Richardson, TWB,
p. 226.

V.P.H.

438 moa (dama) UH, cease, cut off, destroy, per-

ish,
Derivative
438a tax (domi)

The root under consideration is used almost
exclusively in prophetical books or context. Thus,
the verb is found outside this genre only in II Sam
21:5 and Ps 49:12,20 [H 13,21]. The verb means to
come to anend, but itis always a violent end that is
indicated: Isa 15:1; Jer 47:5; Hos 4:5-6; 10:15.

In a different context, however, this verb is
used by Jeremiah in his aspiration that his tears
shed for his people not *‘cease’’ (Jer 14:17; cf.
Lam 3:49). Isaiah also uses the verb (in the Niphal
perfect) in his familiar, **Woe is me for I am ‘un-
done’ ’’ (6:5).

damda is used seventeen times in the of and
twelve of these are in the Niphal stem.

rest, silence.

domi. Rest, silence, occurs four times: Isa
62:6-7; Ps 83:1 [H 2]; Isa 38:10. The latter refer-
ence presents some problem in translation as evi-
denced by the kJv ‘‘cutting off and the rsv
**noontide’’ plus the lack of unity among the an-
cient versions. It may be that the origin of domi
here ts not dama II, but rather ddmam II, “to
mourn, wail’; so, “I said in my sorrow I have.”

Bibliography: On the use of ddmi in Isa 38:10
cf. Dahood, M., **Textual Problems in Isaiah,”
CBQ 22: 400-409, esp. p. 401. On the relation of
the roots dum/damda/damam, all meaning basi-
cally “cease, be silent,’ cf. G. R. Driver, *"A

Confused Hebrew Root (859,5739,0795) in Sepher
N.H. Tur-Sinai, Publicationes Societatis Invest.
Script, VIII, 1960.

V.P.H.
mas (dumma). See no. 439b.
nya (d° mut). See no. 437a.
vat (ddmi). See no. 438a.
199 (dimyon). See no. 437b.
439 o3% (damam) I, be silent, still; wait.
Derivatives
439a mates. «(d°mamd) whisper, (1 Kegs
19:12; Job 4:16; Ps 107:29).
439b «oma = (dummad) one silenced, de-
stroyed (Ezk 27:32, only).

ddmam is cognate to the Ugaritic dmm ‘‘be
silent."" It occurs twenty-nine times in the Qal,
and five times in the Niphal. It is found primarily
In poetry.

dadmam is often found in a context of catas-
trophe and mourning. Aaron and Ezekiel had to
keep quiet in spite of the death of loved ones (Lev
10:3; Ezk 24:17). The elders of Judah sit silently
with dust on their heads (Lam 2:10). Sometimes
the notion of stress is absent, however, as in Job
29:21.

Judgment upon nations brings the meaning
close to ‘‘destroy.’’ The cities of Moab (Jer 48:2)
and the island fortress of Tyre (Ezk 27:32) are
silenced, and men of war are brought to the silence
of death. Jeremiah applies this to the troops of
Damascus (49:26) and Babylon (50:30; cf. Isa
23:2). The only Hiphil use of the verb refers to the
Lord dooming Israel (Jer8:14). The wicked (1 Sam
2:9; Ps 31:17 [H 18]) and the Egyptians at the Red
Sea (Ex 15:16) are also silenced in death.

In I Sam 14:9 the concept of “‘waiting’’ or
‘standing still’’ appears. This seems to be the
meaning when Joshua asks the Lord to make the
sun ‘stand still’ and the moon **stop”™ so he could
pursue the Amorites (Josh 10:12—13). Those inter-
preters who explain this miracle in terms of the
silencing of the sun's heat have a more difficult
time, especially in view of the parallelism with the
moon.

Several times in the Psalms this verb is used of
being still before the Lord in quiet meditation (4:4
[H S]; 131:2). We are to rest in the Lord and wati
patiently for him (Psa 37:7). Yet God’s rescue
from trouble did lead the Psalmist to end his si-
lence and sing praises to the Lord (Ps 30:12).
{H 13}).

440 oes (damam) TI, wail (1sa 23:2).
441 3" (dmn). Assumed root of the following.
44a 71 (ddmen) dung (e.g. Jer 8:2;
Ps 83:11).

443 pws (dammeseq)

441b mar Gnadménad) dung pit (Isa
25:10, only).
442 prs (dama') weep (Jer 13:17, only).
Derivatives
442a yrs (dema') juice (Ex 22:28,
only).
442b try (dima) tears (e.g. Ps 80:6:
Eccl 4:1).
dim‘4a. Tears. Occurs twenty-three — times.

mostly in poetry in Jeremiah and Psalms. Cog-
nate to Ugaritic dm'‘t and Akkadian dimtu. Itisa
collective noun, but the plural d*ma‘6ért is found
in Ps 80:5 [H 6] and Lam 2:11.

‘**Tears’* usually occurs in a context of mourn-
ing and lamenting. Jeremiah wept profusely be-
cause of the crushing of Judah (Jer 14:17) and the
ensuing captivity (13:17). His eyes became a
‘fountain of tears” (Jer 9:1 [H 8:23|) and a
“river (Lam 2:18) as he wept over his slain
countrymen. Isaiah drenched the land of Moab
with tears as he mourned their judgment (16:9).
but Ezekiel was not allowed to weep even when
his wife died (24:16). The Psalmist wept because
of his enemies (6:6 [H 7]: 56:8 |H 9]) but rejoiced
when God rescued him from death (116:8).

Several times tears are associated with prayer
(Ps 39:12 |H 13]; Lam 2:18). God answered
Hezekiah's tearful prayer and healed him of a
fatal illness (II Kgs 20:5 = Isa 38:5). In Jer 31:16
the promise of Israel's return from captivity
brings an end to their tears (cf. Ps 126:5), and
Isaiah looks forward to that blessed day when
God will **wipe away tears from all faces” (25:8).

Twice, tears are regarded as food and drink (Ps
42:3 [H 4]: 80:5 {H 6]), and the concept of
measuring the amount of tears (80:5) is found also
in Ugaritic: ‘His tears drop like shekels to the
ground’ (Keret 1:28).

H.W.

443. pwn (dammeseq) Damascus.

In Amos 3:12 the Hebrew text reads d*meshegq.
which the ancient versions translated as ** Damas-
cus’ but modern commentators generally trans-
late by piece, part, corner, etc. In Chronicles and
in Aramaic, Damascus is spelled darmeseqy. The
name in Egyptian is tymshqw and in Akkadian
dimashdi.

Damascus, a very ancient city, is recognized in
the Bible from the time of Abraham who pursued
a Mesopotamian raiding party to Hobah near
Damascus where he rescued Lot (Gen 14:15).
Abraham's steward was Eliezer of Damascus
(Gen 15:2).

The city was situated in an oasis on the plain
east of Mount Hermon and watered by the Abana
and Pharpar rivers.

193

444 33" (dng)

Damascus is not mentioned again in the oT
until David extends his kingdom northward and
conquers Syria and the Syrians of Damascus (II
Sam 8:5,6: I Chr 18:5,6). From David's time until
Damascus is overcome by Assyria, tension be-
tween Synia (often referred to by its capital city,
Damascus) and Israel results in sporadic warfare
with victory sometimes on one side and some-
times on the other.

Rezon, a leader among the Syrians of Zobah,
fled with his followers to Damascus, became king
there and was a problem to Solomon during Sol-
omon’s reign (I Kgs 11:24). However, Ahab later
dominates that area sufficiently to effect a treaty
which gave him control of certain areas of
Damascus (I Kgs 20:34). About this time
Naaman, captain of the Syrian army is healed by
Elisha (1I Kgs 5:12ff.).

Elisha goes. to Damascus, as the Lord in-
structed him (1 Kgs 19:15), and informs Hazael
that Ben-hadad the king would die and that
Hazael would become king in his place and rav-
age Israel (1] Kgs 8:7ff.).

Later Jeroboam II regains control of Damascus
(II Kgs 14:28).

When Ahaz is king of Judah, Syria and Israel
unite in warfare against Judah. This occasions
Isaiah's famous prophecy of a virgin conceiving a
son whose name would be Immanuel which was a
sign that the Lord would be with Judah and the
coalition of Israel and Syria would be destroyed
by Assyria. Ahaz, however, does not accept the
sign and sends the silver and gold in the temple at
Jerusalem and the treasures of his palace (cf.
I] Chr 16:2; 24:23) to Tiglath-pileser of Assynia
who then conquered Damascus and took its
people captive to Kir (II Kgs 16:8, 9). Ahaz ona
visit to Tiglath-pileser in Damascus became at-
tracted to an altar and set up one like it in the
temple at Jerusalem and sacrificed to the gods of
Damascus (II Chr 28:23).

Isaiah prophesied that Jerusalem would be de-
stroyed like Damascus (7:8; 8:4; 10:9; 17:1-3).

Amos too prophesies against Damascus (1:3,
5), and declared that Israel would go into captiv-
ity beyond Damascus (5:27).

In the closing years of the kingdom of Judah,
Jeremiah prophesies that judgment would fall on
Damascus (49:23, 24, 27).

In the last ot references, Ezekiel and Zecha-
riah mention Damascus in describing the borders
of the land after the return from captivity (Ezk
47:16,17,18; 48:1; Zech 9:1). Ezekiel also men-
tions Damascus as a merchant in his description
of the glory of Tyre (27:18) and in the description
of the bride in the Song of Songs it is said, **Thy
nose is as the tower of Lebanon which looketh
toward Damascus” (7:4).

Bibliography: Reider, J., ““>wr" in Amos 3,
12, JBL 67: 245-48. Unger. Merrill F., *‘Some

Comments on the Text of Genesis 15:2, 3, JBL
72:49-S0.

E.S.K.
444 335 (dng). Assumed root of the following.
444a axis (dénag) wax (e.g. Mic 1:4; Ps
22:15).
ys (déa‘). See no. 848a.
myst (de'a). See no. 848b.
445 sys (dd‘ak) go out, be extinguished (e.g.
Isa 43:17; Prov 20:20).
mys (da‘at). See no. 848c.
446 mb" (dph). Assumed root of the following.
446a “Bs (dodpi) blemish, fault (Ps 50:20,
only).
447 px (ddpaq) beat, knock (Gen 33:13,
Song 5:2; Jud 19:22).
448 ps (daqaq) crush, grind, break in pieces.
Derivatives
448a tps (daq) thin, fine, gaunt.
448b 93 (ddq) veil, curtain. Occurs only

in Isa 40:22, where the heavens are
likened to a thin veil.

daqaq occurs mostly in the Qal and Hiphil. It
is used both literally and figuratively (contrast
dk’, dkh). Three times it is used alongside the
word ‘‘threshing’’ (Isa 28:28; 41:15; Mic 4:13).

The verb and the adjective daq refer one time
each to food. In Isa 28:28 there is a description of
grinding grain to make bread. In Ex 16:14 manna
is called ‘‘thin”’ or ‘‘fine flakes’’ that looked like
frost. Two passages refer to the fragrant incense
used by the priests. A special blend of spices and
frankincense was ground into powder and placed
in front of the “‘testimony’’ (Ex 30:36). On the
Day of Atonement, Aaron was to take burning
coals and two handfuls of finely ground incense
into the holy of holies (Lev 16:12).

The adjective occurs six times in Gen 41,
which relates the dream of Pharaoh interpreted
by Joseph. Pharaoh was perplexed by the seven
ugly and ‘‘gaunt’’ (“‘leanfleshed,’’ kJv) cows (vv.
3, 4) and by the seven ‘‘thin’’ heads of grain
scorched by the east wind (vv. 6, 7, 23, 24). Phys-
ical appearance is also the point of Lev 21:20,
where dwarfs are disqualified from the priest-
hood (cf. Lev 13:30).

A number of passages refer to grinding to pow-
der idols and images. The most famous is the
incident of the golden calf, in which an angry
Moses put the powder tnto water and made the
people drink it (Ex 32:20; Deut 9:21). This be-

194

came the pattern for King Asa of Judah, who cut
up an Asherah pole, crushed it and had it burned
in the Kidron Valley (II Chr 15:16). Josiah fol-
lowed suit, grinding up Asherah poles in
Jerusalem (Il Kgs 23:6) and Bethel (II Kgs 23:15).
He did the same with the pagan altars and images
throughout the country, scattering the powder on
the graves of their devotees (II Chr 34:4, 7).

Metaphorically, the Scriptures speak of tram-
pling the enemy, grinding them as fine as dust.
With the Lord’s help, Israel will be able to crush
many nations in battle (Isa 29:5; 40:15; Mic 4:13),
just as David was able to pound his enemies into
submission (II Sam 22:43). Isaiah underscores
the insignificance of the nations compared with
an almighty God by calling them mere *“‘dust on
the scales’’ (40:15, NASB).

daq. Thin, fine, gaunt. Occurs mostly in the
Pentateuch (eleven out of fourteen uses) and, like
the verb, often has a negative sense. Can be
applied to people, animals, and things.

In I Kgs 19:12 dag refers to the “gentle
whisper’ through which God spoke to Elijah
after the prophet had fled to Mount Sinai.

H.W.
449 “D3 (daqar) pierce, pierce through, thrust
through.
Derivative
449a MID (madqard) piercing,

stab (Prov 12:18, only).

daqar is used six times in the Qal, once in the
Niphal, and three times in the Pual—all three par-
ticipial forms in the writings of Jeremiah (37:10;
51:4; Lam 4:9). Normally the piercing results in
death. But in Jer 37:10 the term refers to men
who are seriously wounded. The weapon as-
sociated with dagar is usually the sword, though
a spear is the instrument in Num 25:8.

Several times ddgar refers to a disgraceful
death. In its only occurrence in the Pentateuch
the term is used of the blow, inflicted by the
priest Phinehas, that killed an Israelite man and a
Midianite woman (Num 25:8). It was this drastic
action that stopped the plague against the Israel-
ites resulting from idolatry and immorality con-
nected with the worship of the Baal of Peor. In
two instances Israelite rulers asked their servants
to pierce them through to avoid dying in disgrace.
Abimelech wanted to avoid the charge that a
woman killed him (Jud 9:54), and Saul feared
abuse at the hands of the Philistines (I Sam 31:4
= 1 Chr 10:4). The alleged contradiction as to the
death of Saul in II Sam 1:9 ts probably due to the
Amalekite’s stretching the truth so as to get
credit for Saul’s death and to obtain a reward. He
got more than he asked for!

The term appears twice in Zechariah, again

452 395 (drg)

with the connotation of disgrace. In 12:10 it refers
to the nation of Israel finally turning to Christ,
‘‘the one they have pierced,’’ at the second com-
ing. The next chapter predicts that in that day no
false prophet will be allowed to live, for his own
parents will pierce him through (13:3).

Four times ddagar is used in connection with
the armies of Babylon. The Chaldean forces will
be successful against Judah (Jer 37:10; Lam 4:9),
but they too will fall before the invading armies of
the Medes and Persians (Isa 13:15; Jer 51:4).

H.W.
ss (dor), 3% (dar). See nos. 418b, 454a.
450 ss (dr’). Assumed root of the following.
450a_ visas «(dérd’6n) aversion, abhor-
rence (Isa 66:24; Dan 12:2).
NI (dérad’én). See no. 450a.
451 355% (drb). Assumed root of the following.
4S5la 3sss (dorban) goad (1 Sam 13:21,
only).
451b 3395 (dorbdnd) goad (Eccl 12:11,
only).
35% (dorban). See no. 45la.

452 as (drg). Assumed root of the following.

452a manta (madréga) steep place, steep
(Song 2:14; Ezk 38:20).
sass (dardar). See no. 454e.
pins) (darém). See no. 454d.
sina (d*’rér) I, TI. See nos. 454b,c.

452.1

Darius was the name of three kings of Persia
mentioned in the ot and of Darius the Mede men-
tioned in Dan 5:30; chap. 6; and 11:1, whose iden-
tity is in dispute.

Darius I, the Great, son of Hystaspes, was king
from 521 to 486 B.c. During his time the second
temple was finished (516 B.c.). The work on the
temple began under Cyrus the Great (559-530) in
about 539 B.c. The work was halted by the oppo-
sition and stopped also during the reign of Cam-
byses (530-532). But Darius was a new ruler, not
Cambyses’s son and the work was begun again
under the urging of Haggai and Zechariah and the
leadership of Zerubbabel the governor and
Joshua the high priest. It was finished in 516
under the patronage of Darius who ruled in 521-
486. This is the one mentioned in Ezr 4:5, 24 and
in Haggai and Zechariah. After the reigns of
Xerxes (Ahasuerus of Esther, 486-465) and Ar-
taxerxes I (464-424) of the times of Ezra and
Nehemiah came Darius II (Ochus, 424404). This

wis (daryawesh) Darius.

195

453 3933 (darak)

was the Darius of Neh 12:22. In Neh 12 a line of
Levites is given from the returnee Jeshua as:
Joiakim, Eliashib, Joiada, Jonathan, Jaddua.
These span the period 539-404 B.c., a not unlikely
situation. There is no need to call this Darius of
Neh 12 the king Darius III, Codomannus (335—
331 B.c.). Josephus indeed says that Jaddua was
high priest in the days of Darius III. But there
could have been two Jadduas, as we know there
were two Sanballats (Wonder, A.W., *‘Sanbal-
lat’’ in WBE, II, p. 1517). Or Josephus, who was
a much later author, might have confused the two
kings Darius II and III.

Darius the Mede of Dan 5:30, chap. 6; 11:1
remains a problem of identification. Daniel says
he took the kingdom of Babylon after Belshaz-
zar’s fali, but history says Cyrus the Great con-
quered Babylon. Many find here in Dan a mistake
confusing Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great.
It would be an odd mistake for a book so accurate
in other ways. There are two suggested solutions.
J. C. Whitcomb in his book Darius the Mede
(Eerdmans, 1963), argues in considerable detail
that the description of this Darius fits Gubaru a
sub-king of Babylon under Cyrus. D. J. Wiseman
Suggests on the basis of a tablet of that period
referring to Cyrus (evidently) as king of the
Medes, that Darius the Mede was just a second
name that Cyrus used for his Median subjects.
There is nothing improbable in this, but more
evidence is needed to render a decision. See
Wiseman, D. J., et al., Notes on Some Problems
in the Book of Daniel, 1965, pp. 9-16.

R.L.H.

453 aa3 (darak) tread, bend; lead (Hiphil).

Derivatives

453a tans (derek) way, road.
453b N32 (midrak) treading or stepping
place (Deut 2:5).

453c ted (dark’mén) unit of measure,
perhaps drachma.

Primarily used in the Qal stem, though several
examples of the Hiphil also occur. Normally ap-
pears in poetic materials, often in the prophetic
books and in Psalms. God is frequently the sub-
ject of this verb, especially when used in a
metaphorical sense.

The basic concept behind darak has to do with
setting foot on territory or objects, sometimes
with the sense of trampling them. In Deu-
teronomy and Joshua the verb is used of taking
possession of the promised land. Israel will re-
ceive as an inhentance all the land that the sole of
her foot will tread (Deut 1:36; 11:24; Josh 1:3;
14:9). Once, it is the Assyrian army that invades
Israel and tramples its citadels (Mic 5:5 [H 4]).
This concept of **marching”’ ts likely seen in Jud

196

5:21 also. Psalm 91:13 refers to treading or tram-
pling the lion and the cobra.

A frequent idiom is ‘‘treading upon the high
places of the earth,’ indicating control of the
enemy (Deut 33:29; cf. Hab 3:15) or, when used
of God, his sovereignty as Creator of heaven and
earth (Amos 4:13; cf. Job 9:8). In Mic 1:3 God
comes down from heaven to judge his sinful
people. Some interpreters feel that in these pas-
sages the ‘‘high places’’ refer to the mountain-
tops, as the Lord sweeps across the face of the
earth.

Another standard idiom is to ‘‘tread” or
‘‘bend”’ the bow (ddrak geshet); that is, one
steps on the bow in order to bend it and string it.
An army that is equipped and ready for action has
drawn swords, sharp arrows, and bent bows (Isa
5:28; 21:15). Babylon is the target of archers be-
cause of her sinfulness (Jer 50:14), and in Zech
9:13 the Lord bends Judah as his bow in order to
attack Greece. Because of Israel's sin, however,
the Lord bent his bow against His people (Lam
2:4), and even Jeremiah felt as if he were God's
target (Lam 3:12).

The righteous and the afflicted often find that
the wicked bend their bows and aim at them (Ps
11:2; 37:14). Sometimes the bow of the wicked is
compared to their tongue (Jer 9:3 [H 2]), which
lets fly ‘‘bitter speech’’ as their arrows against
the godly (Ps 64:3 [H 4]; cf. Ps 58:7 [H 8]).

Eight times in the prophetic books reference is
made to ‘‘treading grapes’’ or ‘“‘treading the
winepresses, for the normal method of gaining
juice from the grapes was to trample them with
one’s bare feet. Treading grapes is sometimes
associated with joy and gladness, anticipating the
drinking of the fruit of the vine (Amos 9:13, Jud
9:27). Joyful shouting accompanied the treading
of grapes (Isa 16:10; Jer 48:33). Apparently olives
were crushed in similar fashion on occasion (Mic
6:15; Job 24:11). The prophets more often con-
nect the crushing of the grapes with judgment,
and in this imagery, the grape-juice symbolizes
the blood of those who are being trampled (Isa
63:2-3; Lam 1:15). The shouting of those who
tread the grapes becomes a war cry against the
enemy (Jer 25:30).

When the verb occurs in the Hiphil stem, it
consistently refers to God as he leads the righ-
teous in straight paths. This can mean the road
from the wilderness or from Babylon (Ps 107:7;
Isa 42:16; cf. Isa 11:15) or, more commonly, the
metaphorical path of uprightness or truth (Prov
4:11, Ps 25:5, 9). The best path is to follow God's
commandments (Ps 119:35).

derek. Way, road, journey, manner, work. Re-
lated to the verb ddrak ‘to tread, trample’’;
hence, it refers first to a path worn by constant
walking. Genesis 3:24 mentions the ‘‘way to the

tree of life,’ blocked after the fall of man. Hagar
was on the road to Shur when an angel met her
(Gen 16:7). This could also be translated ‘on
the way’’ to Shur (cf. Gen 38:21; Ex 4:24). Some-
times derek can refer to a major highway, such as
the king’s highway (derek hammelek) running
north and south in Transjordan (Num 20:17;
21:22). The ‘‘way of the sea’’ (Isa 9:1 [He 8:23]),
known later as the Via Maris, extended from
Gaza to Damascus. Exodus 13:17 mentions the
road along the coast from Egypt through Philis-
tine country.

derek can also mean ‘‘journey,’’ usually one of
several days’ duration. Joseph prepared supplies
for his father’s journey to Egypt (Gen 45:23), and
the Gibeonites tricked Joshua by claiming to have
completed ‘’a very long journey” (Josh 9:13).
Elijah mocked the prophets of Baal as he
suggested their god might be ‘‘on a journey” (I
Kgs 18:27). In Gen 24:21 Abraham's servant
thanks God for making his journey (or ‘*mis-
sion’) to Mesopotamia successful.

More numerous are the metaphorical uses of
derek. It often refers to the actions and behavior
of men, who either follow the way of the righ-
teous or the way of the wicked (Ps 1:6). The way
of the righteous is closely linked with ‘‘the way of
the Lord.’’ Parents are to command their chil-
dren ‘‘to keep the way of the Lord”’ (Gen 18:19;
cf. Prov 22:6), which is found in the statutes and
commands of God’s law (1 Kgs 2:3). God's ways
are much higher than man’s ways, and the
wicked is urged to forsake his sinful way (Isa
55:7-9).

God sent the flood because men ‘‘had cor-
rupted their ways’’ (Gen 6:12) and even after the
giving of the law, Israel quickly deviated from the
way of the Lord (Deut 9:16) though they were
assured that their ways would not be successful
(Deut 28:29). During the divided kingdom, the
rulers of Israel consistently walked in the way of
Jeroboam and ignored God (I Kgs 16:26). They
took a path that seemed right, but in the end it led
to death (Prov 14:12).

In Prov 30:19 the behavior of a man courting a
maiden is compared with the uncanny movement
of an eagle in the sky, a snake on a rock, and a
ship in the sea.

Occasionally derek means ‘*manner”’ or ‘‘cus-
tom.’’ Lot's daughters committed incest with
their father because they thought that, after the
destruction of Sodom, the normal ‘‘custom”’ of
marriage was impossible (Gen 19:31). Later in
Genesis, Rachel excused herself from rising in
her father’s presence because ‘‘the manner of
women (her menstrual period) is upon me”
(31:35).

Twice in Job and once in Proverbs derek refers
to God's work in a creation context. In Job 40:19
the mighty Behemoth is called ‘‘the first of the

197

454. 357 (drr).

454 35% (drr)

works of God.** The identical idiom (ré’shit-
derek) in Prov 8:22 may refer to personified wis-
dom as the first of God's works also. In Job 26:14
the evidence of God’s power in creation and in
history is called ‘‘the fringes of His ways” (NASB)
or “‘the outer fringe of his works” (NIv).

‘*Ways’”” has the unusual sense of *‘sexual fa-
vors’’ in Jer 3:13 and Prov 31:3.

The cognate noun in Ug, drkt, is clearly used
to mean ‘dominion, thrones of dominion” (Ais
WUS no. 792; UT 19: no. 702 ‘rule, dominion’’).
The relation between the meaning “road” and
‘*dominion”’ is not clear, but it may be seen in the
meaning cited by Gordon (UT id.) ‘‘to march.”’
The idea of *‘tread’’ could extend to tread down
in authority or to tread upon a road or way. In
any case there are OT passages which seem to be
elucidated by the translation *‘dominion, power,
force, authority.’* Pope finds two in Job: 17:9 and
26:14 (‘Job AB, in loc.):; Dahood argues for
such a meaning in a number of places in the
Psalms and elsewhere (Bib 38: 306-20). The
places he suggests in his ‘‘Psalms’’ AB include:
Ps 1:1, 6; 67:2 [H 3]; 77:13 [H 14]; 90:16; 101:2;
102:23 [H 24]; 119:37; 138:5 and 146:9. Some of
these are convincing; some are not. The meaning
is allowed in HCHL and should doubtless be
adopted in a few oT contexts.

dark*mon. Drachma, dram (kJv), daric (RSV).
This word is used only in Ezr 2:69 and Neh
7:69-71 with reference to gold contributed either
to rebuilding the temple (Ezr 2:69) or Jerusalem.
The heads of families gave sixty-one thousand of
these coins to Zerubbabel, while the governor,
heads of families, and the rest of the people con-
tributed a total of forty-one thousand to the work
under Nehemiah.

If ‘‘drachma”™ is the correct translation, one
can compare the Greek genitive _ plural
drachmon. Greek drachmas dating from the Per-
sian period have been uncovered at Beth-zur (cf.
J. P. Free, Archaeology and Bible History, p.
253). There is no doubt that the Greeks were in-
volved in trading in the fifth century (Albnght,
W. F., Archaeology of Palestine; p. 143). The
drachma was a silver coin, however, whereas the
term in question refers only to gold. This factor
has led some to identify dark® monim with ‘ddar-
konim, the Persian ‘‘daric’’ mentioned in [ Chr
29:7 and Ezr 8:27. The daric was a gold coin
named for King Darius. Whatever the correct
etymology may be, the coin probably weighed
about eight and one-half grams. See no. 28.1.

Bibliography: Archer, G. L., ‘‘Coins,” in
ZPEB, I, p. 903.

H.W.

Assumed root of the following.
454a "35 (dar) pearl or mother’ of
pearl (Est 1:6). Meaning uncertain.

455 wa (darash)

454b T5553 (d*ror) IT, release, freedom.

454c 3355 (d°rér) Ul, swallow (Ps 84:4;
Prov 26:2).
454d fons (darém) south.
454e asas (dardar) thistles (Hos 8:10,
only).
d°rér. Release, freedom. Cognate to Akkadian

anduradru “freedom, liberty.”’ A technical ex-
pression referring to the release of Hebrew slaves
and of property every 50 years in the year of
Jubilee (Lev 25:10—the verse inscribed on the
Liberty Bell). Slaves were allowed to return to
their families, and land that had been leased due
to poverty was restored to its original owners.
The only reference to this release in Israelite his-
tory occurred during the reign of Zedekiah when
Jerusalem was under Babylonian siege (about 587
B.c.). Zedekiah made a covenant with the people
and ‘proclaimed freedom’’ to the slaves (Jer
34:8). When the siege was temporarily lifted,
however, the people changed their minds and
took back their slaves (34:11). Because of their
hypocrisy, the prophet Jeremiah announced that
the people would be ‘“‘set free’°-—to the sword,
pestilence, and famine (vv. 15-17).

Isaiah uses the term once (61:1) in announcing
good news to the afflicted, including a proclama-
tion of liberty to captives. This text, portraying
the reversal of Jerusalem's material and spiritual
fortunes, was quoted by Christ in the synagogue
in Nazareth with reference to his own ministry.
Bui the townspeople refused to believe his claim.

The last occurrence of d°rdr is in Ezk 46:7,
where the future prince is allowed to give a gift of
property to his servants until the year of release.

darom. South. Used sparingly and mostly in
poetry, except for a cluster of references in Ezk
40-42, which describe the future temple in detail.
A number of gates, rooms, or doorways faced
south or were on the south side (40:24, 27, 44:
41:11; 42:12-13). In Ezk 20:46 [H 21:2] darém
appears along with two other synonyms for
‘*south,’” téman and negeb. as the Lord com-
mands the prophet to preach against this section
of the land of Israel.

The word occurs only once in the Pentateuch,
in the blessing of Moses in Deut 33:23. There, the
inheritance of the tribe of Naphtali is described as
‘the sea and the south’’ (NASB) or “‘southward to
the lake” (Niv). In Eccl 1:16 and Job 37:17 darém
refers to the wind, which blows in turn to the
south and north. Job notes that the south wind
can bring uncomfortably hot conditions. Eccle-
siastes 11:3 also deals with rain and winds that
may fell a tree either to the south or the north.

H.W.

455 won (darash) to seek with care, inquire,
require. ASV and Rsv usually the same with

198

the RSV superior at several places, e.g. Isa
8:19; 19:3: Ps 9:12 [H 13]; Ezr 7:10, etc.,
and inferior at Deut 17:9; Ps 10:4; Il Chr
25:15. Both are inadequate at Zeph 1:6.

Derivative

455a twas (midradsh) record.

Our word is distinguished from its frequent
parallel and equivalent bdgash (q.v.) (darash-
bagash, Ps 38:12 [H 13]; Ezk 34:6; bdagash-
darash, Jud 6:29; Deut 4:29) inasmuch as it 1.
means ‘‘to seek with care’’ (I Sam 28:7), 2. is
often cognitive (its end is “‘to know’’), and 3.
seldom governs an infinitive. For other
synonyms see bdagash. Cf. Ugaritic drsh (UT 19:
no. 709). Our verb occurs 164 times.

The meaning ‘to seek with care’’ (cognitive)
occurs in Lev 10:16, where Moses seeks to find
out in detail what happened to the sin-offering,
and in II Sam 11:3 where David seeks to find out
who Bathsheba was (cf. Deut 23:6 [H 7]; Jer
29:7). Israel is told to seek carefully the place
God would choose (Deut 12:5) and justice (Isa
1:17; cf. 16:5'). In the eschaton Jerusalem, the
place no one seeks (Jer 30:17), will be the place
“sought out’’ (Isa 62:12; or ‘‘cared for,’’ Deut
11:12). Furthermore, it is the Gentiles who would
seek out the messianic king (Isa 11:10). His place
of rest (Num 10:33; Deut 12:9) is glorious.

Closely related to the above is the meaning ‘‘to
care for.’’ The Psalmist retorts *‘no man cares for
my soul’’ (Ps 142:4 {H 5]). Israel is told to seek
the welfare of the city of their exile (Jer 29:7).
Perhaps I Chr 15:13; II Chr 1:5 refer to ‘‘care”’
for the ark and the brazen altar.

Another theological theme develops from Deut
4:29 (cf. baqash) where Israel is warned of future
defection and admonished to wholehearted wor-
ship (Deut 6:6; Mt 22:37). The Chronicler
evaluates the history of Israel in terms of their
‘**seeking’’ God (I Chr 22:19; 28:9; II Chr 31:21,
etc.) or idols (II Chr 25:15). Isaiah reports Israel's
refusal to seek God in spite of divine chastening
(Isa 9:13 [H 12]; cf. Jer 10:21). God reminds them
of the ancient promise (Isa 55:6; Jer 29:13, Hos
10:12). He reproves them for ‘‘seeking’’ him
while continuing in their transgressions (Isa 58:2)
but promises blessings in the eschaton for those
who seek him in truth (Isa 65:10). Interestingly,
even those who do not seek shall find God (Isa
65:1: Isa 11:10; Rom 10:20).

To seek God also connotes an inquiry after
knowledge, advice, insight, into a particular
problem (Gen 25:22). Such inquiry could be made
through a prophet, i.e. a divine spokesman (Ex
7:1; Ex 18:15ff.; 1 Sam 9:9; Jer 21:2, etc.), or
through a priest using “‘lots’’ (sha’al; Deut 17:9).
Seeking the word of a false deity often involved
complex rituals (Deut 12:30; II Chr 25:15 (?); II

Sam 11:3; Ezk 21:21 [H 26}). Closely related to
this is the *‘legal’’ use of our verb, viz., to seek
divine judication (Ex 18:15; Deut 17:4, 9; cf. Mt
18:5-20; I Cor 6; I Tim 3) by consulting divinely
authorized **judges.”’

Finally, our root is used of divine vengeance on
those who take a life. God will diligently seek
restitution of a life for a life (Gen 9:5; cf. bagash).
In at least one instance this stipulation is evoked
and divinely executed (JI Chr 24:22, 24; Ps 9:12
[H 13]; 10:4). To fail in declaring God’s work puts
a ‘‘shepherd’’ (a minister) under this divine sen-
tence (Ezk 33:6). All pronouncements from di-
vine messengers (prophets) require human accep-
tance and obedience whether miraculously at-
tested or not (Deut 13:1ff.) if they are consistent
with previous revelation even if they add thereto
(Deut 18:22; Jn 7:40; Acts 3:22f.). Ultimately,
God requires justice, lovingkindness, and a hum-
ble walk (Mic 6:8; cf. Ezk 20:40).

midrash. Record. asv and rsv only differ at I]
Chr 13:22. Our word represents a written histori-
cal record (a place to “‘search out something’’). It
is used in later Jewish study to refer to fanciful or
recondite exegesis. It occurs twice.

Bibliography: Lust, J., ‘‘On Wizards and
Prophets,’’ Supp VT 22: 133-42. Sellers, O. R.,
‘Seeking God in the Old Testament,’ JBR 21:
234-37. THAT, I, pp. 460-66.

L.J.C.

456 sw (ddshad') sprout, shoot, grow green
(Joel 2:22; Gen 1:11; Jer 50:11).

Derivative

4S6a tews (deshe’) young, new grass,
green herb, vegetation. Cognate to
Akkadian dishu ‘‘spring grass, new
pasture’ (CAD, p. 163).

Used as a cognate accusative in Gen 1:1],
where the earth sprouts ‘‘vegetation’’ or “‘grass*"
on the third day of creation. God makes the grass
grow as food for animals (Jer 14:5; Job 6:5;
38:27), and this tender, green grass grows charac-
teristically after the rains have come (Deut 32:2;
II Sam 23:4). In time of drought the grass dies out
(Isa 15:6).

Metaphorically, the growth of this tender grass
is compared with the rule of a just king in I] Sam
23:4. The bones of a happy man are said to
‘flourish like the new grass’* (Isa 66:14). In Ps
23:2 the Lord has his sheep lie down in green
pastures and enjoy an ideal resting place. Perhaps
the rest follows a time of feeding on the tender
grass.

When it is linked with yereg ‘‘green plants,”
deshe’ refers to grass that easily withers and is
gone. The enemies of Assyria are short of
strength, like the green herb (II Kgs 19:26 = Isa

199

458 m3 (dat)

37:27). In Ps 37:2 the godly are told not to envy
wicked men. because they fade quickly like the
grass (cf. Isa 15:6).

H.W.

457 ww" (ddshén) be(come) fat, prosperous; to

anoint.
Derivatives

4S7a Ws (deshen) fatness, fat ashes (e.g.
Lev 1:16; Ps 63:6).

457b Ws (dashén) fat (Isa 30:23: Ps
92:15: 22:30).

The verb dashén ts used only in poetry except
for the Pentateuch, once in the Qal stem (Deut
31:20), usually in the Piel or Pual. Refers to the
‘fatty ashes” left after the burning of sacrificial
animals (Ex 27:3; Num 4:13). God's judgment on
Edom is compared to a great sacrifice as both
God's sword and the ground are covered with
‘*fat’’ (Isa 34:6-7).

Since fat animals were considered the health-
iest and the fat was regarded as the best part of
sacrificial animals (cf. Ps 20:3 [H 4]), the
metaphorical usage of ‘* prosperous” or “rich” is
easily understood. The righteous man is de-
scribed as a fruitful tree, ‘full of sap’’ in his old
age (Ps 92:14 (H 15]). In Proverbs, the generous
man, the diligent man, and the one who trusts in
the Lord are all called ‘fat’ or **prosperous”’
(11:25; 13:4; 28:25). Good news “‘gives health to
the bones”’ (Prov 15:30). Psalm 23:5 refers to the
head ‘‘anointed (made fat) with oil” as a descrip-
tion of the blessing of God.

In Deut 31:20 comes the warning that when
God's people are *‘satisfied and prosperous (fat)"”
they will forsake him and worship other gods.

H.W.

458 ms (dat) decree, law, edict, regulation.

This loanword from the Persian data is found
twenty times in Est, once in Ezr (8:36), and sev-
eral times in the Aramaic sections of Ezr and
Dan. It is spelled the same in Hebrew and
Aramaic. Since all three books deal with kings of
Persia, the use of this foreign term is readily ex-
plained. It overlaps the use of tora, mishpat, and
hog in Hebrew. The relationship between **de-
cree’’ and ‘‘law”’ was very close, and “the laws
of the Medes and Persians’’ could not be changed
(Est 8:8: cf. Dan 6:12 [H 13}).

Essentially, the law was what the king wanted.
His wishes quickly became law, as illustrated by
the fact that the “‘word of the king” 1s connected
with the law four times in Est (2:8; 4:3: 8:17; 9:1).
This is illustrated in the episode involving Queen
Vashti, who refused to display her beauty to the
king’s guests. An edict was issued ending Vash-
ti’s reign as queen, and this immediately became

458 no (dat)

part of the ‘“‘laws of the Medes and Persians”’
(1:19). Such edicts were written down and sent
throughout the kingdom for all to know (1:20;
3:14).

A second and more important edict was pre-
pared by Haman to the effect that all Jews could
be killed on the thirteenth day of Adar (3:14).
This dire threat moved Mordecai and Esther to
plead for the lives of their people. Haman’s mur-
derous intentions were nullified by a counter '‘de-
cree authored by Mordecai that gave the Jews the
right to defend themselves (8:13-14). At Esther's
request, this edict was extended an extra day to
give the Jews more time to destroy their enemies.

Esther's courage in approaching King
Ahasuerus without invitation illustrated the sev-
erity of Persian law. She knew that, according to
the law, if the king did not extend the scepter to
her, she would die (4:11, 16). Vashti's experience
was just the opposite. By refusing to come when
summoned, she left herself open to the condem-
nation of the law (1:13, 15, 19).

Actually, Haman charged the Jews with prac-
ticing different laws—laws allegedly incompati-

200

ble with those of the Persians (3:8). “‘Laws’’ in
this sense comes close to the meaning of ‘‘cus-
toms" and ‘“‘religious practices.’” Daniel's
enemies attempted to bring about his downfall by
driving a similar wedge between ‘‘the law of his
God’’ and the law of King Darius (Dan 6:5, 8 (H
6, 9)).

Another less technical use of ‘‘law’’ occurs in
Est 2:12, where a twelve-month peniod of purifi-
cation was prescribed before a woman was taken
to the king. Like all other ‘‘laws,’’ these regu-
lations were strictly followed.

The meaning of ‘“‘law”’ in 1:8 is more difficult,
since the point seems to be that each person
could drink as much as he wished. Apparently
‘‘law’’ could be understood as the king’s order
giving this individual freedom to his banquet
guests.

In the only occurrence of dat in Hebrew out-
side the book of Esther, it refers to the decrees
given by Artaxerxes supporting Ezra’s efforts to
strengthen the returned exiles in Jerusalem (Ezr
8:36; cf. 7:12-24).

H.W.

459 5 (ha) the.

All West Semitic languages since the first mil-
lenium s.c. (Hebrew/Aramaic/Phoenician) plus
Arabic have tn their language a morpheme that
functions as a definite article. In none of these
languages is the definite article a separate word,
as in English, but rather it is prefixed to the word
it determines, except in Aramaic where it is af-
fixed (i.e. postpositive). The definite article is not
differentiated according to gender (like the
French /e/la or the Greek ho/hé/to) nor according
to number (/e/les). The one form, ha, covers
masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Nor
is there in Biblical Hebrew any word for the in-
definite article ‘‘a/an.”’ Occasionally the latter
may be expressed by the numeral “one” ‘ehdd: |
Sam 6:7, ""a new cart.”

Most likely the definite article was originally a
demonstrative pronoun, with an early form of
something like hal- or han- although the article
itself cannot be traced back morphologically to
such an earlier form. In Biblical Hebrew, then,
the “Il’* or **n™* of hal/han assimilates to the first
consonant producing doubling (gemination) of
that consonant, so, hal/n-shemesh **the sun,”
becomes hashshemesh. When a guttural is the
first consonant of the determined word the vowel
of the article will change, involving either com-
pensatory lengthening or dissimilation.

The article is added not only to substantives
but also to adjectives if the latter are used attribu-
tively and not predicatively, for example: the
couplet Ada’ish hat-t6b equals ‘the good man,”’
but the couplet hd’ish t6b equals ‘*the man (is)
good.’ The article may also be added to, strange
as it seems, verbs. In such instances it appears to
assume the force of a relative. Cf. I Chr 26:28,
“All that Samuel had dedicated (hahiqdish)”’:
Josh 10:24, **The chiefs of the men of war who
went with him (hehal®kia’).”’ The article may also
be appended to a preposition as in “‘the thigh and
that which was upon it (w“he‘alehad, 1 Sam 9:24),

There are several instances where the Hebrew
avoids the definite article but smooth English
translation demands its inclusion. To express a
genitival relationship the Hebrew, wher~ nouns
(or adjectives) are involved, places the first word
(the nomen regens) in the construct case in rela-
tion to the second word, the absolute one (the
nomen rectum). The grammatical rule is that the
word in the construct case never has the definite
article except for a few anomalous occurrences.
The absolute noun, if it is definite, has the article

203

according to normal usage. The construct 1s defi-
nite or indefinite according to the definiteness of
indefiniteness of the absolute. Thus, the phrase
**(the) horse of the king’’ would be written sus
ham-melek, never has-stis ham-melek.

Conversely, there are a number of places
where the Hebrew adds the article but smooth
English translation demands its exclusion. An Il-
lustration of this would be the or references to
Satan. Preponderantly when the oT is referring to
Satan as a superhuman adversary of both God
and man he is referred to as “‘the satan.’ This is
true of the fourteen times he is mentioned in Job 1
and 2, and also in Zech 3:1-2 (twice). Thus, Job
1:7 reads literally, *‘*The Lord said to the satan.”
The thrust of the article in these passages is to
show that ‘*satan’’ is not a name, but only a title.
The only passage that refers to ‘‘Satan,’’ a name,
is | Chr 2]:1! (1.e. without the appended article),
and one must compare this verse in Chr with its
parallel in IT Sam 24:1 (cf. GKC 126,e). On the
other side of the coin scholars have used this rule
of proper names being definite sui generis to
argue that the Hebrew word t*hom ‘‘deep” in
Gen 1:2 is really a veiled reference to the Babylo-
nian Tiamat or ts at least the philological equiva-
lent. She is the female dragonesque personi-
fication of the primordial saltwater ocean in
Babylonian traditions about creation of the world.
t° hom (q.v.) 1s, indeed, never used in the Bible
with the definite article, something characteristic
of proper names in the Bible. Yet, at all points,
this hardly seems adequate proof to make an
equation. Dahood comes to the conclusion that
‘Biblical t° hom equals Ug thm, and does not
derive directly from Babylonian sources, as
urged by earlier generations of scholars’’ (AB,
Psalms Ill, p. 36).

It may be added that the article is rare in bibli-
cal poetry—a usage akin to Ugaritic which has no
clear article at all.

Bibliography: Most of the standard Hebrew
grammars supply information on the morphology
and syntax of the definite article, but cf. espe-
cially Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, Oxford:
Clarendon Press, par. 126. Honeyman, A. M.,
‘‘Ugaritic and Semitic Usage,’ JAOS 75: 121-22,
who contends that Ugaritic An is the ancestor of
the Canaanite definite article. Lambdin, T.. "The
Junctural Origin of the West Semitic Definite Ar-
ticle. in Near Eastern Studies in Honor of
William Foxwell Albright, ed. H. Goedicke, Bal-
timore: Johns Hopkins, 1971, pp. 315-33.

V.P.H.

460 3 (fa)

460 3 (hd).

hd is prefixed to the first word of a sentence or
a clause, mostly involving direct questions. De-
pending on the first consonant, and the vowel of
the word to which this particle is appended, the
interrogative da may become ha/he/ha with a fol-
lowing dagesh forte.

As arule the simple question in Hebrew is in-
troduced by the interrogative fad. Sometimes,
however, this particle is not present and yet the
interrogative sentence is quite obvious. For
example. “Shall Saul reign over us?” (1 Sam
11:12) lacks any interrogative indicator.

When /d appears in a question that question Is
not asking primarily for information but rather is
a rhetorical question to which usually a negative
answer is expected (“‘“Am I! my _ brother's
keeper?’ Gen 4:9) and occasionally a positive
answer.

This becomes most clear in prophetic litera-
ture. and we shall use as an example Jeremiah. In
many instances the particle is used parallel with
‘im. Jeremiah 18:14 reads, ““Does the snow of
Lebanon leave (ha)? Do the mountain waters run
dry (‘im)?’” These two questions obviously re-
quire negative answers. Yet the prophet con-
tinues in v. 15 to say that God's people have for-
gotten him. Thus, two rhetorical questions are
used to intensify the severity of God’s wrath on
this unnatural cleavage between himself and his
people. Jeremiah may use the double rhetorical
question (Ad... ‘int) to rephrase a generally ac-
cepted presupposition and then challenge it
(2:14.31: 3:5; 8:4), or to express traditional reli-
gious dogma (8:19.22; 14:19,22).

Of special interest is Jeremiah’s use of the for-
mula ha—im—maddi'. Cf. 2:14, “Is Israel a
slave (41a)? Is he a homeborn servant (‘777)? Why
(madd) has he become a prey?” And for the
same formula in Jeremiah cf. 2:31; 8:4-5; 8:19;
8:22; 22:28: 49:1. In each case the first two ques-
tions establish the presuppositions of his sermon
and an agreement with his audience but the third
question draws the implications of the agreement
just established. Like Job, Jeremiah is a man of
dispute.

Bibliography: GKC. par. 100 k-n= (for
morphology): par. 150 a-i (for syntax). On the use
of questions in Jeremiah, Brueggemann, W. M..
**Jeremiah’s Use of Rhetorical Questions, “JBL
92: 358-74. Holladay. W. L., **The So-Called
‘Deuteronomic Gloss’ in Jer. VIII: 19b.° VT 12:
494-98,

Interrogative particle.

VoPOR,

46! sm (hé') lo! behold! (Gen 47:23. Ezk

16:43).

462 mgs (he'ah) aha!
25:5).

(e.g. Ps 35:21, 25: Ezk

204

saan (habhab). See no. 849b.

463 %38 (habal) act emptily, become vain. De-

nominative verb.

Parent Noun
463a 93m (hebel)

The denominative verb appears five times in
the oT, four times in the Qal and once in the
Hiphil (Jer 23:16). Of particular interest here are
the parallel verses Jer 2:5 and II Kgs 17:15: They
went after vanities and ‘‘became vain.” (NIV:
‘They followed worthless idols and became
worthless themselves.'’) Two inexorable princi-
ples are illustrated here: (1) every man takes on
to some degree the character and nature of the
God he worships; (2) the characteristic of all false
gods is that they destroy their worshippers.

hebel. Vapor, breath, vanity. This substantive
is translated almost exclusively by the KJv as
‘vanity.’ Except for the passages in Eccl, where
the Rsv concurs with the K)v, the Rsv generally
leans to the translation “‘breath’’ or ‘‘worthless.”
The noun appears seventy-one times in the oT.
Thirty-six times it is used in Eccl, where it occurs
at least once in each of the twelve chapters ex-
cept chapter ten.

The proper name, Abel, the second son of
Adam, 1s also written Aebe!l. Whether or not
there is a connection between this and the sub-
stantive under discussion is another matter. Most
of the Hebrew lexions have connected **Abel”’
with the cognate Akkadian word ablu/aplu
‘*son.’’ One will note that Abel is named in Gen 4
without any explanation, a fact that can hardly be
without significance since almost all the proper
names in Genesis are explained by assonances.

The basic meaning of hebe/l is **wind’’ or
‘breath.’ This is illustrated best in Isa 57:13,
“The wind (ré#ah) will carry them off, a breath
(hebel) will take them away.” and Prov 21:6,
The getting of treasures by a lying tongue 1s a
fleeting vapor (hehbel niddap).’ The verb nadap,
meaning ‘‘to drive,” is most often used in con-
nection with the wind as the driving force (e.g. Ps
1:4; 68:2 [H 3}).

There are three basic categories or contexts in
which /iebel is used. First, it is used as a designa-
tion for false gods worshiped by the people of
God and hence is usually translated in this con-
text by the rsv as ‘idols’: Deut 32:21: I Kgs
16:13, 26; If Kgs 17:15; Jer 2:5; 8:19 (parallel to
pesel); 10:8, 15, 51:18; Jon 2:9: Ps 31:6 [H 7].

Secondly, the term represents the individual
and sometimes exasperating sentiments of indi-
viduals: Isa 49:4 where the servant Israel says. **I
have labored in vain (rig), I have spent my
strength for nothing (to6hi) and vanity (hebel).”’

vapor, breath.

Job complains about the brevity and uncertainty
of his life (7:16). Cf. the similar idea in the Psal-
ter: Ps 39:5,6, 1! (H 6,7, 12]; 62:9 [H 10]; 78:33 (in
which hebel is parallel to behald, from the root
bahal *‘to hasten’’): 94:11: 144:4 (hebel parallel
to sel). Hence, hebel seems to mean here
‘short-lived. ”*

Third is the cluster of references found in Eccl
(thirty-six). These may be grouped into several
subdivisions. First are those passages in which
the author states his inability to find fulfillment in
work, both in his failure to be creative and in his
lack of control over the privilege of free disposi-
tion of his possessions; this is ‘‘vanity’’: 2:11, 19,
21, 23; 4:4, 8; 6:2. Second are those verses in
which the author struggles with the idea that the
connection between sin and judgment, righteous-
ness and final deliverance is not always direct or
obvious. This is an anomaly about life and it is
“vanity”: 2:15, 6:7-9; 8:10-14. The meaning of
hebel here would be ‘senseless.’ Thirdly are
those verses in which the author laments the
shortness of life; this is “‘vanity’’: 3:19; 6:12;
11:8, 10. Life, in its quality, is *“empty’” or **vac-
uous'’ (and thus unsubstantial), and in its quan-
tity is “‘transitory.”’

Rather than the above observations being final
conclusions about life by the author of Eccl,
perhaps they reveal something of his method and
his concealed premise. He may be attempting to
demonstrate man’s inability to find meaning to
life unaided by divine revelation and interruption.
This solo quest will always end in futility.

Bibliography: Gordis, R., Koheleth: The Man
and His World, 3d ed., Schocken, 1968. Guil-
laume, A., *‘Paranomasia in the Old Testament,”’
JSS 9: 282-90, esp. pp. 282-83 for a proposed
Arabic etymology for the proper name Abel. Kin-
law, D. F., “‘Ecclesiastes’ in The Wesleyan
Bible Commentary, 1], Eerdmans, 1968. Meek,
T. J., ‘Translating the Hebrew Bible,’ JBL 79:
328-35, esp. pp. 330-31. Staples, W. E., ‘*The
‘Vanity’ of Ecclesiastes,” JNES 2:95-104.
THAT, I, pp. 467-69.

V.P.H.

464 9335 (hobni) ebony (Ezk 27:15, only).

465 338 (hdbar) divide (isa 47:13, only).

466 3am (hgg). Assumed root of the following.

466a 35 (hdgig) murmuring, — whisper,
musing (Ps 5:2; Ps 39:4). From the
hypothetical root Agg, but closely
related to haga.

467 M25 (haga) I, utter, mutter, moan (mourn,
KJV), meditate, devise, plot.

468 73m (haga)

Derivatives

467a man (hegeh) a rumbling, growling,
moaning (Job 37:2: Ezk 2:10: Ps
90:9).

467b mam (hdgit) meditation, utterance
(Ps 49:3 [H 4], only).
467c tam (higgdyén) meditation.

haga occurs primarily in poetry, especially in
Ps and Isa. It ts used in the Qal, except for Isa
8:18 (Hiphil).

The basic meaning of hdga and its cognates is a
low sound, characteristic of the moaning of a
dove (Isa 38:14; 59:11) or the growling of a lion
over its prey (Isa 31:4). It is sometimes used in
mourning contexts, such as the moaning over the
judgment upon Moab (Isa 16:7; Jer 48:31) or the
whispering of the enemy after the collapse of
Jerusalem (Lam 3:62). Wizards are known to
whisper and mutter in their occult practices (Isa
8:19). In distress the psalmist sighs and cries out
to God for help (5:1 [H 2]).

Often the term refers to the plots originating in
the heart of wicked men or nations which then
are given expression in lying and deceitful words
(Ps 2:1; Prov 24:2). The wicked words uttered are
described as coming both from the heart (Isa
59:13) and from the tongue (Isa 59:3). The righte-
ous can also “devise” or *‘ponder’™’ a proper an-
swer (Prov 15:28) and then talk about wisdom (Ps
37:30) or God's righteousness (Ps 35:28; 71:24).
In Ps 19:14 (H 15] “the meditation of my heart”
ts parallel to “‘the words of my mouth,” as the
psalmist compares his own speech with what God
communicates in nature and in Scripture.

Another positive use relates to meditating upon
the Word of God, which, like the plots of the
wicked (Ps 38:12 [H 13]), goes on day and night
(Josh 1:8; Ps 1:2). Perhaps the Scripture was read
half out loud in the process of meditation. The
psalmist also speaks about meditating upon God
(63:6 [H 7]) and his works (77:12 [H 13]; 143:5).

higgayon. Meditation, whispering, melody. The
noun higgdvon refers to the music of a harp in
Ps 92:3 [H 4]. Possibly a musical notation is meant
by the “Higgaion’™’ in Ps 9:16 [H 17], but “*medi-
tation’’ is an alternate interpretation. For other
such terms see seld.

H.W.

468 "35 (haga) II, remove, drive out.

This verb occurs only three or four times, de-
pending on one’s handling of I] Sam 20:13. Prov-
erbs 25:4-5 uses the infinitive absolute hag6é to
begin successive verses. A comparison is made
between the beneficial effects of removing dross
from silver and removing the wicked from the
king’s presence. The results will be a purer vessel
and a more righteous government. Isaiah also

469 33m (hen).

470 sam (her).

469 335 (hen)

uses the Qal stem to describe the way God
‘*drove’’ Judah out of her land (27:8). The ‘‘fierce
blast’* is compared with the hot east wind that
blows in from the desert. In all three of these
examples the removal is difficult to effect but
nonetheless necessary to produce purity.

The form Adgé in II Sam 20:13 is treated as a
Hiphil of vagd by BDB, but KB feels that the
root is properly haga. It refers to the removal of
the dead body of Amasa from the road after Joab
had treacherously murdered the man David had
appointed to replace him.

H.W.
min (hagut). See no. 467b.
5 «6(hagig). See no. 466a.
wean (higgadyén). See no. 467c.
wan. (hagin). See no. 469a.

Assumed root of the following.
469a Mas (hagin) appropriate, suitable
(Ezk 42:12). Meaning uncertain.

Assumed root of the follow-
ing. This root, meaning “‘flee’’ is found in
the Arabic name for Mohammed's famous
flight. the Hegira.

470a tsam (hagar)

the same.)

Hagar. (asv and RSv

Hagar is the name of Sarah's Egyptian maid,
the mother of Ishmael by Abraham. The name is
Semitic, not Egyptian.

The information about Hagar is recorded in
Gen 16 and 21. Sarah, childless at age 75, offered
Hagar to Abraham to bear a child for her. This
was customary as we learn from tablets from an-
cient Nuzi (cf. ‘‘New Kirkuk Documents Relat-
ing to Family Laws,”’ The Annual of the Ameri-
can Schools of Oriental Research, X, 1930, p.
32). Rachel and Leah also gave their maids to
Jacob to bear children for them (Gen 30:1-13).

After Hagar conceived, she felt superior to
Sarah, who then mistreated her, causing her to
flee. During her flight an angel promised her
posterity, and told her to return to the household.

Ishmael was fourteen when Sarah bore Isaac.
Soon afterwards Hagar and Ishmael were sent
away for good. When Hagar feared that they
would die of thirst, God promised her that he
would make of Ishmael a great nation, and then
showed her a well of water. They lived in Paran,
and Hagar obtained a wife for Ishmael from
Egypt.

[It may be noted that the dangerous condition
in which Hagar found herself in the desert near
Beersheba (Gen 21:14—21) was quite possibly due
to accident. Abraham sent her away and she went
south, presumably on the way to Shur (the road

206

471 sm (hdd).

to Egypt) which she had traveled before (Gen
16:7). It will be remembered that she was an
Egyptian. According to the Hebrew of Gen 21:14,
she apparently lost her way (td‘d ‘‘err,’’ cf. Ps
119:176 “like a lost sheep” and Isa 53:6). The
penalty for getting lost in the desert is severe.
Her deliverance came supernaturally. Abraham's
action in sending Hagar away seems harsh, but
was actually in accord with common Mesopota-
mian law (particularly the Code of Hammurabi).
Hagar’s child was legally Sarah's. Nuzi law
specifies that in such a situation the natural son of
the legal wife would be given the right of the
firstborn. But it seems that Hagar was not satis-
fied with all this. So vicious animosity arose. In
this case Abraham’s reliance on common law in-
stead of God's promise bore bitter fruit. R.L.H.]
Paul (Gal 4) used the relationship of Sarah and
Hagar in an allegory, Hagar representing the
bondage of children born after the flesh and self-
effort, and Sarah, the free wife of Abraham, rep-
resenting the believers of the new covenant of
promise and grace.
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 55-56.
C.P.W.

Assumed root of the following.

47ia mm (hédad) shout, shouting, cheer.

471b 38 (héd) shout. Occurs only in
phrase héd harim ‘‘shout’ on
mountains’’ (Ezk 7:7).

471c 7395 (hddad) Hadad.
same.)

hadad. Hadad. The name of several royal
Edomites, including two kings who are listed
among the kings of Edom: A son of Bedad who
defeated Midian (Gen 36:35-36; I Chr 1:46-47),
and a later king (1 Chr 1:50-S1; and the variant
spelling, hddar, Gen 36:39).

Hadad was the name of an adversary of Sol-
omon, possibly the same as the second king men-
tioned above (I Kgs 11:14-21, 25; with variant
spelling ’ddad, 11:17). When Joab, David's gen-
eral, slaughtered the Edomites, Hadad, a young
Edomite of royal stock, was taken by his father’s
servants to Egypt. Here he married the sister of
Pharoah’s wife. He remained in Egypt, nurtured
by Pharoah, until David and Joab died. He then
returned to Edom to stir up trouble for Solomon.

The name Hadad is the name of an ancient
Semitic storm god. The Edomite name **Hadad”’
mentioned above. may be an abbreviation of
names compounded with Hadad. It is used as one
component of several compound names: Ben-
hadad, king of Syria (I Kgs 15:18), Hadedezer,
king of Zobah (II Sam 8:3) and Hadadrimmon, a
compound divine name, but perhaps a place in
Megiddo (Zech 12:11). Hadad may be the same as
the Ugaritic hd, an alternate name for Baal (see

(ASV, RSV the

UT 19: no. 749), and the Babylonian Adad,
Addu.

Bibliography: On Ben-hadad King of Syria,
see A. Malamat, ‘‘The Arameans,”’ in Peoples of
OT Times, ed. Wiseman, D. J., Oxford, 1973, p.
152, note 24.

C.P.W.

472 man (hada) stretch out (hand).
473 358% (hadak) tread down.

474 pm (hdm). Assumed root of the following.
474a asm (hddém) stool, footstool. Al-
ways refers to the footstool of the

Lord (Ps 110:1; Isa 66:1, etc.).

475 pin (hddas) myrtle (tree), e.g. Isa 41:19;
Neh 8:15, Zech 1:8).

476 "1% (hadap) cast away (out), drive, expel,
thrust (away). (ASV similar, RSV also stab,
thwart.)

The basic meaning is to ‘‘push,’’ ‘‘push
away.’’ It is used eleven times in the oT, always
negatively. The object is usually a person or per-
sons, often an enemy.

The enemy may be a national power, as Is-
rael’s enemies which the Lord would drive from
the land (Deut 6:19; 9:4; Josh 23:5), and Egypt
which the Lord would drive before her enemies
(Jer 46:15). Whether the Egyptian army, its lead-
ership, or the bull god Apis (rsv following the
LXx) is the object here, a military defeat of Egypt
is to be understood.

The object may also be an individual, as God
promises to thrust the steward, Shebna, out of
office (Isa 22:19), or as Gehazi attempts to pusha
woman away from Elisha (II Kgs 4:27). Bildad
pictures the wicked man as being thrust from
light into darkness (Job 18:18). The word aiplies
to the action of a manslayer (hence rsv‘‘stab,”’
Num 35:20,22).

The word, used figuratively of people, refers to
fat sheep pushing the weak ones (Ezk 34:21). Ac-
cording to Prov 10:3 the Lord pushes aside (Rsv
‘‘thwarts’’) the desire (ksv ‘“‘substance’’) of the
wicked.

C.P.W.

477 <5 (hadar) honor, adorn, glorify.
Derivatives

477a_ o"<%% (heder) splendor, glory (oc-
curs only in Dan 11:20).

477b tasm (hddar) ornament.

477c oman (hddarad) adornment, glory.

The verb occurs seven times in Biblical He-
brew (with one dubious reading in Isa 45:2 where

207

477 3539 (hadar)

for MT hdéduarim IQIsa* has hararim) and three
times in Biblical Aramaic.

The verb is used mostly in describing man’s
relationship to man. The youthful are to honor
the elderly (stated positively in Lev 19:32 and
negatively in Lam 5:12). Hence, behind the word
lies the idea ‘“‘to show respect.’” Other ideas in-
volved include showing **partiality’’ (to the poor,
who is caught up in a legal crisis, simply because
of his poverty, not because of his innocence: Ex
23:3). On the other hand there are prohibitions
regarding fawning over the wealthy, courting
their attention, or excusing their actions when-
ever they are reprehensible; Lev 19:15; Prov
25:6. In just one passage (Isa 63:1) the verb is
used (in its passive participial form) in connection
with a description of God’s appearance which is
‘*slorious.””

In the Aramaic passages the verb always
means “‘to honor/glorify (God).** In Dan 4:34 {[H
31], itis parallel with the verbs b' rak, sh’ bah; in
Dan 4:37 [H 34] with ram, sh® bah; in Dan 5:23
with sh bah.

hadar. Ornament, splendor, honor. This sub-
Stantive appears twenty-nine times in the ot of
which sixteen are in the Psalms.

The noun hAddadr is associated with: (1) the
glory of nature as it reflects the goodness of God
(Lev 23:40; Ps 111:3, Isa 35:2); (2) man (Isa 53:2,
the suffering servant, ‘‘comeliness’’); man as he
is created by God (Ps 8:6); the elderly man’s gray
hair (Prov 20:29); the ideal wife (Prov 31:25). (3)
It is applied to cities: Jerusalem (Isa 5:14); Zion
(Lam 1:6); and the areas of Persia, Lud, and Put
(Ezk 27:10); (4) to the Joseph tribes (Deut 33:17)
and perhaps to all of Palestine (Dan 11:20,
heder). Several of these passages deal with the
departure of this glory from God's people. The
children of God have no indigenous glory of their
own. If God departs the glory departs. Hence,
this is a gift from God but it is still revocable.

Most frequently the substantive is applied to
either (a) the king and his royal majesty or (b)
God himself. In the former category we may note
the following passages: Ps 21:5 [H 6]; 45:3-4
[H 4-S]}); Prov 14:28 (hadard). It is not only an
endowment for royalty, but it is also an activity
worthy of royalty, as illustrated by Nebuchad-:
nezzar (Dan 4:34 [Aram 31] and 4:37 [Aram 34])
and Belshazzar (Dan 5:23).

In the following passages the term is descrip-
tive of God: Ps 29:4: 90:16: 96:6 (= I Chr
16:27); 104:1; 11:3; 145:5, 12. Of special interest
here is the parallel connection between the
phrases ‘‘the glory of his (God's) majesty,”
hddar g°’ ono, and ‘the fear/terror (pahad) of the
Lord’ (Isa 2:10, 19, 21). The prophet warns the
Judeans to “*hide” from both. This entreaty fol-
lows on the heels of a devastating list of sins

478 am (hah)

which must be judged. Obviously Isaiah does not
counsel the people to hide in hopes that they
might escape the searchlight of God. What he
does say is that the people are so reprobate and
backslidden that they cannot possibly fellowship
with a God of pure light and majesty. Thus, this 1s
not advice; it 1s an Imprecation.

The phrase hddrat ygodesh merits special
comment. It appears four times in the oT: Ps 29:2;
96:9: I Chr 16:29; I] Chr 20:21, plus the related
phrase in Ps 110:3, hadré gédesh. Each time the
RSV translates this couplet “holy array’’ with the
exception of Ps 110:3 where it opts for the trans-
lation “holy mountains” (reading a different
text). So. *"worship the Lord in holy array,”’ (e.g.
Ps 9:2). A parallel to “‘holy array’’ would be
bigdé qodesh, “*holy garments,” in Lev 16:4.
Also in several instances the verb hadar (Isa
63:1) and the substantive hddar (Ps 104:1, Job
40:10; Prov 31:35) are connected with the verb
labash (“‘to clothe’’), and Ezk 16:14 with the verb
sum/sim, perhaps a reference to some kind of an
investiture ceremony.

On the other hand, the kjv consistently trans-
lates the couplet, **the beauty of holiness.’” Now,
in the light of Ugaritic evidence, a third option
presents itself. In the Kret epic A: lines 154, 155
we read:

Krt - yht - whim

‘hd - il + whdrt

Krt ftooked and it was a dream

the servant of El and it was a

(divine) appearance

In our biblical passages then, the major em-
phasis 1s on the Lord and his appearance, not on
the worshipper except as the realization of God's
actual presence evokes awe. A third translation
could be: “prostrate yourselves before the Lord
when he appears in holiness.”*

Bibliography: On the phrase ha@drat qédesh,
cf. Ackroyd, P. R., “Some Notes on the
Psalms, JTS 17: 392-99, esp. pp. 393-96. Cross,
F. M., ‘*‘Notes on a Canaanite Psalm in the Old
Testament." BASOR I17: 19-21, esp. p. 21.
Caquot, A.. “In splendoribus sanctorum,”* Syria
33: 36-41. Dahood. M., Psalms, AB, vol. 3: 116.
Donner, H., ‘‘Ugaritismen in der Psalmen-
forschung.” ZAW 79: 322-SO, esp. pp. 331-33.
Gordon. UT: no. 752. Vogt, E., ‘‘Der Aufbau
von PS 29,” Bib 41: 17-24, esp. p. 24. THAT, I,
pp. 469-72.

V.P.H.

478 mm (hah) alas! (Ezk 30:2).

479 3m (h6) ah! (Amos 5:16).

480 sim (hi), SM (hi) he, she, it, himself,

herself, the same, which (is), that (is), who, et
al. (aAsv and RSv similar.)

208

This is the third person singular, independent
nominative pronoun, “he,” “‘she,”* ‘‘it.”’

For the most part Hebrew does not (as does En-
glish) require the use of an independent pronoun
to precede a finite verb when the noun-subject
is omitted. When it does appear it is usually for
emphasis or in another type of construction.

One such construction ts a nominal sentence or
clause, that 1s a sentence which has no finite
verb, but a noun or an adjective (including the
participle as a verbal adjective) acts as the predi-
cate. (The English must include a form of the
verb “‘to be.’ In this construction the pronoun Is
necessary if the noun subject is omitted: with a
noun predicate, “it (is) my master’” (Gen 24:65),
with an adjective predicate, ‘*he was faint’’ (Gen
25:29), with a participial predicate, *‘he (was) sit-
ting at the door of the tent’’ (Gen 18:1).

When such a nominal sentence or phrase is
connected with preceding material it may be
translated as if the pronoun were a relative:
‘*Bela, which is Zoar,’’ (Gen 14:2), *‘Esau, who
is Edom"* (Gen 36:1). Occasionally the pronoun
follows the predicate: thus, ‘‘unclean it,’’ to be
translated “it is unclean’’ (Num 19:15), ‘‘twenty
gerahs it, “it is twenty gerahs’’ (Num 18:16).
This is especially true in dependent clauses such
as those introduced by Ai, meaning “‘that,”
‘for,’ ““‘because’’: *‘for unclean he,”’ that is “*he
is unclean’? (Lev 13:11), ‘‘because many they
(were)’ (Num 22:3). This is also common with
‘dsher, meaning “which,” “‘that’’: “from the
beast which not clean it (is)’’ (Gen 7:2), *“*which
not from your seed he (is)"* (Gen 17:12), often
called the resumptive pronoun.

Sometimes in a nominal] sentence the pronoun
stands between the subject and the nominal pred-
icate where the English would have a form of the
verb ‘‘to be’’: ‘‘And Joseph, he (was) the ruler”
(Gen 42:6), “‘you (are) he, God" (I] Sam 7:28).
The pronoun, which is redundant in English, is
not in this case, a substitute for the verb ‘‘to be”™’
but is used to indicate emphasis, ‘attd hi’: It is
you that. Also after an interrogative the pronoun
may be added for emphasis, **who (is he that) will
condemn me?”’ (Isa 50:9).

The pronoun may be used before a finite verb
when a phrase separates the subject from the
verb: *‘The woman whom thou gavest to be with
me, she gave me’™’ (Gen 3:12), and “‘one that shall
come... he shall inherit (from) you”’ (Gen 15:4).
Unless there is reason for emphasis this use is
redundant in English and not generally trans-
lated.

The pronoun is also used to tie in an additional
subject added after the predicate, ‘And Joseph
returned to Egypt, he, and his brethren, and all”
(Gen 50:14).

With the article, the pronoun may function as
the demonstrative adjective, ‘‘that’’ (correspond-

ing to zeh “‘this’*), “that place’ (Gen 21:31). ‘‘in
that day’’ meaning “‘the same day” (Gen 15:18).

hw may be used simply for emphasis: **I know
that he can speak”’ (Ex 4:14), or “the Lord. he
(is) God** (Ps 100:3). The emphasis may be ex-
pressed tn English by “himself,” **the Lord him-
self will require it’ (Josh 22:23). When it 1s used
to reinforce a preceding suffix pronoun, it is dif-
ficult to translate in writing, because the English
equivalent is to put stress on that pronoun, ‘what
he saith,” that is, what Hushai says in contrast to
what Ahithophel has said (literally, ‘‘what is in
his mouth,” I] Sam 17:5).

The «: and y are not merely vowel letters as
shown by the Ugaritic pronouns huwa ‘he’ and
hiya “she (Aw and hv).

Unexplained is the usage in the Pentateuch and
a few other places where Au’ means either **he*’
(vocalized hit’) or “*she’* (vocalized with a per-
petual gere hi’). In the past this has led some to
feel that the original pronoun for both genders
was fu but Ugaritic denies this conclusion. Ap-
parently the situation is due to some dialect or
vagary of a scribal school.

Bibliography: Montgomery, J. A., “The He-
brew Divine Name and the Personal Pronoun
hu’, JBL 63: 161-63.

C.P.W.

481 In (hdwa') fall (Job 37:6, only).

482 sm (hwd). Assumed root of the following.
482a tm (hdd) splendor, majesty, vigor,
glory, honor.

The noun is used twenty-four times in the oT,
appearing most frequently in the Psalter (eight
times). Quite often it is found in juxtaposition
with the related word, hdddr, also meaning
‘majesty’ or “honor,” always in the order héd
nw hadar: Ps 21:6: 45:3 [H 4] 96:6 (= I Chr 16:26);
104:1; 111:3; Job 40:10 (seven times). The Lxx
translates hdd by doxa (nine times). by
exomologésis (four times), plus sundry other
words. So far no related root in other Semitic
languages has been found for /idd. It is uniquely a
Hebrew word.

This substantive is used as a characteristic or
attribute of: (a) man: Num 27:20, Moses and
Joshua; Prov 5:9, the wise son; Dan 10:8, Daniel
(translated by the kJv as **comeliness”’ and by the
RSV aS ‘‘radiant appearance’); Hos 14:7, the
northern Israelites after their repentance and res-
toration to divine blessing; Jehoiakim (Jer 22:18);
(b) animals, specifically the horse: Job 39:20;
Zech 10:3; (c) plants, the olive: Hos 14:7.

Preponderantly the substantive is connected
with God. His majesty can be seen in the crea-
tion: Ps 8:2, *‘God's glory is chanted above the
heavens, or ‘‘by ’ the heavens if we are dealing

209

483 mn (hawa)

here with the music of the spheres: Ps 148:13,
God's glory is above the earth and heaven: Hab
3:3, “God's glory covers the heaven.’° When the
biblical writers look at the work of God's hand in
the universe they can do nothing but speak of
God's glory: Ps 145:4. This glory is part of God's
wardrobe (Ps 104:1). It can be heard (Isa 30:30;
Ps 8:2). God bequeaths this to the man who lives
in fellowship with him: Ps 21:6: 1 Chr 29:25 (Sol-
omon). This attribute is applied finally to the
Messiah who shall. build the temple and bear
royal honor (Zech 6:13).

In addition to the parallel with hadar noted
above we may note the following: in 1 Chr 29:11
héd \s grouped with the following Hebrew words.
all descriptive of God's nature: 2°dulld (great-
ness); 2° burda (power): tip'eret (glory): nésah
(victory). In Job 40:10 besides hadar, hdd ts used
in conjunction with the words gda'6n wdagobah
(majesty and excellency). In Hab 3:3-4 hdd is
used along with ¢thilla (pratse); nogah (bnght-
ness) and ‘oz (power).

Finally we may note the use of the Add in such
proper names as Hodiah (Neh 8:7), ““Yahweh is
my splendor’: Hodevah (Neh 7:43). ““Yahweh
is majesty’'; Abihud (I Chr 8:3), **my father is
majesty’’: Ammihud (I Chr 9:4), **my kinsman is
majesty, and perhaps the Benjamite judge
Ehud.

Bibliography: Although the root héd has not
appeared in any Semitic languages other than
Hebrew there are, nevertheless, words in these
languages that mean “‘awe-inspiring splendor.”
Compare. for example, in Bavylonian, Op-
penheim, A. L., “Akkadian pul(u)h(t)u and
melammu,” JAOS 63: 31-34. Cassin. E., La
splendeur divine. Introduction a l'étude de la
mentalité mésopotamienne, Paris: La Haye,
Mouton & Co, 1968. Mendenhall, G. E., The
Tenth Generation, Baltimore: John Hopkins,
1973, Chapter 2, *‘The Mask of Yahweh.”
THAT, I, pp. 472-74.

V.P.H.

483 mm (hawa) I, fall. (asv, Rsv. So kv, by

confusion with hdwad II see below, renders
the verb as *"be.”’)

Derivatives

483a mI (hanwwa) calamity.
483b tam (hayya) calamity.
483c 7m (howd) disaster.

The single oT occurrence of hawd I (Job 37:6)
is an imperative, describing physical falling. Its
form, héwé', has been called *‘an Arabizing us-
age’ (BDB, p. 217); but more likely the aleph is
to differentiate it from hadwa II (KB, p. 227).

The verb hawa | depicts the literal fall of rain
and snow (Job 37:6). But its derived nouns speak

484 myn (hawa)

metaphorically of a fall in fortune. So hayya iden-
tifies the calamities that descend on Job (Job 6:2;
30:13); and howd, those to fall suddenly upon
Babylon (Isa 47:11) or upon Judah, *‘‘disaster
upon disaster’’ (Ezk 7:26). The commonest noun,
hawwa, advances from an identifying of the fact
of troubles (Ps 57:1), such as those brought upon
parents by an unwise son (Prov 19:13), to the
cause for troubles, i.e. moral failure. Psalm 5:9
[H 10] may therefore be rendered either, ‘*Their
heart is destruction’ (Rsv) or ‘““wickedness”’ (Kv,
ASV). Other psalms describe a throne of ‘‘in-
iquity’’ (Ps 94:20) and ‘“‘wickedness”’ which rul-
ers devise (Ps 52:2 [H 4} evidently Saul himself
was the ‘“‘mighty man’”’ of v. 1 [H 2], not the
underling Doeg, cf. J. A. Alexander, The Psalms,
IJ, p. 13). But a good man can perceive these
“*perverse things’ (Job 6:30). In Scripture all
such lapses are subject to God's sovereign con-
trol and can be overcome by sincere faith (Ps
38:12-13; 94:19-20).

hawwa. Calamity, wickedness, evil desire, aAsv,
RSV, also craving, lust; K)v ‘“‘mischievous desire,
naughtiness,’’ Prov 10:3; 11:6; Mic 7:3. Derives
from ’dwa ‘‘to desire’’ (q.v.). KB, p. 228.

hayya. Calamity. A Kethib variant on hawwa
in Job.
howa. Disaster. «Jv, ASV, ‘‘mischief,”’ in its

archaic sense of calamity.
J.B.P.

484 mm (hawa) IT, the older form and rare
synonym of hdayd (q.v.), be, become. (Asv
and rSv similar, but rsv, lie, Eccl 11:3.)

Derivatives

484q tam (yhwh) Yahweh.
484b tm (yah) Yahweh.

The root signifies either existence, e.g. of a
tree trunk, being at rest where it falls (Eccl 11:3),
or development, e.g. of Nehemiah’s alleged
scheme to become king of Judah (Neh 6:6). Only
three other instances of hawé II are preserved in
the Hebrew ot (Gen 27:29; Eccl 2:22; Isa 16:4),
though hAdwa’ remains as the standard form of the
verb ‘‘to be”’ in biblical Aramaic.

Yahweh. The Tetragrammaton YHWH, the
Lorp, or Yahweh, the personal name of God and
his most frequent designation in Scripture, occur-
ring 5321 times (TDNT, II], p. 1067) in the of (kiv
and asv, the Lorp, or, in those contexts where
the actual title *‘Lord’’ also occurs, GOD, except
KJV, Jehovah, in seven passages where the name
is particularly stressed (Ex 6:3; Ps 83:18 [H 19};
Isa 12:2; 26:4] or combined with other elements,
such as Jehovah Jireh [Gen 22:14; cf. Ex 17:15;
Jud 6:24; asv, consistently Jehovah)).

210

yah. Acontracted form of Yahweh. Occurs fifty
times (rendered in English as above, except Kv,
Jah, in Ps 68:4 [H 5], where the name is particu-
larly stressed).

Also numerous proper nouns compounded
with shortened forms of the divine name
‘Yahweh,’ e.g.: y°hdnatan, Jehonathan,
‘“Yahweh has given’; abbreviated ydndatan
‘‘Jonathan,’* a substitute name for the same per-
son (compare I Sam 13:2-3 with 14:6, 8; I] Sam
17:17, 20 with I Kgs 1:42-43); and
y’héshadpat, Jehoshaphat, ‘* Yahweh has judged’”’;
alternatively ydshapat, *‘Joshaphat,’’ applied
only to two subordinates of David (I Chr 11:43;
15:24).

The theological importance of hadwa II stems
from its derived nouns, which identify the per-
sonal name of deity, Yahweh, or its contractions.

The tetragrammaton YHWH is not ordinarily
written with its appropriate Hebrew vowels. But
that the original pronunciation was YaHWeH
seems probable, both from the corresponding
verbal form, the imperfect of hdwd, anciently
yahweh, and from later representation of YHWH
in Greek iaoue or iabe. An apocopated form of
hawa in the imperfect, that occurs in Eccl 11:3, is
y°ha’ (otiose aleph, GKC, p. 211). This in turn
may account for the shorter name YHW in the
fifth century B.c. Elephantine papyri and the ini-
tial elements y°ho-, y6-, and yé- (KB, p. 369) in
such names as Jehozadak, *‘ Yahweh (is) righte-
ous,’ or Joel, ** Yahweh (is) God.”

[An alternative possibility for the original pro-
nunciation of the Tetragrammaton should be
mentioned. Actually, there is a problem with the
pronunciation ‘‘Yahweh.”* It is a strange combi-
nation of old and late elements. The first extra-
Biblical occurrence of the name is in the Moabite
Stone of about 850 B.c. At that time vowel letters
were just beginning to be used in Hebrew. If
YHWH represents a spelling earlier than 900 B.c.
(as would seem likely), the final **h’’ should have
been pronounced. The pronunciation Yahweh
assumes the ending of a lamed-he verb, but these
verbs in Moses’ day ended ina ‘‘y”’ (cf. for band
the Ug. impf. ybny). So the ending *‘eh’’ is a late
form. But in Hebrew in late times a ‘‘w’’ that
began a word or syllable changed to “‘y’’ (as in
the pe-waw verbs and the verb haya itself). So
the ‘wv’ of Yahweh represents a pre-mosaic pro-
nunciation but the final ‘‘eh’’ represents proba-
bly a post-davidic form.

In view of these problems it may be best simply
to say that YHWH does not come from the verb
hawa (presumably hawaya in its early form) at
all. There are many places in the oT where it is
now recognized that the parallel of a name and its
meaning is not necessarily etymological. For in-
stance, I Sam 1:20 probably does not mean that
the name Samuel is derived from the verb

shama‘ ‘‘to hear.’’ Genesis 11:9 does not mean
that Babel comes from the verb bdalal ‘‘confu-
sion’’ but only that the two words sound some-
what alike. Likewise Jacob is said to mean both
‘*heel’’ (Gen 25:26) and ‘‘supplanter’’ (Gen
27:36). There are many other examples of this
device which Is to be taken as a paranomasia, a
play on words, rather than as an etymology.
Therefore we may well hold that YHWH does
not come from the verb hawa which is cited in
the first person ’ehyeh ‘‘I will be,”’’ but is an old
word of unknown ongin which sounded some-
thing like what the verb h@wd sounded in Moses’
day. In this case we do not know what the pro-
nunciation was; we can only speculate. How-
ever, if the word were spelled with four letters in
Moses day, we would expect it to have had more
than two syllables, for at that period there were
no vowel letters. All the letters were sounded.

At the end of the of period the Elephantine
papyri write the word YHW to be read either
yaha (as innames like Shemayahu) or ya@hé (as in
names like Jehozadek). The pronunciation yah6é
would be favored by the later Greek form iad
found in Qumran Greek fragments (2d or Ist cen-
turies B.c.) and in Gnostic materials of the first
Christian centuries. Theodoret in the fourth cen-
tury A.D. States that the Samaritans pronounced it
iabe. Clement of Alexandria (early 3d century
A.D.) vocalized it as iaoue. These are quite late
witnesses and seem to contradict the much ear-
lier Jewish witness of Elephantine and the name
elements, none of which end in ‘‘eh."’

As to the meaning of the name, we are safer if
we find the character of God from his works and
from the descriptions of him in the Scripture
rather than to depend on a questionable etymol-
ogy of his name. See further the writer’s remarks
in ‘‘The Pronunciation of the Tetragram’’ in The
Law and the Prophets, J. H. Skilton, ed., Pres-
byterian & Reformed, 1974, pp. 215-24. R.1.H.]

Among the commonest names with this ele-
ment are y°hdnatan “Jonathan,” the name of
seventeen different oT characters (ISBE, III, pp.
1580, 1730). These include Moses’ treacherous
(great)grandson Jonathan (Jud 18:30, asv),
David’s faithful friend Jonathan, the son of Saul
(I Sam 18:1), and David’s young courier Jonathan
the son of Abiathar (II Sam 15:27; I Kgs 1:42).
y*hoshapat ‘‘Jehoshaphat,’’ identifies six indi-
viduals (ISBE, III, pp. 1581-1582, 1743), includ-
ing Israel's recorder under David and Solomon
(II Sam 8:16; I Kgs 4:3) and Judah's fourth king
after the division, 872-848 B.c. The name reap-
pears in Joel's prediction of the Valley of
Jehoshaphat (Joel 3:2, 12 [H 4:2, 12]), where God
will overcome the nations gathered to oppose his
advent in glory. But rather than designating the
site of King Jehoshaphat’s ancient victory (Be-
racah between Hebron and Bethlehem, II Chr

211

484 mis (hawa)

20:26), this title seems to identify a spot beside
Jerusalem (Joel 3:17 [H 4:17]), traditionally the
Kidron, below Olivet (Zech 14:4). It may be less
a place name than prophecy’s description of the
event of y“héshapat *‘ Yahweh has judged.”’

y*hoshiid'-yéshad’ designates ten Hebrew
leaders (ISBE, III, pp. 1622, 1743) from Moses’
successor Joshua (kv, Jehoshua in Num 13:16; I
Chr 7:27) to the post-exilic high priest Jeshua
(Ezra 3:2; Neh 12:10). The former’s name was
changed from the Hiphil infinitive, Hoshea, *‘sal-
vation,’’ to Joshua, with its deeper spiritual con-
notation of ** Yahweh (is) salvation’’ (Num 13:8,
16). Both men are called ‘‘Jesus’’ in Greek (Acts
7:45; I Esd 5:48), 1.e., yeshaa‘ is our Lord’s He-
brew name, ‘‘for he will save his people from
their sins’’ (Mt 1:21). This may be a shortened
form with the divine element omitted, meaning
‘he will save.”’

The shortened independent form of the divine
name, Yah, occurs primanily in poetry and in the
exclamation, Hallelu-yah, praise Yahweh. It
serves also as a terminal element in proper nouns
like Eliah: ‘éliy@ (or ‘éliyahu), ‘‘God (is)
Yahweh.”’

In the post-biblical period, reverence for the
ineffable name ‘‘Yahweh’’ caused it to be
supplanted in synagogue reading (but not in writ-
ing) with the noun ‘ddondy, *‘my master,’’ or
Lord. Next, when medieval Jewish scholars
began to insert vowels to accompany the conso-
nantal oT text, they added to YHWH the Masore-
tic vowel points for ‘ddéndy; and the actual writ-
ing became an impossible Y4HOW4aH, the asv
‘‘Jehovah.”’

God's name identifies his nature, so that a re-
quest for his ‘‘name’’ is equivalent to asking
about his character (Ex 3:13; Hos 12:5 [H 6)]).
Critical speculation about the origin and meaning
of **Yahweh"™ seems endless (cf. L. Kohler, OT
Theology, pp. 42-46; IDB, II, pp. 409-11); but
the Bible’s own explanation in Ex 3:14 is that it
represents the simple (Qal) imperfect of hawd
‘to be,’’ I am [is] what I am. The precise name
Yahweh results when others speak of him in the
third person, yahweh ‘He is.’’ Albright, it is
true, has championed a causative rendering, *'!
cause to be, I create’ (From the Stone Age to
Christianity, 2d ed., 1946, p. 198; D. N. Freed-
man, JBL, 79: 151-56); but this is rightly criti-
cized as ‘‘conjuring up a nonexistent Hiphil form™
(N. Walker, JBL, 79: 277).

Some have gone on to suggest that the Qal
meaning of Yahweh must be God’s unchange-
ableness toward his people (Ex 3:15: G. Vos,
Biblical Theology, p. 134). But, as Moses himself
indicated (Ex 3:13), the fact that he was the an-
cient God of the fathers was insufficient to an-
swer Israel's need at that time; and, in any event,
the oT has little to say concerning abstractions

485 9m (héy)

such as ‘the changelessness of deity’’ (though in
the NT Jesus did use Ex 3:14 to introduce the
thought of his eternal divine existence, Jn 8:58).
God's immediately preceding promise to Moses
had been, ‘Certainly I will be with you’’ (Ex
3:12). So his assertion in verse 14 would seem to
be saying, ‘‘I am present is what I am."' Indeed,
the fundamental promise of his testament ts, ‘‘I
will be their God, and they will be my people’
(Ex 6:7, etc.; contrast Hos 1:9); thus **Yahweh,”’
‘faithful presence,’’ is God's testamentary na-
ture, or name (Ex 6:2,4; Deut 7:9; Isa 26:4).

The use of Yahweh as a divine name goes back
to earliest times (Gen 4:1 ,26; 9:26), although the
documentation for its employment among other
early cultures appears questionable (IDB, II, p.
409). In Ex 6:3 the Lord explains to Moses that
by his name Yahweh he had not been ‘‘known"’
to the patriarchs, meaning **know’’ (see yadda‘) in
its fullest sense: the name was in use (Gen 12:8;
15:2, 7,8) but was not appreciated in the redemp-
tive significance that it acquired under Moses (J.
A. Motyer, The Revelation of the Divine Name).
For even the so-called P document, which critics
have hypothesized as contradicting the Bible's
claims to the earlier use of Yahweh (ibid., pp.
3-6), utilizes it im premosaic proper nouns
(Jochebed, Ex 6:20; Num 26:59).

Commencing with the later judges (I Sam 1:3),
the name Yahweh is often combined with s®
ba’ot, **hosts”’ (armies, q.v.). The Tetragramma-
ton occurs in every OT book except Ecc! and Est.
It appears in the ninth century Moabite inscrip-
tion of Mesha (line 18). From the eighth century
onward the element ‘*‘“Yau-’ 1s employed in
Aramaic names and in Mesopotamian references
to Hebrew rulers. Only in pre-NT times was
God's personal name replaced with the less intt-
mate title '@ddnay (Gr., kurios) ‘‘Lord.”

Scripture speaks of the Tetragrammaton as
‘‘this glorious and fearful name” (Deut 28:58) or
simply *‘the name’ (Lev 24:11). But it connotes
God's nearness, his concern for man, and the re-
velation of his redemptive covenant. In Genesis
]—2:3, the general term ‘élohim (q.v.) “‘deity,”
is appropriate for God transcendent in creation;
but in 2:4—25 it is Yahweh, the God who is imma-
nent in Eden's revelations. In 9:26—27, Elohim
enlarges Japheth, but Yahweh is the God of
Shem: the latter is especially used in references
to the God of Israel. In Ps 19 the heavens declare
the glory of El (vv. 1-6); but the law of Yahweh is
perfect, and Yahweh is ‘my strength and my re-
deemer’’ (vv. 7-14 [H 8-15]: cf. G. T. Manley,
The Book of the Law, p. 41). Yet the distinction is
not pervasive: Psalms 14 and 53 are practically
identical except for the divine names employed;
book I of the Psalter (Ps 1-41) simply prefers
Yahweh, and book II (42-72), Elohim. Ultimately
the connotations of the name Yahweh are fulfil-

212

led in the ‘‘covenant of peace,’ when the God
who has been present from the first will be fully
present at the last (Isa 41:4); cf. Ezekiel’s stress
upon God's ‘sanctuary in the midst of them
forevermore’ (Ezk 37:26) and his eschatological
city’s being named YHWH shamma *‘*Yahweh 1s
there.”

Bibliography: Abba, R., *‘The Divine Name
Yahweh,’ JBL 80:320-28. Albright, W. F.,
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, pp. 168-72.
Freedman, D. N., “The Name of the God of
Moses,’ JBL 79: 151-56. Harris, R. L., **The
Pronunciation of the Tetragram,’ in The Law
and the Prophets, ed. J. H. Skilton, Presbyterian
and Reformed, 1974, pp. 215-24. Jacob, E.,
Theology of the OT, Harper, 1958, pp. 48-54.
Motyer, A. J., The Revelation of the Divine
Name, London: Tyndale, 1959. Payne, J. B.,
Theology of the Older Testament, Zondervan,
1962, pp. 147-54. TDNT, II, pp. 1058-81.

J.B.P.

485 “Im (héy) ah! alas! ho! O! woe! (asv and

RSV similar.)

An interjection, usually of lamentation. It oc-
curs fifty times in the prophets and once else-
where. Six usages refer to mourning for the dead
(as I Kgs 13:30), and forty involve negative warn-
ings or threats of God's physical chastisement.
But in Isa 55:1 it introduces a positive invitation
to come and buy good things without money or
price (cf. Zech 2:6-7).

Bibliography: Clifford, R. J., “‘The Use of
hoy in the Prophets,’ CBQ 28: 458-64. Gersten-
berger, Erhard, ‘The Woe-Oracles of the
Prophets,’ JBL 81: 249-63. Wanke, Gunther,
oy and hoy,’ ZAW 78: 215-18. THAT, I, pp.
474-76.

C.P.W.

movin (Adléla). See no. 50ta.
moosn (hdlélat). See no. S5O01b.

486 om (hum) be moved, ring again, make a

(great) noise. (Instead of destroy, aAsv dis-
comfit, rsv throw into confusion; for make
a noise, RSV be distraught; for ring again,
RSV be in an uproar. Otherwise asv and RSv
similar. )

Derivative

486a 9 am «6 (m*huma) destruction, dis-
comfiture, trouble, tumult, vexed, vex-
ation. (The aSv and Rsv are similar
but do not use destruction or vexed.
The rsv also uses panic, confusion,
disturbance.) The meaning of this
noun is ‘‘confusion,’’ ‘‘distur-
bance, “‘turmoil.”’

The basic meaning of this root seems to be a
severe disturbance, i.e. “to disturb greatly,”
‘stir,’ ‘‘discomfit.”

The verb is used six times, once in the Qal (Deut
7:23). Here, used with the cognate accusative,
it refers to God as greatly disturbing (afflicting)
the enemies until they are destroyed. In the Niphal
the verb refers to the excitement of a city that is
‘stirred up’’ (Ruth 1:19; I Kgs 1:45), or of acamp
(I Sam 4:5). The subject is the earth (or land) which
‘is shaken’’ or ‘‘resounds”™’ from the shouting of
excited people. The Hiphil may be translated
‘stir,’ “‘make a disturbance’ (Ps 55:2 [H 3}; Mic
2:12), but opinion on how to translate these pas-
sages, is divided.

In ten of twelve of its occurrences the noun
depicts the action of the Lord against Israel's ene-
mies (Deut 7:23), or against Israel herself (Deut
28:20).

The root hum is doubtless a by-form of hamam
and possibly of hamda (q.v.).

C.P.W.

487 *2m (hain) be ready.
think it easy.)
Derivative

(asv be forward, RSV

487a thm (hdn)

wealth.

enough, riches, substance,
(ASV and RSV similar.)

The verb ts used only once (in the Hiphil, Deut
1:41). Here it means to “consider it easy,”
‘think lightly of,*’ possibly to ‘‘dare.’* It is used
to characterize the Israelites’ attempt to conquer
Canaan after God had told them that they must
wait. P. C. Craigie comments here: **There was a
fine balance in the nature of the covenant that
they constantly failed to grasp. First, they could
not really trust in the Lord, who would fight for
them and protect them. Then, when they rose to
Shallow confidence in the Lord, they forgot the
seriousness of their task’? (The Book of
Deuteronomy, Eerdmans, 1976, p. 106).

hon. Enough, riches, substance, wealth. The
noun means “‘wealth,”’ but its use is poetic. It is
used twenty-six times, in Prov (nineteen times)
and in Ezk, Ps, and Song.

The basic meaning of the noun is ‘‘goods** or
‘substance’’ in sufficient quantity to be consid-
ered ‘‘riches”’ or ‘‘wealth’’ (Prov 3:9, etc.). If, as
is assumed, this noun is actually derived from the
verb above, the meaning of **goods”* or ‘‘wealth’’
may have developed from the idea of that which
is usually considered necessary to make life
easy." The word is used opposed to dal
‘poor,’ “‘weak,’* ‘‘helpless** (Prov 19:4; 28:8).
Hon is used in conjunction with ‘désher, the
common word for ‘‘riches’’ (Ps 112:3; Prov 8:18).
The usual word for ‘“‘property” or ‘‘goods,° r®
ksh, is mostly limited to prose passages.

491 mm (haya)

In Ps 44:12 [H 13] the translation ‘‘for naught”
or ‘for a trifle’’ (rsv) is from b°l6’ hén “without
riches..’ God has sold his people without even
asking a price for them. The _ translation
‘*enough’’ in Prov 30:15—16 is necessary from the
context. The idea may be that of *‘sufficiency™
but in this case not of wealth.

The attitude of the oT toward hén is ambigu-
ous. There is a good and a bad kind of wealth.
The robber looks for wealth (Prov 1:13), but the
good man honors the Lord. with his wealth (Prov
3:9). Riches do not deliver in the day of wrath
(Prov 11:4) but knowledge brings precious and
pleasant riches (Prov 24:4). The riches of Tyre
are condemned (Ezk 27:12) but in Ps [12:3 riches
are the reward of the godly man (see ‘dshar).

C.P.W.
488 *nim (hat) shout at.
the Poel (Ps 62:4).

Occurs only once, in

489 mim (haza) sleep. (asv and Rsv, dream.)

This word ts used only in Jsa 56:10. It is used of
sleeping dogs which represent the false leaders of
Israel. The most probable meaning is “‘dream.”’
Some assume the form to be a scribal error for
hézeh ‘*seer’’ and some MSs so read, but the 1.xx
supports the MrT.

C.P.W.
490 = (hi) lamentation, wailing (Ezk 2:10,
only).
som (hi). See no. 480.
sw (hédad). See no. 471.
ninn (haydét). See no. 847a.

491 mm (haya) to be, become, exist, happen.

This verb appears 3,540 times in Biblical He-
brew, and all of these are in the Qal stem except
for twenty-one uses of the Niphal. The verb is
related to another Hebrew word meaning “‘to be-
come, hdwd (only five times: Gen 27:29; Isa
16:4; Eccl 2:22: 11:3; Neh 6:6), and the same verb
in Biblical Aramaic, Adwd (71 times). In Akka-
dian its phonetic equivalent, eww, means *‘to turn
oneself into, to become like.’* To express being
or existence Akkadian uses not ew but bashi
(much like Ugaritic and Phoenician kin).

Very seldom in the oT ts Adaya used to denote
either simple existence or the identification of a
thing or person. This can be illustrated by a quick
glance at almost any page of the ksv on which one
will find numerous examples of words such as
‘is, are, was, were, in italics, indicating that
these are additions by the translators for the sake
of smoothness, but not in the Hebrew itself. In
such cases the Hebrew employs what 1s known
grammatically as a nominal sentence, which we

213

492 390 (hék)

may define most simply as a sentence lacking a
verb or a copula, for example: I (am) the Lord
your God; the Lord (is) a sun and shield; the land
(is) good; and in the nT, blessed (are) the poor.
This almost total lack of h@y@ as a copula or exis-
tential particle has led some to use this phenome-
non as confirming evidence that “‘static’’ thought
was alien to the Hebrews, the latter thinking only
in ‘“‘dynamic’’ categories (see Boman in the bib-
liography below).

An alternative way in Hebrew to express exis-
tence besides the nominal sentence is by the par-
ticles yésh (positive) and ‘ayin (negative), really
another type of nominal sentence ‘‘perhaps
‘there are’ fifty righteous in the city’’; ** ‘there is’
no God.”* Both of these words are more substan-
tival in nature than they are verbal, and in func-
tion they resemble the French i/ y a and the Ger-
man es gibt.

There are instances, however, where hdyd 1s
used with a predicate adjective: (a) in the descrip-
tion of a past situation which no longer exists,
‘The earth was (hay’ta) formless and void”
(Gen 1:2); (b) in historical narration, ‘*The ser-
pent was (haya) more subtil than any beast of the
field’’ (Gen 3:1); (c) in the expression of a gnomic
truth, “It is not good that man should be (héy6ér)
alone’ (Gen 2:18). Notice the juxtaposition of the
verbal sentence, with haya and a nominal sen-
tence without it: ‘‘You shall be (rihy#) holy for I
(am) holy (gadésh ’ani, Lev 19:2). Boman would
account for the absence of a copula in the latter
part of this phrase by stating that the predicate
(holy) is inherent in the subject (God) and hence
the copula is unnecessary. He would also add
that the first *‘be’’ really means *“*become.’’ To
jump from this observation, however, to the con-
clusion that the basic meaning of ‘‘to be”’ in the
Bible is **to become” seems to be unwarranted.

Of special import is the use of the verb hayd in
covenant formulae: I will be your God and you
will be my people (Jer 7:23; 11:4; 24:7; 31:33,
etc.), and in the context of God's promises of
blessings and judgements: and I will make of you
a great nation... and you shall be a blessing (Gen
12:2). A frequent, although perhaps misleading,
translation of hayd ts, as we have noted above,
‘*to come.”’ This can be seen in connection with
God's spint ‘“‘coming’’ upon an individual (Jud
11:29; I Sam 19:20), and in those places where
God's word ‘‘came’’ to someone (Gen 15:1; I
Sam 15:10; Il Sam 7:4; Jer 36:1).

A final and brief word may be said about the
meaning and interpretation of Jehovah/Yahweh.
It seems beyond doubt that the name contains the
verb haya ‘‘to be’’ (but also see article YHWH).
The question is whether or not it is the verb ‘‘to
be’ in the Qal, ‘He ts,’ or the Hiphil, ‘‘He
causes to be,’’ a view championed by W. F. Al-
bright. The strongest objection to this latter in-

214

terpretation is that it necessitates a correction in
the reading of the key text in Ex 3:14: ‘tI am that I
am.’ Most likely the name should be translated
something like “‘I am he who is,”’ or ‘‘I am he
who exists’ as reflected by the Lxx’s ego eimti ho
Ov. The echo of this is found surely in the nT, Rev
1:8. More than anything perhaps, the ‘‘is-ness”’
of God is expressive both of his presence and his
existence. Neither concept can be said to be
more important than the other.

Bibliography: Barr, James, The Semantics of
Biblical Language, Oxford University Press,
1961, esp. pp. 58-72, in opposition to Boman's
emphasis on the ‘‘dynamic’”’ versus **existential”’
character of haya. Boman, T., Hebrew Thought
Compared With Greek, trans. J. L. Moreau,
London: SCM, 1960, esp. pp. 38-49. DeVaux R.,
‘‘The Revelation of the Divine Name YHWH,"’
in Proclamation and Presence, eds. J. 1. Durham
and J. R. Porter, London: SCM, 1970, pp. 48-75,
with citation of the appropriate bibliography of
studies on the meaning of the Tetragrammaton.
Preuss, H. D., ‘‘Ich will mit dir sein,’ ZAW 80:
139-73. Schild, E., ““On Exodus iti 14: ‘I am that
JI am’,’’ VT 4: 296-302. THAT, I, pp. 477-85.

V.P.H.

mm (hayyad). See no. 483b.

492 3m (hék) how. (asv and Rsv ‘the same.)

This secondary spelling of ’ek also introduces a
question showing indignation or astonishment
(GKC 148). The former is evidenced in I Chr
13:12 in David's self indignation, and the latter in
Dan 10:17. The Ugaritic cognate is ‘4 (UT 19: no.
147). Our word occurs twice.

L.J.C.

493 %5°" = (hékal) palace, temple, nave, sanctuary.

ASV and Rsv similar with improvements by the
latter in 1 Kgs 6:3; II Chr 36:7, but inconsisten-
cies in II Kgs 23:4, etc. As in extra-biblical litera-
ture this loanword from Sumerian/Akkadian
(E.GAL/ekallu; Ugaritic hkl, UT 19: no. 763) es-
sentially represents a king's dwelling quarters,
i.e. a palace. In the Bible it is not necessarily of
stone (Ps 18:6 [H 7]), nor of gigantic proportions
(1 Kgs 6:3). Our word has a rich vanety of
synonyms: ‘armoén (harmon, Amos 4:3; 'almén,
Isa 13:22), a large luxurious dwelling place,
which, however, are not used of the house of
God; bird, perhaps a Persian loanword for
‘*palace, citadel’’; m*sad, stronghold, fort, etc.
Other words for God's dwelling place are: bét
(Gen 33:17 where a booth sukkot is called a bér),
also called an ‘dhe! (1 Sam 2:22), migdash (any
place sanctified by God from the land of Pales-
tine, Ex 15:17, to the sanctuary itself, Lev 16: 33;
see gddesh); bamot, hilltops or mountain tops (II

Sam 1:19; Deut 32:13) which often served as the
locations for worship, whether legitimate (I Sam
9:12; I Kgs 3:4) or illegitimate (Lev 26:30). Espe-
cially note the mythological use (e.g. Amos 4:13);
finally see mishkdn (dwelling place in general)
and maqom (God's chosen place; see gum). Our
word occurs eighty times.

Extra-Palestinian applications of hékal refer
solely to the domicile of a king (II Kgs 20:18,
hence, rsv in Amos 8:3; Hos 8:14; II Chr 36:7).
Within Israel it refers to the dwelling place of the
great king, God (Ezr 3:6). Akkadian (CAD,E,I, p.
52) ekallu represents the royal palace, royal
property, or the main room (reception hall?) of a
private house. Interestingly, the ot exhibits simi-
lar connotations. Let us especially note that our
word does not occur in the oT until I Sam, the
document appearing after the kingship was estab-
lished in Israel. This meaning (God's palace) oc-
curs in the psalmists’ prayers when they describe
the life of blessedness (Ps 65:4 [H 5]). Figura-
tively, David prays that he, too, may dwell in
God’s house/temple (Ps 27:4). He surely does not
ask for a change in God’s law whereby he, a
non-priest, could enter (indeed, dwell in) the
temple. So it is a state of blessedness for which
he prays, that he might always be in God's favor.
No doubt, it is God’s earthly palace/temple to-
ward which David directs his prayer, although it
is God himself whom he addresses (Ps 5:7 [H 8];
138:2). God is not limited spatially to the temple
(I Kgs 8:27). However, God's chosen place is his
temple and it is to be respected in proportion to
the respect due to the Creator (Jer 7:4). Disparag-
ing it will bring divine judgment (Jer 50:285. God
himself will raise up a servant to restore his tem-
ple (Cyrus, Isa 44:28), foreshadowing the found-
ing of God’s perfect temple by a man named
‘branch’ (Zech 6:12; cf. Isa 11:1; Jer 23:5; 33:15;
for the church as this temple, compare Mal
3:1/Mt 3:10-12:; I Cor 3:3-15, II Cor 6:16). Paul
uses the word naos, which can refer to the entire
building (Arndt, p. 535).

It is to be noted that the term hékal is applied
to God's house while it was still a tent (I Sam 1:9;
3:3). In Ps 27, the temporary structure where
David placed the ark is called a house (bét), a
temple (hékal), a booth (sukkd), and a tent
(ohel).

Our word is also applied to the entire property
of God. Hence, David states that everything in
God's temple says, ‘‘glory’’ (Ps 29:9).

hékal also refers to the main room of the tem-
ple as such. First, God's divine reception hall (1
Kgs 6:3; 7:50; II Chr 4:7) was where Samuel slept
as a lad (I Sam 3:3). Since only priests were to
enter this area, perhaps the lad was not as young
as commonly thought (Num 4:3). Godless kings
placed idols therein (II Chr 29:16). It was this
holy place that Uzziah profaned (II Chr 26:16).

215

494 ym (hin) hin.

495 355 (hakar)

Later, the enemies of Nehemiah sought to trick
him into entering. Had he done so, they would
have been able to discredit him (Neh 6:1 0ff).

Finally, God’s true temple and throne are in
heaven (Ps 11:4; Mic 1:2; Hab 2:20; Jon 2:4 [H 5],
7 [H 8]). In Isaiah’s vision (Isa 6:1ff.), the
heavenly sanctuary had no separation between
the throne of God (ark, i.e. holiest place) and the
altar upon which coals burned (the holy place).
Truly this bespeaks the perfect state wherein
there is no mediator except God.

For a different view, see K. D. Schunck, **Zen-
tralheiligtum, Grenzheiligtum, und Hohenheilig-
tum in Israel,”’ Numen 18: 132-40.

Bibliography: Kapelrud, Arvid S., **Temple
Building, a Task for Gods and Kings,’’ Or 32:
56-62. Richardson, TWB, pp. 173, 209. Us-
sishkim, D., ‘‘King Solomon's Palaces,’ BA 36:
78-106. Wright, G. R., ‘“‘Shechem and the
League Shrines,” VT 21: 572-603. Wright, G. E.,
‘*Solomon’s Temple Resurrected,’ BA 4: 17-30.
, ‘The Significance of the Temple in the
Ancient Near East,’ BA 7: 41-88. Zeitlin, So!-
omon, ‘‘The Temple and Worship,” JQR 51:
209-41.

bJ5C.

worm (hélél). See no. 499a.

(ASV and rSv the same.)

Perhaps borrowed from Egyptian h( )n(u:) or
hn(n)w, a liquid measure of approximately one
pint, which is however one-eighth of a hin. A
‘hin’ is a unit of liquid measure. Post-biblical
sources make it one-sixth of a bath or twelve
logs. The bath is a liquid measure equal to the
ephah (q.v.) which is used for dry measure. The
bath probably was about twenty-two liters,
twenty-three and one-fourth liquid quarts, about
six gallons.

The word is used twenty-two times in the oT. It
is used twenty times to measure the oil and wine
(once ‘strong drink’) used for sacrifices (Num
15, 28, et al.). Fractional parts, one-half, one-
third, and one-fourth, as well as a full hin are
used, but never more than one. As an object les-
son, Ezekiel was allowed to drink only one-sixth
of a hin (about two-thirds of a quart) of water
each day to represent conditions in Jerusalem
under a long siege (Ezk 4:11). The Mosaic law
called for the use of a *‘just hin’’ (Lev 19:36), as it
demanded just measures and weights of every
kind.

Bibliography: AI, pp. 195-209. Huey, F. B.,
‘‘Weights and Measures,’ in ZPEB.

C.P.W.

495 28 (hadkar) Occurs only in Job 19:3, in

phrase /6'-tébéshi tahk*ri-li. Meaning

496 *8b5 (hala’)

dubious, perhaps ‘‘shamelessly you attack
me’ (NIV).

mas. (hakkara). See no. 1368e.

496 *N95 (hala’) removed far off. This de-
nominative verb occurs only once, in the
Niphal (Mic 4:7).

Parent Noun
496a oSNom (Aal'G) out there, onwards,
further (e.g. Gen 19:9; Jer 22:19).
Sos (hillal). See no. 500a.
497 93 (hallaz) mom (hallazeh) 195 (hallézé)
this (one) there, yonder.

This secondary rare demonstrative pronoun in-
tensifies the designation. The shortened form can
be either masculine (Jud 6:20) or feminine (II Kgs
4:25). while the form halléza is feminine (GKC
34f). These forms might have been developed
from the regular zeh plus the definite article plus
the emphatic lamed (Notscher, VT 3: 372-80).

| oe Ge

3995 (halik). See no. 498b.

498 32m (halak) go, walk. asv and Rsv simi-
lar with the latter sometimes improving on
the former.

Derivatives

498a 39m (hélek) traveler.

498b 395m (halik) — step.

498c imD°om (halikad) going, way, traveling
company.

498d 32m (mahdlak) walk, journey.

498e imss%mm (tahdluka) procession.

Our word denotes movement in general, al-
though usually of people. Hence, it can be
applied with various connotations (including Josh
17:7), and in various contexts. Especially, we
ought to notice the imperative ejaculatory use
(Gen 37:13, 20: Gen 19:32; 31:44), the use of the
infinitive to extend the action of another verb
(Gen 8:3, 5; see GKC,113u), and the use of the
finite to concretize the action of another verb
(Gen 27:14; 50:18; II Kgs 3:7; Isa 2:3). Synonyms
are: rus “run, bd “‘come, enter.” yasa’ ‘go
out, ‘ala “‘ascend,” and shuab “return.” Its an-
tonyms are: ydshab “sit,” and ‘@mad ‘‘stand.”
Our root occurs 1562 times. It is a common Semi-
tic root (Akkadian aldku, CAD. A.I, pp. 300-28;
Ugaritic hlk, UT 19: no. 766).

The specific application of this verb to various
kinds of going may be translated variously: e.g..
the ‘‘creeping of a snake (Gen 3:14), the
‘prowling’ of foxes (Lam 5:18), the ‘‘sailing’” of

216

ships (Gen 7:18), the ‘‘flowing’’ of water (Gen
2:14), the ‘‘llaying’’ of trumpets (Ex 19:19), the
‘‘walking’’ of men (Ex 14:29), etc. In another
special use this verb signifies the end of, e.g. rain
(Song 2:11), dew (Hos 6:4), wind (Ps 78:39), grief
(Job 16:6), human life (Gen 15:2; Josh 23:14), etc.

This verb can be applied both tosupposed gods
(Ps 115:7) and to the Lord God. Although other
verbs are generally used in theophanic accounts
(Frank Schnutenhaus, ‘‘Das Kommen_ und
Erscheinenim Alten Testament,’ ZAW 76: 1-22)
there is at least one clear use of hdlak in such a
context (Gen 18:33). Perhaps Gen 3:8 is also a
theophanic context, although the participle may
go with gd/l rather than with “‘Lord God,” in
which case the translation would be ‘*the voice of
the Lord God which was going through the gar-
den on the wind of the day.’’ Conceived an-
thropomorphically, God walks on the clouds (Ps
104:3) or in the heavens (Job 22:14). More fre-
quently, and more importantly halak is applied to
Yahweh's coming to his people in judgment or
blessing (II Sam 7:23; Ps 80:2 {H 3]), especially
during the wilderness wanderings (e.g. Ex 33:14;
13:21). In this latter context, note the new
Exodus (Isa 45:2). As the people followed the ark
of God through the desert so they followed it in
ritual (infrequently expressed by hadlak; cf. Josh
3:6; Num 10:32-36).

Apostasy is described as their ‘going after’
other/false gods (Ex 32:1; Jer 5:23), pursuing
one’s own evil counsel (Jer 7:24; Ps 1:1), or heart
(Jer 11:8), or walking in darkness (Isa 9:2 [H 1)),
and meets with God's judgment (Lev 26:24). The
truly pious follow God's leading in all that they
do (i.e., they keep his commandments, I Kgs
3:14; Ps 119:1ff.). This idea can be expressed by
halak alone (without ‘ahdré plus words such as
s*daqot (Isa 33:15), etc. The Hithpael is used in
this connection to emphasize the continuity of
the action. Striking examples of men who So lived
before God are Enoch, Noah, Abraham, etc.
(Gen §:22: 6:9; 17:1).

halika. Goings, doings, procession, travelers. asv
and rsv translate variously with the latter giving
superior renderings. This noun (GKC841) con-
cretizes various connotations of the verb whether
conceived as the process of going (Ps 68:24 [H
25]; Nah 2:5 [H 6]; Hab 3:6; Ugaritic hlk. hbkbm:
Albright, BASOR 82: 49), or the process of life
(Prov 31:27), or the thing that goes (Job 6:19). For
cognates see Akkadian alaktu (CAD A.1., pp.
297-~300). Our word occurs six times.

tahalaka. Procession. asv and Rsv the same.
This hapax legomenon (GKC 85r) concretizes
the formal ritualistic “‘going.”’

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘Some
Considerations Concerning Biblical Prayer,”
HUCA 32: 75-90. Speiser, E. A., °° The Durative

Hithpa‘el: A Tan-Form,” JAOS 75: 118-21.
THAT, I, pp. 486-92. -

| Om oe

499 9m (halal) I, shine.
Derivative
499a thes (hélél) Helel.

Our root represents the giving off of light by
celestial bodies. Perhaps the Ugaritic phrase bnt.
hil (daughter of Helel?) as a name for kert (UT 19:
no. 769) exhibits a similar meaning. The root oc-
curs five (maybe six, KD Job 25:5) times.

The verb is used by Job in highly poetic pas-
sages to describe the shining of the sun (29:3;
31:26). In both instances the parallels make the
meaning clear. Also, Isa 13:10 contrasts this as-
pect of heavenly bodies and the darkening of the
sun and moon. These heavenly bodies are
symbolically/figuratively darkened as a sign of
blessing (Isa 60:19; Joel 2:31 [H 3:4]) and/or
judgment whether historical (Isa 13:13; Ezk 32:7)
or eschatalogical (Joel 2:10). All the uses of our
verb appear in contexts with mythological con-
nections. This is not to say that biblical writers
assumed the validity of pagan myth. Indeed, as
Job (41:18 [H 10]) seeks to make clear, God alone
exists as deity: The pagan gods are creations of
their own minds (Isa 2:8). Leviathan is a toy in
God’s hands, i.e., he mocks the pagan religions.
Interestingly, in Job 41:18 [H 10] the line parallel
to that in which our verb appears alludes to
Shahar (q.v.; cf. J. W. McKay, ‘‘Helel and the
Dawn-Goddess,’’ VT 20: 456ff.) which is proba-
bly to be understood as the name of a goddess.
McKay (op. cit.) contends that in the allusion in
Isa 14:12-15 there is a Canaanite version of the
Greek Phaethon myth as mediated and influenced
by Phoenician culture during the ‘‘heroic age.”’
The development of the Canaanite version is
complex and has affinities with the Ugaritic myth
involving Athar, son of Athirat, who was unable
to occupy the throne of Baal. It was Phaethon
who attempted to scale the heights of heaven and
as the dawn star was ever condemned to be cast
down into Hades (sh°’6/, q.v.). Even if one does
not accept McKay’s argument, it is important to
note the following philological oddities: (1) har
mo‘éd (Isa 14:13) and Ugantic gr.ll (‘The Mount
of Lala’’) where there assembled the phr. m'‘d,
(‘The Assembled Body”’ ANET, p. 130—UT 16:
Text 137:20) and (2) the name s@pén (Isa 14:13)
which is well known in Ugaritic as the mountain
of the gods. The God of Israel is not enthroned on
Saphon; he reigns from heaven itself (cf. héka/).
Any interpretation of Isa 14 which does not take
into account the mythological allusion does i jus-
tice to what is said there. [It may be helpful to
add that this much-discussed passage with possi-

(AsV and Rsv similar.)

217

500 *55m (halal)

ble parallels to pagan mythology is actually in
form a quotation from a heathen king. It is natural
for a heathen king to boast that he would exalt his
throne above the gods or above the mountain
where he believed the gods assembled. R.L.H.]

hélel. Helel. This proper name is a hapax
legomenon describing the King of Babylon (Isa
14:12).

LIC,

500 *99s (halal) II, praise, boast (only in Piel,

Pual and Hithpael). (asv and rsv usually
the same.)

Derivatives

500a tsb (Hilla!) rejoicing, praise.
500b to9m «(mahalal) praise.
500c tmban (r°hilla) praise.

This root connotes being sincerely and deeply
thankful for and/or satisfied in lauding a superior
quality(ies) or great, great act(s) of the object.
Synonyms are: yadaé (Hiphil) *‘to praise,’ “‘give
thanks*’; rdnan ‘to sing or shout joyfully’; shir
‘to sing (praises)""; bdrak (Piel) “‘to praise,”
‘‘bless’’; gadal (Piel), *‘to magnify’; ram (Polel),
“to exalt’; zadmar (Piel), “to sing, play,
praise’ ’—all of which see. For cognates see Ak-
kadian alalu. 1. atlalu ‘‘to shout, brag, boast;
2. Sululu “‘to hail, acclaim, utter a cry, to gener-
ally express joy’ (CAD A.1., pp. 331ff.); and
Ugaritic All (UT 19: no. 769). Our root occurs 206
times.

This root can be used of exalting human beauty
(Gen 12:15: II Sam 14:25) or human understand-
ing (Prov 12:8). The noun (¢°hilla is used of the
renown of cities (Jer 48:2). Also halal can be-
speak the praise given to a good homemaker
(Prov 31:28, 31), a wise diplomat (I Kgs 20:11),
which comes from a king (Ps 63:11 [H 12]), etc.
However, our root usually refers to praising de-
ity, even false deities (Jud 16:24).

The most frequent use of our root relates to
praising the God of Israel. Nearly a third of such
passages occur inthe Psalms. The largest number
of these are imperative summons to praise. The
frequency and mood emphasizes the vital neces-
sity of this action. The centrality of the cultus to
Israel's national élan further confirms that
necessity, as does the fact that psalmody in Is-
rael’s religion was so strongly linked to David the
idyllic king. The themes surrounding and in-
cluded in the verbal expressions of praise (the
psalms) show that it is imperative that God in his
deity (Ps 102:21 [H 22}) be recognized and that
the fullness thereof be affirmed and stated. This
is to be offered in an attitude of delight and rejoic-
ing. Belief and joy are inextricably intertwined.
Secondly, it is significant that most of these oc-
currences are plural (except Ps 146:1; Ps 147:12,

501 999 (halal)

collective). This shows us, as does the use of the
psalms in the worship that praise of Jehovah was
especially, though by no means uniquely (Ps
146:1), congregational. This praise could involve
choirs and musical instruments, too. It could be
expressed in speaking (Jer 31:7), singing (Ps 69:30
(H 31]), and with dancing (Ps 149:3). Such praise
was an essential element of formal public wor-
ship. It is important to note the strong relation-
ship between praise and intellectual content. The
entire creation both terrestrial (Ps 148:1ff.) and
heavenly (Ps 148:2) are summoned to praise God.
This does not, however, imply that such activity
was anything other than intelligent. Such per-
sonifications (Rom 8:20ff.) emphasize the re-
sponsibility of all creation to joyfully render to
God his due (Ps 150:6). Praise and cultus are con-
stants in man’s obligation and privilege before the
Creator and Savior (Ps 106:1). Interestingly, dur-
ing the Exile, public worship was sustained, but
apart from the temple. In order to emphasize
their diminished *‘joy’* in worship the pious hung
up their harps (Ps 137:2), and resumed playing in
worship upon their restoration (Ps 147:7). Fur-
thermore, the messianic age is to attest the sing-
ing of a new song (Isa 42:10; cf. Rev 5:9). The NT
worshiping community came into the self-
awareness that they were the temple of God (I
Cor 3:16; see hékG/). Temple worship is most joy-
ful and expressed both in old and new songs.

Our verb is also used in the voluntive sense
whereby the pious declares his intention to praise
God. These declarations are either at the begin-
ning (Ps 145:2) or end (Ps 22:22 [H 23]) of a
psalm, although usually yadda (Hiphil) is used in
such psalms. Even the individual praise is in a
cultic context (Ps 22:22 {H 23}: 35:18). t°hillad can
also be used in such psalms (145:1: 9:14 [H 15);
109:1). This individual affirmation exhibits accep-
tance of the imperative mood voiced in halal.
Here, too, the importance of that activity for life
is emphasized by its sustained verbal expression
(Ps 63:5 [H 6]; 34:2 [H 3]). To so publicly exalt
God's person (Deut 10:21; Jer 17:14) and work
(Ps 106:2) is tantamount to an affirmation of life
itself. The historical books (i.e. Chronicles) as-
sume such a resolution and especially note the
arrangement and establishment of the cultic order
and ascribe the establishment of the musical wor-
shtp to David.

Another use of our root reflects on the nature
and content of praising God. He is the unique and
sole object and the content of true praise (Ps 65:1
[H 2]; 147:1: cf. Jer 17:14). God is further and
inseparably joined to praise (Ps 109:1; Deut
10:21; Ps 22:3 [H 4]). Moreover, human existence
and praising the true God are closely related (Ps
119:175). Upon death this cultic public praise, of
course, ceases (Ps 115:17; cf. sh°’d/, and L.
Coppes ‘Sheol, What is [t?’ Covenanter Wit-

218

SOlL %9s (halal) IH, to be insane.

ness 92: 14-17). The fullest richness of human life
produces continual praise (Ps 84:4 [H 5]).

The profane connotation (in the sense of a
laudable quality) is sometimes applied to God.
This is especially expressed in the Hithpael and
the noun fhilla. One's only and continual boast
(glorying) is to be in God (Ps 105:3). Indeed, if
one is pious he will so glory in God (Ps 64:10 [H
11]; note its parallel s@mah). God’s praise (paral-
leled by Add) fills the earth (Hab 3:3). r°hilld is
also parallel to kdbéd (Isa 42:8) and God declares
that he will not allow another to receive his due.
Yet, God's praise is proclarmed (Isa 42:10), re-
counted (Ps 78:4), and ever increasing (Ps 71:14).
His praise considered in this objective sense is
closely tied to his historical acts of deliverance in
behalf of his elect (Ex 15:11; Ps 78:4; 106:47)
showing God's covenantal interest in and work in
history. He is not simply abstract being-in-itself,
nor transcendent (Job 38-41).

The prophets declare Israel to be the ‘*glory”’
(t°hilla) of God when she is in a divinely exalted
and blessed state (Isa 62:7: Jer 13:11). The
prophets also summon the elect, indeed the
whole world (Isa 61:11) to praise and rejoice over
the promised salvation (Isa 43:21). The foreseen
fulfillment (Isa 62:7) extends to the messianic
state (Joel 2:26).

hillal. Festal jubilation. asv and Rsv the same
in Jud 9:27, but rsv is better in Lev 19:24. These
joyous festivals of praise among Jews and
Canaanites apparently took place upon the fourth
year's harvest. This firstfruits’ rite sanctified the
vineyard or field with a sacrificial meal (KD,
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, p. 366f.).

mahalal. Praise. asv and rsv the same. This
noun represents the degree of praise or lack
thereof rendered to one by others (Prov 27:21,
KD). It is that by which a man is tried and is
likened to the crucible in which silver or gold is
tried.

t*hilla. Praise, praiseworthy deeds. asv and RSV
similar. This noun represents the results of hdlal
as well as divine acts which merit that activity.
This latter use occurs both in the singular (Ps
196:47) and plural (Ex 15:11; Ps 78:4). Parallel
words are kabéd “‘honor”’ (Isa 42:8), and shém
‘‘name’’ (Ps 48:10 [H 11]; Isa 48:9). Our word
occurs fifty-seven times.
Bibliography: TDNT, VIII, 493-98. THAT, I,
pp. 493-S01.
ee ie Os

ASV and RSV
similar with the latter sometimes striking
closer to the root meaning.

Derivatives

50la omo%im) (hdléla) madness.
S01lb tmsb*3 (hdlélit) madness.

This root stresses the irrational aspect of insan-
ity whereas shdga‘ (q.v.) emphasizes the be-
havioral aspect. Consequently, our root is paral-
lel to siglit/siglat ‘foolishness, folly,’ kesel
‘folly,’ and is an antonym of hokma ‘*wisdom.”
Our root occurs sixteen times.

The basic meaning of the root emerges most
clearly in Eccl 2:12. Significant connotations are
revealed in I Sam 21:13 [H 14] and Jer 25:16 (cf.
51:7) where an insane man and a drunkard re-
spectively are described. Furthermore, most in-
stances exhibit an application to irrational
thought processes (e.g., Eccl 1:17). Our root, in-
terestingly, is applied to the wicked (rdsha‘) in
the Psalms (5:5 (H 6]; 73:3; 75:4 (H 5]: cf. Eccl
7:25) describing the loud boisterous nonsensical
behavior and mindset (KD on Ps 5:5 [H 6]}). Sin
(especially idolatry, Jer 50:38), therefore, is irra-
tional in view of the nature of God, the creation,
and mankind (Eccl 10:13), and yet it fills the heart
of man (Eccl 9:3). The sovereign Jehovah dis-
penses the wine of wrath causing men to act even
more insanely (Jer 51:7; 25:16) than normally, as
do drunkards. He controls and frustrates false
prophets (Isa 44:25) and leaders (Job 12:17).

holelot, holelat. Madness. This noun, con-
structed on the Qal participle form, signifies the
state of being Ad/al. It occurs five times and only
in Eccl.

L.J.C.

mi?n (halmit). See no. 502a.
502 aon (hdlam) hammer, strike down (e.g.
Jud 5:22; Isa 16:8).

Derivatives
502a. aoe = (halmit) hammer, mallet
(Jud 5:26).
502b «BR (yahdlom) precious stone,

perhaps jasper (Ex 28:18; 39:11; Ezk
28:13).

502c =o nvaoma «= (mahdlimst)
(Prov 18:6: 19:29),

strokes, blows

503 B°m (hdlém)
18:3).

hither (e.g. Ex 3:5: Jud

504. mpm (hémma), am (hém), mam (hénna)
they, these, the same, who, et al. (ASV, RSV
similar.)

This is the third person plural independent
nominative pronoun, ‘‘they.”’ It is the plural form
of ha’ (hi’) which should be consulted for a more
detailed treatment, as the usage is similar.

219

505 mm (hama)

Though not required preceding a finite verb, it
is used in nominal sentences or clauses, ‘they
(are) crying out’’ (Ex 5:8), or with the pronoun
following the predicate, ‘‘entangled, they, in the
land’’, i.e. “they are entangled in the land’’ (Ex
14:3), and with k7, meaning ‘‘that,’’ ‘‘for,’’ ‘‘for
few they (are)’’ (Josh 7:3).

The pronoun may be used before a finite verb
when a phrase separates the subject from the
verb, “‘the priests... that kept the charge of my
sanctuary when... , they shall come near’’ (Ezk
44:15).

The pronoun is used when adding an additional
subject after the predicate, **the handmaids came
near, they and their children’ (Gen 33:6), and as
a resumptive pronoun in a relative clause.

hém (seldom hémmd) is used with the article
(bayydmim hahém) as a demonstrative adjective,
‘‘in those days’* (Deut 17:9). Unlike the singular,
the third person plural forms occasionally com-
bine with prepositions, ‘“*by them’ (Hab 1:16,
etc.). hénna is the feminine form.

As in the singular, the plural is used for em-
phasis and sometimes is translated ‘‘them-
selves,’ ‘*but every small matter they would do
the judging themselves” (Ex 18:26).

C.P.W.

SOS m8 (hama) cry aloud, mourn, rage, roar,

sound; make noise, tumult; be clamorous,
disquieted, loud, moved, troubled, in an up-
roar. (RSV also growl, howl, be in turmoil,
moan, thrill, yearn, beat wildly, thunder, et
al.; ASV similar.)

Derivatives

S0Sa tS (hamon) abundance, tumult.
505b aM (hemyad) sound, music.

This root, used thirty-four times, means “‘cry
out,’’ “‘make a loud noise,’ or ‘‘be turbulent.”’ It
is a strong word, emphasizing unrest, commo-
tion, strong feeling, or noise.

This verb is difficult to translate uniformly and
the translation will vary from passage to passage
and translator to translator. Thus in Isa 17:12 the
KJV has *“‘make a noise,” ASV ‘roar,’ RSV “‘thun-
der.’’ Subjects include people (Ps 77:3 (H 4)),
waves (Jer 5:22), cities (I Kgs 1:41), the heart (Jer
4:19), and the bowels (Song 5:4, Rsv ‘‘heart was
thrilled’; Jer 31:20, rsv ‘“‘heart yearns’’). The
translation ‘‘concourse’’ (Prov 1:21) is inferred
from the commotion.

hamon. Abundance, company, many, multitude,
noise, riches, rumbling, sounding, store,
tumult. (aSv similar, Rsv also troops, rushing,
wealth, music, populous.) This noun, although
variously translated means ‘‘multitude’’ or
‘host,’ with emphasis on unrest, turbulence, or
noise.

506 975 (hamal)

In sixty-four of eighty-four occurrences the
“multitude” is people, often troops. Sometimes
the emphasis is on the sound of a multitude,
hence “noise” (Isa 31:4), ‘tumult’ (I] Sam
18:29), or ‘rumbling’ (Jer 47:3). The ksv **sound-
ing of thy bowels** (Isa 63:15) is better translated
‘yearning of thy heart” (asv. rsv). The Rsv “‘or-
gies’’ (Jer 3:23) assumes the purpose of mul-
titudes on the mountains (kJv “‘multitude of
mountains’). The Valley of Hamon-gog (Ezk
39:11, 15) means the Valley of the multitude of
Gog where the slain of God will be buried after
their attack on Israel from the north.

The root Hamad may be related to Admant or
him whose meanings are similar.

C.P.W.

See no. 50Sa.
See no. SO05b.

M179 (hamon).
mom (hemya).

506 92m (hdmal). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
5S06a_ myn (hamalla), mpm (hamilla)
rainstorm, roaring or _ rushing
sound (Jer 11:16; Ezk 1:24).

507 Bem (hamam) break, consume, crush, de-
stroy, discomfit, trouble, vex. (asv_ similar
except scatter for break, rsv does not use
break. consume or vex, but adds throw into
confusion or panic, rout.)

The basic meaning of this word seems to be *‘to
give attention to’ tn the negative sense, that is,
“harass.” “trouble.” often with the purpose of
creating panic.

This verb is used thirteen times. Ten trmes God
is the subject. Of these, five times the object is
Israel's enemy whom God strikes with panic for
their sake. (See I Sam 7:10; Ex 14:24; Ex 23:27;
Josh 10:10: Jud 4:15; and also II Chr 15:6 with a
more general subject.) Thus it denotes an impor-
tant aspect of holy war.

The verb is used parallel to **scatter’* in I] Sam
22:15, Ps 18:14 [H [5], and Ps 144:6 (parallel pas-
sages). God uses arrows and lightnings to trouble
his enemies. (Some would translate Admiam as
**set in motion” referring to the arrows and light-
ning.) The word is also used to indicate the effect
of a cart wheel on grain (Isa 28:28). But some
make wheel the object and translate “‘set in mo-
tion.”’

The word describes God's treatment of the Is-
raelites over forty until they died in the wilder-
ness. He made sure of their death (Deut 2:15).
Other subjects of this verb are: Nebuchadnezzar,
against Jerusalem (Jer 51:34), and Haman against
the Jews (Est 9:24),

The root hdmanz is related to the verb Aim of
similar meaning.

220

510 7

Bibliography: THAT, J. pp. 502-503.

C.P.W.
508 om (hms). Assumed root of the following.
5S08a_ = Bat (hemes) brushwood (Isa
64:1).
S09. sm (Amr). Assumed root of the following.

509a mM «(mahamord) flood (Ps
140:11, only).

(hén) behold, if, lo, though. (asv and

RSV similar.)

An interjection demanding attention, “look!”
“see!” and sometimes in context, “if.” It is used
one hundred times. It is, at least in some uses, a
short form of hinnéh (q.v.). It or hinnéh or both
are in Ugaritic reflected inthe Av of similar mean-
ing.

hén is mainly used to emphasize the informa-
tion which follows it, “behold, I have bought
you’ (Gen 47:23), although sometimes the em-
phasis is on a person, “behold my servant”’ (Isa
42:1). The information may be only an assump-
tion, ““Behold, they will not believe me’ (Ex
4:1). When the assumption is a condition it is
translated ‘if, e.g. “if I shut up heaven... , or
if | command the locusts”’ (If Chr 7:13). {n this
passage hén is parallel to ‘im, meaning **if I send
pestilence.’ The Kiv uses **though™ to introduce
a condition in Job 13:15, “though he slay me”
(but asv and rsv. “‘behold, he will slay me’’).
‘If is also used in the sense of *‘whether,”* ‘‘and
see if there be sucha thing’ (Jer 2:10). This usage
for ‘if may be not the equivalent of **behold”’
but derived from the Aramaic hén which means
“if exclusively. The Ugaritic in apparently is
not used for **if.”

Over half of the instances of this word are in
Isa and Job, with the others mainly confined to
the Pentateuch. This is in contrast to the use of
hinnéh which ts evenly distributed throughout the
OT.

$10a «3m (hinnéh) behold, lo, see. (asv

and rsv “‘if..’) An interjection de-
manding attention. ‘*look!” **see!"’
It occurs over a thousand times. See
also the shorter form, hén.

S10b so mam (hinnéh) hither. When used in

pairs, ‘‘here and there.’ Derivation
uncertain.

hinneh is sometimes used as a predicator of
existence according to T. O. Lambdin: “‘It differs
from yesh in that it emphasizes the immediacy,
the here-and-now-ness, of the situation (ntro-
duction to Biblical Hebrew, Scribner's Sons,
1971, p. 168).

hinnéh may be used to point out things (pillar
and heap, Gen 31:51; covenant, Gen 17:4), but

more often it is used to point out people, ‘“behold
my maid’ (Gen 30:3). Often pronouns are at-
tached as suffixes, especially the first person sin-
gular: *‘See me standing” (1.e. “behold 1 stood,”’
Gen 41:17), or for emphasis the pronoun 1s re-
peated, “‘And 1, behold I am bringing’’ (Gen
6:17), and often the idiom, ‘‘Behold me!"* (i.e.,
‘here I am,” I Sam 3:4f.).

Then too. according to Lambdin, **Most hin-
neh clauses occur in direct speech... and serve
to introduce a fact upon which a following state-
ment or command ts based” (ibid., p. 169). Thus,
‘Behold your handmaid is in your charge; do to
her’’ is equivalent to ‘‘since your handmaid 1s”'
(Gen 16:6). With the first person suffix followed
by a particle it is used often in the prophets as a
statement of what God will do, “Behold, I am
going to proclaim liberty... to the sword” (Jer
34:17). Especially with the participle it may point
out what is just on the verge of happening (Ex
4:23, 7:17 etc.).

In a few instances hinnéh is used to emphasize
one specific possibility and may be translated
“if, ‘and if... the disease is checked’ (Lev

13:5, RSV).
An important fact or action may follow intro-
ductory words: ‘‘As for Ishmael..., behold I

have blessed him*™’ (Gen 17:20), *‘In my dream
and behold I stood’* (Gen 41:17). The pronoun
may be omitted if understood, ‘*Behold, between
Kadesh and Bered,”’ i.e. ‘‘it,”’ referring to a well,
was thus located (Gen 16:14).

Bibliography: WLabuschagne, C. J., **The Par-
ticles hén and hinnéh,’ OTS 8: 1-14. Ward,
William A., ‘‘Comparative Studies in Egyptian
and Ugaritic,’’ JNES 20: 31-40.

C.P.W.

See no. 504.
See nos. 510a,b.

mn (henna).

mam. (hinnéh).

511 Om (has)
silence, still.

be silent, hold peace, tongue, (keep)
(ASV and Rsv similar.)

An interjection with imperative force meaning
‘be silent,’ “‘hush.”* It is used seven times: to
command people to refrain from speaking (Amos
6:10) or weeping (Neh 8:11); to demand awesome
or respectful silence before the Lord (Hab 2:20);
in grief for the dead (Amos 8:3).

C.P.W.
512. 3% (hapak) turn, overturn.
Derivatives

Sl2a typm (hepek) contrary.

512b maps (hdpékad) overthrow.

$12c t3papm (hdpakpak) crooked.

S12d TEM. (mahpéka) overthrow.

512e tmapm> (mahpeket) — stocks.

S12f tmMapMA (tahpuka) perversity.

221

512 325 (hapak)

This root together with its derivatives appears
118 times in the ot. The verb accounts for the
majority of these, being used ninety-four times
(Qal, fifty-five times: Niphal thirty-four times:
Hophal, once: Hithpael, four times).

The root hapak figures prominently in con-
nection with three themes of Scripture. First, it is
found in association with the expression of God's
anger and wrath upon unrepentant Sodom and
Gomorrah: Gen 19:21, 25, 29; Deut 29:23 [H 22}:
Isa 13:19; Jer 20:16: 49:18; 50:40: Amos 4:11;
Lam 4:6. Perhaps the use of this verb will shed
light on the exact nature of the catastrophe. That
it was a volcanic eruption seems unlikely. On the
other hand, to translate hadpak in these instances
as ‘‘annihilate’’ would suggest the disastrous ef-
fects of an earthquake, accompanied by lightning
which ignited the natural gases of the Jordan
Valley area, producing the terrible inferno (and
cf. Job 28:5).

By extension, God promises the same treat-
ment to Jerusalem (II Kgs 21:13): Nineveh (Jonah
3:4): the unbelieving nations (Hag 2:22, parallel
with shamad) and generally *‘the wicked’’ (Prov
12:7). Man is also capable of ‘overthrowing ”™
(i.e. reducing to vassalage) another city (I Chr
19:3: II Sam 10:3) or even mountains (Job 28:9,
something God does too, Job 9:5).

The second theme of Scripture in the develop-
ment of which hadpak appears frequently is the
miracles surrounding Israel's exodus from Egypt
and her pilgrimage in the wilderness. Most often
the verb describes God's actions in turning the
Nile into blood (Ex 7:17, 20; Ps 78:44; 105:29, and
cf. the reference to the streams of Edom becom-
ing pitch in Isa 34:9). The mind of Pharaoh and
his servants was *“‘changed* upon hearing of the
escape of the Israelites (Ex 14:5); God even
**turned’’ the hearts of the Egyptians to hate his
people (Ps 105:25). To make Israel's escape good
God “‘turned”’ the sea into dry land (Ps 66:6). The
Lord *‘turned”’ a strong west wind which drove
the locusts into the Red Sea (Ex 10:19). God had
‘*turned”’ the rod into a serpent (Ex 7:15). He
**turned’’ the rock unto a pool of water (Ps
114:8). While passing through the territory of
Moab Israel was the intended recipient of a curse
from the hired professional seer Balaam, but God
‘*turned’’ Balaam’s curse into a blessing (Deut
23:5 [H 6]: Neh 13:2).

The third theme is the biblical description of
the symptoms of leprosy as described in Lev 13.
In this one chapter the root hdpak appears nine
times (vv. 3, 4, 10, 13. 16, 17, 20, 25, 55), mostly
in connection with the hair turning white as a sign
of leprosy.

Elsewhere it is of interest to note that hdpak
in the translation ‘to turn’’ is neutral in meaning,
as is one of its synonyms shib. That is, it may
mean to turn (from) good to bad with either God

513 1ER (hdsen)

or man as the subject. "I will turn your feasts into
mourning’ (Amos 8:10). ‘‘Against me he turns
his hand** (in judgment as opposed to blessing,
Lam 3:3). With man as the subject cf. ‘‘you have
turned into a degenerate vine (Jer 2:21); ‘‘those
whom I love have turned against me (Job 19:19);
‘‘you have turned justice into poison’? (Amos
6:12). It may indicate a change in attitude from
joy to chagrin (with man, Lam 1:20; with God,
Hos 11:8).

On the other hand, hapak may be used posi-
tively in the sense of turning the doleful into the
joyful, the bad into the good. Cf. **I will turn their
mourning into joy’ (Jer 31:13 and also Ps 30:11
[H 12]). *‘He turned the curse of Balaam into a
blessing’ (Deut 23:5 (H 6] and Neh 13:2). *‘He
(i.e. Saul) shall be changed into another man’’ (I
Sam 10:6). This root is used to describe the
aboutface in the fortunes of the diasporic Jews
living in Babylon in the days of Persian
hegemony: Est 9:1, 22.

hepek. Contrary, contrariness, perversity, a
substantive that occurs three times in the oT: Ezk
16:34 (twice) in a graphic description of Judah’s
life of harlotry; and in Isa 29:16 ‘‘o your distor-
tions’ (of Israel).

hapeka. Overthrow, a noun only in Gen 19:29
in connection with Sodom and Gomorrah.

mahpeka. Overthrow. Five of its six uses refer
to God’s action on Sodom and Gomorrah, the
exception being Isa 1:7.

mahpeket. Stocks, Jer 20:2-3; 29:26; II Chr
16:10. It may not be clear what shape these an-
cient stocks took. Probably they were quite dif-
ferent from those of colonial days, but the details
are not certain.

tahpuka. Perversity. Of its nine uses eight are
in Proverbs (and cf. Deut 32:20). This substantive
is always translated by the kjv as ‘‘froward’’ or
‘‘frowardness’’ except Prov 23:33 and in the rsv
by ‘‘perverse, perverted, perverseness.’’ It is a
sin connected mostly with the mouth (Prov 2:12;
10:31-32: 16:30) and also with the heart (Prov
6:14); the eyes (Prov 16:30): and the mind (Prov
23:33).

Bibliography: On hapak and the direct object
yd “hand” in Lam 3:3; I Kgs 22:34; II Kgs 9, 23;
Il Chr 18:33, see Fitzgerald, A., ‘“Hebrew yd =
‘Love’ and ‘Beloved’,’* CBQ 29: 368-74. On the
expression nhpk b in Job 19:19, see Penar, T.,
‘Job 19:19 in the Light of Ben Sira 6, 11,°° Bib
48: 293-95. On hapak in connection with the
Sodom and Gomorrah incident, see Sarna, N.,
Understanding Genesis, McGraw-Hill, 1967,
esp. pp. 137-42.

V.P.H.

222

513, IR (hdsen)

weapon (Ezk 23:24). Mean-
ing and derivation uncertain.

“8 (har). See no. 517a.
°N88 (har’él). A form of no. 159a (q.v.).

514, 498 (harag) destroy, kill, murder, slay, mur-

derer, slayer, out of hand (Num 11:15).
Used a total of 172 times, it is usually trans-
lated “‘slay.”

Derivatives

5l4a asm (hereg) slaughter.
514b «MINN «(hadréga) slaughter.

The root includes the ideas of murder and judi-
cial execution, as well as the killing of animals.

The first use of the word (Gen 4:8) reports
Cain’s crime, shedding Abel’s blood which
‘cried to God,’’ 1.e. for vengeance. David or-
dered the execution of the murderers of Ish-
bosheth (II Sam 4:11-12). The same word is used
for both murder and judicial execution in agree-
ment with the command of Gen 9:6. The mur-
derer is to be executed on the grounds that failure
to do so signifies consent to the crime and breaks
the covenant with God. Furthermore it denies
God’s image in man.

If a householder killed a robber who broke into
his home during the night, he would not incur
blood guilt, since the nocturnal housebreaker
would not stop at murder to accomplish his pur-
pose.

Parallels to biblical laws on murder are few in
the literature of Mesopotamia. There loss of life
could be compensated for through payment of a
fine. Only in aggravated cases was the death pen-
alty imposed.

There is much overlapping in the use of the
various words for ‘‘kill.’’ This word is seldom
used of killing animals. Usually it is used of kil-
ling men and numerous times of violent killing in
war or intrigue. It is never used for the killing of
sacrificial animals and very seldom for the killing
of animals for food. The word is common in the
histories of the judges and the monarchy as the
thing represented was itself all too common.
Numbers of these instances refer to murder (for
which rdsah is more characteristic, cf. Ex 20:13),
but many refer to such items as Jezebel’s killing
the prophets of the Lord (I Kgs 18:13), Levi and
Simeon’s slaughter of the Shechemites (Gen
34:26), and Joab’s killing of Abner (II Sam 3:30).
The word ts used sometimes of God's judicial
judgments, e.g. the slaying of Egypt’s firstborn
(Ex 13:15), but such uses are rare. In the angel’s
slaughter of Sennacherib’s army, the word naka
is used. Usually hdrag is used of violent killing of
men by other men—sometimes with justification,
often, alas not!

Bibliography: Amran, D., ‘Retaliation and
Compensation,” JQR 2: 191-211. Daube, D..,
‘Error and Accident in the Bible,’ Revue Inter-
nationale des Droits de l'Antiquite 2: 393-416.
Pritchard, J. B., ed., ANET, pp. 161-97, for a
comparison of biblical and ancient near eastern
laws. Saalschutz, Das Mosaische Recht mit Be-
ruchsichtigung des spateren Judischen, I], 1848,
pp. 437-592.

H.G.S.

515 mm (hard) bear, be with child, conceive,
progenitor, be conceived, conceive.

Derivatives

S15a om) «6(hard) pregnant.

51Sb om (Aariyad) pregnant.

Si5c 90-389) «(hérayén) conception, _preg-
nancy.

Three words are uSed in relation to the birth
process: hard ‘*conceive, yalad ‘‘bear, give
birth’ and ha! “to labor in giving birth.”
Another word for conceive is y@haum, used more,
however, of animals in heat (but cf. Ps 51:7). The
first describes the inception and the latter two the
termination of the process.

Generally hard is used to state the results of
sexual intercourse. In this respect there is oftena
connection with some phase of the redemptive
program of God. That is, the conceptions of
which the oT speaks concern children who were
to play an important part in redemptive history.
Although a secondary issue in the structure of
Genesis, the record of the conception of Ishmael
(Gen 16:4-5) may be considered a memorial to
the folly of using men’s ways to achieve the pur-
poses of God: ‘the promised seed is not of nature
but of grace’’ (Dodds, The Book of Genesis,
London: 1896, p. 148). Sarah's faith could not
stand the strain of delay.

The successive births of Cain, Abel, and Seth,
set out for us the hope of personal redemption.
All did not go in the way of Cain, and the message
of grace was preserved until and through Noah.
The selective, monergistic power of God is dem-
onstrated in the conception of Isaac (Gen 21:2),
demonstrating that the power of God alone is able
to bring about his redemptive purposes, for both
Abraham and Sarah were too old to have chil-
dren. Men must trust solely in God’s power, not
in their own desperate attempts.

Rebekah was barren, and Isaac prayed for her
to conceive (25:21). Isaac presumably expected
children early in his marriage, almost as a matter
of course, for he lived under God's promise that
Abraham would become the father of many na-
tions (Gen 17:4). But only when he resorted to
God in prayer was Rebekah granted conception,
emphasizing again that the creation of the holy
line is in God’s hands.

223

515 m9 (hard)

In the case of Jacob, it became a matter of
almost too many children. The story of the births
of his eleven sons in Padan-Aram is only
sketched (Gen 29:32ff.). But the same principles
hold. First, there is no doubt about the identity of
the inheritors of the land of promise. Second, the
people who carry the oracles of God are clearly
defined. Third, it is clear that through the faith
delivered to Abraham the true people of God are
to be known in all time.

The creative power of God is finally manifested
in the birth of the Messiah, for he was to be be-
gotten of God the Spirit in the womb of the virgin
(Isa 7:14), thus completing God’s long work of
redemption. The birth of the virgin’s son, in light
of the context, stands as a rebuke to the ideas of
Ahaz to secure safety for Israel, and the divine
character of the son proclaims that peace and
safety will come only as God himself rules the
earth.

[It is now alleged that the phraseology of Isa
7:14 is found in Ugaritic (UT 16: nos. 77, 11.5, 7),
and that it is only a formula announcing the arri-
val of a royal heir to be born naturally. This is not
quite the case. In the Ugaritic passage the verb
hry *‘be pregnant’ is not used at all. The text
does speak of a virgin (bt/t) who will later bear a
child naturally. Interestingly, the Ugaritic line in
poetic parallelism uses the word for ‘virgin’
cognate to the Hebrew ‘alma (q.v.) of Isa 7:14.
The case is different in Isa 7:14. There the proph-
et speaks of a pregnant virgin, using the participle
(or adj.) of hard. The announcement is similar to
Gen 16:11 addressed to Hagar who had con-
ceived and was pregnant. As far as the grammar
goes, this could refer to a pregnant virgin either
contemporary or in the future, but the reference
to virginity shows that the pregnancy is miracu-
lous. R.1.H.]

The birth of Samuel (1 Sam 1:20) also demon-
strates the redemptive power of God. Hannah's
desire for children is used by God to provide a
spiritual leader for his people in a time when a
dedicated priest and teacher of the law was
needed. In a like manner, even in the face of
Pharoah’s edict, the birth of Moses, and his sur-
vival in the royal household, appears to be the
almost ironic frustration of the royal will by the
God of heaven, to further his redemptive pro-
gram.

A figurative use of the root is indicated in that
the origin of lies is in the heart, the soul of men,
the first step in overt sin. The birth pangs of a
pregnant woman are used as a simile to describe
the terroristic seizure of man’s soul as the judg-
ment of God is poured out (Isa 26:17).

H.G.S.

See no. 51Sc.
See no. 515b.

wim (hérén).
mam (hariya).

516 895 (haras)

Wws8 (hérdyén). See no. 51Sc.
mb = (hadrisa). See no. 516b.
mips (hdrisut). See no. 516c.

$16 O95 (haras) beat down, break, break down,
break through, destroy, overthrow, pluck
down, pull down, throw down, ruined, destroy-
er, utterly.

Derivatives

516a O53" (heres) overthrow, destruction.

S16b TRO (hdrisad) ruin.

St6c tmiossm (hdrisit) overthrow, destruc-
tion.

This root means to destroy by tearing down,
e.g. city walls, houses, and fortresses.

Its first usage occurs in Ex 15:7, referring to
the destruction of the Egyptian armies in the Red
Sea. At Sinai Moses was instructed to erect bar-
riers around the mountain to prevent the people
from breaking through and approaching too
closely (Ex 19:21, 24). A breakthrough would be
a destructive action against God's sanctity.

Gideon begins his work of deliverance by de-
stroying his father’s altar to Baal (Jud 6:25) when
his father called the people’s attention to the im-
potence of such idols (vv. 28-35). In Elijah’s day
it was the people who tore down the altars of the
Lord (I Kgs 19:10, 14) but in the following revival
the Baal worship was destroyed in Israel at least
for a time.

As to the Canaanites, Israel was to destroy
them (Ex 23:24) and break up their idols, thus
striking at their morale and defeating them.

Objects of destruction included walls (Ezk
13:14), foundations (Ezk 30:4), barns (Joel 1:17),
cities (II Kgs 3:25; I Chr 20:1), either by God
(Lam 2:2: Ex 15:7), or men (I Chr 20:1). The
foolish woman pulled down her house by her sins
(Prov 14:1!) and the king who took a gift (which
influenced his judgment) and destroyed the king-
dom he was born to uphold. It was a policy of
warfare to destroy cities which did not surrender
when their walls had been breached (J Chr 20:1;
cf. Deut 20:10-14). The wicked ideas sinners ad-
vance in the cities bring about their destruction
(Prov 11:11) by sapping morality and the will to
resist the intruder. The slothful’s neglect can
bring about the deterioration of the garden walls
which mark off property (Prov 24:31).

Part of Jeremiah’s work was to pull down so
that the true work of God could be built in its
place (Jer 1:10).

heres. Overthrow, destruction, the result of de-
structive activities (only in Isa 19:18) applied in a
word play to the Egyptian city On (Heliopolis
city of the Sun-Heres), differing only in the shift
from h to h.

224

harisa, harisit. Overthrow, destruction. The
latter word is the abstract form, ‘‘ruined.”’
H.G.S.

517 "395 (hrr). Assumed root of the following.

517a tm (har) hill (sixty-one times) hill
country (once) mount, mountain (486
times). RSV uses mount where it Is
appropriate.

The antiquity, majesty, power and height of
mountains reaching up to the heavens above the
clouds naturally led people to associate
mountains with gods. The peoples of ancient
Mesopotamia thought that on Kammer Duku, the
bright mountain in the east, the gods fixed des-
tiny on New Year's Day, and that on Mashu in
the West, heaven and the underworld met, thus
providing entrance to the realm of the dead. In
Syria-Palestine the mountains were worshipped
and were the sites for pagan worship. According
to the Ras Shamra texts, Zaphon, modern Mons
Cassius north of Ras Shamra, was worshipped
and regarded as the abode of Baal.

The oT uses mountains with theological inten-
tion in at least four ways. First, the Lord is
greater than the mountains: he establishes them
(Ps 65:6 [H 7]; 90:2), weighs them (Isa 40:12),
breaks them in pieces (1 Kgs 19:11; Hab 3:6),
grinds and threshes them in pieces (Isa 41:15),
sets them on fire (Deut 32:22; Ps 83:14 ([H 15];
104:32), melts them (Mic 1:4; Isa 63:19), and re-
moves them (Job 9:5). Isaiah portrays the coming
of the Lord and the return of the exiles by the
levelling of hills (Isa 40:4; 45:2; 49:11).

Second, the mountains are a symbol of power:
Babylon is called a destroying mountain (Jer
51:25); the opposition to Zerubbabel is likened to
a mountain that will become a plain (Zech 4:7),
and the kingdom that will endure for all eternity is
symbolically portrayed as a mountain that fills
the earth (Dan 2:44).

Third, the Lord gives his people a sense of his
nearness by choosing mountains for his worship
and revelation. Moses and Elijah pray on a
mountain (Ex 17:9; I Kgs 18:42); blessings and
curses are invoked from Mount Ebal and Gerizim
(Deut 11:29; 27:12f.; Josh 8:33), worship is of-
fered on various mountains (cf. Gen 22:2; Josh
5:3; 1] Sam 9:12ff; I Kgs 3:4) and the ark is set ona
hill (1 Sam 7:1; IT Sam 6:3).

But above all the Lord chose Sinai and Zion as
the places where he reveals himself. On Mount
Sinai the Law was given and the national worship
established. It was to Horeb that Elijah fled for
new supplies of strength and grace. On Zion he
put his name and this became the final and central
place of worship (Ex 15:17; Deut 12:1). Here the
tribes assembled in worship (Ps 122; 133).

There is in the oT more than a hint that the

earthly Zion is but a symbol of what tn the NT
becomes explicitly the heavenly Jerusalem. The
Mountain of God in Ps 68 [H 16] is taken by both
BDB and Dahood (Psalms II, in AB) as general,
‘‘a great mountain,’ but still the picture is of
God's ascent on high and so the great heavenly
mountain (cf. Eph 4:8-10). In the last days Zion
will be the exalted source of God's law and center
of his rule, the heavenly Jerusalem on earth (Isa
2:2-3: Mic 4:1-2).

Fourth, employing the imagery of its neigh-
bors, the ot denotes the divine abode by refer-
ence to the mountain in the extreme north (Ps
48:2). In Isa 14:12ff. and Ezk 28:11-19 the pagan
kings of Babylon and Tyre respectively are de-
scribed as seeking to become gods by ascending
the mythological divine mountain. But as Foers-
ter rightly notes: **But the decisive pt. is that here

225

518 *9n (hatal)

the pagan myth is used ironically in songs mock-
ing the downfall of pagan rulers.”’ Elsewhere
pagan mythology is deliberately pushed into the
background (TDNT, V, p. 483). Some under-
stand these kings to be allusions to Satan and see
the mountain in the north as a symbol of Heaven.
Bibliography: Hamlin, E. John, *‘The Mean-
ing of ‘Mountains and Hills” in Isa 41:14-16,"°

JNES 13: 185-90. TDNT, V, pp. 479-83.
B.K.W.

518 *9pm (hatal) deceive, mock. This verb

occurs only once, in the Piel (I Kgs 18:27).
518a BAR (hatilim) mockery (Job
17:2, only).

mom (hatat). See no. 488.

519 3 (wa) 3 (*), 3 (4) and, so, _ then,
when, now, or, but, that, and many others.
(AsV and Rsv similar.) The vocalization va-
ries.

This is an inseparable prefix which is used as a
conjunction or introductory particle which can
usually be translated ‘‘and.”’

The fundamental use of the prefix is that of a
simple conjunction ‘‘and,’’ connecting words
(“days and years,’’ Gen 1:14), phrases (‘and to
divide’’ Gen 1:18), and complete sentences (con-
necting Gen 2:]1 with verse 12). However it is
used more often and for a greater variety of con-
structions than is the English connector ‘‘and.”’

It ts often used at the beginning of sentences,
for which reason the kJv begins many sentences
with an unexplained *‘and.”’ This use may be ex-
plained as a mild introductory particle and is
often translated **now’’ as in Ex 1:1 where it be-
gins the book (kJv, ASv; the RSv ignores it com-
pletely; cf. Gen 3:1, 4:1).

The item following the prefix is not always an
additional item, different from that which pre-
ceded: *‘Judah and Jerusalem” (Isa 1:1), pointing
out Jerusalem especially as an important and rep-
resentative part of Judah; **in Ramah, and in his
own city’’ (I Sam 28:3), the two being the same
place, hence the translation “‘even”’ as expla-
natory. When the second word specifies the first
the construction is called a ‘“‘hendiadys,”’ i.e.,
two words with one meaning. For example, *‘a
tent and a dwelling’ in II Sam 7:6 means *‘‘a
dwelling tent.”’

The prefix may mean ‘“‘or’’ or the negative
‘nor’ (Ex 20:10), or, if it connects opposing
ideas, it may mean ‘“‘but’* (Gen 3:3; 4:2). It may
add an additional subject in a way not acceptable
in English, ‘I will fast, and my maidens” (Est
4:16). The noun can also denote purpose as in
English, e.g. ‘‘Divide and conquer.”’ Used twice,
the meaning may be ‘‘both... and’’ (Num 9:14).
For ‘‘a weight and a weight’’ (Deut 25:13) is
meant ‘‘different weights.’ It is used to connect
two ideas in a proverb, ‘Cold waters to a thirsty
soul, and good news from a far country’’ (Prov
25:25), that is, they are alike. These usages are
not really different meanings of the conjunction.
They derive from the fact that Hebrew is more
paratactic than English. We subordinate some
clauses and specify relationships. Hebrew often
puts clauses and phrases side by side leaving the
sense and juxtaposition to specify the precise re-
lationship.

The prefix is often used to introduce a cir-

229

cumstantial clause and is better translated
‘‘when,’’ “‘since,”’ “‘with,”’ etc., ‘‘Why is thy
countenance sad, and (i. e. ‘‘seeing,’” ‘‘since’’)
thou art not sick?’’ (Neh 2:2). The prefix is often
to be translated *‘then’’ as a consequent introduc-
ing the second part of a conditional sentence,
‘Buf if he wash not..., then he shall bear his
iniquity’’ (Lev 17:16) the so-called waw of the
apodosis.

A common use of this prefix is with a short
form of the prefixed conjugation of the verb in a
special construction with the letter following the
prefix (usually) doubled. This form, generally
called the “‘waw consecutive,’’ usually denotes
Sequence in past narrative. But sometimes the
action is not successive in a strict sense. It may
denote logical sequence (cf. Gen 2:1; 23:20; Deut
3:8) or action that is actually prior to the preced-
ing verb, 1.e. it functions as a pluperfect (cf. Gen
19:27; Num 1:48; II Sam 12:27; I Kgs 12:13;
passim). W. Martin refers to this last usage as
‘‘dischronologized narrative (*‘Dischronologized
Narrative in the Old Testament,’ Vetus Tes-
tamentum, Congress Volume, Rome, 1968: 179-
86). This use explains the apparent contradiction
between Gen 1:24-26 and Gen 2:19. The latter
passage means ‘‘and the Lord had formed.”

[The origin and even meaning of this waw con-
secutive has been much discussed. The treatment
in GKC is in accord with that in S. R. Driver,
Use of the Tenses in Hebrew. In brief, it says that
this form is found only in sequences and it takes
its meaning from the lead verb. A lead verb in the
perfect will be followed by this form which repre-
sents a continuation of that past action viewed as
incomplete from the standpoint of the past hori-
zon. Similarly for the sequence of an imperfect
verb continued by a waw consecutive with a per-
fect.

An alternative view was presented by Zellig S.
Harris, The Development of the Canaanite
Dialects (New Haven: American Oriental Soci-
ety, 1939), pp. 47-49. He argued that this waw
preserved an old Uganitic past tense which by
accident is similar to the newly-developed imper-
fect.

G. H. Gordon shows rather convincingly that
the alleged old past tense in Ugaritic was identi-
cal with a form like the Hebrew imperfect. But it
is admitted by all, that this preformative tense in
Ugaritic had both a narrative past and an imper-
fect usage. R. Laird Harris (Introductory Hebrew
Grammar, Eerdmans, 1950, pp. 33-34) would
modify Zellig S. Harris’s view to hold that the
waw consecutive iS a preservation of the old

520 13 (waw)

Ugaritic narrative meaning of the imperfect tense
which was used in a past sense with or without
the waw. In poetic Hebrew also the imperfect
shows this narrative past sense with or without
the waw. Cf. the sequence of tenses in Ps 18:4—
12.

G. Douglas Young has argued that this waw is
a reflection of Egyptian usage (*‘The Ongin of the
Waw Consecutive,’ JNES 12: 248-52).

A waw with the usual pointing (simple shewa)
is used with the imperfect and called the waw
conjunctive. The meaning of this form also is de-
batable. It does not seem usually to refer simply
to the future—that would call for a waw consecu-
tive with the perfect. Rather it normally throws
the verb into the subjunctive and expresses re-
sult, purpose, volition, etc. It often has a cohorta-
tive ‘‘a’’ attached.

The same conjunction is used commonly in
Ugaritic but apparently as a separate word, as it
is often separated from the following word by a
word divider. M. Dahood alleges also an em-
phatic, an explicative and a vocative waw
(Psalms Ill, in AB, pp. 400-402). r.L.H.]

Bibliography: Blake, Frank R., ‘‘The Hebrew
Waw Conversive,’’ JBL 63: 271-95. Meek,
Theophile J., ‘‘Translating the Hebrew Bible,’’
JBL 79: 328-35. Pope, Marvin, **‘Pleonastic’
Waw before Nouns in Ugaritic and Hebrew,”’

230

JAOS 73: 95-98. Young, G. D., *'The Origin of
the wdaw Conversive,” JNES 12: 248-52.
Wernberg Moller P., ** ‘Pleonastic’ Waw in Clas-
sical Hebrew,’ JSS 3: 321-26.

C.P.W.

520 31 (waw) hook. (asv and Rsv the same.)

The basic meaning of the word is hook, peg. It
is used thirteen times in the oT, but only in the
plural and only in Ex 26, 27, 36 and 38. It is used
for the silver and gold hooks to which the cur-
tains in the tabernacle were fastened. Although
not used in the of as such, the word also refers to
waw, the sixth letter in the Hebrew alphabet,
probably because of its shape.

C.P.W.

521 “1 (wzr). Assumed root of the following.

S2la 933 (wdazadr) strange (asv_ ‘‘laden

with guilt,’’ Rsv “‘guilty’’).

The kJv translators read wd ‘‘and’’ with zar
(participle of zir) *‘strange,’’ but BDB, KB and
others translate “‘guilty’’ (Prov 21:8 only). It may
be related to an Arabic cognate meaning *‘to bear
a burden’”’ or to another meaning ‘‘to be guilty.”’

C.P.W.

39) (walad). See no. 867a.

522 SN? (z’b).
522a. 0 B8T (2° eb)
Jer 5:6).

Assumed root of the following.
wolf (e.g. Gen 49:27:

ANY (zo't). See no. $28.

523 331 (zbb). Assumed root of the following.
S23a f3%3t (z°bub) flies.

Found only six times in the oT, including four
occurrences as part of the compound name
‘*Baal-zebub.”* Eccl 10:1 uses the word as part of
a proverb: *‘Dead flies make a perfumer’s oil
stink.’ In Isa 7:18 the fly (or ‘‘flies’’) is symbolic
of the troops of Egypt, which will descend upon
the land of Israel at the Lord’s invitation and de-
vastate the land. One of the plagues of Egypt will
now strike the Hebrews.

In II Kgs 1, Ahaziah king of Israel sent mes-
sengers to inquire of the Philistine deity Baal-
zebub, the god of Ekron. Ahaziah had been in-
jured in a fall and wanted to know if he would
recover (1:2). At God's command, Elijah con-
fronted the messengers, rebuked them for con-
sulting a foreign god and predicted the death of
Ahaziah (1:3, 6). Later Eliyah personally told the
king that his lack of fatth in the God of Israel
sealed his doom (1:16).

Since Baal-zebub means “‘lord of flies,’ inter-
preters believe that ‘‘flies’** may involve a mock-
ing alteration of z°bdl, *‘prince,’” ‘‘high place,”’
or ‘‘dais."* In Ugaritic literature, Baal is referred
to as a prince. The change from “‘prince’’ to
‘“flies’’ would parallel the use of ‘‘bosheth,”
‘shame, in place of ‘‘Baal’’ in such names as
Ish-bosheth and Mephibosheth. In the nr ‘*Beel-
zebub”’ is called ‘‘the prince of the devils."’ Most
Greek manuscripts have ‘‘Beelzeboul,’* though
the Syriac and similar manuscripts use “‘Beel-
zeboub.

H.W.

524 33 (zabad) bestow upon, endow with

(Gen 30:20).
Derivative

524a 133 «(zebed) endowment, gift (Gen
30:20).

See no. 523a.
See no. 526b.

31st (2 bub).
MAB (z2¢bulin).

525 M3! (zabah) sacrifice, slaughter.

233

Derivatives

S25a_ tm3t (zebah) sacrifice.
S25b tmav> (mizbéah) altar.

The verb zabah is mainly used of killing ani-
mals for sacrifices. Most often in Qal, though the
Piel occurs nineteen times in connection with
idolatrous sacrifices on the high places (Hos 11:2;
II Kgs 12:3). Three times the Piel refers to the
prolific and legitimate sacrifices of Solomon
(1 Kgs 8:5; I] Chr 5:6) or Hezekiah (11 Chr 30:22).

zebah. Sacrifice. Generic noun often linked
with offerings (Ps 40:6 [H 7]) or burnt offerings (I
Sam 6:5; Ex 10:25). It is frequently used in con-
nection with peace offerings (sh°lamim, cf. Lev
3:1; 17:5), but on occasion it ts distinguished from
peace offerings (Num 15:8; Josh 22:27). Often
zebah is a cognate accusative to zdbah, but sac-
rifices can also be ‘‘made’’ (Num 6:17; I Kgs
12:27), “*brought’’ (Amos 4:4; Deut 12:6) or
*‘brought near’? (Lev 7:11).

mizbéah. Altar. A place of sacrifice. Used 401
times, mainly in the Pentateuch and historical
books. Altars of stone (Josh 8:31), of earth (Ex
20:24), of wood and bronze (Ex 38:1), and of
wood and gold (Ex 30:1-6) are found. Sometimes
altars are given names, such as Jacob's altar at
Shechem (*‘El the God of Israel,’’ Gen 33:20),
Moses’ at Rephidim (*‘The Lord is my banner,’
Ex 17:15), or Gideon’s in Ophrah (*‘The Lord 1s
peace, Jud 6:24). There are many references to
illegitimate altars, often in connection with sac-
red pillars (Ex 34:13) and high places (II Kgs
23:15).

The importance of sacrifices is seen early in
Genesis. After the flood, Noah built an altar and
sacrificed ‘‘clean’’ animals and birds to the Lord.
Abram worshiped the Lord who had appeared to
him by building an altar at Shechem when he ar-
rived in the promised land (Gen 12:7-8). Other
altars were built by the patriarchs Isaac and
Jacob at Beersheba and Bethel to commemorate
God's blessing (Gen 26:25; 35:7). Isaac was laid
on an altar at Mount Monah by his father Abra-
ham, but his place was taken by a ram in what
proved to be the clearest oT example of the mean-
ing of substitutionary sacrifice. The sacrifice of
the Passover lamb and resultant sparing of all the
firstborn sons conveyed the same meaning (Ex
12:27).

Genesis also records the sacrifice offered by
Jacob when he concluded a covenant with Laban
(31:54). The meal symbolized the friendship be-
tween the parties and their intention to keep their

S25 M3 (zabah)

promises. When Israel entered a covenant with
the Lord, Moses built an altar at the foot of
Mount Sinai and offered burnt offerings and
peace offerings (Ex 24:4-5). Psalm 50:5 refers to
‘*those who made a covenant with me by sac-
rifice.””

At Mount Sinai Moses received instructions
about the altars and sacrifices connected with the
Tabernacle. The altar designed for the animal
sacrifices was the bronze altar, or “‘altar of burnt
offering.’’ It was about seven and one-half feet
square and four and one-half feet high, with horns
on each corner, made ‘‘of one piece’ with the
altar. It was made of acacia wood and overlaid
with bronze (Ex 38:1-2). A bronze grating, poles
and utensils were accessories of the altar (Ex
30:28: 35:16). The sacrifices were burned on the
altar, and the priests put some of the blood on the
horns, then poured out the rest at the base of the
altar (Lev 4:7, 25). This great altar was set in the
courtyard, in front of the doorway of the taberna-
cle (Ex 40:7).

The other altar was called the “altar of in-
cense’’ or the ‘‘gold altar’’ (Ex 39:38; 40:5). It
was about eighteen inches square and a yard
high, with four horns and a gold molding. It too
was made of acacia wood, but overlaid with gold
(Ex 30:1-6). The blood of the guilt offering was
placed on the horns of this altar (Lev 4:7). Be-
cause of its fragrant incense, this altar was placed
in the holy place, in front of the sacred curtain.

The purification of the altar of burnt offering is
sometimes linked with the consecration of the en-
tire tent of meeting (Ex 29:44). Blood was sprin-
kled on the altar to make atonement for it as well
as for the most holy place on the Day of Atone-
ment (Lev 16:20, 33; cf. 8:15). There are also
several references to the dedication of the altar.
Special offerings were presented (Num 7:10, 11,
84) and the altar was anointed with oil (Ex 40:10).
When Aaron and his sons were consecrated, the
anointing oil was sprinkled on the altar seven
times (Lev 8:11).

King Solomon built an altar of burnt offering
thirty feet square and fifteen feet high (II Chr
4:1). Even this was not large enough for the offer-
ings at the dedication of the temple (I Kgs 8:54),
the *‘house of sacrifice’ (I] Chr 7:12).

Solomon's successors sometimes neglected the
altar, but good kings like Asa (II Chr 15:8) and
Hezekiah cleansed it (II Chr 29:18). Ahaz re-
placed the altar with a model patterned after one
he had seen in Damascus (II Kgs 16:14-15). Uz-
ziah also sinned by usurping the place of a priest
and burning incense on the altar of incense
(II Chr 26:16).

Several other significant altars are mentioned
in Scripture. Joshua built one of uncut stones on
Mount Ebal as Israel renewed her covenant with
God (Josh 8:31). The two and a half tribes who

234

lived in Transjordan made a special *“‘memorial”’
altar near the Jordan River, one “*not for burnt
offering or for sacrifice’’ (Josh 22:11, 26). David
set up an altar on Mount Moriah, the site of the
temple, when an angel appeared to him there
(II Sam 24:25). And Elyah took twelve stones—
one for each tribe—and repaired the altar of the
Lord on Mount Carmel (I Kgs 18:30-32).

The horns of the altar were considered a place
of refuge, even for a murderer (Ex 21:14).
Adoniah took hold of the horns of the altar and
Solomon spared his life (I Kgs 1:50-51). But
when Joab did the same thing, Solomon ordered
his death (I Kgs 2:28).

The centrality of sacrifices in the worship of
Israel led to a perfunctory parade of animals to
the altar, and God had to warn his people that the
burning of fat and the outpouring of blood did not
automatically win his favor. *‘To obey is better
than to sacrifice’’ (I Sam 15:22) and God delights
‘‘in loyalty rather than sacrifice’ (Hos 6:6).
Isaiah charges that God is ‘‘fed up”’ with all their
hypocritical offerings (1:11). Righteousness and
justice are more important than sacnfice (Prov
21:3). Only when hearts are right with God are

‘sacrifices acceptable and the means of bringing

great joy (Neh 12:43). In the Psalms, thanks-
giving and a broken spint are regarded as sac-
rifices that honor God (Ps 50:14, 23; 51:17 [H
19}).

Unfortunately, Israel was constantly tempted
to get involved in pagan sacrifices. God warned
them to tear down Canaanite altars and smash
their sacred pillars (Ex 34:13; Deut 7:5), but in-
stead the Israelites tore down God's altars and
killed his prophets (I Kgs 19:10). On the verge of
entering the promised land, Israel was invited to
sacrifice to the gods of Moab, and the resulting
idolatry and immorality was one of the worst
chapters in their history (Num 25:2ff.). In Pales-
tine the Israelites quickly fell prey to Baal wor-
ship, building altars and even temples to this
Canaanite deity (Jud 6:30; Hos 11:2; I Kgs 16:32).
Jehu led a massive attack on Baalism after the
disastrous reign of Ahab (II Kgs 10:19), and
Josiah tore down the altars (including incense al-
tars) of Baal in his great reform (II Chr 34:4, 7).
Jeroboam I is renowned for the altar he built at
Bethel and the sacrifices to the golden calves
(I Kgs 12:32). Not until the days of Josiah (c. 621
B.c.) was this shrine dismantled (IJ Kgs 23:15).
Among other perversions, Ahaz sacrificed to the
gods of Damascus (II Chr 28:23) and Amon of-
fered sacrifices to the carved images of Manasseh
(II Chr 33:22).

Frequently, the biblical writers condemn the
high places, where the people (I Kgs 22:43 [H 44})
and sometimes the kings (II Kgs 16:4) sacrificed
and burned incense. Though these ‘‘hill shrines”
could claim some legitimacy prior to the con-

struction of the temple (cf. II Chr 1:3), the strong
tendency was to worship Baal or the golden
calves.

Pagan worship sometimes involved sacrifice to
demons (Lev 17:7; Deut 32:17), including the of-
fering of their children to the idols of Canaan (Ps
106:37-38). Such horrible rituals are cited by
Ezekiel as one of the major reasons for God's
judgment on the nation (16:20-21).

While the primary use of za@bah and zebah
concerns the killing of animals for sacrifice, oc-
casionally the idea of ‘‘slaughter’’ occurs without
any sacrificial context. The Israelites were per-
mitted to slaughter animals and eat meat in their
home towns (Deut 12:5, 21). Ahab slaughtered a
large number of sheep and oxen to provide a
sumptuous meal for Jehoshaphat and the people
with him ({I Chr 18:2). When Elisha gave up
farming to become Elijah’s associate, he killed a
pair of oxen and shared the food with the people
(I Kgs 19:21).

The ideas of ‘‘slaughter’’ and “‘sacrifice’* are
powerfully combined in passages portraying di-
vine judgment. Josiah ‘‘slaughtered/sacrificed’’
priests of the high places on the very altars they
served (II Kgs 23:20; cf. I Kgs 13:2). The day of
the Lord is described as a ‘'sacrifice’’ as princes
and armies are destroyed. A time of slaugher was
in store for Israel (Zeph 1:7, 8), Egypt (Jer 46:10)
and Edom (Isa 34:6, see dashén). The flesh of the
armies of Gog and Magog will be sacrificed on the
mountains of Israel to provide a great feast for
the birds and animals (Ezk 39:17-19).

Other futuristic passages present the nations in
amore favorable light. Isaiah 19:21 declares that
one day the Egyptians will know the Lord and
will bring sacrifices and offerings to him (cf. II
Kgs 5:17). In Israel the priests are promised a
perpetual role in presenting sacrifices on behalf
of the people (Jer 33:18; Ezk 44:11).

Bibliography: Kidner, F. Derek, Sacrifice in
the OT, London: Tyndale, 1951. AI, pp. 415-510.

H.W.

526 931 (zabal) exalt, honor. Used only in
Gen 30:20 in a word play on the name Zebu-
lun.

Derivatives

526a tt (z°bul) habitation, height.
526b t735t (z° balun) Zebulun.

“bul. Habitation, height, exalted abode. This
noun is found only five times. The vowel is invar-
iably defective. Probably cognate to Ugaratic zhb/
‘‘prince (ship)’’ (cf. UT 19: no. 815).

The term z°bul first occurs in I Kgs 8:13
(= II Chr 6:2) when, at the dedication of the
temple, Solomon addressed the Lord and said, **]
have built thee an exalted house’ (rSv). The ex-

235

526 933 (zabal)

pression bét z° bul is rendered ‘*an house to dwell
in’’ (KJV) and **‘a magnificent temple’ (Niv)

In two passages z°bul is associated with
heaven. Isaiah 63:15 pleads with God to look
down from his holy and glorious ‘“‘habitation”™
(‘lofty throne,’ NIV) and intervene on behalf of
his exiled people. In Hab 3:11 there is a reference
to Joshua's long day when the sun and moon
stood still *‘in the heavens** (‘‘in their habita-
tion’ KJv; cf. Josh 10:12-13).

The last occurrence 1s found in Ps 49:14 |H 15],
a passage that bemoans the fate of fools. Even
the wealthy ones are destined for the grave *‘far
from their princely mansions** (Niv) or “‘so that
they have no habitation” (NasB).

Each of these references has some link with
“splendor” or “majesty” and the basic meaning
of the word may be “eminence” (cf. Speiser,
Genesis in AB, p. 231). One of the titles for Baal
in the Ugaritic corpus is zh/ b'l ars *‘Prince Lord
of Earth.’ The god of Ekron mentioned in II Kgs
1:2-6, Baal-zebub, ‘‘Lord of flies," may be an
intentional perversion of ‘*Baal-zebul”’ (cf.
z° bub),

Zbilan. Zebulun. The name of the sixth son
of Leah and the tenth son of Jacob. **Zebulun”’
may mean “‘honor’’ (cf. Gen 30:19, 20) and has
been related to Akkadian zubulli, “bridegroom's
gift’ by Speiser (Genesis, in AB, p. 231; also cf.
z° bul).

The tribe of Zebulun was the fourth largest
both at the start and the conclusion of the wilder-
ness wanderings (Num 1:31; 26:26). In lists of the
twelve tribes, Zebulun normally followed Is-
sachar (Num 1:9; 2:7), but in the blessing of
Moses, Zebulun is named first (Deut 33:18).
Zebulun joined the disgraced Reuben in pro-
nouncing the curses from Mount Ebal (Deut
27:13).

Zebulun's tribal allotment is given in Josh
19:10-16. Her territory lay on the northern edge
of the Jezree! Valley, north of Manasseh and Is-
sachar and south of Asher and Naphtali. Both
Gen 49:13 and Deut 33:19 link Zebulun with the
seashore. Perhaps this refers primarily to the
trade between the Mediterranean and the Sea of
Galilee which enriched Zebulun.

Zebulun was one of the tribes which failed to
drive out the Canaanites (Jud 1:30) but her war-
riors were highly praised for their courageous
role in the victories over Sisera and the Canaan-
ites (Jud 4:6, 10; 5:14, 18) and later the Midianites
(Jud 6:35; cf. Ps 68:27 [H 28]). When David be-
came king over all Israel, Zebulun sent him a
large contingent of 50,000 troops and abundant
supplies (1 Chr 12:33 |H 34], 40 [H 4]). During
Hezekiah's reign, some from Zebulun accepted
his invitation to celebrate the Passover in
Jerusalem (11 Chr 30:10-19). The tribe is also

$27 3N (zweg)

named with Naphtali as recipients of the honor to
come upon Galilee at the advent of Christ (Isa 9:1!
[H 8:23]}).

H.W.

at. (zag). See no. 527a.
St (zéd). See no. 547a.
Wt (zddén). See no. 547b.

527 an (zwg), 3% (zyg). Assumed root of the

following.
S27a ats (zag). Name of some insignificant
product of the vine, forbidden to Nazi-
rites (Num 6:4).

528 mt (zeh), Mt (20't) this, such.

The regular demonstrative pronoun, some-
times used as a collective (Lev 11:4; Jud 20:16).
The singular form can be used with numerals, as
in ‘these ten times’ (Num 14:22; cf. ‘‘these
many years’’ in Zech 7:3). When it modifies a
noun inthe nomen rectum tt normally follows the
other adjectives. If it precedes an adjective, as in
Hag 2:9, habbayit hazzeh ha’aharon, the final
adjective, “‘the latter," most likely modifies the
nomen regens. Hence, the verse should probably
be translated ‘‘the latter glory of this house”
rather than ‘‘the glory of this latter house.”
Rarely zeh is used with proper nouns, especially
in the phrase “this Jordan’? (Gen 32:10 [H 11}:
Deut 3:27; Josh 1:2, 11). ““This Lebanon”’ also
occurs (Josh 1:4).

zeh is frequently used independently to mean
‘this one’’ or ‘‘this man’”’ in a way that directs
pointed attention to the individual. In Gen 5:29
Noah is singled out as ‘‘this one” who ‘‘shall give
us rest,’ and in Isa 66:2 the Lord says, ‘*To this
one I will look, to him who is humble and contrite
of spirit."” Micah 5:5 [H 4] emphatically declares,
‘*And this One (God] will be our peace.”

Several times the individual in question is re-
ferred to in a Sarcastic or contemptuous manner.
When Saul was anointed king, the skeptics said,
‘‘How shall this man save us?"’ (I Sam 10:27).
The Philistine Achtsh complained to his men that
he already had enough madmen, when ‘this
one’ (David) pretended to be insane to escape
from the Philistines (I Sam 21:15 |H 16]). David
himself referred to stingy Nabal as “‘this fellow”
whose property David had apparently guarded in
vain (I Sam 25:21).

In Jud 5:5 and Ps 68:8 {H 9] God is spoken of as
**zeh Sindy” **the One of Sinai,” a usage similar
to Arabic du **the owner of”’ or ‘the one belong-
ing to... God had revealed himself to Israel in
mighty power at Mount Sinai, so when he took
action again on behalf of his people, they thought
of him in terms of his revelation par excellence at

236

Sinai (cf. the rare Hebrew demonstrative and rel-
ative zi).

The derogatory use of zeh is also seen in verses
where it may be translated ‘‘such.’” When Bildad
describes the calamities that strike the ungodly,
he says, ‘Surely such are the dwellings of the
wicked’* (Job 18:21). Job himself laments the
frailty of man and asks God, “Do you fix your
eye on such a one?” (Job 14:3).

zeh is also attached enclitically to a variety of
interrogative pronouns in order to strengthen
them. The Lord emphatically asks, **Where (‘é
zeh) ts the house you will build for me? (Isa 66:1).
An all-powerful God can hardly be contained ina
temple made by man. Often, this type of question
involves strong emotions. Compare Moses’ cry
to God, **Why didst thou ever (l4mmda zeh) send
me? (Ex 5:22), or the complaint of the Israelites
to Moses, **Why did we ever leave Egypt? (Num
11:20). In these examples, “‘ever™’ ts an attempt
to translate zeh.

zeh (or its feminine z0't) is also used in combi-
nation with prepositions. For example, bdz0't
can mean “‘in spite of this’ (Lev 26:27; Ps 27:3).
The form bazeh means ‘‘here’’ in Gen 38:21-22
and Num 23:1, probably elliptical for ‘“‘in this
place.”

H.W.

529 amt (zhb). Assumed root of the following.

529a tam? (zahab) gold.

This is the most basic of several Hebrew words
for gold, though it is modified by a number of
adjectives that refer to different kinds of gold.
Most references to gold relate to the tabernacle
or to Solomon's temple and palace.

‘‘Good” gold is mentioned in connection with
the garden of Eden in Gen 2:12. Pure gold (fahor)
appears several times in Exodus. The ark of the
covenant was overlaid with pure gold, and a gold
molding was around it (Ex 25:11). The lampstand
was hammered (migshd) out of pure gold with its
base, shaft and branches (37:17, 22). The
cherubim were also hammered out of gold
(25:18). Gold thread was used for the high priest's
ephod (Ex 28:6).

In the Solomonic era pure gold is called sdgiir,
perhaps cognate to Akkadian sakru. It may have
been gold hammered into thin foil for gilding. The
holy of holies was overlaid with this pure gold
(I Kgs 6:20) and the lampstands were made out of
the same gold (I Kgs 7:49). The vessels Solomon
used in the house of Lebanon were of pure gold
also (I Kgs 10:21 = II] Chr 9:20). Solomon made
shields out of beaten gold (shahat). alloyed with
another metal to make them harder (I Kgs 10:16).
His throne of ivory was overlaid with *‘refined
gold” (miupdz, 1 Kgs 10:18). Much gold was
brought from the region of Ophir during Sol-

omon’s fabulous reign (I Kgs 9:28; cf. Ps 45:9
[H 10)).

The Israelites were warned not to make idols of
silver or gold, but the worship of the golden calf
was a constant problem (Ex 32:3-4; I Kgs 12:28).
When God plagued the Philistines for their pos-
session of the ark of the covenant, they made 5
golden hemorrhoids or ulcer models (cf. ‘dpel)
and 5 golden mice as a guilt offering to the Lord
(I Sam 6:4).

In the Psalms the word of God is regarded as
more desirable than gold (Ps 19:10 [H 1]1]), and
his law is better than thousands of pieces of gold
and silver (119:72, 127). God himself is described
as coming “‘in golden splendor’ in Job 37:22.

H.W.
530 *emt (zaham) be foul, loathsome. Occurs
only in the Piel (Job 33:20).

531 *"t (zahar) I, shine, send out light. (Asv
and RSV similar.)

Derivative
53ta oo 3mt (zdhar) shining, brightness.

Close parallels occur in Aramaic and Arabic. It
is used only once in the oT (Hiphil stem) and is
employed to say that wise people, who turn many
to nghteousness, ‘‘shall shine’ like the bnght-
ness of heaven (Dan 12:3).

L.J.W.

532. *smt (zdhar) II, teach, warn, admonish.
(ASV and Rsv similar.)

Both BDB and KB hold this to be a second
root, while older editions of Gesenius take the
meaning here represented as a secondary mean-
ing of the same root, and related to the first mean-
ing. The root 1s used twenty-one times, all in the
Hiphil and Niphal stems, the latter being the pas-
sive of the former.

The meaning ‘‘teach" is probably basic to the
root, but is not used frequently. A clear example
occurs when Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, ad-
vises Moses to limit himself to such a duty as to
‘‘teach’’ the people the laws (Ex 18:20). The most
frequent meaning ts ‘‘warn,’’ which is used four-
teen times in two chapters alone, Ezk 3 and 33,
the classic portions dealing with the responsibil-
ity of watchmen to warn people under their care
(cf 3:17-21; 33:3-9). The meaning ‘‘admonish”* is
illustrated in the proverbial statement that it is
better to be a poor, wise child than an old, foolish
king, who will no longer **be admonished” (Eccl
4:13).

The Zohar is the name of the influential mysti-
cal commentary on the Pentateuch written by
Moses Leon in the 13th Century A.D.

L.J.W.

237

533) (zin')

534 mM (zh).

535 tt (zwz)

name of the second month, appar-
ently in the Canaanite system. For other

names of months, see no. 613b.

3 (2%), W (26). See no. 528.

534 33 (zub) flow, gush, issue, discharge. (ASV

and rsv similar, except that rsv uses ‘‘dis-
charge” in place of ‘‘issue.*’)

Derivative
534a 3%) = (z0b)

The basic idea ts a movement of liquid, flowing
from one location to another. The root is used
only in the Qal stem. It occurs fifty-four times,
including both the verb and noun.

The word usually occurs in one of three con-
texts. |. The movement of water in a stream.
Water is said to have “gushed” forth from the
rock struck by Moses in the wilderness (Ps 70:20;
cf. Ps 105:41; Isa 48:21).

2. A characteristic description of Palestine: it is
said to be “‘flowing™ with milk and honey. This
phrase occurs many times in the oT (e.g. Ex 3:8,
17; 13:5; 33:3; Deut 6:3; 11:9, etc.).

3. A discharge, pathological or normal, from
the genito-urinary tract. With three exceptions,
Lev 22:4; Num 5:2; II Sam 3:29, all usages appear
in Lev 15. It 1s used in verses 2~—15, 32-33 (verb
eleven times, noun seven) to refer to a diseased
‘“‘discharge’’ from a man (possibly including
diarrhea); in verses 19-24 (verb once, noun once)
to the discharge of a woman's menstrual period:
and in verses 25-30 (verb once, noun five times)
to an unnatural discharge of blood from a woman.

L.J.W.

issue, discharge.

“1Y (zud). See no. 547.

Assumed root of the following.

534a At (zawit) corner (Ps 144:12:
Zech 9:15; Lev 1:5).

534b 317) (maz) =garner (Ps 144:13).

535 tt «(zwz) I. Assumed root of the following.

535a tt (ziz) moving things.
S35b TMI «(im zuza) doorpost, gatepost.

ziz. Moving things, wild beasts. This noun is
used three times, twice to mean “‘moving things"
(Av, ASV ‘wild beasts**; Rsv “‘all that moves"’) of
the field (Ps 50:11; 80:13 [H 14]), and derivation
from the above root is probable. The third occur-
rence, in Isa 66:11, means “abundance (so KJV,
ASV, and rSv), and likely comes from another un-
used root (so BDB; although KB favors a dif-
ferent unused root, yielding the translation,
‘‘breast’’).

m‘zuza. Doorpost, gatepost. A noun used eigh-
teen times. Its relation to the above root is uncer-

536 tt (zwz)

tain. The word is used once for the gateposts of
Gaza, which Samson carried away together with
the gate (Jud 16:3). It is used once for the
gateposts of the tabernacle court, beside which
apparently was a customary seat for the aged Eli
(I Sam 1:9). It is also used for the gateposts of the
Temple, both those built by Solomon (1 Kgs 6:31.
33) and those described by Ezekiel (41:21).

The Israelites applied blood to the two
mzuzim of their homes at the time of their de-
liverance from Egypt (Ex [2:7, 22-23). Thus they
saved their firstborn from death (Ex 12:29).

Bibliography: Thornes, D. W., ‘**The meaning
of ziz in Ps 80:13, Exp T 76: 385.

L.J.W.

S36 tN (zwz) II. Assumed root of the following.
536a = «(ziz) abundance, fulness (Isa

66:11, only).
mst (zawit). See no. 534a.

537 5 (zwi) I. Assumed root of the following.
537a tRoxr (zild) a noun, probably from

the unused root, zi/ ‘‘remove,’’ used
aS a preposition and conjunction,
meaning “except, only, save that,’’
Stemming from the basic idea of
‘‘removal.

It occurs sixteen times, once as a conjunction
(Josh 11:13) and often as a preposition (Deut
1:36; Ps 18:31 [H 32]; Isa 45:21, etc.).

L.J.W.
538 1 (zal) II, lavish (Isa 46:6, only).
539 *3t (zun) feed. This verb occurs only
once, in the Hophal (Jer 5:8).

Derivative

539a 379, (mazdon) food, sustenance (Gen

4§:23; I] Chr 11:23).
S40 pst (zua‘) tremble, quiver, be in terror.
(KJV ““vex'’).

Derivatives

540a tryst (2°wa'a), Mt (za'adwa) horror.

Contextual evidence does not permit the as-
signing of a dogmatic or precise meaning to this
term and its derivatives; but tdeas such as
‘*trembling’* and “‘fear’* are possible in all cases.
It apparently describes the tremors of the jaw in
old age (Eccl 12:3). It refers to Mordecai's failure
to “‘tremble’’ before Haman (Est 5:9) though
some less specific, courteous movements charac-
teristic of near eastern manners may there be de-
noted. A causative form (Pilpel) is translated as
**making to tremble” (Hab 2:7).

z’wa‘a, za‘awa. Horror (kiv “‘vexation, fe-
moving’). A term used to describe God's
people as a result of God’s judgment. The sever-
ity and extent of God's judgment is such that they
become a “horror” to the observing nations
(Deut 28:25: Jer 15:4; 34:17). In other contexts
the extent of judgment and horror are amplified
by derision (II Chr 29:8) and being an object of
plunder (Ezk 23:46).

A.B.

S541 ost (zur)
similar. )

I, be a stranger. (ASV and RSv

KB gives the basic meaning as **turn aside.”
BDB cites the similar but apparently not related
root sur that has this meaning.

Apart from its participial use, the word appears
only four times in Qal, twice in Niphal, and once
in Hophal. Typical is Job 19:13, where Job states
that his former friends have become “estranged”
from him. The Niphals and Hophals are passive.

zur is principally used in the participtal form,
zar, appearing sixty-nine times. It carries the
force of a noun, and is so listed by KB. It is used
for some action strange to the law (Lev 10:1), and
for one who ts a stranger to another household
(Deut 25:5), to another person (Prov 14:10), and
to another land (Hos 7:9). The basic thought is of
non-acquaintance or non-relatedness. The femr-
nine form. **The Strange Woman,’ often in Prov
is the adulteress.

Bibliography: Sniders, L. A., ‘“The Meaning
of zr in the Old Testament,” OTS 10: 1-154.

L.J.W.
542 53

(zur) II, be loathsome.

Derivative
542a RT

This verb is used only once (Job 19:17). but is
taken by BDB, KB and some modern versions to
come from a root different from zur I ‘‘be a
stranger because the Arabic cognate is spelled
with d instead of z as is the case with the Arabic
cognate of zur I.

(zara’) loathesome thing.

543 ost (cuir) IT, press down and out. (aSsvV,

RSV similar.)

Derivatives
$43a 3 (zér) circlet, border.
543b oN (zarcir) girded, alert.
S43c¢ S90) (mazor) wound.

The root appears only four times. all in Qal.
Gideon “thrust together’ (pressed) the test
fleece, to see if it contained water (Jud 6:38).

zer. Circlet, molding, crown. The basic idea
seems to be of something around the edge of a

238

central body, as though pressed out from it. The
word is used ten times in the oT, each in reference
to the “‘crown’’ (av, ASV) or “molding” (Rsv)
around the Ark (Ex 25:11), the table of show-
bread (Ex 25:24-25), and the altar of incense (Ex
30:3-4). It is not used for a king's crown.
L.J.W.

544. *mmt (za@hah) remove, displace. Occurs
only in the Niphal (Ex 28:28; 39:21).

545 9m (zahal) I, shrink back, crawl away
(Deut 32:24: Mic 7:17).

546 Smt (zahal) II, fear, be afraid (Job 32:6,
only).

547 ot (zid) ‘It (zud) boil, act proudly, pre-
sumptously, rebelliously. (ASv and RSV simi-
lar.)

Derivatives

547a tt (zéd) proud, arrogant.

547b T5t (zadodn) pride, insolence.
547c «0 t9%) «(zéd6n) proud, raging.
547d tt2 (nazid) boiled food, pottage.

Because the root form does not appear in the
OT, its spelling, whether with middle yod or waw,
is not certain. The verb appears only in the Qal
and Hiphil stems, with no clear distinction in
meaning between them. In the sphere of the phys-
ical, it means *‘to boil’: inthe sphere of personal-
ity, ‘to act in a proud manner.** With its deriva-
tives, the word appears a total of forty times in
the oT.

The verb is used only once in reference to boil-
ing (Gen 25:27-34). The text states that Jacob
“boiled’* (kv **sod”’) pottage (v. 29).

The verb form is used eight times in reference
to the personality, and three of the derivatives
are used only in that connection. The basic idea is
pride, a sense of self-importance, which often is
exaggerated to include defiance and even rebelli-
ousness. For instance, in Prov 11:2, the ‘*‘proud™
person is set over against the humble (cf. Prov
13:10). A similar use is found in Jer 49:16; 50:31-
32; Ezk 7:10, with the added implication that God
is strongly opposed to such pride.

zid is frequently used to refer to three specific
aspects of pride. One is presumption. Because a
person is proud he presumes too much in his fa-
vor, especially in the sense of authority. For in-
stance, the false prophet was one who presumed
to speak in the name of God, assuming authority
todo so, without having been called (Deut 18:20;
cf. v. 22 for use of the noun derivative). False
gods, too, are spoken of as presuming authority
for themselves (Ex [8:11): and Babylon is said to
have claimed too much for herself as against the

239

547 3 (zid) IM (zd)

Holy One of Israel (Jer 50:29). Egyptians as-
sumed the same in subjecting the Israelites to
bondage (Neh 9:10).

The second aspect is rebellion or disobedience.
Because the person is proud he asserts his own
will to the point of rebelling against one in author-
ity over him. The Israelites so asserted them-
selves against God when they chose to fight the
Canaanites, even though God told them not to do
so (Deut 1:43). The same thought is contained in
Neh 9:16, 29. Eliab, David's older brother, ac-
cused him of having pride in coming to the Philis-
tine battle scene (I Sam 17:28, where zdd6n is
used with the sense of Avbris).

The third, closely related to the second, carries
the additional element of willful decision. If a
person so asserted himself and_ killed his
neighbor, his own life was required as punish-
ment. If the slaying was unintentional, however,
a place of refuge was available for him (Ex 21:14).
Indeed, tf a person willfully disobeyed the priest,
whether murder was involved or not, he had to
die (Deut 17:12-13, where both zid and zdd6én
appear). This seems to explain David's distinc-
tion between “hidden” (kv *“‘secret’’) and “‘pre-
sumptuous” sins (Ps 19:12-13 |H 13-14]). He
prays that he may be cleansed from the “‘hid-
den, thus admitting his guilt in that respect; but
asks that he may be kept from the ‘‘presumptu-
ous.

zed. Proud, arrogant, presumptous. An adjec-
tive, which refers twelve times to people and
once to Sins.

zadoén. Pride, insolence. A noun used eleven
times. The adjective and noun forms of zid are
used in contexts having pride in view as opposed
to God, which is a major sin. Persons so charac-
terized are parallelled with those who “work
wickedness” and “tempt God” (Mal 3:15 [H
13]), and with “all who do wickedly.’ As a re-
sult, they will be burned like stubble in the day of
God's impending punishment (Mal 4:1 [H 3:19]).
Frequently, such people are depicted as opposing
those who try to do the will of God (Ps 19:14; Ps
119:51, 69, 78, 122; Jer 43:2).

zéedon. Proud, raging. The one instance of this
adjectival form refers figuratively to ‘* proud”
(RSV ‘“‘raging’) water. which represents over-
whelming trouble (Ps 124:5). The thought seems
to be of power asserted against a person which
brings him to the point of death.

nazid. Boiled food, pottage. A noun, used six
times. All six usages refer to ‘*pottage’’ or boiled
food (Gen 25:29, 34). Three are used of boiled
food which, having become poisoned by poison-
ous ingredients mistakenly added, had to be
made edible by Elisha’s miracle (1I] Kgs 4:38-41).
The sixth employment is by Haggai (2:12). who

548 AN (zayit)

uses it to designate a kind of food, along with
bread, wine, oil, and meat.
L.J.W.

Wt (zédén). See no. 547c.
(ziz). See no. 535a, 536a.
mo (ziqa). See no. 573.
Wt (zérdn). See no. 582d.

548 Mm (zayit) olive tree, olive (derivation un-
certain)

The olive was and is a common and valuable
tree in the Near East, famous for its fruit, oil and
wood. The oil especially was a staple, being used
in diet as shortening (Lev 2:4-6), in lamps for
light (Ex 27:20) and in ritual for anointing (Ex
29:7). Kings and priests were anointed with olive
oil. Elijah anointed Elisha to succeed him as a
prophet. Oil was used also medicinally and as a
perfume (Ps 104:15; Ezk 16:9). The practice of
anointing kings is rarely attested outside of Is-
rael, but deVaux cites it for Hittite kings (AI
p. 104). Anointing of kings is rather clearly a
symbol of endowment with the Spint of God (1
Sam 10:1, 10; 16:13). Such a symbol would also
fit well the anointing of priests (which deVaux
puts quite late because of his views on the P
document, *‘Everyone admits that all these texts
were edited after the Exile” [id. p. 105]!). The
seven-branched lampstand with its oil-fed lamps
is also interpreted as symbolizing the Spirit of
God (Zech 4:2-6). It is possible that the sym-
bolism of oil for spirit was not difficult for the
ancient Hebrew because daily he observed the oil
of his lamps disappearing into the air of his room.
And the Hebrew word for **wind”™’ and “‘spirit’” is
the same. It is obvious that the NT word
Messiah—Christ derives from the ot word for the
anointed king, also messiah. But it should be
noted that the OT uses the word ‘‘messtah"’ for
the expected Figure quite sparingly. Instead, it
speaks of him usually as the Shoot of David, the
Son of David, the Tabernacle of David, the
Branch of David, the Branch, or just David (Ezk
34:23; 37:24). This usage is reflected also in the
DSS in The Messianic King and the Florilegium
(Gaster, T. H. The Dead Sea Scriptures, rev. ed.
Doubleday, 1964, pp. 334, 338). But in Ps 2:2 and
Dan 9:25, 26 and possibly in a few other Pss the
royal title becomes a title of great David's greater
Son which the NT and some other pre-Christian
literature pick up and use extensively. See fur-
ther mashiah.

Bibliography: Harris, R. L., ‘Messianic
Promises in the OT.’ in Buswell, J. O., A Sys-
tematic Theology of the Christian Religion, 1],
Zondervan, 1963, pp. 543-51. Al, pp. 102-106.

R.L.H.

240

at (zak). See no. 550a.
measar (z°kdkit). See no. 550b.
333t (zakur). See no. S551f.

549 mor (zaka) be clear, clean, pure.

Cognate of zdkak and Akkadian zaka. Used
only in poetry and always in a moral sense. The
Piel means ‘‘to make or keep clean, pure,’’ the
Hithpael, ‘‘to make oneself clean’* (only in Isa
1:16).

The term appears twice in Job (15:14; 25:4),
and both times Job’s comforters are asking how a
man can be pure in the sight of God. In each
verse zakd is parallel to s@dag “‘be righteous."’ A
similar question appears in Prov 20:9 where the
admission is made that no one has kept his heart
pure and sinless. Those who walk in accord with
God’s word can live pure lives, however (Ps
119:9). The psalmist also notes that at times the
wicked appear to be happier and more prosper-
ous than the one who keeps his heart pure
(73:13), but in the end the wicked are ruined. In
Isa 1:16 God warns the people of Judah that they
must wash and make themselves clean or face
severe judgment.

Twice the verb is used of God. In Ps 51:4 [H 6]
David admits that God was “‘justified’’ when he
judged David for his sin with Bathsheba. The in-
terpretation of Mic 6:11 is difficult. Is God asking
if he should ‘“‘justify wicked scales’’ (NASB) or
‘acquit a man’” (RSV, NIV) who uses dishonest
scales? The thought seems to be that God will not
‘declare pure’ such a sinner.

H.W.

550 32% (zakak) be bright clean, pure.

Derivatives

550a ‘3t (zak) pure,clean. Used of olive
oil and incense in Ex and Lev, while
in Job and Prov it is used metaphori-
cally, only.

550b omsaiat (z°kdkit) § glass (Job 28:17).

zakak is probably a by-form of zaka, which
sometimes occurs in close proximity to za@kak
(Job 15:14-15; 25:45). Both verbs are also used
parallel with rdhas “‘to wash”’ (cf. Job 9:30, Isa
1:16).

The references in the Pentateuch deal with the
tabernacle. The olive oil for the lamps in the holy
place had to be pure, and these lamps were kept
burning continually, i.e. every night (Ex 27:20;
30:7-8, niv, Lev 24:2). Exodus 30:34 mentions
that pure frankincense was combined with fra-
grant spices to make a Special blend of incense.
The same quality of frankincense was placed with
each row of loaves on the table of showbread in
the holy place (Lev 24:7).

Job's miserable comforters deny that he is pure
and upright (Job 8:6), though Elihu reminds Job
that he seems to feel that he is **pure and without
sin’ (33:9). Twice, man’s status is compared with
nature. According to Job 15:15 and 25:5 not even
the heavens or the stars are pure in God's eyes,
so how can man claim to be flawless? Yet, Lam
4:7 states that prior to the siege of Jerusalem her
princes were ‘“‘purer’” (KJV, RSV, NASB) or *‘bright-
er’ (NIV) than snow and ‘‘whiter than milk.’* The
description of their diseased and shriveled bodies
in v. 8 may indicate that the ‘whiteness’ and
‘‘purity’’ related to strong and healthy bodies
rather than to their moral and spiritual condition.

Several passages in Prov relate purity to con-
duct. A man may think that his ways are ‘‘inno-
cent’ (NIV) or “‘pure’’ (Rsv), but the Lord exam-
ines the motives (16:2). In contrast to the deceit
of the wicked, the behavior of the *‘pure’’ (Rsv) or
‘“innocent’’ (NIV) is nght (21:8). Even a child can
demonstrate a godly character by conduct that ts
pure and night (20:11).

In Job 11:4 Zophar questions Job’s claim that
his *‘beliefs** or “‘teachings’’ are pure or flawless,
making him pure in God's sight. Job protests his
own innocence in in 16:17, for he has not engaged
in violence and his prayer was pure.

H.W.

551 33% (zakar) think (about), meditate (upon),
pay attention (to); remember, recollect; men-
tion, declare, recite, proclaim, invoke, com-
memorate, accuse, confess.

Derivatives
55la tat (zeker) remembrance.
S5Ib ot53t (zikkdrén) memorial.

SSle tmst. (ztkaryaha) M31 (z°karya)
Zechariah.

55ld tmMN2t8 ('azkard) memorial portion.

5Sle t 3t (zakar) male.

SSIf. ts1st (zakur) male.

There are three groups of meanings: 1) for
completely inward mental acts such as ‘‘remem-
bering’ or ‘‘paying attention to,’ 2) for such in-
ward mental acts accompanied by appropriate
external acts, and 3) for forms of audible speak-
ing with such meanings as “‘recite”’ or ‘‘invoke.”*
Cognate evidence indicates that the third group
of meanings is closest to the verb’s root meaning.
This range of meanings shows the same blending
or overlapping between mental states and exter-
nal acts seen also tn other Hebrew terms (e.g.
Hebrew shadma’‘ ‘‘to hear’’).

Most examples of the Qal of zdkar refer to
inner mental acts, either with or without refer-
ence to concomitant external acts. Examples of
internal mental acts are the Jews’ recollection of
Jerusalem (Ps 137:!) and their remembrance that

241

S51 93} (zakar)

they had been slaves (Deut 5:15). **-Remember-
ing’ is contrasted with “forgetting” (Ps 74:22-
23). *‘Meditating™ or ‘‘thinking about” is likely
the issue when Job ‘‘meditates”’ upon the well-
being of the wicked (Job 21:6-7) and when the
Psalmist **meditates’’ upon God (Ps 63:6 [H 7]).
When God is challenged to ‘‘remember’’ the
meaning is better taken as ‘‘pay attention to”
since nothing ever escapes God's omniscience
(Ps 89:47 [H 48]). It ts frequently difficult to de-
cide which of the above meanings best fits a par-
ticular passage.

Numerous passages add to the above meanings
the additional implication of taking appropriate
action. God’s remembrance of his covenant re-
sults in delivering his people (Ex 2:24) or in pre-
serving them (Lev 26:44-45). Conversely, re-
membering sin may be tantamount to withholding
favor (Hos 7:1-2). Remembering Hezekiah's past
faithfulness resulted in healing (II Kgs 20:3), and
remembering Noah was to make the waters to
subside (Gen 8:1). For God not to remember in-
iquity was to forgtve and to withhold further
judgment (Ps 79:8-9).

For men also ‘‘remembering’™’ results in action.
**‘Remembering’’ may imply repentance (Ezk 6:9)
or observing the commandments (Num 15:40)
especially that of the Sabbath (Ex 20:8). For the
ends of the earth, remembrance is repentance (Ps
22:27 [H 28]). In political relations, not remem-
bering a treaty is to break it (Amos 1:9). (See
BDB for a nearly exhaustive list of such usages.)
Some such cases are clear examples of distinct
causes and effects; but in some other cases the
relation between the remembering and the con-
comitant action is so close that they are virtually
identified in the mind of the writer. (Cf. the close
relation between “‘to hear’ and ‘to obey” in bib-
lical Hebrew.)

There are relatively few cases in which Qal
forms clearly refer to audible speaking. Audible
speech is referred to in Nah 2:6 (rsv ‘‘sum-
moned,’’ kJv “‘recount’’). A recitation of mighty
men comparable to the recitations of heroes
found in Homer is likely. The widow asked for an
audible invocation or oath from David for the
protection of her remaining son (IJ Sam 14:11).
Jonah’s ‘‘remembering’’ in the sea creature's
belly could well be taken as an audible ‘‘invok-
ing’ in prayer (Jon 2:8). If the possibility of
meanings such as ‘“‘recite’’ or ‘“‘invoke’ is ac-
cepted, the ‘‘remembering™ of God’s wonderful
works could be a public recitation of those deeds
(I Chr 16:12: cf. v. 8: **make known his deeds’*’;
see also Ps 105:5; rsv ‘‘remember’’) and perhaps
should be translated as “recite the wonderful
works....”’

The category of psalms which recall God's
great deeds may provide examples of such recita-
tions (Ps 104, 105, 106).

551 933 (zakar)

The Hiphil of zdkar is generally translated in
two ways: 1) to “‘mention,”’ ‘‘invoke,’ or *‘de-
clare’’ and 2) **to cause to remember,” 1.e. the
causative of *‘to remember.” For the first group
of meanings, the Hiphil designates audible invok-
ing of God's name (Ex 23:13: note ‘out of your
mouth’’). It refers to the ritual invoking of the
names of false deities (Josh 23:7: note other
ritual” elements in the context: ‘‘swear,”
‘‘serve,’ and bow down’’). It expresses
Joseph's desire that the chief butler mention him
to Pharaoh (Gen 40:14). In Isa 49:1, the contex-
tual parallel, ‘‘called, indicates that audible
mentioning is related to ‘‘named my name.” Au-
dible mention of the ark led to Eli's death (I Sam
4:18). Official proclaiming may be thus desig-
nated; the rsv correctly translates this term as
‘‘proclaim’’ in Isa 12:4. Psalm 20:7 |H 8] (Rsv
‘‘boast’’) refers to a public outcry, though its
exact meaning is not clear. The Hiphil participle
designates the office of the *‘Recorder’’ (1I Chr
34:8); this could signify the man who ~“'proc-
laims’* or ‘‘makes known” by written records
rather than by audible statements.

However, for the second group of meanings,
‘*to cause to remember,’ there are no indisputa-
ble examples. The passages thus translated can
be translated as examples of the group of mean-
ings discussed above. The act of remembering
desired by Absalom (II Sam 18:18) could easily
have been an audible ceremony of filial respect.
The small group of passages involving bringing
sins to remembrance probably refers to public,
legal accusation (I Kgs 17:18; possibly Num
5:15). God, elsewhere, challenges his people to
accuse him (Isa 43:26; RSv “*put me in remem-
brance’’) so that the case may be publicly argued.
For the chief butler, this term describes public
confession of personal fault (Gen 41:9). **Pro-
claiming’’ God's name fits the context of Ps 45:17
(RSV ‘‘cause to be celebrated’’). Likewise, some
public statement (Rsv “*extol’’) is proper for Song
1:4. (The exact meaning of the Hiphils in psalm
headings—38, 70—remains unclear, though they
are usually taken as meaning *‘to invoke”; cf.
I Chr 16:4 where, if the meaning is invoke, it
probably refers to the liturgical practice of using
such psalms as 38 and 70.) On the basis of the
above examples, the present writer concludes
that the meaning “*to cause to remember’”’ for the
Hiphil is dubious.

The Niphal provides the passive for both the
Qal and the Hiphil. It expresses ‘‘being remem-
bered™’ (Job 24:20). ‘‘Being remembered** may
be followed by the appropriate act of “*being de-
livered’* (Num 10:9). It is possible that the harlot
Sang in order ‘‘to be noticed”’ or ‘‘to have atten-
tion paid to her’’ (Isa 23:16) as much as ‘“‘to be
remembered.” The passive idea ‘‘to be invoked”’
occurs (Hos 2:17 [H 19] rsv, **They shall be men-

242

tioned by name no more’: Zech 13:2, rsv “be
remembered’).

zeker. Remembrance, commemoration, invoca-
tion, invocation, name (RSV ‘‘memorial
name’). The range of meanings of this noun in-
dicates that it is a general verbal noun for the
whole range of meanings of the verb zdkar. It
refers to the mental act of memory: the loss even
of the memory of a group expresses the total de-
struction of the group involved such as the
Amalekites (Ex 17:14), the wicked (Job 18:17), or
men in general (Eccl 9:5). It may designate the
observing of a commemorative feast (Est 9:28).
‘‘Noticing’” or “‘paying attention to’’ fits well the
permanent ‘‘remembrance’’ of the nghteous (Ps
112:6; ‘‘He is not moved, the just is for [God's]
attention eternally "—literal translation)

Other contexts deal with various forms of au-
dible or public expression. It refers to God's *‘in-
vocation’’ by which God is to be invoked (Ex
3:15; NASB ““memorial name’’). God's **invoca-
tion’ serves as a euphemism for the term **God"™’
(Ps 30:4 [H 5]: 97:12; and perhaps Ps 102:12
{(H 13]; Rsv “*name™ in all such cases). If the
translation ‘‘name”’ is insisted on, it should be
understood as “invocation name’ rather than
‘*memorial name.’’ Two passages use this term to
refer to the ‘‘recitation’’ of God's great deeds,
**They shall bubble forth the recitation of your
abundant goodness” (Ps 145:7: writer's transla-
tion; RSv “‘pour forth the fame’’) and “he has
made the recitation of his wonderful works” (Ps
111:4; writer's translation; Rsv ‘‘caused his won-
derful works to be remembered’’).

zikkaron. Memorial, reminder, token, record.
The zikkaron is an object or act which brings
something else to mind or which represents
something else. As such it may be a ‘*memorial,
a ‘‘reminder,’ a historical **record,’* or a physi-
cal ‘‘token’’ which calls to mind a deity. The
Passover feast was a memorial (Ex 12:14) of a
great historical event. The Feast of Unleavened
Bread was like a reminder between the eyes (Ex
13:9). Korah’s censers were a reminder of an im-
portant truth (Num 17:5). The ‘*book of records”
(Est 6:1; KJv) was a written reminder of
Mordecai’s deeds, and the maxims (Job 13:12,
RSV) of Job’s friends, like all proverbs, were re-
minders of the abstract truths which they ex-
pressed. In Isa 57:8, the ‘*token’’ (RSV ‘*sym-
bol’’), which reminded the worshiper of his god,
was probably an.idol image but the term em-
phasizes its character as a reminder over its
character as a representation. In Eccl 1:11; 2:16
the point is that there are no records or objects to
serve as reminders (cf. RSV ‘‘remembrance’’) of
the wise man, the fool, things to come, or things
past; the reference is not to the mental act of
remembering.

karya, zkaryahd. Ya or Yahu (i.e. Yahweh)
remembered. Zechariah. Over twenty people are
so named in the ot (see BDB for a complete list-
ing) of whom three will be discussed here.

1) Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest,
who rebuked the religious apostasy of Joash and
was consequently martyred in the court of the
temple (I] Chr 24:20; c. 800 B.c.).

2) The teacher who exerted a favorable influ-
ence on king Uzziah (II Chr 26:5; c. 750 B.c.).

3) Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, the son of
Iddo (Zech 1:1, 7) whose ministry of arousing the
people to rebuild the temple (c. 520 B.c.) and of
commenting on the world scene of his day is re-
corded in the book carrying his name. It is likely
that the phrase *‘son of Iddo”’ is a clan designa-
tion rather than a designation of relatively near
paternity. The clan of Iddo is clearly singled out
in the restored community (Neh 12:12, 16; note
‘father’s house’’ = ‘‘clan’’). It has been conjec-
tured that he was too young for the prophetic
office prior to 520 B.c. (NBD) and that he was
high priest at that time (JewEnc); but neither con-
jecture has firm support.

By nT times, a man named Zechariah had be-
come a well-known martyr Mt 23:35; Lk 11:51).
The designation ‘‘son of Berechiah’’ indicates
that Zechariah, the prophet, is referred to. How-
ever, doubts as to the onginality of this designa-
tion, and the place and manner of Zechariah’s
death indicate that the prominent martyr could be
the son of Jehoiada. Or, the NT martyr may be a
man otherwise unknown.

-azkara. Memorial portion (kjv “‘memorial’’).
Technical term for that portion of the cereal offer-
ing (minha, q.v.) which was burned as God’s
share (Lev 2:2, 9, 16). Its derivation indicates a
meaning such as ‘“‘memorial’’ or *‘*remembr-
ance.’ It also refers to the ‘‘memorial’’ which
was burned from the shewbread (Lev 24:7). This
particular ‘“memorial’’ refers to the frankincense
alone since the bread itself was eaten by the
priests rather than being burned (v. 9; see KB for
other views).

A.B.

zakar. Male, man, man child, mankind (asv
similar; RSV translates ‘‘man child’’ by ‘‘son’”’ in
Isa 66:7, Jer 20:15 and **mankind”’ by ‘‘male”’ in
Lev 18:22; 20:13). The word zakaér denotes the
male of humans or animals. It is used in Gen 1:27
in its basic sense where it occurs with ‘‘female’’
(n° géba) describing the creation of mankind. The
word occurs frequently with n° gébd denoting the
sexes of humans (Gen 5:2; Lev 12:7, etc.) as well
as of animals (Gen 7:3, 9, 16, etc.). In short it is
used for the male sex when sexual distinctions
are in view.

The word is used of males who are participants
in the rite of circumcision (Gen 17:10; 34:15; Ex

243

553 921 (zalal)

12:48 etc.) and frequently connotes male persons
of the Israelite society who were counted in cen-
suses (Num 1:2: 3:15; Ezra 8:3, etc.).

The word zaAkar occurs in passages prohibiting
sexual congress between males (Lev 18:22;
20:13) and is used of the male partner in sexual
intercourse (Num 31:18, 35: Jud 21:12). Ezekiel
uses the term of male images with which the dis-
obedient Israelites committed idolatrous fornica-
tion (16:17). The word is also used of the male sex
as incapable of childbearing (Jer 30:6).

Males were the object of slaughter (Gen 34:25;
Num 31:7) and the objects of vows to the Lord
(Lev 27:3, 7). The word is used of male descen-
dants (Josh 17:2) as well as male infants (Lev
12:2; Jer 20:15).

It also is used for male animals that were used
in the rite of sacrifice (Ex 12:5; Lev 1:3, 10; Deut
15:19 etc.).

zakiar. Male, men children. This word which
occurs with suffixes in Hebrew, always refers to
males as such. In three occurrences (Ex 23:17-
34:23; Deut 16:16) it refers to the participation of
male Israelites in the religious feasts and in one
occurrence (Deut 20:13) it is used of the male
population of any city conquered by the Israel-
ites.
T.E.M.
Bibliography: Blau, J., ‘*Reste des
I-Imperfekts von ZKR, Qal,” VT 11: 81-86.
Childe, Brevard, Memory and Tradition in Is-
rael, SCM, 1962. Richardson, TWB, pp. 142-43.
THAT, I, pp. 507-17.

Yat (zikkaron). See no. 551b.
wmsat (z°karyaha). See no. 55lc.

552 35: (z/g). Assumed root of the following.

552a_ -a?tta «=(mazlég) the pronged fork, a
sacrificial instrument (1 Sam 2:13),

552b a9 «(mizlagad) sacrificial _imple-
ment belonging to altar in taberna-
cle (Ex 27:3) and temple (1 Chr
28:17).

eror (zalzal). See no. 553a.

553. 991 (zalal) I, shake, quake. (asv and Rsv

use “‘quake,’ whereas KJV uses ‘flow
down,”’ taking the word as coming from
another root, ndzal (**to flow down’’) in the
three places where it appears.

Derivative
553a et (zalzal) (quivering) tendrils.

The three uses of the word refer to the quaking
of a mountain (Jud 5:5; Isa 64:1 |[H 63:19; 64:2}).

554 99% (zalal)

BDB and KB agree that zdl/a/ is the root of the
word. KB classify the two roots zd/a/ as one.
L.J.W.

554 991 (zalal) I, be light, worthless, make light
of, squander, be a glutton, be vile. (asv
and rsv translate similarly, except that “‘be
a glutton’’ is used more consistently.)

Derivative
554a tn>t (zalliit) worthlessness.

The word is used twice intransitively, meaning
“‘worthless, insignificant... As such it 1s con-
trasted with yagar ‘precious,’ tn Jer 15:19. It is
used with a transitive meaning four times, to
mean ‘make light of ° something, so that the ob-
ject comes to be squandered. These times are
thought to refer to a gluttonous person (Deut
21:20; Prov 23:20-21; 28:7). Only in the second
passage is food mentioned. It is possible that the
reference is not to the amount of food eaten (i.e.
gluttony) but to the manner of banqueting (kJv
‘riotous eaters of flesh’). The general condem-
nation of gluttony as a sin rests largely upon the
interpretation of this word in these few places. It
is probable that in Deut 21:20 the capital crime
referred to is a vileness beyond gluttony. If this is
the root rather than zu#/ employed in Lam 1:8 (so
BDB), then it is used once in the Hiphil, meaning
**make light of in the sense of “‘despise.”’

zullut. Worthlessness, vileness. This noun 1s
used once and means ‘“‘vileness,’’ that which is
exalted among men when the wicked prowl about
(Ps 12:8 (H 9]).

L.J.W.

555 myet (z/'p). Assumed root of the following.
555a MBY>Y «(zal'dpd) raging heat (e.g.
Ps 119:53: Lam 5:10).

See no. 554a.

mat (zimma). See no. 556b.

mayor (z*méra). See no. 559b.
"33 (zamir). See nos. 558b, 559a.

nor (zallat).

556 lt} (zamam) purpose, devise, consider.

Derivatives

S56a Blast (zamam) plan, device (bad
sense, Ps 140:9).

S5S6b «Mt «(zimma) plan, device, wicked-
ness. Used in a negative sense
everywhere except Job 17:11.

556c thrara «= (m°zimma) purpose, plot.

zamam is found only in the Qal stem. It is used
mainly of the Lord carrying out his purposes in
judgment against wicked nations or of wicked
men who devise schemes against God and the
righteous.

244

Outside of Zech 1:6 and 8:14 and Job 42:2 the
references to both the verb and noun where God
is the subject occur in the writings of Jeremiah.
The passages are divided between God's purpose
in punishing Israel (Jer 4:28; 23:20; 30:24; Lam
2:17; Zech 1:6) and in judging Babylon (Jer
§1:11-12), the instrument, ironically, he used to
punish Israel! For both nations, God's purpose
involved severe destruction. Zechariah 8:14-15
contrasts God's purpose to do harm with His new
purpose to do good to Jerusalem. According to
Job 42:2. no purpose of God can be thwarted.

When referring to men, both the verb and noun
usually speak of evil plans and schemes. In Gen
11:6 the extent of human scheming is seen in the
plan to build the tower of Babel. The only other
occurrence in the Pentateuch is tn Deut 19:19,
where a false witness earns the punishment he
had intended another to receive. In Psalms and
Proverbs the wicked plot against the nmghteous
man, gnashing at him with their teeth (Ps 37:12)
or scheming to kill him (Ps 31:13 [H 14]: cf. Prov
30:32). Pride drives an evil man to persecute the
godly partly because in his thinking (m° zimmot)
there is no God (Ps 10:4). Job complains about
the thoughts of the comforters who are ruining
his reputation (Job 21:27).

Twice, the noun is linked with the verb “to
do (Ps 37:7; Jer 11:15) implying that an ‘‘evil
deed’ may be the meaning intended. Yet the idea
may be that the wicked are ‘‘carrying out’’ evil
schemes, thus preserving the basic mental frame
of reference behind za@mam.

In Ps 17:3 occurs the one positive use of the
term. There the psalmist purposes that his mouth
will not involve him in sin.

The book of Proverbs contains the broadest
range of meaning relative to this term. There is a
sharp division between the negative concept of
‘*men who devise evil” and the positive notion of
*‘discretion.’’ The former occurs only in conjunc-
tion with the nouns ‘‘man™ (‘ish, Prov 12:2;
14:17) and “possessor” (ba‘al, Prov 24:8), and in
each case the plural m zimmot is used. A *‘man
of schemes” or ‘‘who devises evil’’ is readily
condemned and hated (Prov 12:2; 14:17).

The singular form m‘zimmd, however, re-
ceives the consistently positive meaning of *‘dis-
cretion’ the five times it appears. This use oc-
curs in Prov 1:4; 5:2; 8:12, where it is linked with
‘*knowledge’’ and ‘“‘prudence.’’ In Prov 2:11;
3:21 ‘‘discretion,’ like her sisters, *‘understand-
ing’ and ‘“‘sound wisdom,’’ guards one’s life
from harm. Hence, within Proverbs I-8 *‘discre-
tion’ ranks as one of the key terms for wisdom
employed by the author.

The verb occurs only twice, in Prov, once with
the norma! meaning of *‘plot’’ (Prov 30:32), and
once in the sense of “‘consider’™’ (31:16). This lat-
ter meaning is found in the epilogue of the book, a

poem honoring the woman who exemplifies wis-
dom at its best. This excellent wife ‘‘considers a
field and buys it.” Instead of spending her time
dreaming up wicked schemes, she makes plans
that will bring great benefit to her family.

H.W.

557 Yet (zaman) be fixed, appointed (of time,
Ezra 10:14; Neh 10:35; 13:31).

Derivative

5S7a Yat. = (z*man) appointed time, time.
(Neh 2:6; Eccl 3:1; Est 9:27).

558 *"i} (zamar) TI, sing, sing praise, make
music.

Derivatives

558a tm (zimrad) song, music.
558b iat (zamir) song.
55S8c t59839 « (mizmér) psalm.

zdmar occurs only in the Piel. It is cognate to
Akkadian zamaru *‘to sing, play an instrument.”
It is used only in poetry, almost exclusively in Ps.

The vast majority of occurrences of the verb
and its derivatives focus upon praising the Lord.
The people of Israel lift their voices and their
instruments to praise their God as long as they
live (Ps 104:33; 146:2). Several times this praise is
directed toward the ‘‘name”’ of the Lord, for the
‘‘name’’ stands for God himself (Ps 66:4; 18:49
(H 50]; 135:3).

The song of praise first occurs tn Ex 15:2,
where Moses celebrates the victory over the
Egyptians at the Red Sea. The verb is used in Jud
5:3, the song of triumph wnitten by Deborah to
commemorate the crushing defeat of Sisera and
his mighty chariots (cf. Ps 68:4 (H 5]; 32 [H 33}).
Music rises from the faithful to praise God for
‘‘what he has done’ (Ps 9:11 [H 12]), for the
‘glorious things’* or **wonderful acts’ he has ac-
complished (Isa 12:5; Ps 105:2). The Lord’s
‘love and justice’ evokes praise in Ps 101:1, and
according to Ps 119:54 God's ‘‘decrees are the
theme of my song”’ (Nrv).

In Isa 24:16 the words of a song are ‘Glory to
the Righteous One.’’ Psalm 47:7 [H 8] notes that
since God is the King of all the earth, men are to
sing to him a ‘‘maskil,’’ a term of uncertain mean-
ing also found in the heading to Ps 4S.

A number of terms are found parallel to zmr,
including shir ‘‘to sing’ (Jud 5:3: Ps 27:6; 101:1;
104133) rdnan, ‘“‘to shout for joy” (Ps 71:23;
98:4), yadda, “to praise’ (Ps 57:9 {H 10]; 33:2),
and halal, ‘to praise’ (Ps 149:3). The close rela-
tionship between zmr and ‘‘praise’’ is reflected in
the fact that the Hebrew name for the book of
Psalms (which translates the Hebrew mizmdr) is
‘Praises’ (t°hillim). When it is parallel to

245

S560 “73° (zmr)

another verb, zamar almost always comes last.
In Ps 98:5 the imperative zammru and the cog-
nate zimrd begin and end the verse to form a kind
of ‘‘inclusto.”’

Sometimes zdmar is directly linked with a mu-
sical instrument, as 1S zimra (see above). The lyre
(Ps 71:22), the ten-stringed lyre (Ps 33:2; 144:9),
the harp (Ps 98:5) and the tambourine (Ps 149:3)
are all used to ‘“‘make music” in praising the
Lord. The parallel line in Ps 149:3 speaks about
praising the Lord with dancing. In light of these
references, singing may not always be implied
when zamar or its cognates occurs.

Two passages refer to songs in a negative
sense. In Isa 25:5 the Lord shows his faithfulness
to the poor and needy by silencing “the song of
the ruthless."” In Amos 5:23 the Lord refuses to
listen to the songs and music of Israel's festivals,
for the nation has abandoned justice and righte-
ousness.

zimra. Song, music. Three times out of seven
it is used in connection with either the harp or
tambourine (Ps 81:2 (H 3]; 98:5, Amos 5:23). In
the song of Moses occurs the well-known line,
‘‘The Lord is my strength and song”’ (Ex 15:2).
The whole verse is repeated in Isa 12:2 and Ps
118:14.

zamir. Song. Used inthe plural except for Isa
25:5. In II Sam 23:1 David is called **the sweet
psalmist of Israel’’ (kJv, Rsv) or “Israel's singer
of songs”’ (NIV).

mizmér. Psalm. Appears in fifty-seven psalm
headings, usually in conjunction with a name or a
title. In thirty-four psalms it follows lamnasséah,
‘‘for the director of music,’’ and twenty-three of
the same headings also have [’dawid, *‘of David.”’
Five times it is preceded by shir, **a song, and
eight times shir follows (cf. Ps 65 and 66). In Psalm
98:1 mizmor stands alone in the title. For other
such musical terms see se/d.

H.W.

559 “ft (zamar) II, trim, prune (Lev 25:3-4,

Qal; Isa 5:6, Niphal).
Derivatives

559a I (zamir) trimming, pruning.
(Song 2:12, only.)

559b ABT «(z°mdra) branch, twig,
shoot (e.g. Num 13:23; Ezk 8:17).

559c Mm 3feta =(mazméra) pruning knife.

(Isa 2:4; 18:5; Mic 4:3).

559d mses «=(m*zammeret) snuffers (e.g.

II Kgs 25:14; Jer 52:18).

560 “Wt (zmr) TI. Assumed root of the following.

560a 9 at. (zimra) choice products. (Gen
43:11, only). Meaning dubious.

S61 3 (zan)

560b Wt) (zemer) mountain sheep (Deut
14:5, only). Meaning dubious.

S61 3% (zan) kind, sort (Ps 144:13: II Chr

16:14). Derivation uncertain.

562 33% (zanab) cut off. Denominative verb.

Parent noun
562a tat (zandb) tail.

A noun, probably from the unused root, zanab
(meaning unknown), signifying “‘tail.”” It is em-
ployed ten times and in some well-known con-
texts. For instance, Moses was told to take the
serpent by the ‘tail’ (Ex 4:4). Samson tied the
three hundred foxes in pairs by their ‘‘tails’* (Jud
15:4). It is used figuratively for the idea “lowest
in rank."’ God warned Israel that, if they did not
remain faithful to him the stranger would be the
head and Israel only the *‘tail’’ (Deut 28:44). It is
also used figuratively to mean “end, stump.”
The two enemy kings besteging Jerusalem were
likened to the ‘tails’ (ends, stumps) of fire-
brands (Isa 7:4). [The usage in Job 40:17 presents
a problem if behemoth is a hippopotamus as is
often supposed. Is it possible that here the word
means appendage in general and may refer to the
trunk of an elephant which more appropriately
may be likened to a cedar? R.L.H.]

L.J.W.

563 Mat (zand) commit fornication, be a harlot,
play the harlot. (asv and Rsv similar.)

Derivatives

563a TE°HNI (2°ntinim) fornication.
563b tM3t (2°nat) fornication.
563c TMM (faznat) fornication.

KB identify a second root using these conson-
ants, meaning ‘‘be angry” (Jud 19:2). Evidence
for understanding this one usage to mean “‘be
angry, when ‘‘play the harlot” is quite possible,
is lacking. Most authorities (BDB included) hold
to one root only. The verb appears eighty-nine
times in the Qal stem, once in the Pual, and nine
times in the Hiphil. Five of the Hiphil instances
call for the causative meaning. The basic idea of
the word is “to commit illicit intercourse’ (espe-
cially of women).

This verb is used in both literal and figurative
senses. Figuratively, the thought may concern
forbidden international intercourse, of one nation
(especially Israel) having dealings with other na-
tions. It may also refer to religious intercourse, of
Israe] worshiping false gods.

The literal meaning is illicit heterosexual inter-
course. The word regularly refers to women; it
refers only twice to men (Ex 34:16; Num 25:1).
The participial form is regularly used to designate

246

the harlot (Gen 34:31). Such persons received
hire (Deut 23:19), had identifying marks (Gen
38:15; Prov 7:10: Jer 3:3), had their own houses
(Jer 5:7), and were to be shunned (Prov 23:27).
Rahab, who hid the spies sent by Joshua, is called
by this term. The contention that she was merely
an innkeeper is based on finding the root of this
participal in zun ‘‘to feed,” rather than zand; but
for this little evidence exists.

Certain distinctions exist between zd@nd and
the parallel root nd’ap *‘to commit adultery.”
na’ap commonly refers to men rather than women.
nd’ap connotes sexual intercourse between a
married person and someone other than his/her
spouse (Lev 20:10). The two words are set in
significant contrast in Hos 4:13-14, where
‘‘daughters’ are said to ‘“‘commit whoredom”
(asv and rsv “‘play the harlot.”’ za@nd) and
“spouses” to ‘commit adultery” (nd’ap). A few
times the woman, with whom the act is done, is
definitely identified as married (Lev 20:10; Jer
29:23). Never is the person said to be unmarried.
The words are sufficiently parallel, however, that
they can be used for the same person (Hos 3:1, 3,
concerning Gomer; Ezk 16:32-36, concerning Is-
rael as an unfaithful nation). A third distinction is
that nd’ap is not used to designate the profes-
sional prostitute. A similarity between the two
roots 1s found in the fact that both are used ina
figurative as well as a literal sense; and also that,
in the figurative, they are employed for the same
basic concepts.

zand also refers figuratively to Israel as com-
mitting national harlotry (Ezk 16:26-28). Tyre
(Isa 23:17) and Nineveh (Nah 3:4) are also men-
tioned in this way. The thought seems to be of
having relations with these nations for the sake of
political and monetary benefit, although in the
case of Nineveh the added element of alluring,
deceitful tactics leading on to oppressive domi-
nance 1s implied.

Stull a third figurative meaning is found in Isa
121, where the Israelites’ departure from God’s
approved moral standards is called harlotry.

The three derivatives are used as almost exact
synonyms, each being employed both literally
and figuratively. The third (faznat) is unusual in
that it is employed only by Ezekiel, and that in
only two chapters: 16 (nine times) and 23 (eleven
times). Although Ezekiel uses also the other two
derivatives (total of five times), his preference for
taznit is clear.

Bibliography: Brooks, Beatrice A., *‘Fertility
Cult Functionaries in the Old Testament,’’ JBL
60: 227-53. Gordis, Robert, **Hosea’s Marriage
and Message: A New Approach,’’ HUCA 25:
9-35, Rabinowitz, Jacob J., ‘‘The ‘Great Sin’ in
Ancient Egyptian Marriage Contracts,’’ JNES
18:73. Richardson, TWB, p. 16. Rowley, H. H.,
‘*The Marriage of Hosea,’ BJRL 39: 200-33.

Tushingham, Douglas A., **A Reconsideration of
Hosea, Chapters 1-3,'° JNES 12: 150-59. Wise-
man, D. J., ‘“Rahab of Jericho,’’ Tyndale House
Bulletin 14: 8-11. TDNT, VI, pp. 584-90.
L.J.W.

Bt (z°nunim). See no. 563a.
may (z°nat), See no. 563b.

564 my (zanah) I, reject, spurn, cast off. (ASV
and rsv similar, except that rsv prefers at
times ‘“‘spurn’’ or ‘“‘reject.*’)

Related to an Arabic root meaning ‘*be remote,
repelled,’’ zanah carries the basic meaning of
strong dislike or disapproval. The word is used
sixteen ttmes in the Qal and three in the Hiphil,
with no clear distinction in meaning. The Qal is
used in Ps 43:2, as the Psalmist cries out to God,
‘‘Why dost thou cast me off?’* The rsv uses *‘re-
jected’ in Ps 60:1 [H 3], as David states, “‘O
God, thou hast rejected (kiv ‘‘cast off’) us.’ The
Hiphil use is employed by David, as he instructs
Solomon that, if Solomon should forsake God,
then God would ‘cast (him) off forever’’ (I Chr
28:9),

L.J.W.

565 mt (za@nah) II, stink, emit stench. (asv
and rsv have ‘become foul’’; whereas Kiv
uses ‘‘turn far away,’” after root I.)

Both BDB and KB understand this as a second
root. It is used only once, in the Hiphil, describ-
ing the Nile River as made to “‘stink”’ in a future
day of judgment at the hand of God (Isa 19:6).

Bibliography: Yaron, Reuven, *‘The Meaning
of ZANAH,”’ VT 13: 237-39.

L.J.W.

566 *D3t (za@naq) leap. This verb occurs only
once, in the Piel (Deut 33:22).

myt (zé‘a). See no. 857b.
myt (za’dwa). See no. 540a.
“pr (z°ér). See no. 571a.

567 *3¥t (za‘ak) extinguish.
Job 17:1 (Niphal).

Occurs only in

568 BY? (zd‘am) be indignant, express indigna-
tion, denounce. (ASV and RSV similar.)

Derivative

S68a TOYt (za'am) anger, indignation.

The basic idea is experiencing or expressing
intense anger. The word is parallel to gdsap, ex-
cept that its expression takes a more specific
form, especially of denunciation. The word ap-
pears eleven times in the Qal stem and once in the
Niphal.

247

569 AYt (za‘ap)

The verb is used to indicate both the state of
being indignant and the activity giving expression
to that state. It is used in reference to man, but
more often to God. Isaiah foretells a day when
God's ‘indignation’’ will be experienced by Is-
rael’s enemies (Isa 66:14). In Num 23:7-8, zd‘am
is used in parallel with the verbs ‘arar, ndgab,
and gdbab, each meaning “to curse,’ as first
Balak, king of Moab, bids Balaam, ‘‘Come, curse
(‘aGrar) me Jacob, and come, defy (zd‘am) Is-
rael."’ Then Balaam replies, **How shall I curse
(ndqab) whom God hath not cursed (qa@bab)? Or
how shall I defy (z@'am) whom the Lord hath not
defied (za@‘am)?”™

za‘am. Anger, indignation. This noun is used
twenty-two times. It is regularly translated *‘in-
dignation,’’ referring more often to God than to
man. za‘am is used in parallel with qgasap, as
Jeremiah states that the earth shall tremble at
God's wrath (gesep), and the nations shall not be
able to bear his “*indignation”’ (z@‘am) (Jer 10:10;
cf Ps 102:11).

Bibliography: Brichto, Herbert C., The Prob-
lem of ‘‘Curse’’ in the Hebrew Bible, in Journal
of Biblical Literature Monograph Series, Vol. 13,
Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1963,
pp. xX. 232. Scharbert, Josef, **Fluchen und Seg-
nen im Alten Testament,’ Bib 39: 1-26.

L.J.W.

569 APY (za‘ap) fret, be sad, be wroth.

Derivative

569a MYT (za‘ap)
S69b MPT (za‘ep)

The root of this verb, according to the Aramaic
cognate z° ‘ap “‘to storm, rage against,’’ means to
storm, blow, or breathe hard. It is so used in Jon
1:15 of the raging sea. KB suggests ‘tbe embit-
tered against, ‘“‘be dejected,’ BDB adds ‘‘be
enraged.™

A person who storms within himself is en-
raged. One with an inner storm can be sad, trou-
bled in appearance (Dan 1:10).

The baker and butler had reason to be troubled
in heart: their dreams were real but uninter-
preted. Uncertainty caused unrest: they fretted
and were crestfallen (Gen 40:6). The wise man of
Prov, however, points to a far more tragic storm
in a man’s heart: it is of the fool whose folly
brings him into well-deserved ruin resulting in an
unreasonable rage in his heart against God (Prov
19:3). The Chronicler (I] Chr 26:19) tells of King
Uzziah’s strength and pride which led him to
desecrate the temple and the altar of incense.
When rebuked, Uzziah was wroth and when he
expressed this rage of his heart in the temple
sanctuary he was immediately stricken with lep-
rosy (II Chr 26:19).

storming, indignation.
out of humor, vexed.

570 }yt (za'aq)

The biblical testimony is that there is no peace,
health, or happiness for the man with a storm in
his heart.

za‘ap. The noun is used to describe the state
king Asa was in when he was rebuked by the
prophet Hanani (II Chr 16:10). Because Asa had
relied upon neighboring kings and not upon the
Lord, the prophet, sent of the Lord, told him he
had done foolishly. To have folly pointed out was
to cause a storm in the king’s heart. This inner
rage led Asa to commit atrocities. He remained
hardened, so much so that four years later, when
he was diseased, he refused to seek the Lord.
This rage of a man’s heart is as the roaring of a
lion, it is fierce and awesome (Prov 19:12). It is
comparable to a sea in a raging storm (Jon 1:15).
The term is used twice of the Lord’s attitude.
The Assyrians who rejoiced as they ravished Is-
rael, are to see the raging, storming character of
God’s anger against them (Isa 30:30). Micah says
he will endure the Lord’s rage brought on by
enemies but he is also assured the Lord will bring
forth light and deliverance when the storm of his
rage iS spent.
G.V.G.
S70 et (za'aq) cry, cry out, call. (asv and
RSV Similar.)

Derivative
570a_TMBYt «(z°'aqad) cry, outcry.

The basic meaning of this root is ‘‘to cry for
help in time of distress.’* It is used mainly in the
Qal, but occurs a few times in the Niphal and
Hiphil, where it carries distinctive meanings. It is
parallel in meaning to sa@‘ag. The two roots are
doubtless mere variants, as is not unusual with
such similar sibilants.

In the Qal stem, the word is used almost exclu-
sively in reference to a cry from a disturbed
heart, in need of some kind of help. The cry is not
in summons of another, but an expression of the
need felt. Most frequently, the cry is directed to
God. When the Israelites were being invaded an-
nually by the Midianites, they expressed this cry
(Jud 6:6-7). Occasionally it is directed to a false
deity (Jer 11:12), and once to a king (JJ Sam
19:29). A few times the word is used for a cry not
directed to anyone, but simply as a note of alarm.
All the city of Shiloh so cried out when told that
the Ark had been captured by the Philistines
(I Sam 4:13). The cry may be sounded in behalf
of another person (Isa 15:5). It may be in lament
at bad news (Jer 47:2); or it may be acry of pro-
test (Job 31:38). In only one instance is the idea of
summons involved, and that is when Jephthah
called for Ephraimites to assist him against the
Ammonites (Jud 12:2). This is still a cry for help.

The Niphal stem is used six times and always

248

S71 syt (z'r).

of assembling people together. They are thus
considered to be “‘called ones’ (Josh 8:16).

The Hiphil stem occurs seven times, but only
once with the causative meaning (Jon 3:7). Four
times it carries the idea of assembly, thus corre-
sponding to the Niphal meaning, but in the active
mood (JJ Sam 20:4-5). Once it is used to express
an outcry of alarm, much like one of the uses of
the Qal, and once simply to get another's atten-
tion in order to convey a message (Zech 6:8).

The distinction between zd‘ag and sd‘agq
seems to be that s@'aq was used earlier. This is
only a relative distinction, however, because
z@‘aq 1s also found in the Pentateuch, and sd‘aq
also appears in postexilic writings. But a tally of
the number of times each occurs, during the early
and later periods, supports the general distinc-
tion. In writings, which likely were penned no
later than the time of the united monarchy,
sa‘agq, in both its verb and noun forms, is found
some forty-four times (out of a total seventy-six),
while zd‘aq appears only thirty-six (out of a total
eighty-nine). In postexilic writings, s@‘ag occurs
only twice, while z@‘ag appears eight times. In
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah, the score is
twenty-one to seven in favor of zd‘aq.

In meaning, the two roots are very close. Both
signify the same basic sense of acry for help out
of a situation of distress. Both show such a cry
being voiced to God, to false deities, and to
people, although sd‘aq is used several times for
the last, while zd@'ag is only once. The Niphal
uses of the two are parallel in meaning. Some
difference occurs in the Hiphil, in that s@‘ag ap-
pears only once, in one of the meanings of zd@‘agq,
namely of calling together an assembly.

z°‘aga. Cry, outcry. The noun derivative ts
used eighteen times, and sixteen of them corte-
spond closely to the idea of the Qal stem, 1.e.
they designate a cry for help in the face of to the
idea of the Qa! stem, i.e. they designate a cry for
help in the face of distress. For instance, the
word is used for the cry directed to Nehemiah by
Jews who were being oppressed by their wealthy
neighbors (Neh 5:6). Mordecai gave this cry
when he heard of Haman’s plot against the Jews
(Est 4:1). za‘ag is also used in an abstract refer-
ence to the foolish clamor of a poor ruler (Eccl
9:17), and to the outcry against Sodom that had
come to God's notice (Gen 18:20).

L.J.W.

Assumed root of the following.
STla opr (z'ér) a little.
S7ib tyra (miz'ar) a litle, a trifle, a few.

miz‘ar. Smallness, a little, a few. This word
occurs only four times, in Isaiah. Three usages
are in conjunction with m° ‘at (of the same mean-
ing). Used together, in two instances, they give

literally, ‘‘a trifle, a little’’ time, calling for the
stressed translation, “‘a very little while’’ (Isa
10:25; 29:4). The two other usages concern num-
bers. In Isa 16:14, for example, where it is em-
ployed again with m° ‘at, a literal rendition gives,
‘‘a little, small’’ remnant. Cf. the root sd‘ar of
similar meaning. This word may be merely a
phonetic variation.

L.J.W.

572 mpt (zepet) pitch (Ex 2:3; Isa 34:9).

573, Pt (zéq)
50:11).

missile, spark (Prov 26:18; Isa

See no. 577a.
See no. 574e.

pt (zéq).
pt (z°qunim).

574. Yt =~ (zdgén) be, become old.

Related Terms

S74a_ T13t « (zaqdn) beard, chin.
5S74b pt (zaqéen) old.

574c 7121 (zdqen) old age.
S74d TQ 31 (zignad) old age.
S74e taser (z°qunim) old age.

zaqgén is probably a derivative of zagdan (beard).
It is a stative verb which in the Qal denotes the
state of being which follows being young (Ps
37:25). We meet the phrase ‘‘old and advanced in
years’ (Gen 24:1: Josh 13:1; cf. I Sam 17:12) or
‘old and full of days’’ (I Chr 23:1). It refers to
both men and women. During this period of life
prospects of marriage (Ruth 1:12) and childbear-
ing cease (Gen 18:12-13; I] Kgs 4:14). Grey hair
appears (I Sam 12:2). There is a failing of sight
(Gen 27:1; cf. 1 Sam 3:2; 4:15), metabolism and
mobility (I Kgs 1:1, 15), and there is danger of
falling (1 Sam 4:18). A description of the onset of
age in poetic symbols is found in Eccl 12:1-S.
Death is an imminent prospect (Gen 19:31; 24:1;
27:1-2; Josh 23:1-2). Leadership must be relin-
quished (Josh 13:1; 1 Sam 8:1, 5; | Chr 23:1). Yet
one in this state is to be respected (Lev 19:32) and
not despised (Prov 23:22).

The Hiphil of the verb denotes the aging of
persons (Prov 22:6) and of a tree root (Job 14:8).

Age sixty seems to separate the mature from
the aged (Lev 27:1-8), although evidently the
Levites retired at fifty (Num 4:3, 23, 30). The
Psalmist suggests seventy years as a normal life
span and eighty as unusual (Ps 90:10). In the
period of the Kings a man of eighty 1s accounted a
man of very great age (1] Sam 19:32 |H 33)).

zaqan. Beard. A masculine noun from the
root zakén. Ugaritic dyn, Ais WUS No. 782. The
chin whiskers of a man (IJ Sam 20:9) and of a lion
(I Sam 17:35) could be seized. To be cleansed,
the leper had to shave his beard (Lev 14:9). Is-

249

574 ypt (zdgén)

raelites and priests (Lev 19:27; 21:5) were forbid-
den to cut the corners of the beard. In times of
distress the beard was plucked (Ezr 9:3) or
shaved (Isa 15:2; Jer 41:5; 48:37). Ezekiel was
commanded to shave as a symbol of coming de-
struction of Jerusalem (Ezk 5:1). The odd expres-
sion in Ps 133:2 (kKjv) does not mean that Aaron's
beard went down to the skirts of his garments,
but that the anointing oil did.

zaqén. Aged, ancient, ancient man, elder,
senator, eldest, old, old man, old woman. The
LXx renders presbuteros. zaqén iS an adjective
derived from zagén “‘to be old,’ which is a de-
nominative verb from zadgdn ‘‘beard.”’

zaqén, used either as an attributive adjective
or as a substantive, describes the person (male or
female) who, contrasting with the youth (na’ar;
Gen 19:4; cf. Ps 37:25) has reached the stage in
life called old age. The semitism ‘old and full of
years (days)’* is sometimes met (Gen 25:8; 35:29;
Job 42:17). The normal Hebrew society not only
had boys and girls playing in the streets but there
were also old men and women leaning on their
staffs (Zech 8:4). **Young”’ and ‘‘old’’ make up
the total of society (Ex 10:9; Josh 6:21; 11 Chr
36:17; Est 3:13).

The old man is to be honored (Lev 19:32; cf.
Lam 5: 12). The young wait to speak until the old
have spoken (Job 32:4). Their value as advisors
(cf. Ezk 7:26) is recognized in the account of Re-
hoboam’s rejecting their counsel in favor of that
of the young men (I Kgs 12:6ff.). On the other
hand, the advice of the elders saved Jeremiah's
life (Jer 26:17). The old man is adorned by his
grey hair (Prov 20:29) and his children are his
crown (Prov 17:6). |

zagén as a substantive, usually plural, ts a
technical term occurring about one hundred
times. Only the context can determine whether
old men or the ruling body is intended in any
particular case. The oT is not clear concerning the
age required to qualify one to be a za@gén or de-
tails of appointment to this group.

There are elders within a house, e.g. Pharaoh's
(Gen 50:7; Ps 105:22) or David's (IJ Sam 12:17).
The ruling body of the Hebrew city as well as of a
people like the Moabites and Midianites (Num
22:4, 7) and the Gibeonites (Josh 9:11) were the
elders. The institution was known to the Hittites,
to Mari, and to the Babylonians from the Ham-
murabi period onward. Elders and commanders
(Sarim) frequently are combined to make up a
governing body. Elders sitting at the gate of the
city (Deut 21:19; 22:15; Prov 31:23; Lam 5:14)
settled many questions such as disputed virginity
(Deut 22:15); ratification of property settlements
(Ruth 4:9, 11); and trying of murder cases (Deut
19:12: 21:1ff.; Josh 20:4).

Already in the Pentateuch we encounter the

S75 At (zaqap)

‘‘elders of Israel’’ (Ex 3:16; 18:12). They witnes-
sed the striking of the rock (Ex 17:5-6). In the
wilderness a group of seventy witnessed the cov-
enant ceremony (Ex 24:1, 9). They adjudicated
cases while Moses was on the mountain (Ex
24:14). Elders laid their hands on the head of the
sin offering when the whole congregation had
sinned (Lev 4:15). They received the spint at the
tent of meeting (Num 11:16, 24-25). Twenty-five
elders witnessed the fate of Datham and Abiram
(Num 16:25). Ten men made up a deciding body
(Ruth 4:2). Elders stood with the judges before
the ark at the reading of the law (Josh 8:33; cf.
23:2; 24:1).

The elders of Israel requested a king from
Samuel (I Sam 8:4). Even after the establishment
of the monarchy, the choice of a king rested with
the elders of Israel so that David made a coven-
ant with them before they anointed him at Heb-
ron (II Sam 5:3). Absalom obtained their favor
(II Sam 17:4, 15) and David returned to rule after
the revolt only with the permission of the ‘‘elders
of Judah” (II Sam 19:11 (H 12]). They continued
as an advisory body to the king in later history
(1 Kgs 20:7) and retained independent authority
(1 Kgs 21:8). Josiah summoned them for the read-
ing of the newly discovered law (II Kgs 23:1).

The elders continued to be influential even dur-
ing the Exile (Jer 29:1; Ezk 8:1; 14:1; 20:1) and in
the postexilic community (Ezra 10:8, 14). The
role continued in modified forms in_ the
synagogue and in the church. But those who
ruled in the community of Qumran were not the
‘‘elders.”’

zogen. Old age. A masculine noun derived
from the root zaqgan, (Gen 48:10), it refers to age
as a quality. Unlike Moses’ (Deut 34:7), Jacob’s
senility brought failing eyesight.

ziqna. Old, old age. This feminine noun, de-
rived from the root za@kan, occurs in the absolute
and construct states. It is used for the advanced
age of Sarah, Solomon, and Asa (Gen 24:36;
I Kgs 11:4: 15:23). It represents a time of increas-
ing infirmity to which God's care extends (Ps
71:9, 18; Isa 46:4).

Zqunim. Oldage. This masculine noun refers
to a state of being (Gen 21:2, 7; 37:3; 44:20). In
the case of Abraham, it points to the unusualness
of Isaac's birth. It explains Jacob’s favoritism
toward Joseph and Benjamin.

Bibliography: Bornkamm, G., ‘*Presbuteros,”’
in TWNT, VI, pp. 651-83. Evans, Geoffrey,
‘‘Ancient Mesopotamian Assemblies,’’ JAOS 78:
1-11. Jacobson, Thorkild, **Primitive Democracy
in Ancient Mesopotamia,’’ JNES 2: 159-72.
McKenzie, Donald A., ‘‘Judicial Procedure at
the Town Gate,’’ VT 14: 100-104. McKenzie,
John L., *‘The Elders in the Old Testament,”’

250

Bib 40: 522-40. Malamat, Abraham, **Kingship
and Council in Israel and Sumer,’ JNES 22:
247-53. Noth, Martin, The History of Israel,
London: Black, 1958, pp. 107-108. Pedersen,
Johannes, /srael, vols. I-JI, London: Oxford,
1940, pp. 36ff. TDNT, VI, pp. 655-61.

J.P.L.

575 "pt (zdgap) raise up (Ps 145:14; 146:8).

S76 Pt (zaqaq) I, refine, purify. (asv and

RSV similar.)

The basic idea is of making something pure (cf.
sarap, which connotes testing something to de-
termine its degree of purity). The root is used
twice in Qal, once in Piel, and four times in Pual.
The Qal appears in Job 28:1, which speaks of a
place for gold where they ‘‘fine’’ (Rsv ‘‘refine’’)
it. The Piel occurs in Mal 3:3, which says that
God will **purge’’ (rsv “‘refine’’) Levites like gold
and silver. The Pual of za@gaq always occurs as a
participle. For instance, a part of that which
David collected for building the temple is de-
scribed as ‘‘refined”’ gold (I Chr 28:18). Every
instance but two refers to the refining of metals,
which, of course was done by fire. win Isa 25:6
the refining of wine is referred to which probably
was done by decanting, not filtering (as KB
suggest), cf. Jer 48:11. The reference in Job 36:27
is difficult. Pope (“‘Job’’ in AB) translates **that
distill rain from the flood.*’ Could the process of
evaporation here be referred to metaphorically as
a refining?

L.J.W.

S77 39 (zqq). Assumed root of the following.

S77a 9 (zéqg) fetter (e.g. Nah 3:10; Isa
45:14). Derivation uncertain. GB,
unlike BDB, derive from zng_ be-
cause of Arabic and Syriac cognates.

S77b IN «('dzéq) manacle (Jer 40:1,
only).

"t (zér). See no. 543a.
Nat (zara’). See no. 542d.

578 *33t (zadrab) be burned, scorched. Occurs

only in the Pual.

Derivative

S78a Teagan (z°ribdbel) Zerubbabel, a
name.

Zerubbabel was a grandson of King Jehoiachin
(1 Chr 3:16-19), taken captive by Nebuchadnez-
zar in 597 B.c. (II Kgs 24:11-16); hence an heir to
the throne of Judah. He is frequently called a ‘*son
of Shealtiel’’ (Salathiel, Ezr 3:2, 8: Neh 12:1; Mt
1:12, etc.), but a son of Pedaiah, brother of Sheal-
tiel, in I Chr 3:17. Shealtiel likely died childless.

Either his nephew, Zerubbabel, was considered
his legal heir, and hence called his son (Ex 2:10),
or else Pedaiah fulfilled his levirate duty in marry-
ing the widow of Shealtiel, in which instance the
first child would be considered son of the de-
ceased (Deut 25:5-10).

Zerubbabel was the civil leader (called pahat
‘governor, Hag 1:14; 2:2, 21) of the Jews who
returned from the Babylonian exile, under Cyrus’
permission, c. 537 B.c. leading the first returning
band of exiles. Rebuilding of the Temple was
begun c. 536 B.c. (Ezr 3:8-13), but it ceased (Ezr
4:24) shortly after the foundation was completed.
Sixteen years later (S20 B.c., Darius’s second
year, Hag 1:1; Zech 1:1), the two prophets Hag-
gai and Zechariah, began to preach and urge re-
sumption of the building. Zerubbabel, along with
Joshua, the high priest, responded (Ezr 5:1-2;
Hag 1:12). The work was completed in the spring
of 515 B.c. Besides leading the rebuilding, Zerub-
babel restored both the courses of the priests and
Levites (Ezr 6:18) and the provision for their
maintenance (Neh 12:47). Nothing is Known of
the man after the completion of the Temple; nor
is there any record of his death.

[It is commonly supposed today that Zerub-
babel who was of the seed royal had kingly pre-
tensions. He is supposed to have led an indepen-
dence movement which was quickly put down by
the Persians and Zerubbabel met an untimely
death. There is no direct evidence for this theory.
It assumes that Zech 6:11 does not present
Joshua the high priest as typical of the Messiah,
but that the original reading was ‘‘Zerubbabel”’
who was the object of the prophecy. The view
does not envision Zerubbabel as both king and
priest. It favors the translation ‘‘There will be a
priest by his throne’ (rsv). Cf. the NEB footnote
tov. 11 ‘‘possibly an error for Zerubbabel.** The
view 1s advanced in Kraeling, E. Commentary on
the Prophets, Il, Daniel to Malachi, Nelson,
1966, pp. 299-300. R.1..H.]

L.J.W.

239331 (z*rubbabel). See no. 878a.

579 MMI (zara) fan, scatter, cast away, winnow,
disperse, compass, spread, be scattered, dis-
persed.

Derivative
579a MN (mizreh) _ pitchfork.

The basic thought of the verb is to stir up the
air to produce a Scattering and spreading effect.
However, the simple act of scattering or spread-
ing is also suggested, e.g. Moses scattered gold
dust on water (Ex 32:20). Unfaithful priests have
dung spread upon their faces (Mal 2:3).

The term zara is used in various verbal forms

251

580 Mt (zarah)

to indicate a scattering or dispersing for reasons
of purification or chastisement. Grain is cleansed
of chaff by using a fan to blow it away. God's
covenant people require a purifying also, but it
will be a chastening experience; hence the Lord
is said, metaphorically, ‘to fan’’ his people (Jer
15:7), with the result that they will be scattered as
chaff to various distant places. Moses warned
this would happen if Israel forsook the covenant
(Lev 26:33). Jeremiah (49:32) and Zechariah
(1:19; 2:2) both referred to how Israel was dis-
persed by the Gentile invaders among foreign na-
tions. It was also foretold that those nations used
to chastise Israel, would some day themselves be
fanned and completely scattered for all time to
come (Isa 41:16).

The dispersion of Israel is referred to by vari-
ous synonyms which express other aspects or
nuances of God's chastening process; cf. ndpas
‘‘dash, scatter’’; pus ‘‘dash, scatter’’; pdras
“break out, disperse’’; pdrad ‘‘spread’’; and
pdazar **scatter.”’

[The difficult usage in Ps 139:3 may be a
semantic extension of this root in the sense of
‘‘examine’’-or, as BDB suggest and KB and Da-
hood (in AB, Psalms III) affirm, may be a de-
nominative verb zara ‘‘to measure’’ from the
noun zeret “‘span.”’ R.L.H.]

G.V.G.
yrat (zeriia’). See no. 582b.
vist (z*rda‘). See no. 583a.
A? «(zarzip). See no. 584a.

“tat (zarzir). See no. 543b.

580 mat (zdarah) arise, rise, rise up, shine. (asv

and rsv similar.)
Derivatives

580a_ so mats (zerah) dawning, shining.
580b tm3Is® (‘ezrah) native.
580c tmat (mizrah) place of sunrise, east.

BDB does not list *‘to shine’ as one of the
meanings, but KB gives. ‘shine forth,’ ‘flash
forth.”’

zarah means ‘‘to rise, come up,’ and is used in
three ways. 1) It refers to the breaking forth of
the symptoms of leprosy (sara‘at q.v.; II Chr
26:19). 2) It is used of the sun as appearing, with-
out specific reference to the diffusion of its light
(Eccl 1:5; Jn 4:5), (and thus it is a reference to the
time of day), or else as [radiating] its light in the
morning (IY Sam 23:4). 3) It is also used in a
figurative sense to speak of salvation, light, glory
resulting from God's coming into a man’s life (Ps
112:4; Isa 58:10; 60:1). The thought is that as the
sun appears in the morning without man’s effort,
but nevertheless floods his surroundings with
light and dispels the darkness, so the Lord is sov-

581 O53 (zaram)

ereign in the bestowal of his salvation, which
brings light and glory. The term is used twice of
God himself appearing to bring salvation (Isa
60:2) and mghteousness to his people (Mal 4:2
[H 3:20]). In both cases there is a prophecy con-
cerning the coming of Jesus Chnist as Saviour and
Lord.

’ezrah. A native, one rising from his own soil.
This noun refers to one arising from his native
soil. In the Mosaic legislation the term is used
frequently to indicate the specific native origin
(Num 15:29, like a tree, Ps 37:35) of the descen-
dants of the Patriarchs who belong to the prom-
ised land (Ex 18:19).

mizrah. East, the sun rising. This noun is
closely related to zdrah. Used in relation to the
sun rising, it refers specifically to the place or
area of sunrise. It is often translated ‘‘east.’’ It is
used in a strictly locative sense (Isa 41:2; Josh
11:8) but also figuratively in prophecies of woe
(Amos 8:12) and of blessedness (Zech 14:4).
G.V.G.

581 ast (zdram) pour forth in floods, flood away
(Ps 90:5, Qal; Ps 77:18, Poel).

Derivatives

S8la Barr (zerem) flood of rain, down-
pour (e.g. Isa 4:6; Hab 3:10).

5S81b Mast) «(zirmad) issue (i.e. semen,
Ezk 23:20).

582. yar (zara‘) I, scatter seed, sow.

Derivatives

582a tyst (zera‘) sowing, seed, offspring.
582b soya «(zériia‘) sowing, thing sown.
S82c yr (zéroa‘) vegetable.

582d wy (zér'dn) vegetable.

582e tomy (yizr’'e'l) Jezreel.

582f yas (mizra') place of sowing.

This verb appears fifty-six times: forty-six
times in the Qal, once in the Pual, six times in the
Niphal, and three times in the Hiphil. The
etymology of zr‘ is most puzzling, for while it
appears in Arabic, Syriac, and Ugaritic, pointing
to a Protosemitic zr‘ and seems to be a conflation
of the two roots of zr‘ ‘‘to sow’’ and drw “to
scatter,’’ this does not agree with the fact that the
d of dr‘ does not remain in Ugaritic, but appears
as dry. (Cf. UT, 5: nos 3-4; 19: nos. 702, 705; but
notice 19:733 dr‘ ‘‘arm.’’)

Literally, zdra’ refers to the action of sowing
seed in the fields (Gen 26:12; Isa 37:30). It is used
with the accusative of the type of seed sown, e.g.
sowing wheat (Jer 12:13), or with the accusative
of the field sown (Ex 23:10; Lev 25:3). Occasion-
ally, it is also followed by the double accusative

252

of both seed and field (e.g. Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9,
‘*You shall not sow your field with two kinds of
seed’’). In this prohibition, a reference is made,
no doubt, to the Canaanite ritual inducing
fertility. Finally, this verb is also used of sowing
salt in a captured city (Jud 9:45).

Metaphonically, the action denotes the Lord's
sowing (planting or establishing) Israel in the land
of Palestine in a future day (Hos 2:25) or of his
confession that though he has scattered (i.e.
sown) Israel among the countnes of the earth, he
will also gather them one day in the future (Zech
10:9). zara‘ is also used figuratively in connec-
tion with moral actions: to sow justice (Prov
11:18), righteousness (Hos 10:12), light, i.e. hap-
piness (Ps 97:11), wickedness (Prov 22:8), trouble
(Job 4:8), and wind (Hos 8:7). In Isa 17:10 the
verb depicts Israel as practicing idolatry by sow-
ing plants or slips to an alien god, while in Ps
126:5 it is a figure of the grief of hard work fol-
lowed by joyous results. It can also refer to reigns
of kings and princes under the figure of trees (Isa
40:24). Finally, in the Niphal it refers to a woman
being made pregnant (Num 5:28) or bearing a
child (Hiphil Lev 12:2).

zera‘. Sowing, seed, offspring. This noun is
used 224 times. Its usages fall into four basic
semantic categories: 1. The time of sowing,
seedtime; 2. the seed as that which is scattered or
as the product of what is sown; 3. the seed as
semen and 4. the Seed as the offspring in the
promised line of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob or in
other groups separate from this people of prom-
ise.

The primary meaning comes from the realm of
agriculture. Seedtime or sowing, as over against
the time of harvest, will recur according to a
promised pattern which God guaranteed to Noah
after the flood (Gen 8:22; cf. Lev 26:5). This sow-
ing or planting takes place in the fields (Ezk 17:5)
and thereby accords well with the Akkadian zéru
‘cultivated land.*’ The seed itself which is
planted in these fields has the same name (Gen
47:19, 23; Lev 11:37-38; Num 24:7; Deut 28:38;
Isa 55:10; Amos 9:13). The product produced has
the same designation (e.g. the seed of the herbs
and trees in Gen 1:11-12, 29 or the seed that ts
gathered into the barn in Job 39:12; cf. Deut
14:22; Isa 23:3). Thus, the whole agricultural
cycle is practically summed up in the word zera‘;
from the act of sowing to the seed planted, to the
harvest taken. zera‘ is used figuratively in refer-
ring to Judah's idolatry (Isa 17:11). They are
planting ‘‘pleasant plants’’ along with ‘‘strange
slips.’ This refers either to the Ugaritic n'mn of
the Tammuz-Adonis cult or to the folly of plant-
ing thorns and thistles and expecting a crop of
flowers or vegetables.

zera’ refers to semen in Num 5:28, ‘she shall

be made pregnant with seed.’ Frequently it oc-
curs in the expression ‘‘flow of semen’’ (Lev
15:16, 32; 22:4). It is also used as the accusative
of mode and translated euphemistically as *‘lying
carnally with a woman’”’ (Lev 15:18; 18:20; Num
5:13). Note the same use in the promise of Jer
31:27. The Lord will sow the houses of Israel and
Judah with the seed of man and the seed of beast
in the latter days.

The most important theological usage is found
in the fourth category. Commencing with Gen
3:15, the word *‘seed”’ is regularly used as a col-
lective noun in the singular (never plural). This
technical term is an important aspect of the prom-
ise doctrine, for Hebrew never uses the plural of
this root to refer to ‘‘posterity’’ or ‘‘offspring.”’
The Aramaic targums pluralize the term occa-
sionally, e.g. the Targum of Gen 4:10, but the
Aramaic also limits itself to the singular in the
passages dealing with the promised line. Thus the
word designates the whole line of descendants as
aunit, yet it is deliberately flexible enough to
denote either one person who epitomizes the
whole group (i.e. the man of promise and ulti-
mately Christ), or the many persons in that whole
line of natural and/or spiritual descendants.

Precisely so in Gen 3:15. One such seed is the
line of the woman as contrasted with the oppos-
ing seed which is the line of Satan’s followers.
And then surprisingly the text announces a male
descendant who will ultimately win a crushing
victory over Satan himself.

This promise to Eve was enlarged and made
more specific in the Abrahamic Covenant. God
would grant a land and a numerous offspring
through Abraham's son Isaac and his offspring:
Gen 12:7; 13:15-16; 15:13,18; 16:10; 17:7-
10,12,19; 22:17-18; 24:7; 26:3-4 24: 28:4,13-14:
32:13; 35:12; 48:4. This whole line builds and the
promise continues in Ex 32:13; 33:1; Deut 1:8;
11:9; 34:4; Josh 24:3.

The same can be said for David and his off-
spring. The promise is continued in II Sam 7:12;
made parallel to the term ‘‘Messiah’’ in Ps 18:50
[H 5] (see If Sam 22:51); and repeated in Ethan’s
commentary on the Davidic covenant of I] Sam 7
in Ps 89:4 29,36 (H 5,30,37].

This corporate solidarity found in the seed of
Eve, Abraham, and David receives theological
comment in Isa 41:8; 43:5; 44:3; 45:19,25; 48:19:
53:10; 54:3; 59:21; 61:9; 65:9; 66:22; Jer 31:36—37;
33:26; I] Chr 20:7.

yizr“e’l. Proper name meaning God sows or God
will sow; Jezreel. There are five different usages
of this name. Three are geographical locations: 1.
a town in Issachar at the foot of Mount Gilboa
(Josh 19:18; I Kgs 21:1ff.); 2. a town in Judah
from which one of David’s wives came (I Sam
25:43); and 3. the valley of Jezreel which con-

253

583 Yt (zr‘)

nected the Esdraelon valley on its west side and
the Jordan River valley on its east side.

Jezreel is also the name of one of Judah’s de-
scendants (I Chr 4:3).

The most important theological usage is the
name given to the first child born to the prophet
Hosea and Gomer (Hos 1:4-5). The prophet
names his son ‘‘Jezreel,’’ which in Hos 2:23
[H 25] involves a play on the meaning of the verb
zara’ *‘to sow’’ and “to scatter.’’ However, in
1:4 the reference is to the historical incident of
Jehu’s bloody path to the throne (II Kgs 9:30-
10:11). According to Hos 1:3, Gomer bore this
son to Hosea; therefore he was not conceived in
harlotry. We must reject the view that God told
the prophet to take a woman who was a harlot
with children already born out of wedlock.
Rather, the command in Hos 1:2 involves the fig-
ure of speech known as zeugma, in which the
main verb(s) (‘‘go, marry’’) control two objects
grammatically, but only one logically. The ex-
pression is elliptical, for one must supply the verb
‘‘and beget children.’” The stigma of the mother’s
later action is passed on to the children so that
they too are called the children of harlotry, but
they are not such literally. Finally, what may be
considered a statement of purpose, Hos 1:2, is
more probably a construction signifying result
and therefore is in this regard like Isa 6:9-12.

In spite of Israel’s apostasy and spintual har-
lotry, matched by the later physical harlotry of
Gomer, God will sow Israel again one day in her
land in the latter days (Hos 1:11 (H 2:2)).

Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 538-44.

W.C.K.

583 pst (zr‘) II. Assumed root of the following.

583a tyint (z°rda), YU (z°rda‘) arm,
shoulder, strength.
583b oyiIS «=(ezréa‘) arm.

The etymology of this root is not entirely clear,
but it appears in Akkadian, Ugaritic, Arabic,
Aramaic, and Ethiopic.

The literal meaning of *‘arm’’ is the rare usage
for this word, occurring in just over a dozen of
some ninety references, e.g. Jud 15:14; 16:12; II
Sam 1:10. Twice it refers to the shoulder of a
sacrificed animal (Num 6:19; Deut 18:3).

Most frequently, z°réa‘ is used metaphori-
cally. The ‘‘arm of flesh,’’ symbolizing man’s
strength, is impotent compared to God’s power
(II Chr 32:8). In the plural, ‘‘arms’’ is equivalent
to military or political forces or armies (Dan
11:15, 22, 31). Thus to ‘‘break the arms’’ of an
enemy is a figurative expression (I Sam 2:31; Job
22:9; 38:15; Ps 10:15; 37:17; Jer 48:25; Ezk
30:21-22, 24-25) for destroying the enemies’
strength, power, or violence, and therefore their
capacity to make war.

584 * 433 (zarap)

More frequently still the arm is used as an
anthropomorphic figure of God's power. The
most vivid of these instances occurs in Isa 30:30
in which the lightning stroke is pictured as the
‘‘descending blow of his arm." God reveals the
power of his ‘‘outstretched arm" in creation (Jer
32:17) and in his deliverance of Israel from Egypt
(Ex 6:6; 15:16; Deut 4:34; Ps 77:15 [H 16]; Isa
63:12). In a similar way, that arm or power of the
Lord will bring another deliverance in the last
day (Ps 98:1; Isa 40:10; 51:9ff.; 52:10; 63:5; Ezk
20:33f.). In the meantime, underneath Israel are
the Lord’s everlasting arms for the protection
and preservation of his people (Deut 33:27; Ps
89:13 fH 14]; Isa 33:2). These same arms were
used on behalf of individuals on two occasions (II
Chr 6:32; Isa 40:11). In Isa 53:1 the ‘‘arm of the
Lord’’ is used as a metonymy for the redemptive
word which the Lord achieved through his ser-
vant.

Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., ‘‘The Arm of
YHWH in Isaiah 51-63 and the text of Isa 53:
10-11, JBL 77: 152-56. THAT, I, pp. 522-23.

W.C.K.

584. *M5t (zdrap) drip. This verb occurs only
once, in the Hiphil (Ps 72:6).

Derivative
5S84a AN (zarzip) drop, dripping (Ps
72:6, only).

585 3! (zaraq) scatter, sprinkle, strew. (AsV
similar, Rsv ‘‘throw upon.’’)
Derivative
S85a tpsve (mizraq) bowl, basin.

The verb zadraq, meaning ‘‘to toss, throw, scat-
ter in abundance’’ (cf. BDB) appears thirty-five
times; its synonym ndzd@ appears twenty-four

254

times. Both are translated **sprinkle’’ with but
few exceptions; e.g. ‘“‘scatter’’ seed (Isa 28:25);
‘*strew’’ idol-dust on graves (II Chr 34:4); streaks
of gray in a man’s hair (Hos 7:9). The Lxx trans-
lates zdrag as ‘‘pour,’’ when it refers to the blood
of the sacrifices upon the altar.

zdrag is used in religious ceremonies for two
specific purposes. 1) By sprinkling blood at the
solemnizing of an inviolable bond between God
and man (T. Lewis, in ISBE, 2487). The sprin-
kling of the blood on the people and the altar (Ex
24:6-8) confirmed the altar as the open way for
the sprinkled, i.e. confirmed covenant people, to
a holy, righteous yet loving God (cf. also II Kgs
16:15). 2) Sprinkling was an integral aspect of the
purification rite. Blood was sprinkled to indicate
or confirm sanctification (Ex 29:20; Lev 1:5), as
well as for hygienic purposes which had a definite
religious meaning (Lev 17:6).

Finally, z@rag is used in other deeply religious
ways. It speaks of judgment: Moses threw dust in
the air to bring the plague of boils upon Egypt (Ex
9:8). Ezekiel uses zdrag, of sprinkling clean
water (36:25) in connection with the Lord’s re-
generating work in the hearts of his exiled coven-
ant people.

mizrag. Basin, bowl. Twice this noun is used
to refer to drinking-bowls (Amos 6:6; Zech 9:15)
and thirty times to basins used in various reli-
gious settings and ceremonial rituals. They were
considered of great significance because sacrifi-
cial blood was sprinkled, spattered, or splashed

from them.
G.V.G.

586 *"53 (zdrar) sneeze. This verb occurs

only in the Poel (Job 41:10; II Kgs 4:35).

587 mat (zeret) span (e.g. Isa40:2; Ex 25:10).

3m (hdb). See no. 589a.

588 89M (haba’) hide. {asv and rsv similar.)
Derivatives

588a Sama (mahdbé’) hiding place, only
in Isa 32:2, mahdabé’ riiah (con-
struct state).

588b 3M (mahdbd’)
in I Sam 23:23.

haba’, in twenty-five of its thirty occurrences,
refers to people hiding in fear of death. Thus the
five kings of the southern confederacy hid them-
selves ina cave out of fear of Joshua (Josh 19:27),
and Adam and Eve hid themselves out of con-
sciousness of their alienation from the Lord God
(Gen 3:8). Other occasions include Saul hiding
from the public (in modesty?) when he was made
king (I Sam 10:22). Young men “‘hid themselves”’
in respect or awe from Job (Job 29:8, rsv ‘‘with-
drew’'). Jacob fled ‘‘secretly’’ from Laban (‘‘hid
himself to flee,’ Gen 31:27). The most notable
use is in Gen 3:8,10 where Adam and Eve hid
themselves from the Lord after their sin. The
context says that they hid in fear, possibly re-
membering the threat of certain death for their
transgression and sensing their guilt in the pres-
ence of the righteous God.

Twice the thing hid is not a person. In Job
29:10 the nobles ‘‘hid’’ their voices (asv, RSV
“voice... was hushed,” kv “held _ their
peace’). In Job 38:30 the waters ‘‘hide them-
selves ’ aS a stone, that is, water as such disap-
pears as it becomes ice (rSv ‘“*become hard’’).

In the Hiphil the use of this verb is transitive as
Rahab ‘‘hid’’ the spies (Josh 6:17, 25, et al.). The
single occurrence of the Hophal is passive of this
use, aS people are hidden in prisons (Isa 42:22).
The use in the Niphal, the Hithpael, and the
single occurrence of the Pual (Job 24:4) is gener-
ally intransitive with a few instances of passive
use such as Joash ‘“‘hidden’’ from Athaliah
(II Kgs 11:3 and II Chr 22:12).

haba (q.v.) is probably a variant spelling of
haba’ and the two should be considered together.

C.P.W.

hiding place, only

589 33m (habab) love (Deut 33:3).
Derivative
589a 3m (hdb) bosom (Job 31:33).

59) mgm (haba) hide. (asv the same, Rsv also

‘‘conceal.’’)

257

Derivative

59a 93M (hebyén) hiding, hiding place,
only in Hab 3:4.

This word means ‘‘hide,’’ used intransitively
for people hiding, usually in fear for their lives.
The exception is II Kgs 7:12 where an army is
presumed to be hiding in ambush. The use is
Niphal except in Isa 26:20, which uses the Qal. It
is probably a variant spelling of haba’ and should
be considered with it.

C.P.W.

maize (habburd). See no. 598g.

591 wan (habat) beat (off, out), thresh. (asv,

RSV Similar.)

The word is used regarding the harvesting or
preparation of certain crops: olive trees beaten
(Deut 24:20), wheat threshed (Jud 6:11), barley
(Ruth 2:17). Certain spices are ‘‘beaten out’’ with
a stick (Isa 28:27). The only other usage is figura-
tive, referring to God’s action in regathering Is-
rael to her homeland (Isa 27:12).

C.P.W.

W730 (hebyén). See no. 590d.

592 %9n (habal). The words ‘‘bind,”’ ‘‘pledge,”’

and ‘‘travail’’ are united in BDB under one
root.

It appears that there are several words, one
originally beginning with A meaning ‘‘bind”’ (root
I in KB) which has an Arabic and Uganttic cog-
nate; a second beginning originally with h mean-
ing ‘‘pledge’’ (root II in KB) which has a cognate
in Arabic in the Ishtafel stem; a third beginning
originally with h meaning ‘‘destroy’’ (root IIT in
KB) which has a cognate in Arabic; and a fourth
beginning originally with h meaning ‘‘travail”’
(root IV in KB). The fifth, ‘‘advise,”’ has no
Arabic equivalent. The analysis of KB, similar to
GB, will be followed.

592a than (habal) I, bind (verbal form

not used in the or).

Derivatives

592b t¥3n (hebel) I, cord, rope, band,
company (aSV and Rsv similar).

592c Yam (hdbél) sailor, used of the Ty-
rian masters of the sea in Ezk 27:8,
27-29 and of Jonah’s shipmaster
(Jon 1:6).

593 93m (habal)

592d Sam (hibbél) mast, used only in
Prov 23:35. Exact meaning uncer-
tain.

hebel I. Cord, rope, snare, tackling, line, lot, por-
tion, region, country, coast, band, company.

The basic use of the noun /ebel is as ‘‘cord”’ or
‘‘rope.”’ It may be a strong, utilitarian kind of
rope for letting spies out of a window (Josh 2:15),
for letting Jeremiah in and out of the cistern (Jer
38:6), for laying waste a city (II Sam 17:13), or for
bracing a ship's mast and securing the sail (hence
“*tackling’’ Isa 33:23). It may be decorative, of
fine linen (Est 1:6), or used on the head for
mourning (I Kgs 20:31). Itamay be used as a snare
or trap (Job 18:10). The figurative use in connec-
tion with death (Ps 116:3) or Sheol (II Sam 22:6)
may represent death as a snare, or binding. Al-
ternatively these forms may be considered to be
from hébel, ‘‘pain’’ (as of childbirth see below).
In most occurrences these two nouns are indis-
tinguishable by form. The kJv translates these
and other passages ‘‘sorrows.’’ Other figurative
uses include: the ‘‘silver cord,’’ speaking of life
(Eccl 12:6), “with cords of a man,” that is,
‘*compassionately’’ (Hos 11:4), the ‘‘cords’’ or
‘snares’ of sin (Prov 5:22, rsv ‘“‘toils’’), et al.

The cord may be used to measure, as David
measured two lines of Moabites for death and one
to be spared (II Sam 8:2). Specifically, a measur-
ing line is hebel middd (Zech 2:1). Land is mea-
sured, or divided by line (Amos 7:17; Ps 78:55).
From this, Hebel comes to mean the area mea-
sured, a portion or lot (lot meaning *‘obtained by
chance’’), especially the inheritance of a tribe
(Josh 17:5f), or of an individual (Ps 105:11). It
also denotes a ‘‘country’’ or ‘“‘region’’ (Deut
3:4f.). If the region is near the sea it 1s translated
‘*coast’’ (Zeph 2:5, 6,7). The kJv translates hebel
as coast also in Josh 19:29, but the AsSv margin
and the rsv take the word in this context to be a
proper name.

hebel is to be translated ‘*‘band’’ or *‘com-
pany’' in I Sam 10:5, 10. Possibly this is true of Ps
119:61, ‘‘bands of wicked men,’’ but ‘‘snares’’
also fits the context. The use of hebel meaning
‘‘band’* or ‘“‘company’’ is attested in Ugaritic
where it is used for a flock of birds as well as a
company of people. Its use as ‘‘rope’’ is also at-
tested. (See Cyrus H. Gordon, UT, 19: no. 832.)

hebel is a symbol of captivity or subjection
(I Kgs 20:31f.) and is used figuratively of the
snares for the wicked (Job 18:10; Prov 5:22, the
enslavement of sin) or set by the wicked (Ps 140:5
[H 6]; 119:61). The Psalmist describes his situa-
tion before the Lord’s deliverance as one in
which he was bound by the cords of death (Ps
18:5 [H 6]; 116:3).

C.P.W.

258

593 95m (habal) HI, lay to pledge, take a pledge

of, withhold. (asv and rsv similar but do
not use ‘‘withhold’’). The verb, as used in
the oT, means ‘‘to hold as pledge or secu-
rity.’ It is used only in the Qal (eight times)
and possibly in the Niphal (Prov 13:13).

Derivative
593a to 3m (hdbol) pledge.

Used three times in Ezk, it refers to a pledge
taken (or registered) to guarantee a loan. Another
word used for pledge is ‘érdbén (q.v.) which has
come over into Greek and appears in the Gr. NT
as arrabon ‘‘earnest’’ (Eph 1:14).

The details of taking a pledge are not entirely
clear. E. A. Speiser in a very helpful article
draws a close parallel between the law in Lev
25:35-54 (‘Leviticus and the Cntics,’’ in Orien-
tal and Biblical Studies, University of Pennsyl-
vania, 1967, pp. 123-42). He remarks that ‘in
Mesopotamia, interest was normally discounted
in advance. The technical term for such advance
deduction was habulldi (not loan without inter-
est as the term is sometimes erronneously ren-
dered, but loan with interest already deducted)."’
Speiser holds that the Lev passage (which calls
the loan neshek, q.v.) shows that the Israelites
gave discounted loans, then, if the creditor could
not pay, he was seized to work off the loan.
However, at this point no more interest would be
charged—that second interest would be neshek
‘usury.’ Speiser, following Koschaker, also
suggests that the cloak taken in pledge (Ex 22:26
[H 25]}—or the shoes that confirm a contract
(Ruth 4:7; Amos 2:6)—is not a security for a loan,
but a token exchange validating the transaction.
Apparently it was taken in evidence and then was
to be returned promptly (‘Of Shoes and
Shekels,’ idem, pp. 154-55).

C.P.W.

594 %3m (habal) HI, destroy, spoil; deal cor-

ruptly, be corrupt, offend. (asv also be con-
sumed; rsv also be broken ruined.)

Derivative
594a 93m (hebel) destruction.

The main use of this verb is in the Piel, mean-
ing to ‘‘ruin,’’ ‘‘destroy.”’ In the Qal the meaning
is “‘act corruptly.”

The use of this verb in the Qal, ‘‘be very bad,”’
is limited to Job 34:31, ‘‘offend,’’ and Neh 1:7,
‘‘act corruptly,’ against God in both instances.
hdbal may occur in the Niphal stem in Prov
13:13, “‘be destroyed”’ or ‘‘bring destruction on
oneself.’’ Some, however, take this form to be
from habal I, ‘‘to take a pledge.”

The Piel use, ‘‘destroy’’ or ‘“‘ruin,’’ may be in-
tensive of the Qal, ‘‘act corruptly.”’ The destruc-

tion may be carried out by God (Eccl 5:5), a na-
tion (Isa 13:5), a knave or villain (Isa 32:7), or
‘the little foxes that spoil the vines’’ (Song 2:15).
The verb is used with the cognate hebel, destruc-
tion, in Mic 2:10.

The Pual, ‘‘be destroyed,’’ is used just twice:
in reference to the oppressive yoke of the Assy-
rians (Isa 10:27), and in Job’s complaint that his
spirit ‘‘is broken’’ (rSv; ASV “‘consumed”’; KJV,
‘breath is corrupt’’).

hebel II ‘‘destruction’’ (Mic 2:10 and possibly
Job 21:17), is related to habal Ill.

In most forms hébel (see below) is not distin-
guishable from hebel except by context. For this
reason there is some disagreement as to which
word is involved in many of the contexts, and
some of the analysis is arbitrary. It seems best to
classify under hébel only those contexts which
refer to the pains of childbirth, whether literal
(Isa 26:17) or figurative (Jer 13:21). Other uses
(including Job 21:17 “‘snares’’) should be consid-
ered as from hebel I or II. The singular of this
word is used only in Isa 66:7. The ksv translates
hébel most often as ‘‘sorrows’’ and includes a
number of instances which may be just as easily
classified with hebel (Ps 18:4—5 et al [H S-6}).

C.P.W.

595 *93m (habal) IV, bring forth, travail. Used
only in the Piel. The initial consonant, as
shown by the Arabic cognate, was origi-
nally h. It is used only in Ps 7:15 and Song
8:5.

Derivative

59a t93m (hébel) pain, pang, sor-
row. (ASV and Rsv similar.) This
noun means “‘pain,’’ specifically
that of childbirth. In most forms
hébel is indistinguishable from hebel
(above). The word occurs with this
definition only eight times.

59% “am (hdbal) V. This verb is represented
in the ot only in its derivative.

Derivative

59a tmoamn (tahbula) good advice, (wise)
counsel. (RSv (wise) guidance, skill,
counsel; ASsv similar.)

The noun is used six times, always in the
plural. BDB and many commentators, however,
relate this word to hb/ I as a nautical term, rope-
pulling and hence steering (a ship), used figura-
tively of wise counsel (Prov 1:5, 11:14; 20:18;
24:6).

tahbuld is *‘direction’’ or ‘‘guidance’’ (perhaps
from the pulling of a rope to guide or direct). It is
used for God’s giving “‘direction’’ to the clouds

259

596.1 moxsn (hdbasselet)

597 33m (habaq) embrace,

598 sam (habar)

(Job 37:12), or the ‘‘guidance’’ or ‘‘counsel”’ of
the wicked (Prov 12:5). In general the word
means ‘‘wise guidance’ or ‘‘good counsel”’ (al-
though the rsv translates ‘‘skill’’ in Prov 1:5). It is
used only in Prov except for the reference in Job
(above).

meadow saffron or
crocus (Song 2:1; Isa 35:1).

fold (ASV, — RSV
similar).

Derivative
597a pam (hibbiq) fold (hands).

hadbagq basically designates an expression of
love by the position or action of one’s hands or
arms. Three specific aspects of love are referred
to.

The first use of the term expresses the idea of
embracing someone else to show fondness or af-
fection. Thus, Laban embraced his nephew Jacob
(Gen 29:13) and Joseph his brothers in Egypt after
revealing his identity (Gen 48:10). The “'great
woman’’ (or prophetess) of Shunem was prom-
ised a newborn son whom she could lovingly hold
in her arms (II Kgs 4:16). Job uses the term of one
who seeks a rock of safety to find comfort and
security (24:8).

The second use of habag describes the em-
brace of lovers. This embrace can designate
Virtuous love (Song 2:6) or the adulterous em-
bracing of a stranger's bosom.

Finally, the idea of folding of hands is an im-
plicit designation of self-love. This folding of the
hands (the noun hibbig is used twice, Prov 6:10;
24:33) is an evidence of sloth and lack of concern.
However, the Preacher says the fool folds his
hands and eats meat, while the worrying, striving
man sees only wind (Eccl! 4:5). The point is that
neither the sloth nor striving of the self-loving
one are conducive to a lasting peace.

G.V.G.

598 "3m (hdbar) be joined, coupled, league,

heap up, have fellowship with, be compact; be
acharmer. BDB adds ‘to unite, tie a magic
knot,’ (RSv has ‘‘joined forces,’’ asv ‘‘joined
together’ and other such variations).

Derivatives

59a 93m (heber) company,
spell.

598b msm (hebrad) association, company.

598c ts3m (habér) united, associate, com-
panion.

598d trasn (hdberet)
only in Mal 2:14.

association,

consort, i.e. wife,

598 33h (habar)

598e tmasm (hdberet) a thing that joins or
is joined, only of the curtain pieces of
the tabernacle, as joined together
(Ex 26:10; 36:17).

598f "3m (habbdr) associate, partner in a
trade or calling, only in Job 40:30.

598g mIBm (habbara), man (habbiara),
m3" (habra) stripe, blow.

598h om9393m (hdbarburd) stripe, mark,
only in Jer 13:23.

598i f53n (hebrén) Hebron.

598) tmasm> (mahberet) thing joined,

place of joining.
598k mam (m*habb’rad) binder, clamp,
Joint.

In Ugaritic the term appears as a name for a
town, meaning ““community,’’ and it is thought to
be related to the common Semitic root meaning
‘*to be joined’* (UT 19: no. 924) and translated as
**bind’* in Assyrian.

The main idea of habar in the oT is *‘to join or
unite’’ two or more things. However, the root
idea of the term ‘‘to bind’’ also appears, espe-
cially in the concept ‘‘charm.’’ Only in Deut
18:11 does this term appear in a verbal form to
express the idea of charming, i.e. casting a spell
or tying up a person by magic. The act of charm-
ing is set forth as an idolatrous act and diametri-
cally opposed to receiving revelation from God
through his appointed prophets (Deut 18:15).

The verb habar in the sense of ‘‘join’’ is used
with four specific references. 1) Objects were
joined together, e.g. curtains in tabernacle con-
struction to make one complete side (Ex 26:3),
shoulder pieces in coupling together the parts of
the priests’ holy garments (Ex 28:7), wings of the
living creatures touching one another (Ezk 1:9).
2) Men were joined together in political and mili-
tary activities. Five nations of the Sodom-
Gomorrah confederacy united for military pur-
poses against invaders from the east (Gen 14:3)
but their union led to a common defeat.
Jehoshaphat made a political union with wicked
Ahaziah of Israel for commercial purposes but it
was denounced by God’s prophet (II Chr 20:35-
37). Daniel saw kings joining themselves together
in a league (Hithpael) (rsv ‘‘make alliance’’)
which was doomed to failure (Dan 11:6, 28).
3) Men are joined in a general manner as belong-
ing to the race of the living (Eccl 9:4) and in a
specific way as a group of people who are formed
into a strong unified city (Ps 122:3). 4) Men of
Judah wrongly joining with faithless Israel in mili-
tary and political ventures (JI Chr 20:35) dis-
pleased God; men joining themselves to idols and
idol worshipers did so much more (Ps 94:20).
God’s heartrending complaint against Ephraim is
that he is joined to idols (Hos 4:17). To be joined
to idols means to have forsaken God.

260

heber. Company, association, spell, enchantment,
companion; grandson. a variant of habér, heber
reflects the sense of ‘bind, cast a spell,’’ except
in a few places (Prov 21:9). The usual translation
is ‘‘enchantments’’ referring to the means the
charmers employed to influence people or the
result of their charming efforts (Deut 18:11). All
aspects were divinely forbidden to covenant
people.

The meaning ‘“‘companion’’ is found three
times in Jud 4. The meaning “grandson”
(perhaps from the close connection between son
and grandson genetically) occurs in Gen 46:17;
Num 26:4; I Chr 4:18; 7:31; 8:17.

habér. Companion, associate, knit together (Rsv
‘‘associated with’ him; asv ‘‘companion’’ for fel-
lows).

This word is used as an adjective and noun to
refer to the very close bond that can exist be-
tween persons (cf. UT 19: no. 834). In Aramaic
the term indicates the close relationship between
Daniel and his three friends because of their
common faith and loyalty to God (Dan 2:13-18).
The Psalmist expressly states that the fear of God
is the common bond between *‘companions’”’ (Ps
119:63).

The term habér ts also used to express the very
close relationship that exists between people in
various walks of life. Israelites were ‘‘united as
one man”’ (rSv) in their war against the Benja-
mites because of their outrageous crime (Jud
20:11). Men can be very closely joined together
as thieves (Isa 1:23), as destroyers (Prov 28:24),
and as corrupt priests likened to ambushing rob-
bers (Hos 6:9).

haberet. Consort, wife, companion. This
feminine noun, synonym of wife (Mal 2:14), indi-
cates the type of a close relationship which the
root hdbar expresses.

hoberet. Coupling. A feminine noun, it refers
to the actual joint of, or joining piece between,
two parts of the tabernacle (Ex 26:10) and temple
(II Chr 34:11).

hebrén. Hebron. This proper name is said to
be related to the verb Adbar and thus its meaning
could be considered as ‘‘confederacy, associa-
tion, league’’ or possibly as ‘‘charmer’”’ or ‘‘en-
chanting.’’ Certain scholars have endeavored to
link the name Hebron to certain organized or
united military activities. But even though it ts
true that Abraham, the father of the Israelites,
lived in its area (Gen 23), and that David lived
there, united the people of Israel, and reigned
there for seven and a half years (II Sam 5), and
also that Absalom tried to unite the people in a
revolt there against David, these episodes do not
indicate necessarily that the place was named
Hebron because of these various activities.

Hebron was perhaps the highest town in Pales-
tine (elevation 3,040 feet). Abraham built his
third altar in its vicinity (Gen 13:18), lived and
buried his dear one there (Gen 23). It was given to
Caleb as part of his inheritance (Josh 14:13-14). It
continued to have religious significance in Israel
because it became a city of refuge (Josh 1:13),
and it was the scene of the establishment of the
Davidic theocratic monarchy (II Sam 2:4; 5:3). It
remained a worship center (II Sam 15:7, 8) even
after David transferred his capital to Jerusalem.
It may be noted that in those years the tabernacle
at Shiloh was destroyed and the temple of Sol-
omon not yet built. There were then different ac-
knowledged places of God-honoring worship of
which Hebron was one, Gibeon another and
there were others.

mahberet. This feminine noun is not translated
by one specific word. It refers to the things
joined, e.g. curtain pieces of the tabernacle (Ex
26:4-5) or the shoulder pieces of the priestly gar-
ment (Ex 39:20). It also refers to the actual place
where the joining of two or more pieces took
place.

G.V.G.

mass3n (hdbarbard). See no. 598h.

masm (hebrén). See no. 598i.
nasn (hdberet). See no. 598d.
nasm (hdberet). See no. 598e.

599 wan (hdbash) bind, saddle, bandage, govern.

Used in the Qal, Piel, and Pual stems. Cognate
with Ugaritic hbsh (UT 19: no. 835); Akkadian
abashu; Arabic habasa ‘‘to confine, to restrict.”
It occurs thirty-three times.

habash means ‘‘to bind on”’ one’s headgear in
Ex 29:9; Lev 8:13; Ezk 24:17. Jonah speaks of the
seaweeds which were ‘‘bound”’ around his head
(Jon 2:5 {H 6]).

It is used frequently of *‘saddling’’ an ass: Gen
22:3; Num 22:21; If Sam 17:23; I Kgs 13:13, etc.

In Ezk 27:24 a passive participle is used for a
decoration of “*twisted’’ cordwork.

hdbash is often used of ‘‘binding’’ on a ban-
dage, and thus of medicating and healing the
wounded.

In Job 34:17 hdbash has the sense of ‘‘rule’’ or
“govern.”

In Job 40:13 hadbash is taken in the sense of the
Arabic habasa **to imprison’ by the NaB. The
NEB aptly translates **shroud them in an unknown
grave.

Many scholars (Dhorme, Dahood, Pope, Row-
ley) and some translations (JB, NAB, NIV) interpret
hibbésh in Job 28:11 as representing hippés
‘searches,’ instead of kiv ‘‘bindeth’’ or NEB
‘‘dams up,”’ on the basis of the Vulgate, Aquila,

261

600 msm (hb).

601 33m (heb).

602 33n (hagag)

and Ugaritic evidence. Instead of damming the
floods, the miner would be represented as search-
ing out the sources of the rivers.

E.Y.

Assumed root of the following.
600a aman (hdbittim) flat cakes or bread
wafers (I Chr 9:31, only).
600b msm (mahdbat) flat plate, pan, or
griddle (e.g. Lev 2:5; 6:14; Ezk

4:3).

pemsm (habittim). See no. 600a.
an (hag). See no. 602a.
Nan (hdgda’). See no. 602b.

Assumed root of the following.
60la 33m (hadgdb) grasshopper or locust.

The word may be derived from a root which in
Arabic means ‘to cover”’ or ‘‘to conceal,’ allud-
ing to the covering of the ground or the conceal-
ing of the sun by locust swarms. The term hgb
appears in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 836). In the Tal-
mud the word becomes the general term for lo-
cust.

The word appears five times. The kJv trans-
lates it four times as ‘‘grasshopper’’ and once as
“locust” in II Chr 7:13.

hadgdb occurs at Eccl 12:5 ina difficult passage
which describes the progressive senility of a man.
The neB has “‘the locust’s paunch is swollen,”
and the NAB “‘the locust grows sluggish,’” which
portrays the stiffness of the aged. On the basis of
Arabic cognates, some hold that the word here is
a term for the hip.

See also ‘arbeh.

E.Y.

602 33m (hdgag) celebrate, keep (hold) a (sol-

emn) feast (holy day). (ASV and RSV similar.)

Derivatives

602a tan (hag) feast.

602b SoM (haga’) reeling used only in
Isa 19:17. (Derivative from hdgag
unsure.)

The basic idea of this root is **keep a feast”’ or
‘*celebrate a holiday” but the word usually refers
to the three main pilgrimage-feasts of Israel. The
verb is used sixteen times while the derivative
hag (below) is used sixty-one times.

Most often the verb (sometimes with its cog-
nate accusative) is used specifically for the cele-
bration of one of the three main pilgrim-feasts
(Ex 23:14), the Passover together with the Feast
of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks or
Harvest of Firstfruits, and the Feast of Booths
(Tabernacles) or Feast of Ingathering.

The Passover, instituted at the Exodus (Ex 12),

602 33M (hagag)

commemorated God's sparing the Israelites when
the first-born of Egypt died. It was the fourteenth
day of the first month (Abib or Nisan, about
April). It was followed on the fifteenth day by the
Feast of Unleavened Bread which was held for a
week with a special feast on the final day (Ex
13:3~10; Lev 23:4-8; Deut 16:1-8). The two are
usually considered as one feast. By this feast Is-
rael not only expressed heartfelt joy for the
Lord's deliverance, but was reminded of its de-
votion to the Law (Ex 13:9).

The Feast of Weeks or Harvest of Firstfruits
later known as Pentecost because it was held fifty
days after the first day of Unleavened Bread (fif-
teenth day of Nisan), although properly fifty days
after the waving of the sheaf of the firstfruits
(which was done on a Sabbath, therefore Pente-
cost fell on Sunday) (Lev 23:9-21), done at the
beginning of the harvest (Deut 16:9-11). The
feast, then, commemorated the first fifty days of
harvest.

The Feast of Ingathering was held for a week
starting the fifteenth day of the seventh month
(Ethanim or Tishri, about October) to celebrate
the end of the harvest period (Ex 23:16). This was
in conjunction with the Feast of Booths (Taber-
nacles) or Succoth which commemorated the
time when the children of Israel lived in tents.
For a week all native Israelites were to live in
booths to remind them of a different era (Lev
23:33-43; Deut 16:13). The two feasts were con-
sidered one, and with the Day of Atonement and
New Year’s the seventh month was especially
feastive. Today it is called the time of the high
holy days.

The verb is used more generally in Ps 42:4
[H 5] and Nah 2:1, but the reference is probably
to one or all of the above feasts. It is also used by
Moses in his request to Pharoah that the children
of Israel might leave to hold a feast.

David found his enemies, the Amalekites,
‘‘spread abroad... eating and drinking and feast-
ing’ (I Sam 30:16), that is, they were acting as if
they were holding a feast. The asv and Rsv trans-
late *‘dancing.’’ More difficult to translate is Ps
107:27. The context pictures sailors on a storm-
tossed ship, staggering like drunken men. A
parallel to staggering in this context would hardly
be feasting, but the actions of one feasting or
dancing at a feast might be descriptive of the
sailors, hence the translation ‘‘reel (to and fro).”’

hag. (Solemn) feast, feast day. The noun
means “pilgrim feast’ or simply “‘holiday,’” i.e. a
day or season of religious joy. The Arabic cog-
nate, haggun, is used to refer to a pilgrimage to
Mecca.

The use of this noun is limited mainly to the
three pilgrim-feasts mentioned above. Four times
it is used for each of tte three in a single context

262

(Ex 23:15-16; 34:18-22; Deut 16:16: IF Chr 8:13).
Otherwise the noun applies most often (twenty
times) to the Feast of Booths (Ingathering), sec-
ondly (eleven times) to the Feast of Unleavened
Bread (or Passover) and once to the Feast of
Weeks (Deut 16:10).

hag is used for the feast instituted by Jero-
boam I to take the place of the Feast of Booths (1
Kgs |2:32-33). The term is used on two occasions
for specific feasts which are left unnamed (Jud
21:19; Ps 81:3 [H 4]). There are nine references to
feasts in general.

In Ex 23:18 the phrase ‘fat of my feast’’ is
parallel to “blood of my sacrifice.’” The term
feast is used of the sacrifice connected with the
feast, hence the kJv translation here is “‘sac-
rifice.”’ The ksv and asv translate hag as “‘sac-
rifice”’ also in Ps 118:27 on the basis that since it
is bound and the altar is mentioned, it must be an
animal. The rsv *‘festal procession’ assumes the
binding to be decorative and figurative. The term
is used by Moses to refer to the feast he re-
quested from Pharoah to be allowed to hold (Ex
10:9). It is also used for the feast held in honor of
Aaron's calf (Ex 32:5).

The term m6‘éd ‘‘appointed time,”’ is also
used for *‘feast,’” but is a broader term including
sabbaths, new moons, etc.

[Critical scholars debate the development of
these feasts. Eissfeldt puts it, **Thus, for exam-
ple, in J and in E (Ex. 34:18a, 22; 23:15a,a,16) the
connections of the three agricultural festivals
with nature is quite clear. These connections re-
main recognisable in D too (Deut. 16:3a, 9-11,
13-15), no matter whether the statements made
here are original or not and also in H (Lev. 23:9-
12, 15-21, 39-43)’ (Old Testament Introduction,
trans. P. R. Ackroyd, Harper, 1965, p. 207). The
matter is treated extensively from a_ similar
viewpoint by DeVaux (Al, pp. 484-501).

It is indeed true that these feasts have an ag-
ricultural aspect. This is emphasized, as Eissfeldt
says, in Ex, Lev, and Deut. De Vaux argues that a
feast like Passover was not agricultural, but be-
came attached to the agricultural feast of un-
leavened bread at a late date. All this is supposi-
tion. It is rather natural that the institution of the
Passover in Ex 12 does not emphasize the ag-
ricultural. The further provisions given in view of
entering the land do.

Apparently the Passover season with the sheaf
of firstfruits (Lev 23:10) signalized the beginning
of barley harvest. The feast of weeks in June
would be at the end of the wheat harvest. The
feast of booths or ingathering would celebrate the
grape harvest as well as olive, dates, and other
fruit. These feasts were pilgrimage festivals, i.e.
all males had to come to the sanctuary and bring
their contribution which were given in kind (Ex
23:15). R.L.H.]

Bibliography: Haran, Menahem, ~‘‘zebah
hayyamim,’’ VT 19: 11-22. Lewy, Hildegard and
Julius, ‘‘The Origin of the Week and the Oldest
West Asiatic Calendar,’ HUCA 17: 1-152.
Morgenstern, Julian, *“Supplementary Studies in
the Calendars of Ancient Israel,"° HUCA 10:
1-148. Richardson, TWB, pp. 211-13. Segal, J.
B., ‘‘The Hebrew Festivals and the Calendar,”
JSS 6: 74-94. Snaith, Norman H., **Time in the
Old Testament,” in Promise and Fulfillment, ed.
F. F. Bruce, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1963, pp.
175-86. Stewart, Roy A., “‘The Jewish Festi-
vals," EQ 43: 149-61.

C.P.W.

603 mam (hgh). Assumed root of the following.
603a oan (hdgawim) places of conceal-
ment, retreats (Song 2:14; Jer 49:16;

Ob 3).
sium (hdgdr). See no. 604a.
sim) (hagor). See no. 604b.

604 sam (hagar) gird.
Derivatives
604a tian (hdgor) girdle, belt.
6044b 23m «(hdgér) girded (Ezk
only).
604c ftanian (hdgorda) girdle, belt.
604d msams (mahdgoret) girding, sash

23:15,

hagar is cognate with Akkadian agaru ‘to sur-
round,’’ Ugaritic Aer “‘to gird’* (UT 19, no. 837),
and Arabic hagara ‘to restrain.’’ It appears in
the Bible forty-four times.

The verb is used of girding the girdle and other
garments in Ex 29:9, Lev 8:7, 13, etc. It is uséd of
girding about the loins the sackcloth, the garment
of coarse goats’ hair used in mourning or in peni-
tence: IY Sam 3:31; I Kgs 20:32; Isa 22:12, 32:11;
Lam 2:10.

hagar is often used of the girding on of a sword
as in | Sam 17:39; Ps 45:3 [H 4]. In I Sam 25:13
NEB and 5B translate ‘“‘buckle on’ the sword. In
Jud 18:11 the armed men are literally ‘*girded”
with weapons.

The proverbial statement in I Kgs 20:11. liter-
ally “let not him who is girding boast as he who ts
ungirding,"’ means, as the Targum indicates,
‘Let not him who is girding himself and going
down into the battle boast himself as the man
who has conquered and is coming up from it.”’
The NEB substitution, ‘The lame must not think
himself a match for the nimble,’* is hardly appro-
priate.

The custom of tucking up one’s long flowing
robes into the girdle before strenuous activity or
walking quickly has given us the expression ‘‘to

a9 99

gird up one’s loins”’.

263

605 19m (hadad)

An important use of the term appears in Ps
76:10 [H 11], where the kv reads: “Surely the
wrath of man shall praise thee: the remainder of
wrath shalt thou restrain (lit, gird).’’ This means
that God girds on himself as a garment the last
futile efforts of man’s wrath. This is the general
sense of the RV, RSV, NASB, and JB.

On the other hand, the NEB and the NaB repoint
‘adam “‘man” as ‘édém ‘*Edom™ and hémot
‘‘wrath(s)"’ as hdmat **Hamath,”’ a city in Syria,
and follow the Lxx's heortasei, which presup-
poses the verb hdgag **make festival’’ instead of
hagar. The naB reads: ‘*For the wrathful Edom
shall glonfy you and the survivors of Hamath
shall keep your festivals... The niv is: **Your
wrath against men brings you praise, and the sur-
vivors of your wrath are restrained.”*

The appearance of the verb yahg° ria in II Sam
22:46 seems to be a textual error for yahr°* gi
‘“‘they came out."’

hagora, hagér. Girdle, belt. The feminine form
hdgord is used five times and the masculine form
hdgor 1s used three times.

The hdgdord was mankind's first garment,
loincloths (KJv, RSV “‘aprons’’) hastily improvised
from fig leaves by Adam and Eve (Gen 3:7).

The hdgérd as worn by women was not an
undergarment, as the word ‘‘girdle’* connotes in
modern usage, but a valuable ornamented belt or
sash like the Japanese obi (Isa 3:24; Prov 31:24).

With men the hdgérd (hégér) was the ac-
coutrement on which the sword was hung (I Sam
18:4). The phrase designating young men fit for
military service is ‘all who were able to put on
the hdgoéra’’ (11 Kgs 3:21; KJv ‘‘armour,’’ NEB
‘‘arms’’). This military belt was highly prized as a
trophy of war (II Sam 18:11); Cyrus Gordon be-
lieves that this verse reflects a tradition of belt
wrestling.

For an illustration of belt wrestling see ANEP,
fig. 219. For synonyms see ‘abnét, 'ézor, hésheb,
mézah.

Bibliography: Gordon, Cyrus H., ~*‘Belt-
Wrestling in the Bible World,” The Hebrew
Union College Annual, 1950-51, pp. 131-36;
plates I-V. Honig, H. W., Die Bekleidung des
Hebréers, Zurich: Brunner, Bodmer, 1957, pp.
26-27, 76-77.

E.Y.

sm (had). See no. 60S5a.

605 "5m (hddad) besharp,keen (e.g. Hab 1:8;

Isa 44:12).

Derivatives

605a %™ (had) sharp (e.g. Ezk 5:1; Isa
49:2).

60Sb "mM (haddid) sharpened,
pointed (Job 41:22).

606 mn (hada)

606 mm (hada) I,
27:37):

be (come) sharp (Prov

607 mam (hada) II, rejoice in the Qal stem,
and make glad or gladden in the Piel stem.

Derivative
607a min (hedwa) gladness, joy.

The verb is used but once in the Piel in Ps 21:7,
‘‘Thou hast made him exceeding glad with thy
countenance” (KJV).

It is used in the Qal in Ex 18:9 to describe
Jethro's rejoicing when he heard the report of
Moses. Another occurrence has been suggested
at Jer 31:13 by reading the mT yahdaw ‘‘to-
gether’’ as yahdu ‘‘shall be merry,’’ a reading
supported by the Lxx and adopted by the rsv, the
jp (‘will be happy’’), and the NEB (‘‘shall re-
joice’’). The mt reading is upheld by the NaB (“‘as
well’’) and by J. Bright.

Bibliography: Bright, John, Jeremiah,
Doubleday, 1965, p. 274. Dahood, M., ** Ugaritic
and the Old Testament,” Ephemerides
Theologicae Lovanienses 44:51.

E.Y.

608 msn (hada) I, see, gaze; Niphal appear.

In addition to the common Hebrew hazé, re-
flecting Ugaritic hdy, M. Dahood in numerous
articles and books has proposed that we should
also recognize many instances in which the He-
brew text has preserved the variant hada ‘‘tosee.”’

These suggestions have not been incorporated
in any recent translations but some of his more
plausible proposals have been listed in Koehler-
Baumgartner’s lexicon (cf. HCHL).

In Ps 33:15 where the k)v has, *‘He fashioneth
their hearts ‘‘alike’’ yahad, Dahood would
suggest, “‘The creator ‘‘inspects,’’ yahd(eh),
their intention.’ In Ps 49:10 [H 11] instead of the
KJv, “Likewise the fool and the brutish person
perish,’ Dahood renders, “‘If he ‘gazes’ upon
fools.’’ Instead of the rsv translation of Job
34:29, *‘ ‘whether’ it be a nation or a man,”’ he
would propose, ‘‘Upon nations and men he
‘gazes.’"’

In Gen 49:6 and Job 3:6 instead of reading the
verbs as forms of ydhad *‘to be united or joined,”’
Dahood would see them as Niphals of hddda and
render them ‘‘appear.”’

Bibliography: Dahood, M., *‘Some Ambigu-
ous Texts in Isaias,"" CBQ 20: 46-48. :
‘‘Hebrew-Ugaritic Lexicography,” Bib 45:
407-8. , °'Ugaritic Lexicography,’* in
Mélanges Eugéne Tisserant, 1, Vatican: Bib-
lioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1964, p. 88. :
Psalms I, in AB, Doubleday, 1966. Ginsberg, H..,
‘*Lexicographical Notes,’’ in MHebrdische
Wortforschung, Leiden: Brill, 1967, pp. 71-72.

264

Smick, E., *‘Suggested New Translations of Old
Testament Poetry,’’ BETS 11: 90-91.
E.Y.

See no. 605Sb.
See no. 607a.

a3m 6 (haddid).
myn (hedwa).

609 S3m (hddal) I, cease, stop, forbear, desist,

forego.
Derivatives

609a tom (hedel) cessation.
609b +t55m (hadél) fleeting, rejected.

The word is cognate with the Arabic hadala
‘‘to leave, forsake’’; the root is unknown in
Uganitic. The verb occurs fifty-five times.

hadal most often means to cease doing some-
thing, as in Gen 11:8; Jud 15:7; Job 3:17; I Sam
12:23; Jer 44:18; 51:30.

It can mean to ‘‘forbear’’ or “‘refrain’’ from
doing something, as in Job 16:6. The question put
to the oracle in I Kgs 22:6 was, ‘*Shall I go... to
battle or shall I forbear?” In II Chr 25:16 the
imperative means ‘“‘stop’’ (Rsv), ““be quiet”’ (JB).

In the parable of the trees in Jud 9:9, 11, 13
hddal means *‘shall I give up.”’

In Num 9:13 the word means ‘neglect’ or
“fail.”

In Job 19:14 the verb can have either a transi-
tive sense: Job's relatives have failed or deserted
him (RSV, NAB), or an intransitive sense: they have
fallen away (NEB).

In Ex 24:12 hddal means *‘to leave alone.*’ Job
twice asks that God leave him alone (Job 7:16;
10:20). The prophet in Isa 2:22 advises his hear-
ers, “‘cease ye from man’”’ (KJV), 1.e. ‘‘have no
more to do with man” (NEB).

hddal is used eight times in the absolute sense of
‘*cease’’ or ‘‘come to an end.”

hedel. Cessation. In Isa 38:11, the sole occur-
rence, the word hedel is usually emended to read
heled ‘‘world.”’ Inasmuch as 1QIs? has the same
form as the mt, Dahood suggests that hedel is
correct and means “‘cessation.”’

hadél. Fleeting, rejected. Appears three times
in three different senses. In Ezk 3:27 it means
‘tone who forbears,’’ or refuses to heed the proph-
et. In Ps 39:4 {H 5} translated ‘‘frail’’ (kv), the
word means ‘‘fleeting’’ or ‘‘short lived.”

In Isa 53:3 the Messiah is described as ‘‘re-
jected of men’’ (KJV, RSV, JB, NIV), ““avoided by
men’ (NAB). The alternative suggestion of
Thomas, ‘“‘forsaking men,” is followed by the
NEB, “he shrank from the sight of men.’ Cal-
derone suggests ‘‘senseless,’’ from a root hddal
II ‘‘to be fat’’ (q.v.). Neither is a preferable al-
ternative.

Bibliography: Dahood, Mitchell, ‘‘hedel
‘Cessation’ in Isaiah 38, 11,°’ Bib 52: 215-16.
Gordis, Robert, ‘‘Studies in Hebrew Roots of
Contrasted Meanings,’ JQR 27: 33-58. Thomas,
D. Winton, *‘Some Observations on the Hebrew
Root hdil,*’ Supp VT 4: 8-16.

E.Y.

610 osm (hddal) II?, to be fat, to be prosperous.

Citing the Arabic hadula *‘to become fat,
plump.’’ Thomas and Calderone have suggested
that in some passages hddal may reflect an al-
together different root. This may be plausible for
I Sam 2:5 which would read, ‘‘The hungry grew
fat.” Job 14:6 would then read ‘‘that he may be
filled with food’ instead of *‘that he may rest.”

In Prov 19:27 Calderone would read ‘grow
prosperous... by hearing instruction’; in Prov
23:4 “by your wisdom grow prosperous.”

Bibliography: Calderone, Philip J., *‘HDL-II
in Poetic Texts,’ CBQ 23: 451-60. ;
“Supplementary Note on HDL-II,” CBQ 24:
412-19.

E.Y:

61! pm (hdq). Assumed root of the following.
6lla pam (hédeq) brier (Mic 7:4; Prov
15:19).

612 S88 (hadar) surround, enclose. Occurs
only in Ezk 21:19, as a Qal feminine singu-
lar participle, hahdderet lahem ‘*that which
surrounds them.”’

Derivative

6l2a tm (heder) chamber, innermost or
inward part, parlor, within. (asSv and
RSV similar except that they do not
use the last three words.)

The word means a “‘compartment’”’ or ‘‘room”’
(within a building) which affords privacy. The ksv
usually translates this word as **chamber,’’ using
“room’’ in the sense of ‘‘space.’’ A general word
for **chamber’’ is lishkad. Another term, ‘dliyyd,
refers to a cool ‘‘roof-chamber.’’ heder is used
thirty-nine times, including seven figurative us-
ages.

heder mainly designates a room where people,
even rulers, can find privacy (Gen 43:30, Joseph:
I Kgs 1:15, David; Jud 3:24, Egion). It may be
that the heder to which Eglon went was a room
within the roof chamber (‘d/iyyd), not the roof
chamber itself. Specifically heder is used in ref-
erence to the ruler’s bedroom (hddar mishkab),
where frogs were to enter (Ex 8:3 (H 7:28}).
Ishbosheth (II Sam 4:7), and the King of Syria
(IJ Kgs 6:12) were murdered there. Heder is the
room of the bridegroom (Joel 2:16), the birthplace
of a bride and the place to which she brings the

265

613 wan (hadash) renew,

613 wan (hadash)

bridegroom (Song 3:4), and the room in which
Samson planned to meet with his wife (Jud 15:1).

It is a place to hide: for people in general (Isa
26:20), men lying in wait for Samson (Jud 16:9,
12), Joash hidden from Athaliah (k)v ‘in the bed-
chamber,’’ hddar hammittdt I] Kgs 11:2 same as
I] Chr 22:11), Benhadad hiding from Ahab (I Kgs
20:30). The last passage actually reads ‘*a room in
a room’ and is translated ‘‘inner chamber.’’ The
same phrase is used by Micaiah when telling the
false prophet Zedekiah where he would hide
(I Kgs 22:25, same as II Chr 18:24) and by Elisha
when telling the prophet where to take Jehu to
anoint him (If Kgs 9:2). The heder is a place
where one can do evil in secret: Amnon (II Sam
13:10f.), the elders of Israel (Ezk 8:12).

More generally the word is used for inner
rooms of the temple complex (ksv parlours, I Chr
28:11) and for storerooms (Prov 24:4). In Deut
32:25 it is used in contrast with “‘outside,’’ hence
KJV ‘‘within.’’ (Terrors and destruction are to
come in both places.) It is not used for the holy of
holies of the tabernacle or temple.

The word is used four times figuratively, refer-
ring to chambers within the belly. ‘*The words of
a whisperer go down to the ‘innermost parts of
the belly’? (Prov 18:8; 26:22). The same area is
searched (Prov 20:27), and made clean by stripes
(Prov 20:30). The phrase, ‘‘chambers of death”’
(Prov 7:27), may possibly refer to an afterlife but
more likely refers to tombs or the graveyard. It is
parallel to ‘‘Sheol”’ (cf. *‘The Meaning of the
Word Sheol,’ JETS 4: 129-35.

‘ The word is also used figuratively of the
chamber from which a stormwind (spd, q.v.)
comes (Job 37:9). The kv translates heder as
‘“*south’’ for the assumed source of the storm-
wind, but rSv is probably more accurate in ren-
dering: ‘From its chamber comes _ the
whirlwind.’’ ‘‘Chamber of the south’? (Job 9:9)
may name a constellation or be the confines of
one.

C.P.W.

repair. (ASV and
RSV also restore.)

Derivatives

613a twsm (hdddsh) new, new thing, fresh.
613b twsn (hddesh) month, monthly, new
moon.

hadash is used in the sense of ‘*repair’’ or *‘re-
build’’ referring to cities (Isa 61:4), the temple
(11 Chr 24:4, 12), and the altar (II Chr 15:8). It is
also used figuratively. Under Samuel the king-
dom was renewed at Gilgal (I Sam 11:14). David
wanted a right spirit, equivalent to a clean heart,
renewed within him (Ps 51:10 [H 12}). The proph-
et asked for renewal as of old (Lam 5:21). God

614 *33m (hab)

renews the face of the ground, that is, gives it
new life (Ps 104:30), and he renews one’s youth
(Ps 103:5). Job complained that God was bringing
new witnesses against him (Job 10:17).
The use of the verb as well as its derivatives is
attested in Ugaritic (see UT 19: no. 843.)

hadash. New, new thing, fresh. This adjective,
usually attributive, describes, as in English, a va-
nety of physical objects (e.g., house, wife, cords,
sword, garment, cruse, meal offering, king, gate,
etc.). It is also used for non-material things as
name (Isa 62:2), song (Ps 149:1), covenant (Jer
31:31), God’s mercies (Lam 3:23), heart, and
spirit (Ezk 36:26). While suffering, Job longed for
the time when his glory was ‘“‘fresh”’ in him (Job
29:20).

hodesh. Month, monthly, new moon. Although
this word properly means ‘“‘new moon,”’ it is
commonly used as an equivalent to our word
‘‘month’’ because the month began when the thin
crescent of the new moon was first visible at sun-
set. It was used along with the more rare yerah,
from yadréah meaning ‘‘moon.”’ (Note especially
I Kgs 6:1, 37, 38; 8:2 where the terms are used
interchangeably. Although yerah is never used as
a numbered month, its use as a named month is
attested in Uganittic as well as the OT. See UT 19:
no. 1151.) The Hebrew calendar used a lunar
month fitted into a solar year. This was done by
adding an extra month approximately once every

three years because it was about eleven days less:

than the solar year. In early Israel the first of
each month, or new moon, was determined by
observation and proclaimed officially by the
blowing of trumpets. The month was considered
to be thirty days (note Gen 7:11; cf. 8:3-4), unless
the new moon was observed earlier.

Only four of the names of the months used in
Israel’s earlier history are recorded in the Old
Testament: Abib, the first month (Ex 13:4), Ziv
(Zif), the second month (I Kgs 6:1), Ethanim, the
seventh month (I Kgs 8:2), and Bul, the eighth
month (I Kgs 6:38). Most often the months were
designated by number. (Note especially I Chr
27:1-15 where all twelve are listed by number.)
Later the Babylonian names were incorporated
into Hebrew. Of these, seven are used in the Old
Testament: Nisan, the first month (Neh 2:1), Si-
van, the third (Est 8:9), Elul, the sixth (Neh 6:15),
Kislev, the ninth (Zech 7:1), Tebeth, the tenth
(Est 2:16), Shebat (Sebat), the eleventh
(Zech1:7), and Adar, the twelfth (Est 3:7).

The first month, Abib/Nisan, began in the
spring with the vernal equinox. This was com-
manded in Ex 12:2, 18. But according to Ex 23:16
and 34:22 the Feast of Ingathering (held in the
seventh month, Lev 23:39) was held at the end of
the year (perhaps the agricultural year). The
Feast of Trumpets (Lev 23:23-25; Num 29: 1-6)

266

614 *a3m (hab)

was held on the first day of the seventh month
and is now celebrated as the Jewish New Year
(Rosh Hashanah). Thus there is evidence of an
older alternate calendar year starting in the fall.
The use of hddesh ‘‘to devour those who sinned”’
(Hos 5:7) may be that they will be swallowed up
in another month. But possibly the vain offering
of the unrepentant is his own downfall (cf. KD),
or perhaps the participation in a pagan new moon
celebration is his downfall (cf. IB).

When hodesh refers only to the beginning of
the month, it is naturally translated ‘‘new
moon,’ which was a feast day. It is one of the
‘‘appointed feasts’’ and is listed with the Sabbath
and the pilgrim feasts as involving burnt offerings
(II Chr 8:13 et al.), and is also characterized by
the blowing of trumpets (Ps 81:3 [H 4]; Num
10:10). Since it was a feast, David’s absence from
Saul’s table at the new moon was especially
noticeable (I Sam 20:5f.).

Bibliography: Morgenstern, Julian, ‘‘The
Three Calendars of Ancient Israel,’’ HUCA I:
13-78. , ‘Supplementary Studies in the
Calendars of Ancient Israel,"’” HUCA 10: 1-148.
Wright, G. Ermest, ‘‘Israelite Daily Life,’* BA 18:
50-79. THAT, I, pp. 524-29.

C.P.W.

make guilty. Used but once in
the Piel stem. In Dan 1:10 with the word
ro’ sh it means to endanger one’s head (kJv,
ASV, RSV). The NEB paraphrases the clause,
‘It will cost me my head.”’

Derivative
614a sin (hdb) debt. Occurs only in
Ezk 18:7.

E.Y..

615 33m (hig) describe a circle, compass. Used

only once, having the object hdq expressed
(Job 26:10).

Derivatives

615a am (hug) circuit, circle, compass.
615b thane «=6(m*%higad) compass. Occurs
only in Isa 44:13.

In Job 26:10 the Creator has *‘compassed the
waters with bounds’’ (kJv), or according to the
more literal rendering of the rsv, ‘“‘He has de-
scribed a circle upon the face of the waters.”’
This may mean the establishment of a boundary
in the distance as the nNgEB, ‘‘He has fixed the
horizon,’ or at the shore (cf. Job 38:8, 11). This
is also the thought found in the use of the noun in
Prov 8:27, ‘‘He set a compass upon the face of
the depth’ (kjv), which the NgB renders, ‘‘He
girdled the ocean with the horizon.”’

Job 22:14 (ksv) declares that God *‘‘walketh in

the circuit of heaven” (hag shadmayim), the
‘‘vault’’ of heaven is the expression used by the
RSV, NAB, and NEB. The Js translates, ‘‘He prowls
on the rim of the heavens.”

Isaiah 40:22 (kjv) asserts that the Creator sits
upon the “‘circle of the earth’ (hug hda'dres), a
rendering retained by the asv, rsv, and js. The
NAB has, “He sits enthroned above the vault of
the earth,’ which the NEB amplifies as the **vault-
ed roof of the earth.’’ Niv: ‘‘He sits enthroned
above the circle of the earth.’’ The poets of the oT
describe their universe phenomenologically, i.e.
as It appears to them standing on the earth and
looking above and about. This perspective differs
from that of modern scientific thought, which as-
sumes a perspective beyond the earth. Both are
accurate and useful according to their own
perspectives.

Some have held that Isa 40:22 implies the
sphericity of the earth. It may, but it may refer
only to the Lord enthroned above the earth with
its obviously circular horizon. Note the remark-
able concept given in Job 26:7.

m*higa. Compass. Occurs only in Isa 44:13
where it describes an instrument used by a car-
penter as he fashions an idol. The Lxx renders
this as metron ‘*measure’ or “‘rule.’’ Most ver-
sions (AV, ASV, RSV, NAB) translate the word as
‘compass,’ NIV ‘““compasses,’ but the jB uses
‘‘dividers’’ and the NEB ‘‘calipers.”’
E.Y.
616 11m (hud) propound a riddle. Denomina-
tive verb.

Parent Noun

6l6a imam (hidad) riddle, difficult question,
parable.

A derivation has been suggested from Aramaic
‘ahad ‘‘hold fast, cover,”’ for the Aramaic ‘ahida
‘riddle’ (cf. Dan 5:12). The hida is an enigmatic
saying, question, or story whose meaning must
be determined by the audience.

It is used seventeen times. The kJv translates it
nine times as “‘riddle,”’ five times as ‘‘dark’’ sen-
tences, speeches, or sayings, twice as “‘hard
questions,’’ and once as “‘proverb.”’

It is used eight times in Jud 14 of ‘‘riddles’’
propounded by Samson to the Philistine guests at
his wedding. These were conundrums involving a
contest of wits, a source of entertainment popular
among Arabs today. Cf. the contest of the
guardsmen in I Esd 3: 4—24.

At a higher social level the hidét in I Kgs 10:1
(II Chr 9:1) were ‘‘difficult questions”’ posed by
the Queen of Sheba to test Solomon’s reputation
for wisdom. Josephus (Antiquities 8.5.3 [143]) de-
scribes Hiram of Tyre sending Solomon ‘‘tricky
problems and enigmatic sayings.”

267

619 mM (hawa)

The Psalmist in Ps 49:4 [H 5] speaks of the
‘riddle’ of life, death, and redemption.

In Num 12:8 the ‘dark speeches’’ denote the
indirect revelations ordinarily given by the Lord,
in contrast to the face-to-face mode of communi-
cation granted to Moses.

See also madshal, which occurs together with
hida@ in Ps 49:4 [H 5]; Ps 78:2: Prov 1:6; Ezk 17:2;
and Hab 2:6.

Bibliography: Rinaldi, G., “‘Alcuni termini
ebraici relativi alla letteratura,’’ Bib 49:274-76.

E.Y.

617 mn (hwh) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
6l7a mm (hawwa) tent
Deut 3:14; Josh 13:30).

village (e.g.

618 mm (hawa) II, show, tell, make known.

Derivative
618a MIMS (Cahwa) declaration, only in
Job 13:17.

hawa is used in the Piel stem five times in Job
and once in Psalms.

In Job it is used of the condescending efforts of
Eliphaz and Elihu to instruct Job: 15:17; 32:6, 10,
17; 36:2. Cf. Sir 16:25.

In Ps 19:2 [H 3] night after night ‘imparts’
(NAB) or “‘reveals’* (NASB) knowledge.

The corresponding verb in Aramaic is used in
the Pael and (H)aphel stems fourteen times in
Daniel.

Scholars have cited the use of the verb in Job
as an Aramaism.

The verb appears often in the Elephantine
Aramaic papyri, and in the Genesis Apocryphon
(2:5..6,.215 5:9: 22:3).

Bibliography: Vogt, Ernestus, Lexicon Lin-
guae Aramaicae Veteris Testamenti, Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1971, pp. 60-61. Wagner, Max,
Die Lexikalischen und Grammatikalischen
Aramaismen in alttestamentlichen Hebrdisch,
Berlin: Tépelmann, 1966, p. 53.

E.Y.

619 mm (hawa) IH, exclusively in the Eshta-

phal stem, hishtahdwa
self’; ‘“‘to worship.’”’

‘to prostrate one-

Formerly this was analyzed as a Hithpael of
shaha (q.v.). Cognate with the Ugaritic hwy “‘to
bow down” (UT 19: no. 847), used in parallel
with kbd ‘‘to honor,’ the verb occurs 170 times,
in the majority of cases of the worship of God,
gods, or idols.

The verb in its original sense meant to pros-
trate oneself on the ground as in Neh 8:6 *‘wor-
shipped”’ (kjv, RSV) but more correctly **pros-

619 mm (hawa)

trated themselves’’ (NEB, JB, NAB) as the phrase
'arsa “‘to the ground”’ requires.

Prostration was quite common as an act of
submission before a superior. Vassals in the
Amarna letters write, *‘At the feet of the king...
seven times, seven times I fall, forwards and
backwards.’’ (Cf. ANEP, fig. 5.) Jehu or his ser-
vant bows down on his knees with his forehead
touching the ground before Shalmaneser III on
the Black Obelisk (cf. ANEP, fig. 351).

Muslims perform their salah or prayer by an
elaborately prescribed sugid (cf. Heb sdgad ‘‘to
bow down’’) in which the forehead must touch
the ground.

The Greek word proskuneo, which is used to
translate hishtahdwd@ 148 times in the Lxx, had a
semantic development similar to the Hebrew
word. Like it proskuneo can mean either *'pros-
tration’ or “‘worship.’’ Whether the proskunésis
which Alexander the Great received implied
‘‘worship’’ or simply *‘obeisance’’ was uncertain
to his contemporaries, as it has been to scholars.

Prostration was a common act of. self-
abasement performed before relatives, strangers,
superiors, and especially before royalty. Ab-
raham bowed himself before the Hittites of Heb-
ron (Gen 23:7, 12). He also bowed before the
three strangers who visited him at Mamre (Gen
18:2), as did Lot before the two angelic visitors
who came to him at Sodom (Gen 19:1). Neither
realized at the time that they were before
superhuman beings. Balaam, however, perceived
that it was an angel who blocked his way, and he
‘fell prostrate’? (jB, Num 22:31).

Following Egyptian protocol, Joseph’s broth-
ers made obeisance before him (Gen 42:6; 43:26,
28), thus fulfilling his dream (Gen 37:7, 9, 10).

Because of the infidelity of Eli’s sons his pos-
terity will be reduced by God’s judgment (I Sam
2:36) ‘“‘to crouch”’ (kJv); ‘‘to grovel’’ (NAB); ‘*to
beg him on their knees”’ (jB), i.e. to a state of
beggary. At En-dor Saul recognized the re-
vivified Samuel and ‘‘did obeisance’’ (I Sam
28:14, RSV).

It was in open defiance of Persian court
etiquette that Mordecai refused to bow or to
prostrate himself before Haman (Est 3:2, 5; cf.
Herodotus 1.134; 3.86; 8.118). The Targum and
Midrash explain Mordecai’s refusal on the basis
of an alleged idol on Haman’s robe. Mordecai
may have bnidled at the thought of bowing before
an Amalekite or Agagite (Est 3:1; cf. I Sam
15:32-33).

The verb is used in I Chr 29:20 with two
phrases, literally as the k)v: ‘worshipped the
Lord and the king.’’ The NEB renders: *'prostrat-
ing themselves before the Lord and the king”’ (cf.
NAB); the jB has ‘‘went on their knees to do hom-
age to Yahweh and to the king.’ The rsv supplies
a second verb, ‘‘worshiped the Lord, and did

268

obeisance to the king.’’ Thus the Egyptians will
bow themselves before Moses, petitioning him
to leave, and kings and princesses will bow
down before redeemed Zion (Ex 11:8; Isa 45:14;
49:23).

The verb is used less frequently of an individu-
al’s worship of the Lord. Abraham on his way to
sacrifice Isaac says that he is going to worship
(Gen 22:5). The distraught Saul asks for forgive-
ness that he might worship (I Sam 15:25, 30-31).
It is used most often of particular acts of worship,
e.g. of Abraham's servant who ‘‘bowed his head
and worshipped’’ (Gen 24:26, 48), and of Gideon
(Jud 7:15) upon experiencing God’s grace. Such
acts often involved actual prostration ‘‘to the
earth’’ as in the case of Abraham’s servant (Gen
24:52), Moses (Ex 34:8), Joshua (Josh 5:14), and
Job (Job 1:20).

In Exodus there are three cases of spontaneous
communal worship: when the people heard that
the Lord had spoken to Moses (Ex 4:31), when
they received instructions for the Passover (Ex
12:27), and when they saw the pillar of cloud
(Ex 33:10). In II Chr 20:18 Jehoshaphat and the
people ‘fell down before the Lord, worshiping
the Lord’’ (rsv), when they heard his promise of
victory.

Commands or invitations to worship are given
to Moses, Aaron, and the elders in Ex 24:1,
‘“Come up to the Lord... and worship afar off”
(rSv), and on the occasion of the firstfruits, **you
shall set it down before the Lord your God, and
worship before the Lord your God”’ (Deut 26:10;
unless indicated otherwise, subsequent citations
will be from the rsv). The Psalmist exhorts, ‘*O
come, let us worship and bow down, let us kneel
before the Lord, our Maker’’ (Ps 95:6).

After the death of Bathsheba’s child David
went into his chapel to worship (II Sam 12:20).
His son, Solomon, completed the temple (II Chr
7:3), which became the focus of organized wor-
ship. Though there were rival sanctuaries, as ar-
chaeology has confirmed, Hezekiah insisted that
worship should be conducted *‘before this altar in
Jerusalem’’ (II Kgs 18:22; Isa 36:7; I] Chr 32:12;
cf. 29:29-30). The Psalmist declares, **I will wor-
ship toward thy holy temple’ (Ps 5:7 (H 8]; cf.
138:2). Jeremiah spoke to those who worshipped
in the temple of their need to repent (Jer 7:2; 26:2).
As they did not repent, Nebuchadnezzar de-
stroyed the temple; but Ezekiel beheld in a vision
a new temple in which the prince and his people
would worship (Ezk 46:2, 3, 9).

The Psalms and the prophets foresee the day
when the gentiles will also worship. Those who
will worship the Lord include: ‘‘all the earth’ (Ps
66:4); ‘‘all flesh’’ (Isa 66:23); all the nations (Ps
22:27 (H 28); 72:11; Zeph 2:11; Zech 14:16-17);
kings and princes (Isa 49:7; cf. Ps 72:11); ‘‘all the
fat ones’’ (RV; Ps 22:29 [H 30]), which the rsv

interprets as ‘‘all the proud”’ and the Js as ‘all the
prosperous’ of the earth.

Before the Lord, not only men worship but
also the b‘né 'élim (Ps 29:1-2) “‘sons of the
mighty’’ (Rv), literally ‘‘sons of God,*’ probably
angels (cf. Ps 89:6 (H 7} but also Ps 96:7).
Nehemiah 9:6 declares that the host of heaven
worship the Lord who created the heavens, the
earth, and the seas. According to Ps 97:7 even
‘all gods bow down before him.”’

The second commandment forbids the worship
of any graven images or other gods (Ex 20:5;
34:14; Deut 5:9). The Israelites were warned not
to worship the gods of the Amorites, Hittites, etc.
(Ex 23:24; Ps 81:9 [H 10)}).

Nevertheless Israel repeatedly worshiped
other gods (Deut 29:26 (H 25]; Jud 2:12, 17; Jer
13:10; 16:11; 22:9). These gods included those of
the Moabites (Num 25:2), those of the Edomites
(II Chr 25:14), Ashtoreth of the Sidonians,
Chemosh of Moab, Milcom of the Ammonites
(I Kgs 11:33), and Baal of Sidon (I Kgs 16:31;
22:53 [H 54)).

In an interesting passage the verb is used both
of “‘worship’’ and of **bowing’’ without an at-
titude of. worship. After Naaman’s healing and
his conversion to the monotheistic worship of the
Lord (II Kgs 5:17), the Syrian officer asked
Elisha, *‘In this matter may the Lord pardon your
servant: when my master (i.e. the king) goes into
the house of Rimmon to worship there, leaning
on my arm, and J bow myself in the house of
Rimmon, when I bow myself in the house of
Rimmon, the Lord pardon your servant in this
matter’ (II Kgs 5:18, rsv). Elisha did not object
and said, ‘‘Go in peace.”

A problem passage is Gen 47:31 where Jacob
before dying ‘‘bowed himself upon the head of
the bed (mittd)..’ The Lxx, however, reads,
‘‘And Israel worshiped, leaning on the top of his
staff," rendering the consonants as matteh
‘staff.’ The Syriac and Itala agree; Heb 11:21
cites the Lxx. In this context Speiser suggests,
“The term ‘to bow low’ need not signify here
anything more than a gesture of mute apprecia-
tion....’’ Cf. also I Kgs 1:47 where the dying
David bows down in bed.

See also kdkap, kara‘, qadad, sdgad, ‘dbad.

Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., **Notes on
Some Terms Relating to Prayer,’’ VT 6: 229-30.
Cranfield, C. E. B., ‘‘Divine and Human Ac-
tion,” Interp 12: 387-98. Davies, G. Henton,
“Worship in the OT,”’ in IDB, IV, pp. 879-83.
Driver, G. R., ‘Studies in the Vocabulary of the
Old Testament,’’ JTS 31: 279-80. Rowley, H. H.,
Worship in Ancient Israel, London: S. P. C. K..,
1967. Watts, John D. W., ‘‘Elements of Old Tes-
tament Worship,’’ JBR 26: 217-21. TDNT, VI,
pp. 758-63. THAT, I, pp. 530-32.

BY.

269

622 m2 (hawild)

620 mim (hwh). Assumed root of the following.

620a min (héah) brier, bramble.
620b tmm (hah) hook, ring, brooch.

hah occurs seven times. It means ‘‘brooches”’
(KJV ‘‘bracelets’’) in the list of personal orna-
ments dedicated to the Lord’s service (Ex 35:22).
In all the other passages it refers to hooks or
rings used to capture and control men, employing
the methods normally used to handle animals.
The warning against Sennacherib (II Kgs 19:28;
Isa 37:29) may possibly be drawn from actual
practice, as we have an Assyrian relief of cap-
tives with a ring through the lips (ANEP, fig. 447;

cf. fig. 524).
E.Y.

621 wesm (hwt). Assumed root of the following.

621a tom (hat) thread, string, cord. It
appears seven times.

Abraham refused to accept from the king of
Sodom so much as a ‘“‘thread to a sandal strap”
(Gen 14:23; cf. Genesis Apocryphon 22:21). This
synecdoche, substitution of a part for the whole,
in this case using small insignificant objects for
totality, is found in a slightly different form in the
Aramaic papyri (Cowley 15:25) mn hm ‘d hwt
‘from straw to string.”

Rahab’s sign to the Israelites (Josh 2:18) was a
cord made of scarlet thread. Samson was able to
snap off the Philistine ropes like a ‘*thread’’ (Jud
16:12).

See also patil, hebel, ‘abot.

Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., ‘‘A Figurative
Equivalent for Totality in Akkadian and West
Semitic,’ JAOS 54: 200-203.

E.Y.

622 mon (hawild) Havilah, the name of a

number of tribes and places. It may be de-
rived from Ad/, and may mean ‘‘a sandy
area.”

The Pishon, the first-mentioned of the four riv-
ers that went forth from the Garden of Eden,
flowed through the ‘‘Havilah,’’ a land of gold
(Gen 2:11). It is not possible to establish where
this was. Suggestions have ranged from India,
Colchis, and Arabia, to northern Ethiopia and
eastern Sudan. (See the discussion under ’éd.)

In the table of nations Havilah is listed with the
sons of Cush (Gen 10:7; I Chr 1:9). Another
Havilah is listed with the sons of Joktan (Gen
10:29; I Chr 1:23). The former tribe, **African”’
Havilah, may have been located on the coast of
Eritrea and Somaliland in northeast Africa, cor-
responding to the classical Abalitai/Aualitai lo-
cated south of the straits of Bab el-Mandeb. The
latter tribe, ‘*Arabian’’ Havilah, may have been

623 Nn (hal)

located in the area of Yemen in Southwest Arabia
where a Sabaean inscription locates Haulan.

A fourth Havilah is the area which makes up
the eastern terminus of a route whose western
terminus is Shur in northwest Sinai. The Ish-
maelites settled in the territory between these
termini (Gen 25:18). Saul pursued the Amalekites
from Havilah toward Shur (I Sam 15:7). Eratos-
thenes cited by Strabo (16.4.2) lists the Chau-
lotaioi next to the Nabataeans in describing the
route from Petra to Babylon; Pliny (6.32.157) also
lists the Avalitae as neighbors of the Nabataeans.
This Havilah may therefore be the area in north-
west Arabia, east of the Sinai and Petra and
northwest of Teima and the great Nafud Desert.

Bibliography: Simons, J., The Geographical
and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament,
Brill, 1959, pp. 40-41. Wissman, I. and Hofner,
M., Beitrdge zur historischen Geographie des
vorislamischen Siidarabien, Wiesbaden: Steiner,
1953, pp. 239-41. Yahauda, A. S., The Language
of the Pentateuch, London: Oxford University,
1933, pp. 190-91.

E.Y.

mm (hah). See no. 620b.

623 3m (hal) I, travail, be in anguish, be pained,
dance, whirl, writhe, fear, tremble. (Rsv
‘‘rage’’; otherwise, RSv and asv adopt same
range of meanings, though individual verses
may be interpreted differently).

Derivatives

623a tom (hol) sand.

623b ton (hil) pain, agony, sorrow.

623c trom (hild) pain (?).

623d om (hel), mM (hél) rampart, for-
tress.

623e mom (héla) rampart, fortress. Oc-
curs only in Ps 48:14.

623f tagm’n (halhala) writhing.

623g tint (mahél) dance, dancing.

623h im?inta (m¢hdla) dance.

The verb contains two basic ideas: 1) whirling
around in circular movements (reflected in the
derivatives mahdl and m‘hola) and 2) writhing in
labor pains (reflected in hil and hila). These may
be taken as two distinct roots of similar form
(KB) or as two emphases of the same root (BDB).
This article adopts the latter point of view. Like
several other verbs of movement (e.g. hdrad and
paGhad) its meaning may also include those emo-
tions and attitudes associated with the move-
ments. (Note: Englishman's Hebrew and Chal-
dee Concordance erroneously lists forms from
hal YI and ydéhal under this word.)

Physical movements of various sorts are in

270

mind in referring to dancing (Jud 21:21), quaking
movements of mountains (Hab 3:10), and,
perhaps, the whirling (?) movements of a sword
(Hos 11:6; rsv ‘‘rage’’ reflects this interpreta-
tion). Twice abstract quantities are figuratively
viewed as physical entities which move or whirl
about until they land on their targets: the curse on
Joab is thus viewed (II Sam 3:29; ‘*May it whirl
around,”’ writer’s translation) as in God's anger,
Jer 23:19; ‘swirl’ (NASB). Another example of
such figurative representation of an abstract
quantity as a real, concrete, entity is the ‘‘sin”’
which crouched at the door for Cain (Gen 4:7).

This verb expresses the writhing movements of
labor contractions (Isa 45:10) though it may recall
the joys of bearing denied to the barren (Isa 54:1)
as well as pain. Several times it describes those
who are in anguish in witness of God’s judgment
(Isa 23:5; Ezk 30:16; Joel 2:6; Mic 4:10). In such
cases the idea of inner mental anguish may dis-
place the idea of writhing in pain as when Egypt
is In anguish at the news of Tyre’s fall (Isa 23:5).
Jeremiah’s complaint that those who have been
judged have not felt anguish (Jer 5:3) refers to
mental anguish or remorse. It also describes the
anguish of the good man oppressed by the wicked
(Ps 55:4 [H 5]).

Contextual parallels show that it can refer to
writhing or trembling in terror (Ps 77:16 (H 17];
Jer 5:22). The same idiom underlies poetic similes
in which the earth writhes or trembles (Ps 97:4;
114:7).

Several difficult passages must be noted. The
interpretation that Saul was ‘‘wounded’’ by the
Philistine archers (I Sam 31:3; Rsv, KJv) has no
support from other usages of **hi/’’; its best sup-
port is the possibility of repointing the text so as
to read the Hebrew word halal ‘to pierce”
(wayydhol). As the text is pointed, *‘be terrified”’
or ‘‘harassed”’ (i.e. **put into anguish’’) is prefer-
able. Two passages command the earth to
‘*tremble’’ (Rsv, ASV) or ‘‘fear’’ (KJv) before God
(I Chr 16:30; Ps 96:9). However, unlike the two
contexts in which the earth trembled above,
these contexts are completely filled with positive
acts of worship (I Chr 16:28, 29, 31; Ps 96: 7, 8,
10). For this reason, it is better in these contexts
to interpret ha! with a term of positive worship,
either as ‘‘dance”’ (i.e. the m¢hdlda as a religious
dance) or a joyful *‘trembling”’ in worship. The
usage of this term in Lam 4:6 (Rsv ‘‘laid’’) re-
mains unclear.

The Hiphil is causative, ‘‘to make to writhe”’
or ‘‘to cause to be in anguish’’ (BDB; Ps 29:8,
note: other possible Hiphils are better derived
from yahel: Gen 8:10; Jud 3:25; Lam 3:26). The
Hophal is passive, ‘‘to be born’’ (Isa 66:8, ASsv,
RSV).

Most Polels are best taken as intensive in
meaning rather than causative. Giving birth (Job

39:1), the writhing of ‘‘shades’’ (Rsv) or of the
‘deceased’? (KJV: Job 26:5), and dancing (Jud
21:23) are all thus expressed in an intensive form.
In the intensive form, ‘“‘giving birth’’ is broad-
ened into ‘‘forming’’ or ‘‘creating’’ (Ps 90:2; cf.
also Prov 26:10 as translated in the ksv). In a
similar idiom, the north wind ‘‘brings forth” rain
(Prov 25:23). A single Polel seems to be causa-
tive; Ps 29:9 in which the text as pointed is trans-
lated, ‘*maketh the hinds to calve”’ (asv) although
the Rsv translation (‘‘makes the oaks to whirl,”
NIV “twists the oaks*’) demands only a minor
change in pointing and gives a better poetic paral-
lel.

The Pulal is the passive of the Polel, ‘‘to be
born’ (Job 15:7; Ps 51:5 [H 7]). This idiom may
be used to refer to creation or origins on a cosmic
scale (Prov 8:24—25).

The Hithpolel occurs twice describing the
whirling tempest (Jer 23:19) and the writhing of a
man in pain (Job 25:20). These are more easily
taken as intensive, though they could be con-
strued as reflexive with some ingenuity. Similarly
the Hithpalpel is intensive when it describes the
great agitation or writhing of Esther upon learn-
ing of the decree against her people (Est 4:4).

hol. Sand. Generally used as a simile for a
great number or for vastness in some other re-
spect. The number of grains of sand often is the
measure for the number of God’s people. Ab-
raham was promised that they would be like the
sand in number (Gen 22:17) as was Jacob (Gen
32:13). It describes their number under Solomon
(I Kgs 4:20) and Israel’s number in other times of
special blessing (Isa 48:19, Hos 1:10 [H 2:1]). Is-
rael’s number as the sand of the sea is contrasted
with the small number which will survive judg-
ment (Isa 10:22).

Sand also illustrates the quantity of grain (Gen
41:49), armies (Jud 7:12), and quail sent to feed
the Hebrews (Ps 78:27). Extent of judgment is
shown by the number of widows being as the
sand (Jer 15:8). Twice sand illustrates weight
rather than discrete number (Job 6:3; Prov 27:3).
It reminds of God's sovereignty in marking the
bounds of the seas (Jer §:22). It is not clear
whether the phrase ‘‘captives like sand’* (Hab
1:9) refers to the number of captives or to their
being as unimportant or valueless as sand. Limit-
less quantity may be the significance of sand in
the ‘hidden treasures of sands’’ (Deut 33:19).

hil. Pain, agony, sorrow. Used four times be-
fore impending disaster to describe pain or agony
such as that experienced by a woman in labor (Jer
6:24, 22:23, 50:43: Mic 4:9). In two passages,
contextual parallels indicate a meaning of wri-
thing in terror (Ex 15:14; Ps 48:6 [H 7]). In both
cases, the physical writhing expresses the inner
terror aroused by knowledge of God's great deeds.

271

624 nm (hal) HI, be firm, endure.

624 %3M (hal)

hila. Pain(?), agony(?) (KJV “‘sorrow’’). Ap-
parently a feminine form of the preceding word
and thus similar in meaning. Used in an unclear
context from which no distinct meaning can be
derived (Job 6:10).

halhala. Writhing, agony, terror. Writhing
either in anguish (Isa 21:3) or in terror (Ezk 30:9).

mahol. Dance, dancing. The dance may sym-
bolize joy; joy as contrasted with mourning (Ps
30:11 [H 12]; Lam 5:15) and the joys which will
come with God's future blessings (Jer 31:4, 13).
The dance, also, is an acceptable means of praise
(Ps 149:3; 150:4).

m*hola. Dance, dancing. No clear distinction
in meaning from mahdl. It expresses joy and cel-
ebration of military victories (Ex 15:20; Jud
11:34; | Sam 18:6). Or a purely religious dance
may be referred to (Ex 32:19: Jud 21:21). Evi-
dence does not permit a clear interpretation of
the “dance of the two camps’ (Song 6:13
[H 7:1).

A.B.

(So ASV; RSV
‘“prosper”’ for **be firm’; KJv see haul 1.)

Derivative
6242 tom (hayil) might.

The basic meaning of this verb is *‘be firm,”
“strong.” It is used just twice: God's ‘‘ways are
firm’’ (Ps 10:5), and the “‘prosperity (of the
wicked) will not endure’ (Job 20:21). Other simi-
lar forms are considered to be hal I.

hayil. Might, strength, power; able, valiant, virtu-
ous, valor; army, host, forces; riches, substance,
wealth; etal. (aSv and RSV similar with some var-
tation.) The basic meaning of the noun is
“strength,” from which follow ‘“‘army’’ and
‘‘wealth.”’ It is used 244’times.

In the sense of ‘‘strength,’ “‘power, or
‘*might’’ in general, Hayil is used about twenty
times: of God (Ps 59:11 [H 12]), from God (Ps
18:32 [H 33]), physical strength of a man (Eccl
10:10), or even of plant life (Joel 2:22).

As wealth is often related to power, hayil is
thus used to mean ‘‘wealth’’ about thirty times,
being translated ‘‘wealth,’ ‘‘riches,’ ‘‘sub-
stance, or ‘goods.’ It may be the wealth of a
nation (Tyre, Ezk 28:4—5), an individual (e.g. Job,
Job 31:25), the wicked (Job 15:29), or from God
(Deut 8:18, etc.).

Approximately eighty-five times hayil is used
as an attribute of people. It follows ‘ish **man™
(“valiant man,’ 1 Kgs 1:42), sometimes bén,
**son” (‘valiant man,’’ II Sam 17:10), and most
often follows gibbor **mighty (man)" (“mighty
man of valor’’). The individual designated seems

625 pin (hwm)

to be the elite warrior similar to the hero of the
Homeric epic, and it may be that the gibbdr hayil
was a member of a social class. Although in most
contexts his military prowess was involved, he
was wealthy enough to bear special taxes (II Kgs
15:20, translated because of context, “mighty
men of wealth’). The use in I Kgs 1:52 indicates
that the ben hayil (translated ‘*worthy man’’) was
also to be honorable or reputable. Adonijah’s life
was in danger because of his treachery, not be-
cause of lack of strength or wealth. hayil also
designates men of ability: to care for Joseph's
sheep (Gen 47:6, translated *‘men of activity’’),
or to judge the people (Ex 18:21, 25, translated
‘‘able men’’). When the term is used of a woman
(Ruth 3:11; Prov 12:4; and 31:10) it is translated
‘*virtuous’’ (ASV, RSV “‘worthy”’ or ‘‘good’’), but
it may well be that a woman of this caliber had all
the attributes of her male counterpart.

The use of hayil to designate a class of people
is seldom found outside the historical books from
Josh to II Chr. Moreover the translation some-
times obscures its occurrence, such as: *“‘men of
activity,’ “‘able men,’ *“‘worthy man,”’ ‘‘men of
wealth,’ *“‘man of power’’ (I Sam 9:1), **man of
might’ (II Kgs 24:16), ‘*strong men” (I Chr 26:7,
9), and even *‘meet for the war’’ (kjv, Deut 3:18).

hayil follows ‘asa **do” or ‘*make”’ in an idiom
translated ‘‘do worthily’’ (Ruth 4:11),
‘“*virtuously’’ (Prov 31:29) for women, and *‘do
valiantly’* (Ps 60:12 [H 14], et al.) for men.

Resulting from the meaning ‘“‘strength,”’ hayil
is used over one hundred times (about half of
which are in Jer and Ezk) in the sense of ‘‘army,””
‘host,’ or “‘forces.”’ In this connection it is also
translated “‘band of men’’ (I Sam 10:26), ‘*band
of soldiers’’ (Ezra 8:22), and for some reason
‘‘war’’ meaning “‘army”’ in the phrase *‘captains
of war’ (k3v, I] Chr 33:14).

In a related sense hayil is used for the entour-
age which accompanied the queen of Sheba when
she visited Solomon (I Kgs 10:2; If Chr 9:1; var-
iously translated ‘“‘company,”’ “‘train,’’ ‘‘re-
tinue’’).

C.P.W.

625 sim (hwm). Assumed root of the following.
625a om (hum) darkened, dark brown or
black (Gen 30:32, 33, 35, 40).

main (héma). See no. 674c.

626 piIm (hus) pity, spare. The asv and Rsv

translate about the same.

The basic meaning of Aus is “‘to look with
pity’’ often with the added nuance “‘spare.”’ It
refers to the feeling which goes out toward one
who is in trouble (cf. KB, p. 282). It should be

272

distinguished from hamal *‘to spare,’’ and radham
‘*to love, have mercy upon,’ although the dis-
tinctions sometimes fade. The word occurs
twenty-four times.

This word is used primarily in Deut and the
prophets, especially Ezk. The people are told not
to feel sorry for murderers (Deut 19:13), those
who bear false witness (Deut 19:21), or a woman
who seizes the genitals of a man who is engaged
in a fight (cf. Deut 25:12). These all deserve their
punishment so must not be spared out of pity. In
Deut 13:8 it is used in a negative sense with
hamal. Thus God describes how he wants his
people to react toward the idolator: let not your
eye pity and do not spare; they have earned their
reward! So, they were not to feel sorry for the
Canaanites (Deut 7:16); they were not to be
spared. In Ezk the people are reminded that they
received favorable treatment at their birth (as a
nation) from God alone who pitied them (his)
and spared them (hdamal) from certain destruc-
tion (16:5). They are reminded of their sub-
sequent lack of obedient and loving response
when they continually engaged in idolatry.
Therefore, God intones the judgment of Deut
13:8 [H 9] (Ezk 5:11; 7:9, et al.), viz. death. The
translations both render hus, as “‘spare,’’ and
hamal *‘pity.”’ But there appears to be no appar-
ent reason for this switch in meaning, especially
since Ezekiel’s usages clearly recall Deut 13:8
[H 9] (where both asv and Rsv render his *‘pity,”
and hdmal ‘‘spare’’). Jeremiah uses his twice
with both hamal and rdham; cf. raham.

The basic meaning of his surfaces in Ezk 24:14
where it appears after ‘*go back’’ and before *‘re-
pent’’ apparently being parallel with both. All
three are spoken by God who refuses to cancel
the coming judgment. So, our word denotes
God’s refusal to spare the people out of pity from
the anticipated judgment. Similarly in Jon 4:10
God reminds the prophet that he felt sorry for the
gourd even as God felt sorry for and spared the
creatures (babes and cattle, KD, in. loc.) of
Nineveh. Pharaoh tells Joseph's family to aban-
don most of their material possessions and not to
attach themselves to them emotionally, i.e. have
no regard (his) for them (Gen 45:20).

Sometimes Aus is hard to distinguish from
hamal *‘to spare,’ as in Ezk 20:17 where it is
parallel to **I destroyed them not”’ (cf. Ps 72:13
where it is parallel to ‘‘save’’). Elsewhere it ap-
pears to approach radham, the inner feeling of
compassion arising out of a natural bond (or, with
God, due to adoption). Cf. Neh 13:22 where God
is asked to remember on the basis of hus and
lovingkindness.

L.J.C.

mim (hdp). See no. 710a.

629 Im (hw@q), 29M (hyq)

627 pim (hws). I. Assumed root of the following. ‘“‘outside.’’) An adjectival form of Ais, its basic
627a tym (his) outside, outward, street. meaning is ‘‘outer,’’ ‘‘outside.”
627b TEM (hisdn) — outer. It is used twenty-five times, seventeen times in

his. Abroad, field, forth, highway, out, outside, Ezk 40-46, where it usually refers to the outer
, ce court. Most of the other usages refer to the loca-

outward, street, without. (asv and RSv similar.)
; tion of structures. Twice (I Chr 26:29; Neh 11:16)
This noun, which occurs 164 times, basically ;
the word 1s applied to the business duties of offi-

micas Outside. © nismay be tne oul surtace cials. This use may be figurative, designating the
of the structure or object involved or it may be oat y g : a = g aes
secular nature of the work. The kJv “‘utter

the area away from it. The word is often com- ee ‘ bsol b

bined with various affixes and is translated ad- COHN OMe, ae obsolete, has been re-
verbially, “(to the) outside.” Jt often refers placed in newer versions. C.P.w
specifically to the area which is *‘outside,’* espe- ees
cially the ‘‘streets.”

his is used approximately fifty-four times in 628 1M (hws) II. Assumed root of the follow-

reference to a community, either a city, or the ing. ;
earlier Israelite camp. In the Pentateuch it is 628a ym (hayis) party-wall, i.e. a_ thin
often used with respect to the camp. Lepers must wall (Ezk 13:10).

remain outside the camp (Num 5:3; 12:14); a part
of the sin offering was burned outside the camp 629 33M (/iwy), 3°M (hyq). Assumed root of

(Lev 4:12). Similarly Ais may refer to the “‘out- the following.
side’ of a city, specifically, outside the walls. 629a te°m (héqg) hollow, bosom, bottom,
Lot and his family were placed outside Sodom midst (RSV “*embrace, once
(Gen 19:16); merchants lodged outside Jerusalem ““lap**).

over the Sabbath (Neh 13:20). As a specific area
outside the city it is translated ‘‘field(s)"*: as a
place where sheep are born (Ps 144:13, kKiv
streets’), as asynonym for sadch *‘field’' (Prov
24:27).

Basic idea is that of a hollow or cavity from
which the ideas of a hollow formed by a fold of a
garment at the breast (BDB) and the hollow of the
lap are derived.
ae ; : Literal hollows are best exemplified by the hol-
The word also ts used about thirty-five times in low bottom of Ahab’s chariot in which the blood

conjunction with a structure. such as a tent (Lev ie
og gathered (I Kgs 22:35). However, the significance
14:8), a house (Ex 12:46; Josh 2:19), a temple of the literal “‘bosoms”’ of Ezk 43:13, 14, 17 is

(Ezk 41:25), or just outside any structure in the difficult to discern. Suggestions are *‘blood-

rain (Ezr 10:13). The ‘‘outside’’ within a city <4 i Mee
my: channel’ (KB), ‘“‘moulding’* (KB), hollow bot-
would be a street and Aus is thus translated about tom of altar’ (BDB), ‘bottom’ (asv), and

pe sie: as et aa rs ‘‘base’’ (RSV). Giving into the bosom is a
td a ale testcase aa cae mens euphemism for sexual relations (Gen 16:5; Rsv
probably involves trading, hence the rsv transla- Sembee)

ot es ne - ie pala yy i. A variety of abstract, figurative ideas are ex-
Aenea Nex 37:21). nee pressed by this term. Family intimacy may be
“Outside” may he a. fe building en ouie emphasized (Deut 28:54; Mic 7:5). Tender care or
side a particular room or enclosure (Ex 26:35). It ee ‘aed . ee as o Pe
may be the outer surface of an object such as the care for his only sheep (11 Sam 12:3), the widow ‘s

care for her sick son (I Kgs 17:19), and God's

ark of the covenant (Ex 23: I), =e Noah 7 ark carrying his people in his arms in his bosom (Isa
(Gen 6:14), in which case it 1s used in opposition ane ane fe aes
bbavit. the. auside’™ inca 40:11). Giving the old king's wives into the new
me ue Th aan . es = fae Hae, king’s bosom showed the new king’s authority
ee ere eee | LE San. 12:8--cf. also Il. Sam. 16-20-23): Naomi
immediate family or clan (Deut 25:9; Jud 2:9). formally laid Ruth's child *‘in her bosom” as a
The meta Eccl 2:25, eae (than I}, ts symbol] that this child was her (and her hus-
difficult. If this is the meaning, Av’s must mean band’s) legitimate heir (Ruth 4:16)
outside in the sense of “beyond.” The rsv (and ‘The basom. like other physical terms (e.g
ASV Marg.) ‘‘apart ’ (from him) translates has and hones” “kidneys * and “*heart’’) may cepweras
fits the context but must substitute “*him™’ (God) a emphatic ; ahimate torn forthe person him-

ore Pronoun fom AN nes Kirjath- SH Jidgment into the Bosom” marks the ob
filizoth (Num 32°39). > citviof streets.” a Hs ieee ject of judgment with special intimacy (Isa 65:6;
nae y , cf. Jer 32:18, NAsB) Anger lodging in the bosom of

tified town in Moab. fools (Eccl 7:9), fire in the *“*bosom”’ (Prov 6:27),
hison. Outer, outward, utter, without. (ASV Ssimi- and prayer returning to the bosom of the one who
lar, but does not use ‘“‘utter’’; RSV, ‘“‘outer,” prays (Ps 35:13; Kjv, ASV) are other typical exam-

273

630 “3h (hawar)

ples of this motif (cf. also Ps 89:50 [H 51]; Job
19:27, lit. “‘my kidneys in my bosom are
finished’’).

A.B.
630 33" (hawar) be, grow white, pale (Isa 29:22,
only).
Derivatives
630a "3m (hur) white stuff (Est 8:15;
1:6).

630b osm (hardy) white stuff (Isa 19:9).
630c “Mm (hori) white bread or cake
(Gen 40:16).

‘sams (hurdy). See no. 630b.

631 wasn (hash) I, hurry, make haste, hasten.
Derivative

63la wm (hish) quickly. Used only in
Ps 90:10, of the passing away of
human life.

hish is cognate with Akkadian hdshu ‘“‘to
move quickly’* and Ugaritic Ash ‘‘hurry’’ (UT
19: no. 849). The verb occurs twenty times in the
Qal and Hiphil stems.

Isaiah 5:19 denounces those who say insin-
cerely, “‘Let him make haste, led him speed his
work that we may see it.’* Although God some-
times tarnes, he declares, ‘‘I am the Lord; in its
time I will hasten it’? (Isa 60:22).

It is for this reason that the psalms so often
plead urgently, “‘Hasten to help me” or “*Hasten
to me” (Ps 22:19 [H 20}; 38:22 [H 23]; 40:13
[H 14]; 70:1, 5 [H 2, 6}; 71:12; 1412:1).

Isaiah (8:1, 3) was instructed to give his son the
name Mahér-shdlal-hash-baz, ‘*Speed-spoil-
hasten-plunder,’' signifying the imminent fall of
Damascus and Samana before the Assyrians. An
Egyptian name of the Eighteenth Dynasty, is h’k,
similarly means **Hasten, Seize Booty.”

Bibliography: Humbert, Paul, *‘Mahér Salal
Has Baz,’ ZAW 50: 92-92.

E.Y.

632 win (hush) H, be agitated, worry about,
enjoy (?).

Cognate with Akkadian hdshu ‘‘to worry”’;
Aramaic hdshash ‘‘to suffer, to worry’’; Syriac
hash *‘to feel’’; and Arabic hassa ‘‘to feel.’* It
appears in two passages, and possibly a third.
Zophar in Job 20:2 does not speak of the “‘haste™
within him (kJv, RSV), but of his “‘agitation.”’

Ecclesiastes 2:25 is taken ‘‘enjoy’’ by many
commentators so that it inquires, ‘‘Apart from
God who can eat or have enjoyment?’ on the
basis of Eccl 2:24 and the Akkadian hashdashu
‘to be happy.’ Ellermeier, however, holds that

274

the verb means ‘to worry,”’ in the sense that God
is responsible not only for situations which we
enjoy but also those which cause us to worry.

In Isa 28:16 instead of ‘‘he who believes will
not be in haste,’ Driver suggests ‘‘will not be
agitated.’’ Or the letters hsh may be in error for
bsh **be ashamed” (cf. xx and Rom 9:33; I Pet
2:6).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., **Studies in the
Vocabulary of the Old Testament II,” JTS 32:
253-54. Ellermeier, Friedrich, ‘‘Das Verbum
hush in Koh 2:25,°° ZAW 75: 197-217.

E.Y.

633 mtn (hazad) I, look, see, behold, prophesy,

provide.
Derivatives

633a TIM (haZbn) vision.

633b tAIM (hdzeh) seer.

633c = MM «(hazdt) visions. Occurs only
in I] Chr 9:29),

633d TAI (hazit) vision.

633e uM (hizzaydn) vision.

633f mms (mahdzeh) vision.

633g mine (mehézd) light, place of seeing,
window. Occurs only in I Kgs
7:45.

Like the word ‘*behold’’ in English, this word
is employed almost exclusively in poetry or
exalted prose. It is used exclusively in Qal, but
appears in all parts of that stem: This word, ap-
pearing about fifty times, is apparently an exalted
term in rather frequent use.

hadza, haza’ in the Aramaic portions of Dan
and Ezr (about thirty times) are entirely parallel
to the Hebrew.

The word ra’ad, used approximately fourteen
hundred times in the oT, presents a similar range
of literal, metaphorical, and extended usages as is
true also of the English words **look,’* **see’’ and
“behold.”

Any word meaning to see with the eyes, the
most vivid form of sensation, seems bound to be
employed for almost any sensation (by eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, skin) as well as any mental or
spiritual perception. Notice how at least two dif-
ferent senses are attnbuted to eyes in the prize
mixed metaphor of all literature: The children of
Israel complain to Moses and Aaron, **You have
made our savor to stink in the eyes of Pharaoh”
(Ex 5:21). In the case of hdzd the bare literal
sense 1S rare. Metaphorical and special senses are
more common, as follows:

1. The literal sense, perception with physical
organs of sight (Job 27:12; Prov 22:29; 29:30).

2. The special way in which a lover gazes at
his (her?) beloved (Song 6:13 [H 7:1)).

3. To ‘‘see to’ something, 1.e. provide (from

Lat pro-video “‘see to’’). The idea is to secure
needful things against a foreseen need or occa-
sion (Ex 18:21; asv margin of Isa 57:8 refers to
Israel's providing objects for idolatrous worship).

4. This word is carried to the realm of pure
spiritual understanding in two outstanding pas-
sages (Job 36:25 and Ps 63:2 [H 3}).

5. Metaphorically of God's awareness of
either evil or good actions among men (Ps 11:4;
17:2).

6. Immediate vision of God by select persons
specially chosen (Ex 24:9~11).

7. The revelatory vision granted by God to
chosen messengers, 1.e. prophets. Such appar-
ently was the experience of Balaam the son of
Beor (Num 24:4, 16). This vision of the prophets
took place sometimes in the waking state, but
also in “‘the spirit’’ (see Num 24:2). Sometimes
the experience of ‘‘seeing’’ a revelatory dream is
designated by hazd and hdza’ (Aram). See Dan
2:26, 4:5, 9 [H 2, 6] etc.

8. The vision of God which every saint shall
have after death, without reference to any bodily
organ of sight is designated by hdazd in two very
important passages (Ps 17:15; Job 19:26—27, pos-
sibly also Ps 11:7; Isa 33:17).

9. Because of the importance of the revelatory
vision as means of the prophets’ special knowl-
edge of divine things, the word sometimes means
to speak as a prophet (Isa 30:10, “Prophesy not
unto us right things’’). It might be that this active
sense (prophesying, to speak as a prophet),
rather than the passive one of receiving prophetic
revelation, may be the sense of Isa 1:1 (*which
he saw,’’ etc.) and other similar passages (Isa 2:1;
13:1; Lam 2:14; Ezk 13:8; Amos 1:1, etc.). To
speak even as a false prophet may be designated
by hdazd (Zech 10:2). The active sense is close to
certain in this last case. The close association of
haza and derived forms hézeh, hdz6én etc. with
prophecy is shown by the way the “‘seer™’ is on
occasion defined by the technical term nabi'
(II Sam 24:11). See especially Ezk 12:27.

hazon. Vision. This word has a range of usage
similar to that of hizzayon, mahdzeh, and other
derivatives of hdzad. Like hazot, it is used in the
titles of certain prophetic books (Nah and Isa).

hozeh. Seer, derived from hdzd. Of the
twenty-two occurrences eleven are connected
with the name of a particular person. indicating
his office as prophet (Gad, II Sam 24:11; I Chr
21:9; I Chr 29:29; II Chr 29:25: Heman, I Chr
25:5; Iddo, II Chr 9:29, 12:15: Hanai, II Chr 19:2:
Asaph, II Chr 29:25; Jeduthun, II Chr 35:15;
Amos is addressed as a hozeh). The identity of
office between nabi’ (several MSS) and hézeh (in
apposition) is shown by II Kgs 17:13. This ts en-
forced by Amos 7:12 where Amos is addressed as
an hdzeh who prophesies. viz. hézeh... tin-

275

634 sim (hzh)

nabé’. Isaiah 29:10 further unites Adzeh with
nabi’. It seems therefore that hozeh is simply a
more elegant word than ro’eh, of near identical
meaning (cf. I Sam 9:9). Three words then can
designate an oT ‘“‘prophet,”’ viz. ‘‘Now the acts of
David the king... are written in the history of
Samuel the seer {rd'eh], and in the history of
Nathan the prophet [dbi’], and in the history of
Gad the seer [hézeh]™ (I Chr 29:29).

Whatever the derivation of these three words,
Scripture specifies that nabi’ means spokesman
for God (Ex 7:1-2; cf. Ex 4:16; Jer 23:16; Isa
1:20; Zech 7:12; Amos 3:8; 7:16). ré’eh and
hézeh preserve awareness that God sometimes
made revelation to the prophets by visions, 1.e.
“seeing.”

See excellent discussion in H. E. Freeman, An
Introduction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968,
pp. 3741.

hazit. Vision, conspicuousness. (Five times in
oT). In three of the occurrences it is scarcely dis-
tinguishable in meaning from the second meaning
of hizzadyén (q.v.}—a prophetic deliverance,
message, oracle. Twice, in Daniel, it has the ad-
jectival sense of conspicuousness (Dan 8:5, 8).

hizzayon. Vision. This is one of several nouns
derived from hdGzd. It is very close to mahdzeh
(which appears only three times, Gen 15:1; Num
24:4, 16; Ezk 13:7, always of true or alleged revel-
atory visions). Of the nine times hizzayén is used
in the oT, five refer to the prophetic function. As
with hdzd (to see, have vision) it may designate
the oracle-message from God, e.g. Nathan's pro-
phetic ‘‘words** to David (II Sam 7:17) are called
an hizzayon (specifically hadd‘barim ha ’élleh is
equated with hahizzayén hazzeh). The speakers in
the discourses of Job four times use the word,
apparently in the same sense (Job 4:13; 7:14;
20:8; 33:15).

Bibliography: Pfeiffer, R. H., **"Wisdom and
Vision in the O. T.,”° ZAW 11: 93-101.
Richardson, TWB, p. 277. Rowley, H. H.,
‘*Ritual and the Hebrew Prophets, JSS 1: 338—
60. Scott, R. B. Y., ‘*Oracles of God,” Interp 2:
131-42. THAT, I, pp. 533~37.

R.D.C.

634 mim (hzh) II. Assumed root of the following.

634a tmtm (hdazeh) breast of an animal sac-
rifice. The word appears thirteen
times in Ex, Num, and especially
Lev.

The breast portions of the *‘ram of Aaron's or-
dination’ (Ex 29:26, 27; cf. Lev 8:29), of the
‘‘peace offerings’ (Lev 7:30-31, 34; 9:20, 21) and
of the Nazirite offering (Num 6:20) were
‘~waved’’ (Num 6:20; Lev 7:34; 10:14—15; etc.),
that is, in a horizontal movement symbolizing

635 tM (hzz)

their presentation to God. They then became the
portions of the priests.

Although the Hebrew word is used only of
animals, the Aramaic cognate hddéh appears
once in its plural form as the breasts of the image
seen by Daniel (Dan 2:32). In the Genesis Apoc-
ryphon 20:4 the dual Adyh is used in the descrip-
tion of Sarah, ‘‘How lovely are her breasts.”

E.Y.

vite (hazén). See no. 633a.
mite (haz6t). See no. 633c.
mim (hazit). See no. 633d.

635 tm (hzz). Assumed root of the following.
635a =o ttM «(hdziz) thunderbolt, lightning
flash (Job 28:26; Zech 10:1).

w3am «(hizzayon). See no. 633e.
mM (hdziz). See no. 635a.
“tm (hdazir). See no. 637a.

636 Im (hdzaq) be(come) strong, strengthen,
prevail, harden, be courageous, be sore
(meaning be severe). (ASV and rSv similar.)

Derivatives

636a tem (hazdq) strong.

636b tmpIm (hezqd) strength (once in the
masc. form hézeq).

636c «tptm (hdzeq) strength.

636d tmprnm (hozqad) force.

The basic meaning of this word in the Qal stem
is ‘*be(come) strong.’’ In general, the Piel is
causative of the Qal. ‘‘make © strong,”
“strengthen.” The Hiphil is ‘‘take hold of,”
‘seize,’ while the Hithpael stem ts ‘‘strengthen
oneself,’ hence, “take courage.*’ The use of
hdazagq is similar to ’dmés and ‘dzaz except for the
Hiphil which ts more like the Qal of ’adhaz. This
verb is used 29] times.

The Qal form, used eighty-two times, means to
**be strong’ or ‘‘become strong.’ In most cases
it can be so translated, but often the variety of
contexts encourages or necessitates a variety of
renditions. Most often the word is used for
strength in battle (I Kgs 20:23). The admonition
to be strong in combat may simply be an exhorta-
tion to be of good courage (and is so translated in
I] Sam 10:12).

In Gen 41:56 *’strong’* is used in the sense of
‘*severe’’ (RSV; KJV and aASv ‘‘sore’’) in reference
to a famine. Similarly a battle may be ‘*severe™
(II Kgs 3:26). **To be stronger than’’ in context
comes to mean “‘prevail,”’ as the word of David
‘‘prevailed’’ against Joab (II Sam 24:4), David
against the Philistine (I Sam 17:50), and Jotham
over the Ammonites (II Chr 27:5). When used of

276

Pharoah’s heart the meaning is ‘“‘harden’’ (Ex
7:13f.).

[The hardening of Pharoah’s heart is an old
problem, one that is more theological than lin-
guistic. The verb hdzaq is used twelve times in
the narrative (Ex 4-14), mostly with the Lord as
the agent, but four times in the passive or stative
sense (‘‘Pharaoh's heart was hardened’’). Also,
the verb Adbéd is used five times, both with the
Lord as the agent, with Pharaoh as the agent, and
in the passive sense. The verb gasha is used once
with the Lord as the agent. There is no discerni-
ble difference here in the usage of these words. It
is clear that Pharaoh was an unrepentant sinner at
the start (chapter 5). It is perhaps enough to point
this out and remark that all of God’s hardening of
an obstinate sinner was judicial and done that
God's deliverance should be the more memora-
ble. And this, too, was in God's plan (Ex 9:16),
though it is also inexplicably true that Pharaoh
sinned freely and was therefore terribly guilty (cf.
Acts 4:25-28). R.L.H.]

Other resultant meanings include “‘be sure’
(Deut 12:23), ‘“‘be steadfast’? (Josh 23:6, Rsv),
‘*catch hold’’ (II Sam 18:9, Absalom’s head in the
oak; the causative of this is common usage in the
Hiphil), “‘recover’’ (Isa 39:1, Hezekiah from
sickness), ‘‘stout, (of peoples’ words against
God, Mal 3:13).

The Qal form of the verb is used twice (II Chr
28:20; Isa 28:22) in the Piel sense of
’*strengthen.”’

The basic meaning of the Piel stem (used
sixty-four times) is causative of the Qal, to
‘‘make strong,” ‘*strengthen.’* As with the Qal it
is used often in the context of battle or combat.
Often the object of the verb is the hands or the
arms of an individual. **To strengthen the hands”
may mean “‘to aid’’ (Ezra 1:6), or, more often,
**to encourage’ (I Sam 23:16). The person en-
couraged may be the object of the verb (II Sam
11:25; Isa 41:7). Strengthen may be translated
simply ‘*help’’ (I] Chr 29:34).

The Piel is used sixteen times in the sense of
‘repair’ (II Kgs 12:5f.). As in the Qal, when the
object of the verb is the heart (ten times), the
verb is translated ‘‘harden™’ (Ex 4:21f.). It is used
twice in the sense of ‘*fasten”’ (or “*support’’) as
with nails (Isa 41:7; Jer 10:4).

The Hiphil frequently (sixty-three times)
means ‘“‘take hold,’ 1.e. ‘‘grasp,’’ ‘*seize.’’ It is
used thirty-four times in Neh in the sense of *‘re-
pair,’’ referring to the rebuilding the wall of
Jerusalem. Other uses are varied: *‘ prevail’ (Dan
11:7), “*support’’ (Lev 25:35), **receive’’ (IJ Chr
4:5), ‘‘retain’’ (Jud 7:8), “‘constrain’’ or ‘‘urge”
(II Kgs 4:8), ‘“‘confirm’’ (Dan 11:1),
‘strengthen’ (II Sam 11:25), ‘‘aid’’, Le.
‘*strengthen the hand** (Ezk 16:49), “‘join’’ (Neh
10:29), ‘“*hold’’ (Neh 5:16).

The Hithpael (used twenty-seven times) is
translated in a variety of ways but is usually re-
flexive of some use of the Qal stem, i.e.
‘strengthen oneself,’ ‘encourage oneself.”

hazaq. Strong, mighty, hard. This adjective
means ‘‘strong’’ in the sense of *‘powerful”’ (in-
cluding the power to resist). Of its fifty-seven oc-
currences, twenty-three refer to a ‘‘strong
hand,’ most often to God's power, as in the
Exodus. The word refers also to the strength of a
man (Caleb, Josh 14:11), the wind (Ex 10:19;
I Kgs 19:11), and a sword (figurative, Isa 27:1).
Although the word often refers to God's powerful
hand it does not seem to be used as a substitute
for deity (as ‘elydn ts).

It is translated variously because it occurs in
many different contexts. Applied to the blast of a
trumpet the word is translated ‘‘loud’’ (Ex 19:16).
When applied to sickness (I Kgs 17:17) or famine
(I Kgs 18:2), it is appropriately translated ‘‘se-
vere’ (RSV; the aSv reads “‘sore’’). The ksv also
refers to ‘sore war’’ (I Sam 14:52), but translates
a similar phrase ‘hottest battle’ (II Sam 11:15).
The rsv uses “‘hard(est) fighting’’ in both refer-
ences.

When referring the face, forehead, or heart
hazaq implies an unyielding stubbornness or
strong resistance (Ezk 2:4; 3:7-8, variously trans-
lated: ‘‘stiffhearted,’’ ‘‘stubborn,’’ ‘‘impudent,”’
etc.). It is also used as a substantive, ‘“‘mighty
one, ‘‘strong one’’ (Ezk 34:16; Job 5:15).

hezqa. Strength, strengthen self, strong, was
strong. (ASV and RSv similar.) A noun, used four
times meaning ‘‘strength,’’ but translated as a
verb in some contexts.

hozeq. Strength. (asv and rsv the same.) The
noun, used five times, means ‘‘strength,”’ always
in the sense of ‘military prowess.”’

hézq4. Force, mightily, repair, sharply. (asv
similar, but rsv ‘‘violently.°’)
C.P.W.

637 "tm (hzr). Assumed root of the following.
637a om «(hdzir) swine, boar (e.g. Lev
11:7; Deut 14:8).

638 SOM (hata’) miss, miss the way, sin, incur
guilt, forfeit, purify from uncleanness.

Derivatives

638a tNom (hét’) — sin.

638b tem (hattd’) sinners.

638c TASBm (hatta’a) sin, sinful thing.
638d tANOM (hdta’a) sin, sin offering.

638e ftmsenm (hatta't) sin, sin offering.

The root occurs about 580 times in the Old Tes-
tament and is thus its principle word for sin. The

277

638 NOM (hata’)

basic meaning of the root is to miss a mark or a
way. It is used two or three times in Ugaritic to
mean ‘‘sin’’ (UT 19: no. 952, Ais WUS 1019).

The verbal forms occur in enough secular con-
texts to provide a basic picture of the word's
meaning. In Jud 20:16 the left-handed slingers of
Benjamin are said to have the skill to throw
stones at targets and ‘“‘not miss.’’ In a different
context, Prov 19:2 speaks of a man in a hurry
who ‘‘misses his way”’ (RSV, NEB, KJV has ‘‘sin-
neth’’). A similar idea of not finding a goal ap-
pears in Prov 8:36; the concept of failure is im-
plied.

The verb has the connotation of breach of civil
law, i.e. failure to live up to expectations, in Gen
40:1. Compare the international overtones of
II Kgs 18:14, and the accusatory thrust of the
word, fault, in Ex 5:7. The Egyptians had failed
to supply straw for brick-making. Serious break-
down in personal relationship is highlighted by
the verb, negatively in I Sam 19:4, and 24:12 but
by confession of Saul in 26:21. Compare Jud
11:27.

The k)v does not catch the nuance of the verb
in Job 5:24, but rsv does with *‘miss nothing’’ and
NEB does with ‘‘nothing amiss,’ NIV ‘‘nothing
missing.’’ The verb, hata’, here means anything
less that the total. A corollary in personal rela-
tionships is found in Gen 43:9; 44:32. Judah
proposes that he ‘‘bear the blame”’ (kiv, REV) or
be ‘‘guilty’’ (NEB) if he fails to fulfill his promise.
Extended to religious obligations, the form, Adta’
min, in Lev 4:2 designates a failure to observe
God's laws and in Lev 5:16 denotes action which
gives less than is due, a failure of full duty.

When hata’ is followed by /é, a failure to re-
spect the full rights and interests of another per-
son is involved, e.g. Gen 20:9; Jud 11:27; II Chr
6:22, or of God as well, e.g. Ex 10:16; I Sam 2:25.
Often God ts the object.

But hata’ followed by bé denotes strong oppo-
sition. See Gen 42:22; I Sam 19:4f.; Job 2:10; Neh
9:29. In summary, one may Say that hata’ plus /é
is quite personal, whereas hata’ plus bé ts more
physical.

In the many instances in which the verb occurs
in the Qal stem the object is either God or his
laws, or else the verb is intransive. In so acting,
man 1s missing the goal or standard God has for
him, is failing to observe the requirements of holy
living, or falls short of spiritual wholeness. The
participle seems to designate the sinner in Prov
13:22; Isa 65:20 and all: instances in Eccl. But in
Isa 1:4 it designates the quality of being less than
acceptable to God.

Thus like other words related to the notion of
‘*sin’’ it assumes an absolute standard or law.
But, whereas pesha‘ signifies a ‘‘revolt against
the standard,’ and ‘@wd means either “‘to de-
viate from the standard”’ or “‘to twist the stan-

638 SOM (hata’)

dard,’ hata’ means “to miss, to fall short of the
standard. The Greek word anomia *‘‘sin,” con-
sists of the privative prefix with the word for
‘“‘law,’’ thus “‘without law.’’ Therefore judgment
is implied, for the law in fact is binding even if the
sinner thinks himself to be **without law.”

In the Piel stem, the verb has a privative con-
notation, as in Gen 31:39 where Jacob had to
**bear the loss’* for any animal which could not
be accounted for. In a religious sense, the major-
ity of the Piel forms denote a cleansing or purify-
ing ceremony during which sin is done away
with, e.g. Ex 29:36; Lev 14:29, 52; Num 19:19; Ps
51:7 [H 9] and all instances in Ezekiel. See also
the same meaning in the Hithpael stem (Num
8:21; 19:12-13, 20; 31:19-20, 23; Job 41:25
(H 17}). In Lev 9:15 and II Chr 29:24 this verb
form means ‘‘to make a sin offering.”

In the Hiphil stem, the verb means ‘‘to lead
someone else into sin.*’ Exodus 23:33 warns the
Israelites against allowing the Canaanites to lead
them into sin. The sin of Jeroboam was a stan-
dard by which the evil kings of northern Israel
were judged (I Kgs 14:16; 15:30, etc.); cf. Neh
13:26. The verb seems to have the sense of guilt
in Deut 24:4. Idolatry is the sin against which the
warnings are primarily directed.

hét’?. Sin, punishment. This masculine noun is
an act of hata’ which means that it is the failure
to hit the mark, a turning away from obedience, a
lack of wholeness or of acceptance before God.
The noun appears thirty five times in the Old Tes-
tament.

On a secular level the noun refers to a breach
of civil law or the regulations of a monarch, as in
Gen 41:9 and Eccl 10:4.

In a number of instances (Num 27:3; all occur-
rences in Deut; II Kgs 10:29; Ps 103:10; Isa 38:17;
Lam 1:8; Dan 9:16) the noun either designates or
implies an act of disobedience to God. Deut 21:22
and 22:26, refer to a sin of death, i.e. a sin that
must be punished by death.

Since Hebrew does not have a distinctive word
for guilt, some of the words for sin carry this
concept. This noun is one which sometimes
functions in this manner. The KJV often indi-
cates the thought by the phrase, “‘bear sin.”
Examples may be found in Lev 20:20; Num 9:13;
Isa 53:12 and Ezk 23:49. RSV would add Lev
19:17 to this list, and would translate the noun as
‘guilt’? in Hos 12:8.

The noun includes the concept of punishment
in Lam 3:39.

hatta’. Sinners, sinful. Another masculine
noun, atta’ appears eighteen times in the Old
Testament. It designates a habitual sinner who is
subject to punishment because of his or her prac-
tices. In one instance, I Kgs 1:21 the word is
secular in orientation and refers to a probable

278

penalty. A quality of sinfullness is found in Num
32:14.

hatta’a. Sin, sinful thing. This feminine noun
is used only three times. In Ex 34:7 it is linked
with ‘dwdén and pesha‘ as forgiveable, and also
has an abstract meaning in Isa 5:18. An Aramaic
form is in Ezr 6:17 with the meaning of sin-
offering.

hata’a. Sin, sin offering. |Another feminine
noun is hdtd'ad appearing eight times and nor-
mally carrying an abstract connotation. In all oc-
currences except in Ps 32:6 (where it means ‘‘sin
offering’') the word means ‘‘sin.’* In Gen 20:9;
Ex 32:21; 30, 31; and II Kgs 17:21 tt is modified
by the adjective gdaddd/ and usually refers to
idolatry. In Ps 32:1 and 109:7 the noun designates
sin as such.

hatta’t. Sin, sin offering. The most exten-
sively used noun form is the feminine hatta’t
which occurs almost two hundred and ninety
times. In Gen 18:20 the noun refers to the condi-
tion of sin. In Gen 31:36; 50:17 it is paired with
pesha‘ another common term for sin. In Lev and
in Num the noun appears many times alternating
in meaning between sin, the reality of disobedi-
ence to God, and sin-offering, the means of re-
moving the guilt and penalty of sin before the
Lord through the sacrificial system. In this con-
text, the noun is closely associated with ‘asham,
which is often translated as ‘‘guilt-offering.”’

Both the noun and the verb are for emphasis in
Deut 9:18. The noun is used for Israel's particular
sin, the golden calf (9:21) and is paired with pe-
sha‘ in v. 27. In Deut 19:15 with ‘aw6dn which ts
often translated as iniquity. This pairing of hat-
ta’t with other words for sin is fairly frequent in
wisdom and prophetical writings. The meaning
sin offering appears quite often in II Chr, Ezra,
Neh and Ezk. The term has the sense of guilt in II
Chr 28:13; Ps 32:5; of punishment in Lam 4:6 and
Zech 14:19; of purification in Num 8:7; 19:9, 17.

In the majority of cases hatta't denotes sin/s
against man, e.g. I Sam 20:1; Ps 59:3, or against
God, mainly in the historical and prophetical lit-
erature.

Man can only deal with sin through the sacrifi-
cial offerings coupled with confession and turning
from sin to God. God may deal with sin by
punishing those who continue in their sin (Josh
24:19; I Kgs 14:16; Neh 9:37; etc.); by forgiving
sins as indicated in I Kgs 8:36; II Chr 6:25, 27; Ps
32:5; Jer 36:3; and by purging sin as in Ps 51:2;
Isa 6:7; Zech 13:1. :

Since sin was understood in the ancient near
eastern religions as a violation of the status quo in
cultic, political, and social life, each country with
peculiar emphases, the pagan people could only
strive to conteract its consequences by magical

practices. In Israel, the people learned by revela-
tion that sin was disobedience of God's will and
exploitation or disregard of the rights of other
people. Sin was declared to be an extremely seri-
ous matter and could only be taken care of by a
creative and gracious act of merciful forgiveness
by God. And the cure was effective, bringing
about a new life of joy and fruitfulness.

For the people of Israel there was hope for a
change of life, both as individuals and as a nation,
because God was willing to turn away from his
wrath toward sin (primarily idolatry but also so-
cial sins) and do wonderful things for those who
would contritely turn from sin, confess, make res-
titution and surrender to God and his way of
salvation. Many a song in the Psalms declares the
reality of release from the burden of sin’s guilt
and penalty.

Bibliography: Coggan, F. D., **The Meaning
of Ar in Job 5, 24,°° Journal Manchester Egyp-
tian Oriental Society 17: 53-56. Gelin, Albert,
Sin in the Bible, Desclee, 1964. Hartman, Louis
F., “Sin in Paradise ,*° CBQ 20: 26-40. Kidner, F.
D., Sacrifice in the Old Testament, London:
Tyndale, 1952. Milgrom, J., °‘The Function of the
hatta't Sacrifice,’ Tarbiz 40: 1-8. , Sin-
offering or Purification-offering’’ VT 21: 237-39.
Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the Old Testament,
Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin, London: Adam and
Charles Black, 1951. Rabinowitz, Jacob J., **The
‘Great Sin’ in Ancient Egyptian Marriage Con-
tracts, JNES 18: 73. Richardson, TWB, p. 207.
Ringgren, H., Sacrifice in the Bible, Association,
1963. Smith. C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin,
London: Epworth, 1953. Snaith, Norman H.,
‘Sacrifices in the Old Testament,’’ VT 7: 308-17.
, ‘The Sin-offering and the Guilt-
offering,’ VT 15: 73-80. Staples, W. E., ‘‘Some
Aspects of Sin in the Old Testament,’ JNES 6:
65-79. Unger, Merrill F., “‘The Old Testament
Revelation of the Beginning of Sin,” BS 114:
326-33. Zink, J. K., ‘‘Uncleanness and Sin,’ VT
17: 354-61. TDNT, I, pp. 268-293. THAT, I, pp.
541-48.

G.H.L.

AseA (hatta’t). See no. 638e.
639 36m (hdtab) I, cut or gather wood, usually
firewood (e.g. Ezk 39:10; Deut 19:5).

640 sem (htb) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
640a oo misum (hatabdét) dark-hued _ stuffs
(Prov 7:16).

mapn (hatibdt). See no. 640a.
mem (hitta). See no. 691b.

641 een (hatam) hold in, restrain (Isa 48:9).

279

644 mm (haya)

642 mom (hdtap) catch, seize (Jud 21:21; Ps

10:9).

643 sem (htr). Assumed root of the following.

643a “OR (hotér) branch or twig (Isa
11:1), rod (Prov 14:3).

msm (hidd). See no. 616a.
‘s (hay). See nos. 644a,b.

644 mn (haya) live, have life, remain alive,

sustain life, live prosperously, live forever.
Also be quickened, revive from sickness, dis-
couragement, or even death.

Derivatives

644a nm (hay) J, living.

644b oN (hay) UU, kinsfolk.

644c «thm (hayyd) I, living thing.

644d = omm (hayyad) I, community.

644e mm (hayeh) having the vigor of life,
lively.

644f fem (hayyim) — life.

644g msm (hayyut). Occurs in the phrase
’almanét hayyit ‘‘widowhood of
livingness,’’ i.e. grass widow, one
who was separated from her hus-
band.

644h tam (mihya) preservation of life.

As a verb this root appears in three stems in
Hebrew. The Qal conveys the basic meaning **to
live or have life’’ whereas the two derived stems
overlap in their meaning of “‘giving or restoring
life.*”

Throughout the oT the possession of life is an
intrinsic good, ** All that a man has will he give for
his life’’ (Job 2:4), and *‘a living dog is better than
a dead lion”’ (Eccl 9:4). **Long life is in Wisdom’s
nght hand’’ (Prov 3:16). Against this estimation
of life one can appreciate the depths of Job's de-
spair when he desired to surrender his life (Job
3:17ff.).

Physical life originally came from God (Gen
2:7). After the Fall, death entered man’s experi-
ence. The fruit of the tree of life would have en-
dowed man with immortality (Gen 3:22). God
continues to be the source of life (Ps 36:9;
139: 13ff.) and the Lord of life and death (Num
27:16; Deut 32:39; Job 12:10).

The ot speaks of life as the experience of life
rather than as an abstract principle of vitality
which may be distinguished from the body. This
is because the oT view of the nature of man is
holistic, that is, his function as body, mind, spirit
is a unified whole spoken of in very concrete
terms. Life is the ability to exercise all one’s vital
power to the fullest; death is the opposite. The
verb haya *‘to live’’ involves the ability to have
life somewhere on the scale between the fullest

644 mon (haya)

enjoyment of all the powers of one’s being, with
health and prosperity on the one hand and des-
cent into trouble, sickness. and death on the
other. Sometimes the Psalmist calls on the Lord
to be saved alive from the very brink of the pit (Ps
30:3 [H 4]). He asks to be “preserved alive’’ and
‘*revived’’ so that he can enjoy ‘the land of the
living.’ Some have been extreme in maintaining
that this ‘“‘land of the living’’ is heaven, while
others have gone too far in maintaining that the
Israelites did not understand man as having a
spirit but simply as being an animated body.
Some have quoted verses like Isa 26:14; ‘‘The
dead do not live,’ to prove that Israel's view was
that death 1s total. There are indeed some verses
that say the living, not the dead, praise the Lord,
but these verses are expressions of simple physi-
cal observation. The fact is that in contrast to
Mesopotamian ideas of creation where man was
made to be mortal, in the oT man was created to
immortal life, not as a spirit but as a whole man,
body and soul (*‘Life,’"’ ZPEB, III, p. 927). The
entrance of death was viewed as unnatural.

The ot word haya has a range of meaning
which includes ‘‘to prosper, to sustain life,”’ or
‘*to nounsh’’ (Gen 27:40; Gen 45:7; II Kgs 18:32;
I Sam 10:24; II Sam 12:3) or ‘‘to restore to
health, to heal, recover’ (Josh 5:8; II Kgs 1:2;
8:10).

In contrast to the ancient near east, where men
sought to link themselves with forces of life
thought of in terms of nature deities, by magical
recitations of myth accompanied by appropriate
magical ritual, in the ot life is decided by a right
relationship to the righteous standards of the
Word of God. Moses places the people in a state
of having to decide between life and death by
laying the word of God before them (Deut
30: 15~20). Israel is called upon to choose life,
‘‘for this word is not a vain thing for you; because
itis your life’’ (Deut 32:47). Bultmann notes that
Ezekiel ‘‘frees life from all false supports and ob-
ligations and relates it wholly and utterly to the
Word of God (Ezk 3:18ff.. 14:13ff.; 18:1ff.;
20: 1ff.; 33:1ff.)°° (TDNT, Il, p. 845). In Prov,
man is again called upon to make a decision for
life, by embracing Wisdom (Prov 2:19; 5:6; 6:23;
10:17; 15:24). By cleaving to God, the righteous
have life (Hab 2:4; cf. Amos 5:4, 14: Jer 38:20).

But there is also the somewhat less concrete
meaning where one “‘lives”’ by the words of God,
‘*not by bread alone’ (Deut 8:3; Ps 119:50, 93).
Some would insist that this refers to prosperity as
the gift of obedience rather than to the spiritual
quality of life, as Jesus seems to have interpreted
Deut 8:3. But considering again the biblical unity
of man’s nature, it obviously refers to both.

While it may be difficult to show any de-
veloped concept of incorporeal immortality in the
OT, there are a number of passages where the

280

verb hayd means “‘to restore to life.” which
would imply the overcoming of death. Since oT
terminology uses death and life in a wide spec-
trum of nuances, in some passages it is difficult to
tell whether extreme trouble or illness or what we
would call death is meant. (The reader should
keep in mind that modern medicine, despite its
technological sophistication, has trouble defining
actual death.) Two such passages are II Kgs
13:20-21, where a man’s body ‘“‘revives’’ or is
‘restored to life’’ upon touching the bones of
Elisha. The other is I Kgs 17:17-24 where Elyah
‘‘restores to life’’ the body of the widow’s son.
Both of these passages appear to be dealing with
resurrection from death, but one would have
some difficulty from the terminology alone prov-
ing whether they were resurrected or merely re-
vived. But the people involved in II Kgs 13:20—21
are treating the man as dead that is, burying him
and the boy ‘‘had no breath left in him.*’ So in
each case the person was received back to life
from what the Hebrews called *‘death.”’

Psalm 49, while using the word haya only
twice (vv. 9, 18 (H 10, 19]) is very instructive in
what it says about the Psalmist’s attitude toward
living and dying. He teaches that evil men perish.
There is no way for them to be redeemed so that
they can go on living forever and never see death
(vv. 7-8 [H 8-9]). But the Psalmist is not totally
negative about death. He expresses his faith in
God's promise to redeem his life from the power
of the grave (Sheol) for he says, *‘God will re-
ceive (take, snatch, as Enoch and Elijah, see
lagah) me’ (v. 15 [H 16]). This passage should be
linked with Ps 17:15, “*I will be satisfied when I
wake in your likeness’ and also to Ps 16:11
where ‘‘the path of Itfe’* and overcoming of death
is predictive of the resurrection of Jesus Christ
(Acts 2:24—-29). Bultmann adds, ‘‘There is a re-
markably plain expression that the relationship of
grace will persist, that fellowship initiated by God
cannot be destroyed in Ps 73:23ff. One may say
that here the OT belief in the hereafter finds its
purest formulation. This expectation is neither
magical nor mythical not speculative nor mysti-
cal. It 1s a certainty which is produced in the
righteous by the concept of grace alone’’ (TDNT,
II, p. 848).

One of the meanings of the word hayyim,
‘endless life,” has been generally recognized in
the past only as a very late usage of the word.
(See BDB on Dan 12:2, p. 313). M. Dahood
(Psalms I, II, Ill, in AB, 16, 17, 17a) has brought
the Ugaritic literature to bear on the early mean-
ing of this word.

Though Dan 12:2 is often cited in the lexicons
as the usage of hAayyim to mean eternal life, Da-
hood sees it so used in the Psalms. He refers to
the Ugaritic antecedent in 2 Aght V1. 27-29 (AB
pp. 91, 170)

Ask for eternal life (Aym)
And I will give it to you,

Immortality (b/-mt)
And I will bestow it on you.

I will make you number years with Baal,
With gods you will number months.’’

Proverbs 12:28 uses ‘al-mdawet (no death) as the
parallel of hayyim (life). The Ugaritic bl-mr
translated ‘‘immortality’’ above is an equivalent
expression. The rsv says that the Hebrew is un-
certain and proceeds to give a translation based
on an emended text. However, Ewald, Bertheau,
Franz Delitzsch, and Saadia, the Judeo-Arabist
of the Middle Ages, said ’a/-mdwet means *‘im-
mortality.." The kJv wisely translated it ‘‘no
death,” NIV, ‘“‘immortality..’ They have all been
proved correct by the Ugaritic b/-mr as used in
the above citation. Dahood translates the verse:

‘In the path of virtue is eternal life
(hayyim),

And the treading of her way is immortal-
ity (‘al-mawet).”

M. Pope (JBL 85: 455-66) objects to this trans-
lation on the basis that the synonymous paral-
lelism goes against the larger context which con-
sists of a series of couplets in antithetical paral-
lelism and *‘therefore death not immortality is the
proper antithesis.’’ But is there here a larger con-
text? Are not these proverbs a list of independent
thoughts? Indeed it is not unusual of the proverbs
to shift from one form of parallelism to another
(cf. 17:21-22; 19:45, etc.). Pope states that
hayyim as eternal life is not justified by the paral-
lelism of hym and bl-mt in Ugaritic because, the
hero's, Aqhat’s, reply shows he did not believe
immortality could be had by a mortal and he
therefore accuses the goddess Anat of lying to
him. The implication ts that since the Ugaritic
hero didn't believe humans could have im-
mortality, the writers of the Old Testament must
share the same skepticism. The point is not what
the Ugaritians believed but that they used the
word hym for eternal life, whereas the Hebrew
lexicons generally list only Dan 12:2 as using
hayyim distinctively to denote eternal life be-
cause of its alleged Maccabean origin.

Another similar use of hayyim is in Prov 15:24
where it 1s put in antithesis with Sheol:

“The path of life above belongs to the wise,
because he turns away from Sheol below.”’

Whether this passage has relevance on this sub-
ject depends on how one interprets Sheol (q.v.)
here and tn other places in the ot. Sheol often
means only ‘the grave’’ in oT usage. If that is the
meaning here, then hayyim as its antithesis need
mean only ‘‘this earthly life."’ But if Sheol can
mean ‘‘netherworld,’’ then hayyim here may
mean “‘life after death.’ The writer holds that

281

644 mem (haya)

Proverbs entertains the concept that ‘‘death’’
(mawet) and Sheol involves more than the grave.
Prov 2:18-19 parallels death with the place where
‘the shades" (r* pd’im) are. And Prov 9:18 paral-
lels Sheol in the same way. This at least opens the
possibility that in Prov 15:24 ‘‘the path of life
above’’ can mean eternal life in heaven in con-
trast with Sheol below where the shades dwell.

Some oT scholars would reject this notion,
even though they might admit hayyim could
mean ‘‘endless life’’ on earth. But we are re-
minded of the repeated oT idea that God dwells in
heaven (Deut 4:36, 39: I Kgs 8:27; Job 22:12; Ps
20:6 [H 7], 80:14 [H 15], etc.) where his throne is
(Ps 11:4) and that the Psalmist longs to see his
face (Ps 17:15). Amos (9:2), a prophet the critics
accept at face value from the eighth century, con-
siders both heaven and Sheol as places where
people might conceivably go. Although Dahood
may be extreme in his application of this meaning
for hayyim, his critics may be equally extreme in
rejecting the notion entirely. For example, in
what sense does the king receive eternal life in
God's presence (Ps 21:4-6 [H 5-7])? And in what
sense does Mount Zion abide forever (Ps 125:1)?
The answer is similar in either case. The earthly
Mount Zion has a counterpart in heaven (cf. Ps
123:1) and the king’s prosperity on earth is only
the beginning of all God's eternal goodness to
him (Ps 16:11). It is very interesting (Ps 30:5) to
see the temporal contrast between the Lord's
anger and his favor. His anger is for a moment
but his favor is for *life-eternal’’ not just a *‘life-
time’ as in the RV.

hay. Living, alive. This adjective is often used
as an epithet of God (Josh 3:10; Hos 2:1; Ps 42:3,
etc.) but also of man, animals, and vegetation in
contrast to what is dead or dried up. The plural
form describes flowing or fresh water (Gen 26:19;
Lev 14:5-6; Num 19:17, etc.). Jesus used a word
play on this meaning (Jn 4:10).

hayy4. Living thing, animal. The term is used
mostly of wild animals in contrast to domestic
animals. Psalm 104:25 uses it of creatures that
live in water. Ezekiel in chapter | employs the
term to describe the “living creatures’ of his vi-
sion, which were composite in nature, having fea-
tures of both man and animals. More rarely it
means anything that lives (Ezk 7:13).

hayyim. Life, as anabstract idea, meaning the
state of being alive as opposite to being dead.
Life at its best, health, endless life.

mihya. Preservation of life (Gen 45:5), the ap-
pearance of new flesh (Lev 13:10), food, subsis-
tence (Jud 6:4, 17:10).

Bibliography: Greenberg, Moshe, *‘The He-
brew Oath Particle hay/he,*’ JBL 76: 34-39.
Gruenthaner, Michael J., ‘‘The Old Testament

645 mon (hakd)

and Retribution in this Life,” CBQ 4: 101-110.
Lehman, Manfred R., ‘‘Biblical Oaths,"° ZAW
81: 74-92. O'Connell, Matthew J., “*The Concept
of Commandment in the Old Testament,*’ TS 21:
351-403. Richardson, TWB, pp. 127-28. Rust,
Enc C., ‘*The Destiny of the Individual in the
Thought of the Old Testament,’ Review and Ex-
positor 58: 296-311. Sawyer, John F. A., ‘‘He-
brew Words for the Resurrection of the Dead,”
VT 23: 218-34. TDNT, II, pp. 843-61. THAT, I,
pp. 549-56.

E.B.S.

mam (hayyut). See no. 644g.
esm (hayyvim). See no. 644f.
Sm (hil). See no. 623b.

Sm (hayil). See no. 624a.
bm (hél). See no. 623d.
moon (héla). See no. 623e.
ym (hin). See no. 694c.

rem (hayis). See no. 628a.
zen (hisén). See no. 627b.
pm (héq). See no. 629a.
wen (hish). See no. 63la.
am (hék). See no. 692a.

645 mpm (haka) to wait; to wait for.

Cognate with Akkadian hakuam ‘‘to wait for’
which occurs in a Mari text (Archives Royale de
Mari 4. 22.9). It occurs thirteen times in the Piel
stem and once as a Qal participle (Isa 30:18). The
KJV translates the word as ‘‘wait,’’ except in
II Kgs 7:9, 9:3 as ‘“‘tarry”’ and in Job 3:21 as
‘long for.”’

Bandits are said to wait in ambush (Hos 6:9).
Job speaks in despair of those who wait for or
yearn for death (Job 3:21).

The book of Daniel closes with a blessing for
those who would wait for the fulfillment of the
prophecies (Dan 12:12). Habakkuk 2:3 urges be-
lievers to wait for the vision though it tarries. The
Lord declares, *‘Wait for me’’ (Zeph 3:8). The
expressions ‘‘to wait for the Lord’’ in Isa 8:17
and ‘‘to wait for him” in Isa 64:4 {H 3], connote
an attitude of earnest expectation and confident
hope.

See also gawd.

Bibliography: Thomson, J.G.S.S., ‘*Wait on
the Lord,’ Exp T 6S: 196-98. Wagner, M.,
‘‘Beitrage zur Aramaismenfrage im_alttes-
tamentlichen Hebraisch,’* Supp VT 16: 361-62.
TDNT, IV, pp. 583-85: VI, pp. 193-202.

E.Y.

646 %5n (hkl). Assumed root of the following.

646a 89995n (haklili) dull (from wine,
Gen 49:12).

646b mon (haklilat) dullness (of
eyes in drunkenness (Prov 23:29).

282

See no. 646a.
See no. 646b.

so9on (hakiili).
maos9on (haklilat).

647 Bam (hakam) be wise, act wise(ly). (ASV

and rsv similar except in one instance RSV
uses ‘‘shrewdly.’’)

Derivatives
647a taeom (hokma) wisdom.
647b fasm (hakadm) wise(man).

The verb is used twenty-six times and most of
the passages appear in the Qal stem meaning ‘‘be
wise,’’ etc. In the Piel stem the meaning is *‘mak-
ing wise’’ or ‘‘teaching.’’ Of all the words denot-
ing intelligence, the most frequently used are this
verb and its derivatives, which occur some 312
times in the Hebrew ot. About three-fifths of the
usages are found in Job, Prov, and Eccl.

(The main synonyms are bin, bind, and
t* band. The verb bin is used more widely to
mean ‘‘consider,’’ ‘‘discern’’ ‘“‘perceive,’’ but
the nouns are close synonyms to hokmé and are
used especially in Prov and Job. In the well-
known verse Prov 4:7, ‘‘understanding”’ is not a
higher stage than ‘‘wisdom,’’ but a_ poetic
synonym used for emphasis. The root sdakal is
also widely used for ordinary intelligence and
skill. It is often used for that wisdom which
brings success—even prosperity. This wisdom
was possessed by David (I Sam 18:14) and will
characterize the Messiah (Jer 23:5; Isa $2:13).
But the Hiphil participle is used particularly in
Prov as another synonym of hokmd. This word,
masSkil, is also used extensively to designate a
type of psalm. tashiyd, like sakal, has the double
meaning of wisdom and the success which ts the
effect of wisdom. R.L.H.]

The essential idea of hdkam represents a man-
ner of thinking and attitude concerning life's ex-
periences; including matters of general interest
and basic morality. These concerns relate to pru-
dence in secular affairs, skills in the arts, moral
sensitivity, and experience in the ways of the
Lord.

The subject wisdom was discussed throughout
the ancient near east. Mesopotamian wisdom,
which originated with the Sumerian, emphasized
human experiences, character, and counsel re-
garding practical advice. The problems of death
and suffering were discussed. Egyptian wisdom
included the concept of ma’at (‘‘truth,”’ *‘intelli-
gence,’ ‘‘justice’’), according to which one order
existed in the whole universe. J. A. Wilson
characterizes it as a created and inherited right-
ness, which tradition built up into an orderly sta-
bility (The Culture of Ancient Egypt, University
of Chicago, 1951, p. 48). Gods and men were sub-
ject to this order of conduct, which was taught by
the priests. Some have felt that much of the oT

royal wisdom, which great leaders imparted to
their students, was borrowed from Egyptian wis-
dom (e.g. Prov 23:13f. borrowed from the teach-
ings of Amenemope, although it is more likely
that an original source reflects a revelation of
wisdom.) Ugaritic literature also has a form of
maxims concerning the father-son relationship
possibly reflecting Canaanite wisdom. A later
Arabic derivative of the verb denotes ‘to restrain
from acting in an evil manner.”’

The wisdom of the ot however, is quite distinct
from other ancient world views although the for-
mat of wisdom literature is similar to that of other
cultures. Reflected in oT wisdom is the teaching
of a personal God who is holy and just and who
expects those who know him to exhibit his
character in the many practical affairs of life.
This perfect blend of the revealed will of a holy
God with the practical human experiences of life
is also distinct from the speculative wisdom of
the Greeks. The ethical dynamic of Greek philos-
ophy lay in the intellect; if a person had perfect
knowledge he could live the good life (Plato).
Knowledge was virtue. The emphasis of oT wis-
dom was that the human will, in the realm of
practical matters, was to be subject to divine
causes. Therefore, Hebrew wisdom was not
theoretical and speculative. It was practical,
based on revealed principles of right and wrong,
to be lived out in daily life.

In the historical and prophetical books, the
word hokmad is sometimes used just to refer to
ordinary intelligence and skill (Ex 35:35; Dan
1:4), but even there sometimes the divine and
moral wisdom is in view.

The wisdom literature, while sometimes using
wisdom as prudence and cleverness, majors on
ethical and spiritual conduct. Because God re-
vealed himself to Israel, their sacred literature
has the effect of a divine imperative; hdkam re-
fers to godly cleverness and skill, which results in
practical action. The one who hears (Prov 8:33;
23:19: 27:11), will be industrious, will know how
to talk, and his will, will be in captivity to God's.
He will have life. This wins divine approbation.

hokma. Wisdom. The usages of hokmd cover
the whole gamut of human experience. Wisdom
is seen in the skill of technical work in making
garments for the high priest (Ex 28:3), craftsman-
ship in metal work (Ex 31:3, 6), as well as the
execution of battle tactics (Jsa’ 10:13). Wisdom is
required from government leaders and heads of
state for administration (Deut 34:9; IT Sam 14:20),
including pagan leaders as well as Israelites (Ezk
28:4-5). The Messiah demonstrates wisdom and
discernment in his function as leader of his
people (Isa 11:2).

Wisdom is expressed in shrewdness. The
woman of Tekoa averted a town’s bloodshed in

283

647 Ban (hakam)

her clever plea for its safety (II Sam 20:22). But a
shrewd person is not to boast of his gift (Jer 9:22).
The ostrich displays traits lacking shrewdness
when she acts in her silly selfish manner (Job
39:17). The gift of shrewdness can be used in an
ungodly way to deny the omniscience of God (Isa
47:10).

Prudence, an aspect of wisdom, is expressed
by those who speak with wisdom (Ps 37:30; Prov
10:31), and who use time carefully (Ps 90:12).
This kind of wisdom in the practical affairs of life
is derived from the revelation of God (Isa 33:6).

The source of all wisdom is a personal God
who is holy, nghteous, and just. His wisdom is
expressed against the background of his omnipo-
tence and omniscience. By his wisdom God
numbered the clouds (Job 38:37), founded the
earth (Prov 3:19), and made the world (Jer 10:12).
Wisdom, being found in God, is regarded as a
divine attribute (Job 12:13). He alone Knows wis-
dom in its truest sense (Job 28:20, 23). The wis-
dom of God is not found in man’s speculation. He
alone must provide this wisdom for man’s guid-
ance so that man can live the best possible moral
and ethical life (Prov 2:6; Job 11:6).

In proverbial fashion, the Bible personifies di-
vine wisdom so that it seems to be a hypostasis of
God, but stops just short of giving it separate
existence. This wisdom was brought forth before
all things (Prov 8: 22-31). She has built a house
and prepared a banquet for those who will listen
to her (Prov 9:1f.). She even teaches in public
places (Prov 1:20; 8:1, 6, 11-12). By her instruc-
tion her students receive a divine spirit (Prov
1:2), the naive become wise, politicians become
wise, and those who receive from her wealth are
crowned with honor and riches (Prov 8:1-—21).

This personification of wisdom is unique.
While there were gods and goddesses in the an-
cient near east who were thought to possess the
gifts of wisdom it is unlikely that any existed by
the name of wisdom. The figure of wisdom in the
OT never came to be regarded as a deity indepen-
dent of the Lord although some such expressions
occur in Prov 8. These have often been taken as
an adumbration of Christ. Wisdom did attain a
degree of personification, with features which
were by no means abstract. Wisdom should not
be regarded as God but it does belong to God; it is
one of his attributes. Wisdom has a personal exis-
tence in the living word of the nt, but wisdom is
not the Logos herself (Delitzsch, Proverbs, p.
183). That Wisdom is personified as a woman in
Prov 1-9 is partly explained by the fact that the
noun is feminine. There the Lady Wisdom is con-
trasted with the woman Folly who is personified
sin. Note the studied contrast of Prov 9:4-6 and
9:16-18. This personification of wisdom is not
found outside these chapters.

Wisdom for man is not only to make one hu-

648 89m (hala’)

manly wise, but also to lead him to fear the Lord,
for this is the beginning of all wisdom (Job 28:28).
True wisdom for man involves knowing the Holy
One. So, men are to listen to the wisdom of God
with attentive ears (Prov 2:2). In fact, inner hap-
piness only comes when man attains this wisdom
(Prov 3:13) through a strenous search (Prov 2:4),
which is actually a search for God himself (Prov
2:5). Skeptics will never find this wisdom and will
never know the full meaning of life (Prov 14:6f.).
In the great poem of Job 28 wisdom in this special
biblical sense is practically defined as trust in
God and the avoidance of sin. (Cf. the emphasis
on hokmd as referring to moral wisdom in con-
trast to sinful folly in R. L. Harris, **Proverbs,”
in WBC, pp. 553-54.)

hakam. Wise(men); cunning (man). Reflects
the usages of hokmd in describing the wise man.
He is skilful in various kinds of technical work,
e.g. aS artisans (of tabernacle and temple furni-
ture, Ex 35:10), and goldsmiths (Jer 10:9). The
wise man knows how to administer the affairs of
state (I Kgs 5:12) and is also shrewd, e.g. the wise
woman of Tekoa handling a delicate matter be-
fore Solomon (II Sam 14:2). The plural also indi-
cates the learned and shrewd men, astrologers,
magicians of many nations: Egypt (Gen 41:8),
Babylon (Isa 44:28), Persia (Est 6:13). Prudence
also describes the wise person's attitude to kings
(Prov 16:14), his prudence in conforming to the
word of God (Deut 4:6), or a lack of it in ignoring
God's will (Hos 13:13).

The wise man constituted a third office, using
wisdom in harmony with the function of the other
two offices (Jer 18:18). Thus the wise man gave
practical advice based on divine revelation as
well as his own experience and observation.

Bibliography: Albnght, W. F., ‘*Some
Canaanite-Phoenician sources of Hebrew Wis-
dom,’ in Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient
Near East, ed. M. Noth and D. Winton Thomas,
Brill, 1960. Blank, S. H., **‘Wisdom,’’ in IDB, pp.
852-61. Crenshaw, J. L., **Method in Determin-
ing Wisdom Influence upon ‘Historical’ Litera-
ture,” JBL 88: 129-42. Gordis, Robert, *‘The So-
cial Background of Wisdom Literature,"”’ HUCA
18: 77-118. Harris, R. L., *‘Proverbs,” in WBE.
Hubbard, D. A., *‘The Wisdom Movement and
Israel's Covenant Faith,” Tyndale Bulletin 17:
3-33. Irwin, William, *‘Where Shall Wisdom Be
Found?’ JBL 80: 133-42: Knox, Wilfred, **The
Divine Wisdom,” JTS 38: 230-37. Kramer,
Samuel Noah, **Sumerian Wisdom Literature: A
Preliminary Survey,’’ BASOR 122: 28-31. Mal-
froy, Jean, *‘Sagesse et Loi dans le Deuteronome
Etudes,’ VT 15: 49-65. Marcus, R., **The Bibli-
cal Hypostases of Wisdom,’ HUCA 23: 157-71.
Montgomery, J. W., ““Wisdom as Gift,’* Interp
16: 43-57. Murphy, Roland E., **Assumptions

284

and Problems in Old Testament Wisdom Re-
search,’ CBQ 29: 407-12. Pfeiffer, R. H., **Wis-
dom and Vision in the O.T.,"° ZAW 11: 93-101.
Priest, John F., “‘Where is Wisdom to be
Placed,’’ Journal of Bible and Religion 31: 276
82. Reines, C. W., ‘“‘Koheleth on Wisdom and
Wealth,’ JSS 5: 80-84. Richardson, TWB,
p. 282. Scott, R. B. Y., The Way of Wisdom,
Macmillan, 1971. Talmon, S., **‘ Wisdom’ in the
Book of Esther,’ VT 13: 419-55. Van Imschoot,
P., ‘‘Sagesse et Esprit dans PA. T.,’’ RB 47:
23-49. Whybray, R. N., Wisdom in Proverbs,
London: SCM, 1965. TDNT, VII, pp. 476-514.
THAT, I, pp. 557-66.

L.G.

Sm (hol).
om (hél).

See nos. 623a; 66la.
See no. 623d.

648 som (hala’) I, be diseased, suffer.

Derivative

648a mNoMn (tahdli'im) diseases. The
word occurs five times, always in
the plural.

Derived from hala, hala’ is cognate with the
Akkadian halu ‘‘sickness, grief.’ It occurs once
in the Qal stem (II Chr 16:12) and once in the
Hiphil stem (Isa 53:10).

In II Chr 16:12 we are told that Asa developed
a serious foot disease, perhaps gout or gangrene
(NEB). Although medical treatment and physi-
cians are not condemned as such (cf. Isa 38:21;
Jer 8:22), Asa was at fault because he consulted
the physicians rather than the Lord. Fur-
thermore, we do not know what forbidden rites
these ‘“*physicians’’ (rdpa’im) may have prac-
ticed.

In Isa 53:10 the Lord is pleased to **put him to
grief (rsv; cf. also KJV , NASB), literally ‘make
him sick.’’ That is, it pleased the Lord that his
Servant should suffer. The NAB renders, *‘But the
Lord was pleased to crush him in infirmity” (cf.
JB ‘with suffering’). The NEB renders a recon-
structed text.

tahali’im. Diseases. Jehoram died of ‘‘sore
diseases, Which may have been a kind of dysen-
tery resulting in a prolapse of the rectum. Ac-
cording to II Chr 21:19, Jehoram died *‘in great
agony’’ (RSV; JB and NAB, “‘in great pain’’). The
NEB reads, ‘Painful ulceration brought on his
death.”

Jeremiah 14:18 speaks of the ‘‘diseases of
famine’ (Rsv), which ksv paraphrases *‘them that
are sick with famine.” Severe malnutrition
causes numerous diseases.

The Psalmist praises the Lord who forgives all
his iniquities and heals all his diseases (Ps 103:3).
Here, as in Isa 53, sin and sickness are closely

related. Sin and sickness are related to guilt and
punishment. Moreover, both are hopeless states
which only God can relieve. In Isa 53 they find
solution in the vicarious death of the Servant of
the Lord.
Bibliography:
IDB, I, 847-S1.

Harrison, R. K., **Disease,’’ in

E.Y.

649 Som (h/’) II. Assumed root of the following.
6492 ANON (hel'aG) rust (Ezk 24:6, 12).

650 39m (h/b) I. Assumed root of the following.
650a 39m =(halab) milk, sour milk, cheese.

Cognate with Akkadian hilpu, Ugaritic hlb
(UT 19: no. 862), and Arabic halab. The word
occurs forty-four times in the Masoretic text.

Human milk is mentioned in Isa 28:9; the
weaned child would have been about three years
old (cf. I] Macc 7:27).

The t°léh halab which was offered by Samuel
(I Sam 7:9) was a ‘sucking lamb,”’ 1.e. an ‘*un-
weaned lamb*” (NAB).

The Israelites utilized the milk of cows, goats,
and sheep (Deut 32:14; Prov 27:27). Because of
the warm climate, people of the Near East gener-
ally utilized the milk not as milk or butter, but as
sour milk or curds (yogurt).

When Sisera came to Jael’s tent she opened a
skin bottle of milk. Fresh milk shaken in such a
skin would be curdled by the bacteria left on the
inner surface, and would then be served as sour
milk (Jud 4:19; 5:25) or hem’d, which is not **but-
ter.”’ Called leben in Arabic, it is still served to
guests by bedouins. Cf. Gen 18:8.

When the sour milk was twisted tightly in a
cloth (Prov 30:33), curds were produced. Cf. Isa
7:22. David brought food for his brothers, and ten
cheeses, literally ‘‘cuts of milk,’’ for their com-
mander (I Sam 17:18).

The Israelites were commanded not to
“seethe, ' 1.e. boil a kid in its mother's milk (Ex
23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21). Since a Ugaritic text
(UT 16: Text no. 52:14) specifies, ‘They cook a
kid in milk,’ the biblical injunction may have
been directed against a Canaanite fertility rite.
Later Jewish interpretation held that this in-
volved the prohibition of eating meat and dairy
dishes together.

Milk is used in a number of symbolic or meta-
phoric expressions. The Lord promised to bring
the children of Israel into a land flowing with milk
and honey (Ex 3:8, 17, etc.). The image is of a
fertile land with pastures and flowers which
would present a sharp contrast to the desolate
Sinai wilderness. Some protested that Moses had
not brought them to such a land but had instead
taken them out of such a land, namely Egypt
(Num 16:13).

285

651 359 (Alb)

Milk is used in other expressions which speak
of prosperity and fertility (Deut 32:14; Joel 3:18
[H 4:18)).

The process of embryonic development is
compared in Job 10:10 to the coagulation of milk.
Cf. Ps 139:13-16; Eccl 11:5; Wisd 7:1-2; II Macc
7:22-23.,

Zion in its future glory will suck the “milk of
nations’’ and ‘‘the breast of kings’’ (Isa 60:16,
RSV).

For Job's description of the prosperous man
(Job 21:24), most authorities prefer to follow the
versions in reading héleb ‘‘fat’’ for halab **milk”’
(MT, KJV). The difficult word is ‘dtin (KJV
‘“*breasts’’) which occurs only here. The Lxx
translates it egkata ‘‘entrails’’ and the Vulgate
viscera. It has been conjectured that the word
represents Aramaic ‘dtam ‘‘flank,”’ hence
‘*thighs’’ or ‘‘haunches.”’ The rsv translates *‘his
body full of fat’’; the sB **his thighs all heavy with
fat’’; and the NaB “‘his figure is full,’’ Niv “‘his
body well nourished.”’ |

See also hem’ad, hémd, mahadma’' ot, héleb.

Bibliography: Fisher, Loren R., ed., Ras
Shamra Parallels I, Pontifical Biblical Institute,
1972, pp. 29-32, 182. Gaster, Theodor H., Cus-
toms and Folkways of Jewish Life, Sloane, 1955,
pp. 211-14. Kosmala, H., **The So-Called Ritual
Decalogue,’ Annual of the Swedish Theological
Institute 1: 50-57, 60-61.

For figures of milk and milking, see ANEP,
figures 76, 97, 99, 100, 600.

E.Y.

651 39m (hib) II. Assumed root of the following.

6Sla t32n (héleb) fat.

Cognate with Punic hi/b, Syriac helba, Ugaritic
hib, Arabic hilbun ‘midriff fat.”’ It occurs ninety
times, usually referring to the fat of animal sac-
rifices, especially in Lev where it appears forty-
five times. It is to be distinguished from halab
**milk’* which has a Ugaritic cognate h/b and
Arabic halab.

The «Jv translates héleb as ‘fat’ or ‘fatness,
except for *‘marrow”’ in Ps 63:5 [H 6], ‘‘grease™
in Ps 119:70, metaphorically, *‘the best’’ in Num
18:12, 29-30, 32, and “‘the finest’’ in Ps 81:16 {H
17); 147:14.

The fat of sacrificial animals, specifically the
fat surrounding the kidneys and intestines, was
burned by the pnests (Lev 3:3-4, 10, 14-16). In
some cases the fat tail of the broadtail sheep,
which can weigh up to ten pounds, was offered
(Lev 3:9; Ex 29:22).

The fat was burned in the following offerings:
|. the “‘burnt offering’ (kv) or holocaust (Lev
1:8, 12 where peder ‘‘suet’’ is used); 2. the
‘“*peace offering’ (kJv) or ‘‘communion sac-
rifice’’ (JB, Lev 3:9ff.. 7:15ff.); 3. the “‘sin offer-

652 mIBeM (helbéna)

ing’ (Lev 4:8-10); and 4. the ‘‘trespass offering”
(KJV, Lev 7:3-4).

Like the blood, the fat was not to be eaten (Lev
3:17; 7:23, 25). Whether this prohibition applied
to all animal fat or just the portions specified is a
matter of dispute; cf. NAB footnote on Lev 7:23.
The fat of an animal that had died of natural
causes or had been torn by other animals could
be used for grease (Lev 7:24).

Various theories have been offered to explain
why the fat was sacrificed with the blood. There
is, of course, the functional reason that fat burns
well with little odor and would thus be a good
practical representative portion of the peace of-
ferings which were offered in large numbers at
festival gatherings and which were eaten by
priests and people. Some see in fat the seat of
life, the symbol of strength, or the food of gods
(cf. Ezk 44:7). In contrast to the pagan gods, who
were dependent upon sacrifices for their suste-
nance (cf. The Gilgamesh Epic 11. 159-61),
Jehovah declares, ‘* Will I eat the flesh of bulls or
drink the blood of goats?’’ (Ps 50:13).

Abel's sacrifice of the firstlings of the flock and
of their fat (Gen 4:4) indicated his desire to offer
the best to God. The offering of the fat, which
was the tastiest part, symbolized the worshiper’s
desire to offer the best to God.

Such offerings were therefore welcomed by
God (Isa 43:24). But the mechanical offering even
of fat was no substitute for obedience (I Sam
15:22).

A number of passages describe the selfish, re-
bellious man who reveals his gluttony in his
obese features. In Job 15:27 the godless man has
hidden his face in fat. (In Ps 17:10 the wicked
have shut up their héleb, perhaps not to be read
as ‘‘fat’’ here but as ‘‘midriff,’’ as in the cognate
Arabic word, as this was considered the seat of
the emotions.) The eyes of the wicked *‘swell out
with fatness” (Rsv) or ‘‘gleam through folds of
fat’’ (NEB) (Ps 73:7). The heart of the godless is
‘*sross like fat’’ (Ps 119:70, rsv). When Jeshurun,
i.e. Israel, waxed fat and sleek he forsook God
(Deut 32:15; cf. Jer 5:28). (For Job 21:24 see
halab.)

héleb is used idiomatically for the best of the
land (Gen 45:18), as is the English expression
‘*the cream of the crop.”

In Ezk 34:3 the NEB, JB, and NAB follow the Lxx
and the Vulg. in reading halab *‘milk”™ instead of
héleb.

Bibliography: Heller, J., ““Die Symbolik des
Fettes im AT,’’ VT 20: 106-8.

See also bard’, bari’, dashén, mishman,
mashmanim, peder, shaman, shamén.

| ee

652 ma9n (helb’nd) a_ kind
30:34).

of gum (EX

286

653 35m (hid). Assumed root of the following.

653a 82m (heled) duration of life, the
world.

Zophar admonishes Job that if he (Job) will do
right and put away evil his ‘‘life will be brighter
than the noonday”’ (Job 11:17). The Psalmist la-
ments over how fleeting his life is. “*You made
my day like a few handbreadths; my life is as
nothing in your presence” (Ps 39:5 [H 6]). Psalm
89:47 [H 48] strikes a similar note, ‘‘Remember,
how short (of what duration) my life is.”’

The other meaning of heled is related to the
former. The world is used not meaning just the
earth, but rather the total scene of life and action
on the earth. Psalm 49:1 uses the word clearly
with this meaning ‘‘Hear this all you people; lis-
ten, all who live in the world.’’ The translation of
Ps 17:14 is more difficult but most agree heled
also means “‘world”’ in this verse. The meaning is
either ‘‘by your hand, O Lord, destroy them from
the world”’ or ‘‘save me (v. 13) by your hand, O
Lord, from men of the world.”’

E.B.S.

654 som (hid). Assumed root of the following.

654a 39m (hdled) weasel (Lev 11:29).

655 som (hala) 1, be or become sick, weak, dis-

eased, grieved, sorry, et al. (ASV and RSV
similar.)

Derivatives

65Sa tm (hdli) sickness.

655b tm2m (mahdleh) disease.
655c moma «(mahala) sickness.
655d 9m (mahdliy) sickness.

The basic meaning of this root is **to be(come)
sick’’ or ‘‘faint.”” The verb is used fifty-nine
times. Due to the nature of the verb there is sel-
dom any difference in translating with the auxil-
lary ‘“‘be’’ or ‘‘become.”’

In many contexts (e.g. Gen 48:1; Ezk 34:16) no
distinction need be made between ‘‘sick’’ or
‘‘weak,’” the latter resulting from the former. But
in Jud 16:7, 17 sickness cannot be involved be-
cause ‘to be weak”’ (in opposition to Adah,
strength) here is explicitly stated to be ‘‘as
another man”’ or ‘like any man."’ The other uses
of this verb could be construed always to imply a
sickness of some sort but this is often not neces-
sary. Thus in Isa 57:10 the word is applied to
what is probably the natural result of a long jour-
ney (asv and rsv, ‘‘be faint’’; KJv,**grieved’’).

To be ‘‘sick’’ includes the condition brought
about by physical injury or wounding: by beating
(Prov 23:35 ksv: asv and rsv ‘“‘hurt’’), from battle
wounds (II Kgs 8:29), from a fall (II Kgs 1:2). It is
used in a general sense (like the English) for ill-

ness, regardless of cause, sometimes leading to
death: Jacob (Gen 48:1), Hezekiah (1] Kgs 20:1).
It is used more specifically of disease: as with
Asa’s feet (I Kgs 15:23). It is used of animals such
as those which are unsuitable for sacrifice (Mal
1:8, 13).

The verb is also used in the sense of “‘sick of
heart’’ or ‘“‘mind,”’ as a girl sick with love (Song
2:5; 5:8). Saul complained that nobody was
“sick,” i.e. ‘felt sorry’’ for him (I Sam 22:8).

The non-physical form of sickness is more evi-
dent in the Niphal. Amos speaks of those who are
‘at ease in Zion’’ but ‘‘are not grieved (i.e.
‘‘made sick’’) for the afflication of Joseph”
(Amos 6:6) and Isaiah speaks of a ‘‘day of being
sick’’ (translated *‘day of grief,’ Isa 17:11). But
the Niphal is also used for the ‘‘diseased’’ (Ezk
34:4) and ‘‘faint’’ (Jer 12:13). In the latter refer-
ence Jeremiah uses the word for the effort to sow
wheat (which results in reaping thorns). The ksv
and Asv translate ‘‘put themselves to pain,’ but
the RSV, ‘tire themselves out.’ The Niphal parti-
ciple is also used in the sense of *‘severe’’ when
referring to wounds or blows (Jer 10:19).

The Hiphil *‘make sick” is used four times in
various contexts. Micah 6:13 should probably be
understood **I have made thy smiting sick”’ in the
sense of ‘‘sore’’ or ‘*severe."’ (The RSv rejects the
Hebrew text here.) The Hiphil is used in refer-
ence to feelings (“*hope deferred makes the heart
sick,’’ Prov 13:12), and to sickness that comes
from wine (Hos 7:5).

Isaiah 53:10 (ksv) reads, *‘Yet it pleased the
Lord to bruise him; he has put him to grief,”’ i.e.
‘the has made him sick” in the sense of mental
anguish. But it could be in a physical sense, 1.e.
‘he has wounded him.*’ This would parallel the
corresponding passive (Hophal) which is used
three times, always in the sense of “I am
wounded (made sick)’* from battle injuries (I Kgs
22:34; II Chr 18:33, Ahab; II Chr 35:23, Josiah).

The Hithpael is used just three times—all con-
cerning Amnon, in the sense of “‘make oneself
sick."’ He made himself sick with inordinate de-
sire (II Sam 13:2), and then made himself appear
sick (vv. 5—6).

The Piel is causative in Deut 29:22 (but the kv
translates “‘hath laid’ to avoid a cognate to the
noun ‘‘sickness*’). The only other Piel is an infin-
itive translated “infirmity” (Ps 77:10 {H 11], kKsv,
ASV) or ‘‘grief’’ (RSV, ASV marg.). For other Piel
forms see hala, I]. The Pual is used once: ‘‘be-
come (or) be made weak”’ (Isa 14:10).

holi. Sickness, disease, illness. This noun fol-
lows the verb in meaning ‘‘sickness’* whether
from physical causes (the fall of Ahaziah, II Kgs
1:2), or from disease (in Asa’s feet. II Chr 16:12;
inthe bowels of Jehoram., II Chr 21:15). It may be
applied figuratively to a nation (Hos 5:13). It is

287

656 *m9nm (hala)

used to describe a given situation as a calamity
(Eccl 6:2, rsv, ‘‘affliction’’).

The word is translated ‘‘grief’ in Isa 53:3-4,
although it may be better translated ‘‘sickness”’
(margin of asv and rsv), whether physical or
spiritual. The parallel is mak’db, meaning
‘*pain,’’ but translated “‘sorrow.’’ Jeremiah
(chaps 6—7) uses the term to describe the spiritual
depravity of Jerusalem (kv, ‘‘grief’’). The. kKiv
also translates ‘‘grief’’ in Jer 10:19 (Rsv, afflic-
tion), but the use in context is similar to Eccl 6:2
(above), perhaps to be translated ‘‘calamity.”’

mahaleh. Disease, infirmity. Used
(11 Chr 21:15; Prov 18:14).

mahaliy. Sickness or wound. Used only in
I] Chr 24:25 of the condition of Joash as a result
of conflict with Syrians.

twice

C.P.W.

656 *m9m (hala) HL, beseech, entreat, pray, make

prayer, suit, application. (ASV and RSv simi-

lar.)
Derivative
656a tm9nme (mahdlat) Mahalath.

This word is used sixteen times, always in the
Piel stem, and always with p°*né ‘‘the face of.”’
With p‘né the meaning is ‘‘entreat,’’ ‘‘seek the
favor of.”’ The use of A/A in this construction is
similar to that of the Hithpael of hdnan, ‘‘entreat
favor.”

Thirteen of the sixteen usages refer to the favor
being sought of the Lord. Usually this involves a
prayer for mercy or help in the threat of danger.
The danger may be the hand of God (Ex 32:11, as
a result of the golden calf), or of enemies (II Kgs
13:4, the Syrians against Jehoahaz).

As applied to others, Zophar tells Job that if he
would ‘‘be good’” people would entreat his favor
(Job 11:19, kiv ‘‘make suit unto you"’). In Prov
19:6 we are told that ‘‘many will entreat the favor
of the liberal man (kKJv prince).’’ According to Ps
45:12 [H 13], the rich shall entreat the bride of the
King, who ts identified in Heb 1:8-9 as the Son of
God.

Some would call attention to the invariable use
with p°né and urge that the idiom means to
stroke the face of someone and thus mollify him,
but this seems to be extreme etymologizing. The
origin of the idiom may not be clear. The mean-
ing, however, as determined by usage is plain.
Other words for ‘‘to pray” are Adnan and palal
(q.v.).

C.P.W.

mahalat. Mahalath. This technical musical
term of uncertain meaning is found in the head-
ings of Ps 53 and 88 (H 53:1! and 88:1]. Most ver-

657 99m (hlh)

sions simply transliterate the term. The NASB
suggests a connection with hala ‘‘to be weak,
sick,’ hence a sad tune. Others relate it to
mholad, a round dance. In Ps 88, where it is
joined with **Leannoth,”’ the Niv says it may pos-
sibly be a tune, ‘‘The Suffering of Affliction.”
For other such terms see seld.

H.W.
657 mom (hlh) IIT. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
657a 9m (hali) ornament (Prov 25:12;
Song 7:2).
6576 m9 (helyad) jewelry (Hos 2:15).
men (halla). See no. 660b.
yon (hallon). See no. 660c.
pion (halém). See no. 663a.
mon (hdlop). See no. 666b.
mwaon (halushad). See no. 671b.
momon (halhala). See no. 623f.
658 wom (hdlat) catch, pick up (a word). Used

only in I Kgs 20:33.

Yom (Holi). See no. 655a.

“on (hali). See no. 657a.

mon (helyd). See no. 657b.

oom (halil). See no. 660d.

moron = (halild). See no. 661c.

mp-on (halipd). See no. 666c.

myeonm (hdlisad). See nos. 667a, 668a.

659 39m (hlk). Assumed root of the following.
659a tma%m (hélkd) hapless, unfortunate
person, poor (KJV).

The word is used only as a noun and only in
one context, Ps 10:8-14. The psalm is about the
treachery of the wicked who lie in wait to destroy
their unfortunate victims. The wicked man thinks
God will overlook this but he does not (vv. I 1-
14). The hapless are exhorted to commit them-
selves to the Lord who is the helper of the father-
less. The root appears to be used three times,
although some suggest the usage in v. 10 has
another meaning (scoundrel, cf. Holladay, A
Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon, p. 105).
It is true that the spelling in v. 10 is slightly dif-
ferent but the root is no doubt the same. It is
possible that the word in v. 10 is the so-called
‘abstract plural..” The verse may be rendered,
‘*He (the wicked) crushes (him); he sinks low and
falls into helplessness because of his strength."

E.B.S.

660 %9m (halal) I, wound (fatally), bore through,
pierce. Survives in Arabic halla ‘pierce
through.’ Occurs ninety-six times, includ-
ing derivatives.

288

Derivatives

660a +59m (halal) slain, fatally wounded.

660b tmpm (halla) cake (if pierced).

660c tom (hallbn) window (if takenasa
piercing or hollow in the wall).

660d 9 %°m (halil) flute, pipe.

660e 9m (halal) play the pipe.
native verb.

660f tama (m°hilla) hole. Occurs only
in Isa 2:19 (parallel to cave in rocks).

Denomi-

The verb itself is used only eight times and
mainly in poetry. It usually means a fatal wound-
ing of persons, as does the adjective halal. Twice
it refers to the fleeing serpent, parallel to the
Lord's action in smiting Rahab to death (Isa 51:9;
Job 26:13; though in the latter passage KJv as-
sumes halal ‘‘create’’).

In the messianic passage Isa 53:5, **wounded”’
(KJV marg. “‘tormented’’; JB ‘‘pierced through’’)
follows the divine smiting (v. 4). The Poel form
used (m¢hdlal) is similar to that in Isa 51:9; cf.
“pierced by the sword”’ (Pual, Ezk 32:26). The
quotation in Jn 19:12 (‘they shall look on him
whom they have pierced"’) is from Zech 12:10 but
this v. uses another verb (dagar) ‘‘pierced
through fatally’* (usually in retribution). In Jer
51:4 and Lam 4:9 dagar is used as a synonym of
halal.

There is no need to read Ps 77:11 as **my sick-
ness’ (halt?) instead of ‘“‘my wounding”
(haloti), an idea already expressed in Ps 109:22
(RSV here ‘‘stricken,’’ but the context is of death).
Proverbs 26:10 is to be read with rsv *‘an archer
who wounds everyone”’ rather than the hypothet-
ical Ksv ‘‘the great (God) who formed (created) all
things.”’

halal. Slain, fatally wounded. The rendering
‘‘pierced’’ rests on its probable derivation from
halal 1. This adjective is used eighty-seven times,
one-fourth of which are qualified with “by the
sword.’ That the action was fatal is confirmed by
the context and circumstantial evidence in most
instances. It included the act of wounding and the
resultant groans. The wounds were inflicted usu-
ally in war, but also in persecution (Ps 69:26
[H 27]) or hunger (Lam 4:9), and ended in death.
For this reason KJV sometimes equivocates
(marg.) between **wounded”’ and “slain” (e.g. I
Chr 10:1). (In Lev 21:7, 14 the fem. halala refers
to a woman who had been violated.)

halla. Cake. This feminine noun occurs four-
teen times and is a technical term for a special
type of baked cake made of fine flour (Lev 2:4)
and oil (Lev 7:12; Num 6:15). It has been consid-
ered as having some characteristic perforations
(Ringbrot) on the basis of a supposed etymology
from halal 1. This cake was part of the firstfruits
offering (Num 15:20) and was placed on the altar

(Lev 8:26) as part of the burnt offering (Ex 29:23).
It was, however, eaten by participants as part of
the communion (peace) offering (II Sam 6:19; Ex
29:2; Num 6:19).

hall6n. Window. This noun (masculine and
feminine) occurs thirty-four times and its mean-
ing in the oT is not in doubt. It is usually taken as
an opening “‘pierced”’ in the wall (from /Adlal 1).
It was an opening in a building which provided
light and air, usually high up in the wall and
below the eaves for security purposes. The
etymology is uncertain and cannot be connected
with the Syrian portico architectural feature (bit
hilani; cf. Akk hitlanni, Hittite hilammar).

Windows are found in many types of building
in both inner and outer walls. They were not
glazed and seldom shuttered. They served as air
vents as in the ark (Gen 8:6). They could be set in
square frames (I Kgs 6:4) and were large enough
for a person to be lowered through them (Josh
2:15; | Sam 19:12; I] Cor 11:33). Exceptionally a
person, as a thief, might enter through them (Joel
2:9) although they were protected by bars or lat-
ticework (Jud 5:28; Prov 7:6; cf. I] Kgs 1:2).
Through these a person could be seen from street
level and look out (II Kgs 9:30-32), although to
identify this *“‘woman at the window” with cult
practices and representations in art is hazardous.

The phrase “windows of heaven” (Kjv, RSV)
translates another term (‘drubbd, q.v.) which
should be translated ‘‘sluices, floodgates’’ (as JB
and niv). Like the eyes (Eccl 12:3), the furnace
(Hos 13:3), or the dovecot (Isa 60:8) these could
be opened (Gen 7:11) or shut (Gen 8:2). So figura-
tively God controls the irrigation to let fall a de-
structive flood (Gen 8:2; cf. Isa 24:18) or the
shower of plenty (I] Kgs 7:2) a symbol of blessing
(Mal 3:10).

mhilla. Hole. This feminine noun occurs only
once, in Isa 2:19, where it is parallel to cave in
rocks. .

D.J.W.

661 59m (halal) HI, profane, defile, pollute,
desecrate; begin (Hiphil only).

Derivatives

66la t9m (hdl) profaneness, commonness.

661b +to9m (halal) I, profaned, dishon-
oured, unhallowed.

66lc tmo°on (halila) far be it (from me
etc.), God forbid that emphatic sub-
stantive used as negative particle or
interjection.

661d tmomm (t°hilla) beginning, first.

The etymology and basic meaning of this root
are not known. Comparison with Arabic hil *‘to
free from lawful obligations’ and with the use in
Ugaritic (only once, Ugaritica V, 3. 11.6, **pro-

289

661 99m (halal)

fanation of hands’ UT Supplement p. 552) may
indicate its semantic range.

It and its derivatives are used eighty-three
times. Aalal is associated with uncleanness
(tum’a) and similar terms with which the physi-
cal, ritual, and ethical issues overlap.

The root All is used to mark the act of doing
violence to the established law of God (Zeph 3:4),
breaking the covenant (Ps 55:21), or the divine
statutes (Ps 89:31 [H 32]). Thus to profane is to
misuse the name of God (Lev 18:21), the Sabbath
(Ex 31:14) or the holy place, and so desecrate it.

The Levitical laws had as one aim to safeguard
the priests against defilement in character, body,
or ritual. They would be made personally unholy
by contact with the dead (Lev 21:4). In regard to
sexual relationships, the rules were quite strict.
The priest might only marry a virgin of his own
people (Lev 21:7-15). In ritual the priest must not
make holy things unholy by partaking of sac-
rifices outside the prescribed period (when food
would have become polluted naturally, Lev
19:8). The holy place itself was to be protected by
prohibiting entry to ‘“‘aliens uncircumcised in
heart and flesh’’ (Ezk 44:7).

The original use of the word may have been in
reference to sexual relations, since it is used of
Reuben’s defilement of his father’s line (Gen
49:4) or of intercourse within the near kin rela-
tions forbidden by law. Such actions were con-
sidered fornication and prostitution. The word
may therefore be used of any action which con-
troverts God's planned order.

God himself was said to ‘‘profane’’ his own
inheritance by giving it over to Babylon when his
people broke the law and were exiled (Isa 47:6),
and likewise his priests when they were sent off
to Chaldea (Isa 43:28). In this he was acting to
prevent his Name from being profaned, i.e. con-
sidered unholy, by heathen nations, even though
it meant that the sanctuary, crown, and kingdom
of Judah were **profaned.”’

The Hiphil theme of the verb is only used
twice; of the Name ("I will not let my holy Name
be profaned any more,” Ezk 39:7) and of the
need of man not to “break” his word (kv
‘*violate’’) when it was a vow or pledge involving
the Lord’s name (Num 30:3). For this reason the
frequent use of the Hiphil (106 times) as “to be-
gin’’ is probably not to be derived from the same
root (see /°hilla below) unless possibly it de-
veloped from the concept of freeing oneself of the
obligation to act in a certain way by setting about
the business of getting free.

hol. Profaneness, commonness, common. This
masculine noun is used seven times. First, to de-
scribe a non-sacred place (Ezk 42:20; 48:15) or
anything non-holy, i.e. in distinguishing between
the holy and the common, even between the

662 B?n (halam)

clean and the unclean (Lev 10:10; Ezk 22:26;
44:23). Second, in I Sam 21:5-6 it describes
**common”’ bread as opposed to the bread of the
presence (KJV “‘in a manner common’’; RSV “‘even
when it is a common journey’’). Here again it is
used to describe the opposite of ‘‘holy.”’

halal. Unhallowed, profaned, dishonoured.
This adjective (see Adlal 11) occurs four times.
In each case the emphasis is on real or symbolic
breaking of the sexual laws. In Lev (21:7, 14)
it is used of women associated with (perhaps
synonymous with) women who are harlots. In
the list of persons a Levite may not marry it
follows a widow or divorcee (here also possibly
synonyms). It similarly describes Israel as the
‘‘unhallowed, wicked one”’ (Rsv; cf. KJV ‘’pro-
foundly dishonoured one’’; Rv _ ‘‘deadly
wounded”’ taking it from Adlal I).

halila. Far be it (from me, etc); God forbid (that I,
etc.). This expression, occurring nineteen times
introduces a strong negation or deprecation of an
act. It is spoken by a king or person of high offi-
cial standing or by persons collectively in a sol-
emn legal situation. Its use is attested only until
the monarchy. Job 27:5; 34:10 reiterates a con-
text similar to that in which Abraham uses it to
God, Gen 44:7. It is used by God himself (I Sam
2:30), to him (Gen 18:25), and about him (Job
34:10). The full, and possibly stronger expres-
sion, with the force of an oath includes the name
of God (as the Lord lives, may it not be, etc.—
I Sam 14:25; 24:7; II Sam 20:20).

Since it is usually associated with halal II it
may mean ad profanum. But this is by no means
certain. It may be a reduplicative form (cf. Akk
halu *‘drip blood,’’ and so the life ebbs away)
calling down a curse on the person who would
commit a prohibited action; but this is unlikely in
the light of its use by God himself.

t*hilla. Beginning, first (in a series). This
feminine noun, derived from the Hiphil of halal
discussed above, is used twenty-two times in
three categories. First, it marks the first of a se-
ries of occurrences, the outset, as of a journey
(Gen 13:3; 41:21) or the first in order of attack
(Jud 1:1). Secondly, and most commonly, it re-
fers to the ‘‘beginning”’ of a specified time, e.g.
the barley harvest (Ruth 1:22), the growth of veg-
etation (Amos 7:1), or the occupation of Samaria
by Babylonian deportees (II Kgs 17:25). It is used
of the first words of a prayer (Dan 9:23) or of the
first words of a godless man’s speech (Eccl
10:13). Thirdly, in an abstract sense, it denotes
the ‘first principle’? of wisdom, which is the fear
of the Lord (Prov 9:10).

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘‘Isaiah
52,5 and the Profanation of the Name,’’ HUCA

290

25: 1-8. Richardson, TWB, p. 272. THAT, I, pp.
570-75.
D.J.W.

662 32m (hdlam) I, be healthy, strong (Job

39:4, Qal; Isa 38:16, Hiphil).

663 o%m (halam) HI, dream.

Derivative
663a asom (halom) dream.

Apparently derived from the verb halam ‘‘to
dream”’ and certainly equivalent in every way to
hélem ‘*‘dream,’’ in the Aramaic portion of Dan.
This article will treat the Hebrew and Aramaic
hélem as precisely equivalent. Whether the verb
halam ‘‘to be strong,’ is a homonym or if there is
a more primitive meaning for halam ‘‘be strong’’
is moot, but it is interesting that if ‘*be strong”’ is
the primitive source, it came to mean *‘to dream"’
by virtue of the fact that erotic dreams of males at
puberty, accompanied by seminal emissions con-
nect the idea of ‘‘be strong’’ with *‘to dream.”’
Evidence is the cognate Arabic. KB unites the
two roots under one entry. There is no other He-
brew word for a dream in the or.

Use of the word easily falls under two
categories: (1) Ordinary dreams, such as all
people have periodically during sleep. They can
be frightening (Job 7:14); are transitory (Job 20:8;
Isa 29:7-8); and have natural causes (Eccl 5:2).
This is significant theologically as establishing
the point that authors of scripture endorse no
general theory of psychic or religious significance
of dreams.

There are, however, a number of cases which
show that it may have been a general belief
among Israelites and their neighbors that dreams
sometimes do have religious significance.
Pharaoh’s imprisoned butler and baker thought
so (Gen 40) as also some Hebrew warriors of Gi-
deon's time (Jud 7:13-15). (2) Revelatory dreams,
in which God conveys information to mankind.
These in the case of ‘‘lying prophets,’” are bogus
to start with, i.e. invented by their human
originators (see Jer 23:14-40). ‘‘They speak a vi-
sion of their own heart, and not out of the mouth
of the Lord’’ (v. 16). ‘I have not sent these
prophets, yet they ran: I have not spoken to
them, yet they prophesied’ (v. 21). Of genuine
revelations by dreams there are several grades.
In some God appears (under what figure or form
we do not know) and in a straightforward way
informs the sleeping recipient. Of this sort is the
dream of Abimelek, king of Gerar (Gen 20:3-7)
and of Jacob at Bethel (Gen 28: 10-19). Of another
sort are dreams wherein the divine disclosure ts
through symbolic things, persons, and actions.
The dreamer is puzzled and requires the aid of a

human interpreter. The interpreter (prophet) 1s
the primary agent of revelation, the dream being
only the occasion (Gen 40, 41; Dan 2:4). In some,
as above the dream is inexplicable without help
from God, but the agent of explanation is a divine
messenger (angel) who appears within the dream
(or vision) state of the subject. An example is in
Dan 7 (see v. 16). Sometimes the prophet-
dreamer awakens and, remembering his dream, is
puzzled by it, and the divine messenger (angel)
comes to him in his ordinary wakeful state to
explain the meaning of the dream (Dan 8, see vv.
15-27).

Both dreams and visions (see hdzeh and ha-
zon) were frequent modes of divine communic-
tion to the prophets of Israel. Numbers 12:6-8 is
specific to this point. It is by no means clear that
such were the exclusive modes of divine com-
munication, even though dreams and visions
were characteristic. (See Isa 1:1 and contrast Jer
1:1-2—"*vision’’ versus **word”™’ and ‘“‘words.’’)
Hebrews |:1 suggests many modes of communi-
cation.

‘‘Dream™ seems to designate the sleeping state
of prophetic receptivity and “‘vision’’ the indi-
vidual segment within the dream. Dan 7, for
example speaks of *‘a dream’’ in which there
were several ‘‘visions of his head upon his bed”
(v. 1; see vv. 2, 7, 13).

Visions and dreams did not as such render the
one who claimed to have them an authentic bear-
er of divine truth unless the person (prophet) pre-
sented his credentials. The dream definitely was
not his credential. (See Deut 18, 13.) Discerning
saints mourned the absence of these prophets,
their dreams and visions, and their ‘‘signs’’ (I
Sam 3:1; cf. v. 20; Ps 74:9).

Bibliography: ‘*‘Dream,” in Dictionary of
New Testament Theology, ed. Colin Brown, vol.
I. Oppenheim, L., The Interpretation of Dreams
in the Ancient Near East, 1956. Ruble, Richard,
L., ‘*The Doctrine of Dreams,’ BS 125: 360-64.

R.D.C.

664 maven (hallamit) a tasteless plant, purslane
(2). Derivation and meaning uncertain.

665 won (hallamish) flint.

The word is used only five times in the oT. It is
a quadraliteral root which probably comes from
an unknown non-semitic source. In the Num 20
account of Moses’ bringing water from the rock
another root (se/a‘) 1s used. But in Deut 8:15
where this event is referred to again the words
sar hallamish ‘‘the rock of ‘flint’’’ are used. The
poetry of Ps 114:8 divides the terminology of
Deut 8:15 putting one of the words on each side
of the parallelism: “‘who turned the rock (sir)

291

666 2K (hdlap)

into standing water//the ‘flint’ into a fountain of
water.

Job uses the word in his wisdom poem (chapter
28) to speak of the technological ability of men
who can ‘‘put their hands on the flint and over-
turn mountains by the roots” (v. 9) but still can-
not find wisdom. Deuteronomy 32:13 uses the
word metaphorically to tell how God materially
blessed his people. The Lord made his people
**such honey out of the rock and oil out of the
‘flinty’ rock.’ Isaiah uses the word in a forceful
simile of firm determination based on faith in the
Lord God. **For the Lord God will help me...
therefore have I set my face like a flint and I
know that I will not be ashamed’ (50:7).

Bibliography: Landsberger, B., **Akkadisch-
Hebraische Wortgleichungen,’’ Supp VT 16:
176-204.

E.B.S.

666 2m (hdlap). pass on, or away, pass through,

change; Piel and Hiphil usually **change”’
garments, wages, etc.

Derivatives

666a 2m (hélep) in exchange for.

666b "9m (halép) passing away, vanish-
ing, appointed to destruction.

666c mD%n (hdlipd) change (of gar-
ments), replacement.

666d Hom (mahdlap) knife (which cuts
through?).

666e mpom> (mahdalapad) braids, locks (of
hair).

The Ugaritic has a cognate to the last deriva-
tive mhilpt ‘lock of hair’ (Aistleitner WUS no.
1035). The Arabic halafa is used for *‘replace,”’
‘*succeed.’’ From this usage comes the title of
the Turkish ruler, the Caliph.

In the Qal the usage of the verb is illustrated by
Jud 5:26. Jael pierced through Sisera’s temples
(cf. Job 20:24). Whirlwinds, conquerors, ghosts
pass through or by (Isa 21:1; 8:8; Job 4:15). The
verb 1s also used for the growth of grass (Ps
90:S-6) and for the second growth of a tree (Job
14:7).

This last usage is of special interest for it bears
on Job’s concept of a future life. In despair, Job
had longed for death (3:11-15). Then he pleads
for relief from God who seemed about to destroy
him (10:8-9). Then in a difficult verse he affirms
his hope (13:15) and his assurance of vindication
(13:18). In chap. 14 he gives explicit considera-
tion to life after death. First, he cites the case of a
tree which when cut down will put forth a second
growth (v. 7, Hiphil of halap). Not so with man.
Of more value than a tree, he dies and does not
rise. Job finds this unthinkable and raises the
poignant question, “If a man dies, will he live

667 yon (halas)

again?’* He answers his own cry with a declara-
tion of faith drawn from his tree illustration. Job
will wait for his *‘second growth” (v. 14, halipd)
to come. He is sure that God will have respect
for, will long for Job the creation of his own
hands. Interpreted by consideration of the key
word hdalap the passage prepares for the more
famous passage on the subject, Job 19:23-27.
Bibliography: Harris, R. L., *‘The Book of
Job and Its Doctrine of God,’ Grace Journal 13:
28-29.
R.L.H.

667 yom (halas) I, draw off, take off, withdraw
(Qal); rescue, be rescued, (Piel, Niphal).

Derivatives

667a mx°9n (hdlisd) what is stripped off a
person, as plunder, in war. Occurs
only in II Sam 2:21 and Jud 14:19.

667b =omE2m (mahdlasd) robe of state.

This verb is used with the meaning given above
in the Qal stem only four times in the Bible (Deut
25:9; Isa 20:2: Lam 4:3; Hos 5:6). In Lev the
word has this meaning twice in the Piel (Lev
14:40, 43). The other meaning, to rescue, is found
only in poetic material in Job, Ps, and Prov. In
these books the verb is found sixteen times mean-
ing “‘rescue,' mostly in the Psalms. This oT po-
etic usage is reflected in Phoenician theophoric
names such as hdlasba‘al (Baal has rescued).
The two meanings are within the same semantic
range. The Psalmist ts in trouble and calls on the
Lord to **rescue”’ him, ‘*deliver’* him, **pull him
out’ of his distress. In Ps 7:4 [H 5] the Psalmist
himself is the agent rather than the object of res-
cue. Here he touches on the lofty theme of doing
good to one’s enemies, asserting, *“Yes, I have
‘rescued’ him that without cause is my enemy.”
The words of Jesus on loving one's enemies (Mt
5:43, 44) is not wholly a nr theme.

Bibliography: Thomas, D. W., “A Note on
Jud. 14, 18,°° JTS 34: 165.

E.B.S.

668 pon (halas) II, equip for war, put on a
warrior’s belt, gird or arm oneself, make
ready for battle, invigorate, make strong.

Derivatives

668a imeem (halisd) belt.
668b tex¥9n (halasayim) loins.

With these meanings the root is used mostly in
the Qal, occasionally in the Niphal and only once
in the Hiphil.

The widest usage of this root is the meaning
‘to arm”’ or “‘equip for war.’’ In Num 32:21 etc.
and in Josh 4:13; 6:7, 9, 13, where the Israelites
are preparing themselves to invade the promised

292

land as armed soldiers, the passive participle of
this verb is employed. The participle describes
the soldiers of David (I Chr 12:23-24), of
Jehoshaphat (IJ Chr 17:18; 20:21), of Pekah
(II Chr 28:14) and of the king of Moab (Isa 15:4).

halisa. Belt. A _ soldier’s (hero’s) belt with
which he girded himself. Cf. Akkadian halisu
belt, leatherstrap (CAD, vol. 6, p. 43). Although
other Hebrew words also apply (Adgodr, ‘ézdr)
this one fits well with the figure in Eph 6:14,
‘*Stand firm then, with the belt of truth buckled
around your waist’’ (NIv). Since this was the
symbol of the soldier's prowess in battle, its re-
moval was proof that he was defeated. The belt
wrestling which was practiced in the ot world (cf.
ANEP 218, 219) is reflected in the two passages
where this noun is used. In I] Sam 2:21 where
probably a belt wrestling joust is in progress
Abner tries in vain to get Asahel to take on a
young man and “take his belt.’’ In Jud 14:19
Samson takes on thirty Philistines and strips
them of their belts.

hdlasayim. Loins, as the seat of vigor and
place from which one’s seed comes (Gen 35:11; |
Kgs 8:19). Several usages stress the girding of the
loins (Job 38:3; 40:7; Isa 5:27; 11:5; 32:11).
E.B.S.

669 pom (halaq) I, share, divide, allot, appor-

tion, assign. RSv and KJV also “‘assign.”’

Derivatives

669a tpom (héleq) share, part, territory.
669b tmp?n (helqa) share, piece, portion,
plot («Jv parcel) of land, field.
669c mpm (haluiqqd) part, portion, only
in II Chr 35:5.
669d tApon (mahdloget)
allotment.

Share, division,

The word has legal connotations similar to
nahdld, **give as a possession’’ but with the more
specific implication of what is granted. It differs
radically from the many Hebrew roots for ‘‘di-
vide’’ used in the sense of **to break into parts.”’
The verb, used only in Qal and Piel (sixty-two
times) is used including its derivatives some 194
times.

The verb is commonly used of parcelling out
shares (rSV ‘‘allotments’’) of land (Num 26:53),
whether by lot (Num 26:53), inheritance (Prov
17:2), or other forms of division (Prov 29:24). It
can be used of any division, whether of food at a
feast (11 Sam 6:18), clothing (Ps 22:19), or the
spoils of war (Prov 16:19). Thus people may be
divided into unspecified groups (Gen 14:15;
though this might be derived from an equivalent
to Arabic hig “‘encircle’’), two factions (I Kgs
16:21), or specific divisions as in the case of the

priests and Levites for temple service (see
mahaloget).

God makes the division. The question is asked
if it is he who ‘“‘distributes*’ pains in his wrath
(Job 21:17) which *‘divides”’ (kiv; ‘scatters’ RSV)
the wicked. The “divided” heart of Hos 10:2 is
perhaps to be translated ‘‘false’’ or ‘‘flattering”’
heart; (see halag II). It is God who gives a share
of (Rsv ‘‘allots’’) sun, moon, and stars as guides
(not deities for worship) to all peoples (Deut
4:19). Since some Jewish commentators consider
this to condone idolatry among the gentiles, they
and the Vulgate translate h/g here as an equiva-
lent of the Arabic halaga ‘‘create.’’ God is the
source of light which is ‘‘distributed’’ (rsv Job
38:24). Although the verb is not directly used of
the Lord's allocation of land to his people, the
use of the noun (see héleg) shows that it was
ultimately his.

héleq. Share, part, territory. KJV, RSV also
“portion, tract."" This word occurs sixty-two
times. It is used as a synonym of “‘lot™’ (géral)
when it is a share of booty divided among the
victors (Gen 14:24) or of offerings among the
priests (Lev 6:10). More commonly it refers to a
share in an inheritance. Early in the ot the word
is used with a technical nuance of share of land
given to all the tribes when they entered the land.
In this use the term ts parallel with *‘inheritance’’
(nahdla). On the principle that “the land is the
Lord’s inheritance,’ the land share came to be
regarded as synonymous with “share of land”
(hebel) given out by lot to the tribes. Some think
that those living outside the designated *‘land of
God,’ i.e. east of Jordan (Josh 22; cf. Ezk 48)
were thought to have been denied their ‘share in
the Lord’’ (Josh 22:25~—27; Zech 2:16). Thus the
land, as part of the covenant promise of God, was
given to his people as their possession (Mic 2:4)
and share in God's righteousness (Neh 2:20).

But Aaron and the Levites, dedicated to God's
service, had no such share of land. For them “‘the
Lord is your share and your inheritance’ (Deut
10:9; Num 18:20). Cf. the statement in the mes-
sianic Psalm 16:5, **The Lord is the portion of my
inheritance, you maintain my lot (gdéral). This
special relationship resulted in arrangements for
the maintenance of the temple personnel from
the offerings and not from any land which they
worked themselves.

This relationship with God and people was de-
fined in a spiritual concept “‘the Lord is my
share’’ (Ps 73:26), ‘‘the Lord is the portion of his
people’? (Deut 7:9), just as he is their refuge (Ps
142:5 [H 6]) and so their sufficiency. The Levites
and, by extension, the God-fearer, find here ‘‘a
full and complete expression of all that his rela-
tionship with God guarantees him™’ (G. von Rad,
The Problem of the Hexateuch, 1966, p. 263).

293

670 22M (halaq)

In view of the spiritual implications of the word
it is small wonder that it formed a popular ele-
ment in Israelite personal names, e.g. Hilkiah.

helqa. Share, share (of territory), piece, portion or
plot (of land; kJv ‘“‘parcel’’), field. Cf. Aramaic
halaq; Akkadian eglu ‘‘field.”’

The major share or tenure of land in the oT
derived from tribal allotments (see héleg), so that
this feminine noun helga@ most commonly de-
notes the ‘‘share™’ or division of land made to the
various tribes of Israel after the Conquest. Thus
God was seen to have granted the best share as
the commander's choice (Deut 33:21). The multi-
ple ownership of land is already attested in
Jacob’s need to buy land (*‘a share of a field’’)
from several sons of the Shechem family (Gen
33:19; Josh 24:32). Later on, Boaz appears to
have farmed only part of Elimelech’s land (Ruth
2:3; 4:3). By the time of the monarchy the term
had become the general one for “‘field’’ (II Kgs
3:19), but often with the implication of inher-
itance (II Kgs 9:21). Jeremiah sees the land of
Israel as God's field (12:10; cf. I Cor 3:9). The
‘‘portion’’ of Job 24:18 may well mean ‘‘field”’
because of the parallelism with ‘*vineyard,’* in
which case every use of this noun can be trans-
lated ‘‘field’’ in the ancient sense. The noun
hdluqqa is used for ‘‘share’’ in II Chr 35:5 only
and the Aramaic Adlagq in Ezr 4:16; Dan 4:12, 20.

It was not an uncommon practice 1n the ancient
near east to name fields by some incident as an
alternative to the owner's name. Helkath-
hazzurim (II Sam 2:16) near Gibeon where
Ishbosheth’s men were killed by David's forces
under Joab was the ‘“‘field of sword-edges*’ or
possibly, reading hassorim, the “field of plot-
ters.”

mahaloget. (Tribal) allotment (of land), division,
course. This feminine noun from hdalagq I is used
thirty-two times. The kv also translates **por-
tions’’ and sp ‘“‘borders.’’ It is used in Joshua
(11:23; 12:7; 18:10) of the distinctive shares of
land given by Joshua to Israel, an idea reiterated
in Ezk 48:29. In exilic and postexilic times the
term is used frequently (twenty-six times in Chr)
of the technical groupings or subdivisions of the
priests and Levites for the work in the Jerusalem
temple and, more rarely, of the military divisions
arranged by David (I Chr 23:6, etc.) both of
which originated in the Mosaic legislation (Ezr
6:18).

Bibliography: Kamhi, D. J., *‘The Root HLQ
in the Bible,”’ VT 23: 236-39. THAT, I, pp. 576—
78.

D.J.W.

670 72m (halaq) HI, be smooth, slippery thus

figuratively, flatter. Cf. Ugaritic Alq,

671 won (halash)

Arabic halaga ‘be smooth.” Including de-
rivatives, it occurs twenty-eight times.

Derivatives

670a em (héleq) smoothness,
seductiveness (of speech).

670b tom (halaq) smooth.

670c tp9m (helqa) smoothness, flattery.

670d =n (hallig) smooth. Occurs only
once, in the plural construct (I Sam
17:40).

670e mpen (halaqqd) smoothness, fine
promises. Occurs only as_ plural
abstract (Dan 11:32).

670f tmipyeom (hdlaqlaqqét) smoothness,
slipperiness, flattery, fine promises.

670g tmipoms (mahl*qét) smoothness.

flattery,

The verb refers once to the literal process of
smoothing metal to make an idol by hitting it on
an anvil with a forge hammer (Isa 41:7). Its prin-
cipal use (Qal and Hiphil) is of smooth speech or
flattery, i.e. words which were smoother than
butter and like oil (Ps 55:21 [H 22]). This use of
the tongue is always condemned (Ps 5:9 [(H 10])
and ends in the speaker being himself entrapped
(Prov 29:5). It is characteristic of the seductive
woman who Is to be avoided (Prov 2:16; 7:5). The
enigmatic man who “‘flatters himself in his own
eyes”’ (Ps 36:2 [H 3]) may possibly be better
translated, ““His God will destroy him with a
glance when he uncovers his impious slander’
(cf. Dahood, M. **Psalms*’ I, AB, p. 271), taking
this from hdlag II ‘*perish.”’ Ugaritic hiq *‘per-
ish’’ is parallel to mt ‘“‘die’’ (UT 19: no. 969) and

Akkadian haldqu ‘‘disappear.’’ *'Their heart ts.

divided’ (Hos 10:2 kjv) is better taken as ‘‘is
false’ (rSv) that is, figurative of the fickle heart.

halaq. Smooth. This adjective is used to de-
scribe the smooth skin of Jacob as opposed to
hairy Esau (Gen 27:11), and smooth stones in a
wadi (Isa 57:6), some of which (‘‘smooth ones of
stones,’ i.e. possibly ‘‘the smoothest’’) David
used to kill Goliath (I Sam 17:40, halluq). A dis-
tinctive feature of the bald cliffs by the Dead Sea
was called the *‘bare (smooth) mountain’’ (Josh
11:17; 12:7 Kv: rsv translates as a name, Mt.
Halak). Some commentators associate this with
Arabic hig ‘‘high.’* Figuratively the adjective de-
scribes the mouth of the flatterer (in parallel with
the ‘“‘lying tongue’’ Prov 5:3; cf. 26:28). One day
divination which flatters would, like the false vi-
sion, be done away from Israel (Ezk 12:24).

helqa. Smooth part, smoothness, flattery. This
noun is used five times and denotes something
smooth (Isa 30:10), like the neck (Gen 27:16) or
slippery places where one is likely to fall (Ps
73:18).

294

671 won (hdlash)

672 NOM (hm’).

673 “em (hamad) desire,

halaqlaqqét. Similar in meaning to helqd. It is
used as an abstract to describe the way of the evil
person, which will be dark and slippery (Ps 35:6).
Since the parallel is darkness, some see this as a
rare use of Alg (cf. Arabic ‘ahlawlq *‘darkness”’
or hdalag ‘‘destruction.”’ See also halagq II). As
smooth speech this noun is clearly used of seduc-
tive words or flattery (Prov 6:24) by which some
attempted to win kingdoms, a concept em-
phasized in Dan (11:21, 34).

mahl*qé6t. Smoothness. This feminine plural
noun occurs only in I Sam 23:28 in the place
name Sela-hammahlekoth (so kJv). If from halaq
II, it could be the ‘rock of smoothness,”’ 1.e.
slippery rock (so BDB), but this may not be a
proper name. [Though there is a town in
Pennsylvania called ‘Slippery Rock’’!—Epitor]
If taken from hdlag I it is assumed that it was
‘trock of divisions’’ as the place where Saul and
David parted. However the word is used else-
where in this sense only of the division of priests
(see mahdloget). The ‘rock of escapes’’ (so Rsv)
can be supported from Akkadian haldqu *‘‘es-
cape.”’

Bibliography: Kambhi, D. J., **The root h/q in
the Bible,’ VT 23: 235-39.

D.J.W.

nip2p2n (hdlaglaqqgot). See no. 670f.
be weak, prostrate (e.g. Ex
17:13).

Derivatives

67la wm (hallash) weak (Joel 4:10).
671b mwion (hdlishad) weakness, prostra-
tion (Ex 32:18).

om (ham). See no. 674a.
am (ham). See no. 677b.
pm (hom). See no. 677a.

Assumed root of the following.
672a mem (hem'a) curd (modern _/e-
ben).

delight in. Cf.
Ugaritic hmd ‘‘be pleasant,’ but also
covet, lust after (Asv and Rsv similar but in
the positive contexts [eleven of twenty-
one] prefer the less ambiguous delight in’’).
The Arabic hamida means praise and the
name Mohammed comes from the root.

Derivatives
673a tan (hemed) desirable, pleasant
(marg., things of desire).
673b imam (hemdad) desire, also an ad-

jective, pleasant, precious.

673c «otninvem = (hdmiudot) desirableness,
preciousness.

673d toma (mahmad) pleasant thing.

673e tame (mahmod) pleasant thing.

From its initial occurrences, the verb hadmad
describes on the one hand God’s ‘‘pleasant’’
trees in Eden (Gen 2:9); but on the other, the tree
forbidden to Adam, which became sinful when
‘‘desired’’ (the same Niphal participle) to make
one wise (3:6). Similarly, the noun hemed iden-
tifies both ‘‘pleasant*’ fields (Isa 32:12; marg.,
fields of ‘‘desire’’) and ‘‘desirable’’ young Assy-
rans, pagans (Ezk 23:6, 12, 23), who proved to
be Israel’s downfall.

Positively, Ps 39:11 [H 12] speaks of man’s
‘beauty,’ Kiv (part. pass.; ASV marg., collective,
‘‘delights’’; Rsv, ‘‘what is dear to him’’); cf. the
noun hdmuddim ‘pleasant things,’ or luxuries
(Lam 1:11; cf. Prov 21:20). When Haggai there-
fore predicts that ‘‘the desire of all nations shall
come”’ (2:7), he probably is not referring to the
Messiah (as in v. 94) but rather to the contribu-
tions of precious things (Asv; hemda) for refur-
bishing Zerubbabel’s temple (the same noun, II
Chr 36:10). The Shulammite sits by her beloved
‘with great delight,’ hamad, Piel (Song 2:3; lit-
erally, ‘*May I delight and sit’’); she says that he
is altogether ‘‘lovely,”’ mahmad, a ‘‘desire”’
(5:16). God himself *‘desired’’ Jerusalem for his
abode (Ps 68:16 [H 17}; cf. 106:24; Jer 3:19;
12:10), and the Lord’s ordinances are more to be
“desired,” nehmddim, than gold (Ps 19:10
{[H 11]; see Ezr 8:27, copper items called
hdmud6ét **preciousness,”’ like gold).

Even when scoffers ‘‘delight’’ in their mockery
(Prov 1:22), the act as such, of delighting, ap-
pears to them good, paralleling ‘‘love’’ (1:22a; cf.
12:12; Job 20:20). To Judah, correspondingly,
images became ‘‘delectable’’ things (Isa 44:9;
asv, ‘delighted in’’; see 2:16), ‘‘desired’’ (1:29);
but this reaction ‘‘is primarily psychological and
only secondarily ethical’’ (RTWB, p. 64).

Negatively, however, the Tenth Command-
ment prescribes, ‘Thou shalt not hdmad, covet”
(Ex 20:17), which refers to an “‘inordinate, un-
governed, selfish desire’’ (BDB, p. 326). Israel
was not to ‘“‘desire’’ (Deut 7:25; aAsv, RSV,
‘‘covet’’) the gold adorning idols, to lust after
prostitutes (Prov 6:25), or to covet fields (Mic
2:2; cf. Ex 34:24). Achan’s sin at Jericho was that
he desired the spoil (hadmad Josh 7:21). When
Aramean officers described what ever was
mahmad *“‘pleasant,”’ in their eyes (I Kgs 20:6)
they sought the most desirable treasures of
Samaria as plunder.

In religion, ‘‘the desire (hemda) of women”
(Dan 11:37) would probably refer to the deity
Tammuz-Adonis (KB, p. 308; Ezk 8:14; ICC,
Dan, in loc.). Though God’s anointed king ap-

295

674 mam (hAmh)

pears as the desire of Israel (I Sam 9:20; contrast
II Chr 21:20), Isaiah must predict for the mes-
Sianic servant an absence of beauty, that we
should desire (hdmad), ‘be drawn to” him
(53:2).

hemed, hemda. Desirable, pleasant (marg.,
things of desire). More frequently feminine
hemda4 (seventeen as opposed to five occurrences
of hemed) ‘‘desire’’; also adjective, ‘‘pleasant,”’
**precious.”’

hamédot. The quality of desirableness, pre-
ciousness, rendered ‘‘a man greatly beloved”’
(Dan 9:23; 10:11, 19), ‘pleasant (KB, p. 309, de-
licate) bread’’ (10:3), ‘goodly raiment’’ (Gen
27:15), or ‘‘precious jewels’’ (If Chr 20:25), but
also true plurals, pleasant or precious things (Dan
11:38, 43). Occurs nine times.

mahmad. Concretely, a pleasant thing (four
out of thirteen times) or person, e.g. either
Ezekiel’s wife, “‘the ‘desire’ of his eyes,’’ or his
contemporaneous temple (Ezk 24:16, 21, 25);
also adjectival renderings: beloved, lovely,
pleasant.

mahmod. Only plural, mahadmuddim, pleasant
things; (Lam 1:7, 11).

Bibliography: Biuchsel, F., in TDNT, III, pp.
169-70. Coates, J. R., “‘Thou Shalt not Covet {Ex
20:17],°° ZAW 11: 238. Gamberoni, J., “Desire,”
in Sacramentum Verbi, vol. 1, Herder & Herder,
1970, pp. 206-209. THAT, I, pp. 579-80.

J.B.P.

674 mon (hmh). Assumed root of the following.

674a fam (ham) father-in-law.
674b tniem (hadmét) mother-in-law.
674c =o main. «= (hémda) wall.

ham. Father-in-law. asv and rsv the same.
This noun denotes the father of one’s husband.
Its Akkadian cognate 1s emu (CAD E. p. 154ff.)
which usually represents a male relative: father-
in-law, son-in-law, or wife’s/sister’s son. Our
word occurs four times.

hamét. Mother-in-law. The feminine of the
above noun. Its Akkadian cognate 1s emétu’
(CAD E, p. 149). Our word occurs eleven times.
That our word signifies the father-in-law
(mother-in-law) is clear not simply on the basis of
the Akkadian cognates, but from the Bible itself.
In Gen 38:13, 25, it is evident that Judah, who
was beguiled by Tamar to fulfill his levirate duty,
was the father of her two deceased husbands.
Equally clear is the use in I Sam 4:19, 21, where
the wife of Phinehas, Eli’s son dies grieving over
her family and giving birth to a son, Ichabod. The
feminine noun stands opposite kallat in Ruth
2:23, and clearly signifies mother-in-law. Inter-
estingly, Micah (7:6) decries the deep moral cor-

675 rom (Amt)

ruption evidenced in the breakdown of societal
bonds, especially the bond between mother-in-
law and daughter-in-law.

L.J.C.

mam (hema). See no. 860a.

man (hammda). See no. 677c.
misvan (hdamidot). See no. 673c.
ryan (hamos). See no. 68la.
pan (hammiug). See no. 682a.
“3am (hamor). «See no. 685a.
nian (hamot). See no. 674b.

675 wan (hmt). Assumed root of the following.
675a wm (hdmet) akind of lizard (Lev
11:30).

yyan (hamis). See no. 679c.
wren (hdmishi). See no. 686d.

676 Yam (hamal) spare, have compassion on.

Derivatives

676a thon (hemid) mercy.
676b tram = (mahmal) object of deep love.

The asv and rsv translations reflect the breadth
of this root and the subsequent difficulty in ren-
dering it. Basically, this root connotes that emo-
tional response which results (or may result) in
action to remove its object (and/or its subject)
from impending difficulty. It should be distin-
guished from his and rdham. It occurs forty-five
times.

The idea of ‘‘sparing’’ is clearly seen in Jer
50:14 where God instructs Cyrus’s armies to
‘*spare no arrows.’ Obviously, there is no in-
ward emotional element of compassion upon the
arrows involved in this sparing. Job confesses
that his pain spares not (Job 6:10). On the other
hand, the jealous man when taking revenge
spares not (Prov 6:34), 1.e. holds nothing back, is
merciless. The wicked takes delight in his evil
and holds it in his mouth (Job 20:13). He spares it
and will not let it go (ASsv).

In Deut 13:8 [H 9} this word is used negatively
with has to describe how God wants his people to
react to idolators. Samuel evokes this judgment:
spare not the Amalakites (the idolators) who re-
fused passage to Israel (I Sam 15:3, 9, 15). De-
stroy them completely! But Saul disobeyed.
Cyrus is directed not to spare Babylon (Jer 51:3;
cf. Hab 1:17). In these cases there is to be no
emotion which would hinder thorough-going de-
struction. Things will be so bad in the captivity
that even natural affection would be absent and
brother would not spare brother (Isa 9:19 [H 18];
the people would turn to cannibalism! What a

296

contrast to the restitution when God will spare
his people (Mal 3:17 in which hamal is difficult to
distinguish from radham, q.v.).

This root can also apply to the emotion leading
(or tending to lead) to the action of sparing. In Ex
2:6, Pharoah’s daughter sees baby Moses, and
she has compassion on him (asv), t.e. her heart is
moved with love. Israel rebuffed God’s persistent
admonitions, bringing his wrath on themselves.
God had been patient because he had compassion
(loving concern) upon them (II Chr 36:15f.).
Ezekiel (16:5) reminds Jerusalem that only God
pitied (see has) and had compassion (Hama!) on
her as on a baby, saving her from certain destruc-
tion (cf. Moses and Pharoah’s daughter).

This root can also express the emotion of pity
(cf. his). Nathan tells the parable of (11 Sam 12:4)
the rich man who spares taking his own sheep
(RSV “was unwilling’’), having no pity on the poor
man (v. 6). This change in meaning is clear from
the context. He lacked that feeling of concern
which would lead him to spare the poor man the
grief of losing his only and beloved ]amb. God
says Israel's teachers fatten their *‘lambs’’ for
slaughter and have no twinge of feeling (pity)
when their ‘‘lambs’* are slaughtered (Zech 11:5).
Just so, God during the Exile appeared to have no
feeling toward his people (Lam 2:2, 3:43), but
they brought this on by their own idolatry (cf.
Deut 13:8 [H 9]). This shows us how terrible was
the sin which resulted in the Exile; how deeply
God hates idolatry. Contrast with this just how
wonderful is the age of restitution (Mal 3:17; Joel
2:18).

Finally, this root is used of God's reaction
when his name was profaned by those who scoffed
Israel in captivity. He states that he has con-
cern (RSv) or regard (asv) for his name; i.e. he
cannot allow his name (and, therefore, his per-
son) to appear powerless to deliver his people.
Therefore, he says that he will bring his people
back (Ezk 36:21).

hemla. Mercy. This Qal infinitive absolute ts
used twice to describe God's mercy in delivering
and/or protecting from danger. God was merciful
to Lot's family in leading them by the hand from
Sodom (Gen 19:16). In Isa 63:9 hemld is parallel
to ‘dhab, love, as God's feeling sorry for Israel
issuing from his love.

mahmal. Object of deep love. In Ezk 24:21 the
sanctuary is described as the object of Israel's
pride, and pleasure, and deep longing (hdamal).
Hence, the sanctuary is what they love and want
to preserve from destruction or defilement.
a Oe

677 oom (hamam) be hot, warm. asv and RSV

similar; however, cf. Isa 57:5.)

Derivatives

677a tam (hdm) heat, hot.

677b tam (ham), oan (hammim) warm.

677c tman (hamma) sun, heat.

677d Tam (hamman), Bm (hammanim)
incense altars.

This root refers to physical heat, i.e. warmth
produced, by the sun, the human body, clothing,
and an oven. It appears in most Semitic lan-
guages (Akkadian emmu, CAD E, p. 150f.;
Ugaritic hm, UT 19: no. 870). Some uses of
horeb and sharab parallel the meaning ‘‘heat
produced by the sun,’ or ‘‘skin.’’ Heat in an
emotional sense is usually represented by héma
and its derivatives (cf. Isa 57:5; Jer 51:39; Ps 39:3
[H 4]). Our root occurs thirty-five times.

hom. Heat, hot. This noun represents a thing
typified by heat: viz. a season (Gen 8:22; Job
24:19; Jer 17:8; KB), and bread (I Sam 21:6 [H 7]
used adjectivally). The infinitive of hdmam ap-
pears with the same form as this noun. The noun
occurs four times.

ham, hammim. Warm. This adjective modi-
fies its subject applying to it the quality resulting
from hadmam. It occurs twice.

hamma. Sun, heat produced by the sun. This
noun usually (except Ps 19:6 [H 7]) is a poetic
alternative for shemesh (sun). It can make one
black (i.e. tanned), as can mourning (Job 30:28).
In the time of judgment it is darkened (Isa 24:23),
and it is made more luminous in the time of re-
demption (Isa 30:26), even though a single histor-
ical occasion might produce both results. Signifi-
cantly our word is paralleled to shahar (q.v.; also
see halal and |* bana (q.v.), and may be an in-
frequently recognized Canaanite name of the sun
god (Song 6:10). Our word occurs six times.

hammanim. Incense altars. This noun repre-
sents small (11 Chr 34:4) cultic objects used in
pagan worship and 1s paralleled to ‘ashérim (Isa
17:8). Nabatean and Palmyra inscriptions sub-
stantiate the proffered identification. Perhaps the
small stone cup-shaped objects discovered
through Palestinian excavations are hammanim
(AI I, p. 286). The word occurs eight times.
Bibliography: Lewy, Julius, **The Old West
Semitic Sun-God Hammu,’’ HUCA 18: 429-81.
Wright, G. E., *‘ ‘Sun-Image’ or **Altar of In-
cense’?’’ BA 1: 9-10.
LJ.C.

yan (hamman). See no. 677d.

678 dem (hamas) wrong, do violence to, treat
violently. Used seven times in the Qal,
once in the Niphal. The Arabic cognate
means to be hard, strict, severe.

297

679 pon (hamés)

Derivatives

678a fom (hamas) violence, wrong.
678b damn (tahmas) a name of the male
ostrich.

This noun and verb are together used sixty-
seven times and mostly translators seem satisfied
with the word ‘‘violence’’ in some form (kJV, RSV,
Niv). It may be noted, however, that the word
hams in the oT is used almost always in connec-
tion with sinful violence. It does not refer to the
violence of natural catastrophes or to violence as
pictured in a police chase on modern television.
It is often a name for extreme wickedness. It was
a cause of the flood (Gen 6:11, 13, parallel to
‘*corrupt’’). Other usages are: a ‘‘malicious™’
witness (Ex 23:1; Deut 19:16 Niv); ‘‘cruel’’ hatred
(Ps 25:19); oppression and violence (Ps 72:14
NIV); violence is risen up into a rod of wickedness
(Ezk 7:11, a rod to punish wickedness, Niv). The
aspect of sinfulness is illustrated also by the verb
which twice refers to “‘transgression’’ of God's
law (Ezk 22:26; Zeph 3:4).

Of special interest is the enigmatic reaction of
Sarah to her handmaid’s mocking. She says to
Abraham, *‘My wrong be upon thee’’ (Gen 16:5).
Speiser (Genesis, AB, pp. 116-8) takes it as an
objective construction ‘‘the injustice done to
me,... h€mas ‘lawlessness, injustice’...is a
strictly legal term which traditional ‘violence’
fails to show adequately.’’ It could be that Sarah
is declaring Abraham responsible or it could even
suggest that she is saying that it is up to him to
correct that injustice.

R.L.H.

679 yrm (hamés) I, be sour, leavened.

Derivatives

679a tym (hadmés) that which is leavened.

679b =pmm (hdémes) vinegar.

679c = pam «=(hdmis) seasoned. Occurs
only in Job 30:24.

679d = nxn (mahmeset) anything _ leav-
ened. Occurs only in Ex 12:19-20.

The verb occurs five times in the Qal stem, two
times in the Hiphil, and once in the Hithpael
stem.

This root designates the action and result of
yeast, §°’6r, bread dough which is lehem hamés.
The basic meaning is to become fermented or
sour. Hosea 7:4 has a bref description of a baker
working on leavened dough until it was ready for
the oven. This idea of becoming sour is extended
to a person's negative attitudes in Ps 73:21 and
probably in Ps 71:4 where it is translated
‘*cruel.”’

The main religious significance of the word !s
tied to its exclusion from certain cultic practices

682 am (hamagq)

680 pram (hamas)

of the Hebrews. The Hiphil participle of the verb
is used in a strong command that anyone who
eats leavened bread during the Passover feast is
to be cut off from Israel (Ex 12:19-20). Ex 12:39
notes that Passover bread was not leavened be-
cause the Hebrews went out quickly from Egypt
thus having no time to raise the dough. Thus it
had the symbolic value of teaching Israel that
having been redeemed from Egypt they should
leave their old life quickly and set out toward the
promised land by faith.

hamés. Leaven, leavened bread. This is the
primary word for food which is in process of
fermenting or has fermented. Normally, it is lim-
ited to the grain foods: wheat, barley, and spelt.
In the Old Testament these grains are theologi-
cally significant because when ground and mixed
with yeast, their use is prohibited in certain reli-
gious activities. In the discussion of the verb
form, it was noted that anyone who ate leavened
bread during the passover could be excommuni-
cated. The noun is used in this context (Ex 12:15)
and reference is made in Ex 13:3, 7 that no
leavened bread is permitted in house or on table
during the Passover because of the Exodus event
and God’s act of bringing the Hebrews out of
Egypt quickly (see also Dew 16:3).

Leavened bread was also prohibited in connec-
tion with the offering of sacrifices involving blood
(Ex 23:18; 34:25). Neither it nor honey could be
burned with a meal offering (Lev 2:11) and it can-
not be baked with the fire offering (Lev 6:15). But
leavened bread could be eaten with the thank-
offering (Lev 7:13; Amos 4:5) and with the
firstfruit offerings (Lev 23:17).

In later Jewish thought leavened bread became
a symbol of corruption and impurity, as also in
Jesus’ teachings (Mt 16:2; Mk 8:15) and tn one
remark by Paul in I Cor 5:8.

Bibliography: Beak, H. F., “‘Leaven,”’ in
IDB, III, pp. 104-5. Lewis, J. P. **Leaven,”
ZPEB, III, pp. 901-903. White, H. A.,
‘*Leaven, in A Dictionary of the Bible, Ill,
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1903, p. 90. ‘‘Hamez,”’
in Encyclopaedia Judaica, VII, pp. 1235-36.

G.H.L.

680 yam (hdmas)
68:24).

Il, be red (Isa 63:1; Ps

681 yviem (hamas) II, be ruthless (Ps 71:4).

Derivative

68la yim (hamos) the
1:17).

ruthless (Isa

turn away (Song 5:6, Qal:
Jer 31:22, Hithpael).

298

Derivative

682a 928 (hammig) curving, curve
(Song 7:2).

683 “som (hadmar) I, ferment, boil, foam.

Derivatives

683a tM (hemer) wine.

683b tM (hémar) bitumen.

683c t39M (homer) cement.

683d “79m (hamar) smear with
(Ex 2:3, only).

This root is sometimes confused with another
one with identical consonants which means red-
dish (root III).

The verbal form of this root is illustrated in Ps
46:4 in which “‘waters... be troubled”’ (kJv, or
‘‘foamed,’” rsv). An extension to human emo-
tions is found in Lam 1:20; 2:11, and to
‘‘wine... red’ (Kiv; *‘foaming,’’ Rsv). The verb
probably means red (rsv; ‘‘foul,’” ksv) in Job
16:16.

hemer. Wine. A masculine noun, which oc-
curs only in Deut 32:14 and Isa 27:2.

asphalt

hemar. Bitumen, asphalt. This masculine
noun may have arisen from the trait of asphalt
seething, or swelling up from the ground or com-
ing to the top of the Dead Sea and/or its reddish-
brown color. This material was used in Babylon
as mortar (Gen 11:3), was abundant in the Dead
Sea area (Gen 14:10) and was imported to Egypt
(Ex 2:3) for mortar and a sealant.

homer. Cement, mortar, clay. This noun was
also a term for the reddish clay of that area, par-
ticularly Palestine. See Isa 29:16; 45:9 (per-
sonified); Jer 18:4; and cf. Job 30:19: Isa 10:6. In
one instance clothing is likened to clay (Job
27:16).

Job extended this term to designate human
bodies in 4:19: 10:9; 13:12 and then to liken,
metaphorically, men in their creaturely relation-
ship to their Maker to the potter-clay relation.
Along this same line, Isa 45:9 personifies clay
which rebels against the potter, to make the point
that idolatry is unnatural and illogical.

[Or this passage may mean that mere man, the
clay, must not question the ways of the Sovereign
of history, the Potter. The specific challenge in
view here may be one’s questioning the Lord’s
use of the uncircumcised Persian king, Cyrus, to
serve both as his shepherd to restore Israel and as
his anointed one to shatter gentile opposition to
his people (Isa 44: 28—45:1), and thereby bring
forth God's righteousness (Isa 45:8). B.K.wW.]

This motif appears also in Isa 64:7 as a humble
affirmation of man's creature relationship to
God. Jeremiah was told by God to go to the pot-

ter’s shop to watch him form clay into vessels
(Jer 18:1-4), then God tikened Israel and nations
to clay in the hands of a potter. The crucial dif-
ference lies in man’s ability to say “‘yes’’ or ‘*no”’
and God's right to respond with grace or judg-
ment. Paul brought into his arguments the same
metaphor to demonstrate God's sovereignty over
man (Rom 9:20-23).

G.V.G.

684 sm (hadmar) II, heap up. This root is
confused with the first root by some trans-
lators in Hab 3:15, e.g. ‘*heap,’’ KJv; “*surg-

ing,’ RSV.
Derivatives
684a “tm (homer) I, heap.
6846 thm (homer) I, homer.
684c thm (hdmor) heap.

The verbal form is present in oT if the form
in Hab 3:15 is a participle. The nominal form is
duplicated in the plural for emphasis in Ex 8:10,
coming from the masculine noun, homer. The
Hebrew measure of capacity, the hdémer, pos-
sibly comes from the act of heaping grain in a
container or pouring liquid into a jar. As a dry
measure, the homer held 10 ephahs equal to 64
bushels figuring the ephah at 22 liters. As a liquid
measure, the homer held ten baths (22 liters) equal
to 58 gallons (see the discussion of measures
under ‘‘ephah’’). These measures are mentioned
in several religious contexts (Lev 27:16; Num
11:32; Ezk 45:11, 13-14).

The masculine noun, hdmor, appears in Jud
15:16 in a redundant manner to emphasize the
magnitude of Samson's victory over the Phis-
tines.

685 “em (hamar) HI, be red. The verbal form
possibly is found in Job 16:16.

Derivative

685a oven (hdmor) (he)-ass.
685b 3M (yahmur) roebuck.

It is uncertain whether this masculine noun
comes from the root meaning red since few don-
keys in the Middle East are reddish in color.
From earliest history this animal has served man
as beast of burden, as transportation, and as field
animal. They are among those creatures listed as
unclean for food (Lev 11:1-8; Deut 14:3-8) but
II Kgs 6:25 says its flesh was eaten in time of
desperate famine. The strength of the beast is
metaphorically applied to Issachar (Gen 49:14)
and its burial to the ignominious death of King
Jehoiakim (Jer 22:19).

In contrast to the mule and horse which were
associated with war, the donkey was associated
with peace and humility (I1] Sam 19:27) and thus

299

689 men (Amt).

690 myn (hand)

related to the Messiah in Zech 9:9; Mt 21:5, 7.
There is a tinge of contempt in Ezk 23:20, which
refers to the genital organ of an ass.

The donkey and ox could not plow together
(Deut 22:10) but they both benefitted in the Sab-
bath rest (Deut 5:14). The offspring was subject
to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:13) but among the
Hebrews the donkey could not be a sacrifice in
the cultic rites although an ass was killed at Mari
in covenant-making ceremonies (McCarthy, D.
J., Treaty and Covenant, Pontif. Biblical Inst.,
1963, p. 53). In an interesting way the Lord used
a donkey to frustrate Balaam in some of his
schemes (Num 22-24).

Bibliography: Cohon, Samuel, ‘‘Ass,’’ in
ISBE, I, pp. 287-88. McCullough, W. S., **Ass,’’
in IDB, II, pp. 260-61. McKenzie, J. L., ‘*Ass’’
in Dictionary of the Bible, 1, Bruce, 1965, pp.
62-63.

G.H.L.

686 *wim (hdmash) I, take one fifth. This

denominative verb occurs only in the Piel
(Gen 41:34).

Parent Noun

686a wm (hamesh), myn (hamishsha)
five.

686b wan (hdmesh) fifth
47:26 only).

686c wen (hamishshim) _ fifty.

686d swyen (hdmishi), nwsen (hdmishit)
fifth (ordinal number).

part (Gen

687 wn (hmsh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
687a wien (homesh) belly (e.g. Il Sam
2:23; 3:27).
688 wren (hmsh) Ul. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
688a own (hamiashim) in battle ar-

ray (e.g. Ex 13:18; Josh 1:14).

Assumed root of the following.
689a mien (hémet), nem (hemet) water-
skin (Gen 21:14-15, 19).

im (hén). See no. 694a.

690 mm (hana) decline, bend down, encamp, lay

siege against.
Derivatives

690a msm «((hanit) cell (as having curved
roof). (Only in Jer 37:16.)

690b tm3n (hdnit) spear.

690c thm (mahdneh) camp.

691 MIM (hanat)

690d IMR (tahdnd) encamping or en-
campment. Occurs only in II Kgs
6:8.

The verb is used 143 times in the o1, 74 times in
Num alone. The latter statistic is what one would
expect ina biblical book dealing to a large degree
with the travels of God’s people from place to
place, or from one camp to another.

mahaneh. Camp. In the oT a “camp” is a
temporary (never permanent) protective enclo-
sure for a tribe or army. It is derived from the
verb hand *‘to bend, curve,’ and hence it may be
that the Hebrew camp (or the ancient semitic
camp, since the word was not limited to the He-
brews) was originally circular in layout. Possibly
such a circular camp, i.e., tents erected in a pro-
tective circle around the cattle, may derive from
early semi-nomadic days. Or the word may de-
rive from the circular lines of a besieging force.

A glance, however, at the camp described in
the early chapters of Num (1:47—2:34; 3:14-16;
10:11-28) reveals that the Israelite camp is set up
in a Square around the tent of meeting tabernacle.
In a schematic arrangement three tribes, each
with their own insignia, were stationed on the
four sides of the tabernacle, with special position-
ing for the Levites.

To choose a camp site when one is or expects
to be continually hounded by antagonistic forces
is not easy. The Bible indicates that at least two
factors were in mind when a camp site was cho-
sen: (1) the availability of water (Josh 11:5; Jud
7:1, and hence the advantage to camping at an
oasis rather than at a site dependent on the flow
of a river); and (2) lines of natural defense which
formed a barricade (I Sam 17:3: 26:3).

Most important, the camp, as described in the
Pentateuch, assumes its significance simply be-
cause it 1s adjacent to the tabernacle, the dwelling
place of God's presence. As a result certain con-
ditions must be observed and maintained. For
one thing, cleanliness in the camp is imperative
(Num 5:1-4; Deut 23:10-14). The dead were
buried outside the camp (Lev 10:4—5). The lepers
were banished from the camp (Lev 13:46). For
coming in contact with anything dead the penalty
was exclusion from the camp for seven days
(Num 31:19). Criminals were executed outside
the camp (Lev 24:23, and cf. Heb 13:12, ‘Jesus
also suffered outside the gate’’). The camp is too
close to God's presence to allow sin or impurity
to intrude. The idea of ‘‘God’s camp”’ is also
applied to the permanent temple as seen in II Chr
31:2.

The Lxx translation for mahdneh, parembolé,
is also applied in the nT to the church (Rev 20:9),
**the camp of the saints.”’

hanit. Spear. A lethal weapon, the spear was
short and capable of being thrown (I Sam 18:11;

300

20:33, translated here by the KJv as ‘‘javelin,’’ but
itis the word hdnit). Even its butt could be used
as a weapon (II Sam 2:23). Most frequently, this
weapon is mentioned as being Saul’s personal
weapon: I Sam 18:10; 19:9, 10; 22:6; 23:21; 26:7,
16, 22; II Sam 1:6; I Chr 11:23. Possibly this sig-
nifies authority. Thus, in Ugaritic text 125:47 the
son of King Krt on an important mission carries
his spear, presumably as a mark of royal status.

Goliath also had a spear (I Sam 17:7; 21:9; |
Chr 20:5). In his duel, or battle of champions,
with David, David is prompted to say: ‘‘the Lord
saves not with a sword and with a spear”’ (I Sam
17:47). These are not the kinds of weapons with
which God stocks his arsenal (cf. II] Cor 10:4).
Surely this idea is uppermost in the eyes of the
prophets as they anticipate the coming age of
peace when men shall “‘beat their swords into
ploughshares and their spears into pruning
hooks’ (Isa 2:4; Mic 4:3).

Bibliography: Al, 1, pp. 241-46. Yadin, Y.,
The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, I-II, 1963.
Unger, M. F., Unger’s Bible Dictionary, Moody,
1957, pp. 169-70.

V.P.H.

mam (hannun). See no. 694d.
mim (hanat). See no. 690a.

691 BIN (hdnat) spice, make spicy, embalm.

Derivatives

69la orein (hanitim) embalming, only
in Gen 50:3.
69Ib men (hitta)

The substantive comes from the root hdnat,
meaning perhaps ‘‘to project’’ or *‘to mature”
because the grains project from the place of the
ear of the wheat when it ripens. In the Bible it is
referred to thirty times, and all but seven of these
are in the plural. The singular is feminine in form
and the plural is masculine in form.

It is planted in Palestine after the autumn rains
have softened the ground sufficiently for plow-
ing, thus in November—December, and 1s _har-
vested in the spring, April-June. The ‘‘wheat-
harvest’? (q°sir hittim) is mentioned in Gen
30:14; Ex 34:22; Jud 15:1; Ruth 2:23; I Sam 6:13;
12:17. Of the species of cereals referred to in the
Bible wheat (hittd) ts usually considered the most
valuable. Note that of the seven species with
which Israel is blessed as she enters her new
land, wheat is placed first (Deut 8:8). There is
even a tradition in the Talmud that the tree of
knowledge of which Adam and Eve partook was
a hitta (Sanhedrin 70b).

This wheat was “‘harvested’’ (Ruth 2:23; I Sam
6:13). It was ‘“‘threshed”’ (Jud 6:11; I Chr 20:21);
‘“*cleaned’’ (II Sam 4:6). It also figures promi-

wheat.

nently as a part of Solomon's obligation regarding
the alliance he made with Hiram the king of
Phoenician Tyre. In addition to olive oil Solomon
was to give wheat (I Kgs 5:11 (H 25}; I] Chr 2:10,
15 [H 9,14}) to Hiram.

The Psalmist twice uses the word symbolically
of God’s care and provision: Ps 81:16 [H 17];
147:14. God promises the ‘‘finest of wheat’’
(héleb hitta), literally ‘‘the kidney fat of wheat’’
(cf. Deut 32:14). Thorns are the opposite of wheat
(Job 31:40; Jer 12:13).

Jesus, of course, resorted to the analogy of the
‘grain of wheat”’ in John 12:24 to press home the
necessity for his own death. Paul in I Cor 15:36f.
employs the same analogy to say that the body
cannot be transformed into the new life of the
resurrection unless it dies.

Bibliography: Feliks, J., ‘‘Wheat,’’ in Encyc-
lopaedia Judaica, vol. XVI, 480-481. Kislev, M.
E., ‘‘Hitta and Kussemet: Notes on their In-
terpretations,’’ Lésonénu 37: 83-95 (in Hebrew).
Trever, J. C., ““Wheat,’’ in IDB IV, pp. 839-40.

V.P.H.

pom (hanitim). See no. 69la.
In (hanik). See no. 693a.
mm (hdnind). See no. 694e.
min (hdnit). See no. 690b.

692 32m (Ank) I. Assumed root of the following.
692a tim (hék) palate, mouth. asv and
RSV similar, although rsv twice ren-
ders ‘‘speech’’ for asv ‘‘mouth"

(Prov 5:3; Song 5:16).

Half of the occurrences of hék are in Job
where, rendered often as “‘mouth,”’ it is set in
context of taste or speech.

Theologically, the term is significant in two
connections. As an organ vital for speech hék,
like mouth (peh, q.v.) is linked with true and
false statements. Wisdom, personified, com-
mends herself to mankind by saying, ‘All the
words of my mouth (hék) are righteous’’ (Prov
8:7). Job claims innocence because under provo-
cation he has not permitted his mouth (hék) to
sin.

The expression, “tongue cleaving to mouth,”’
apart from denoting thirst, is an idiom in the He-
brew for being speechless. Ezekiel’s dumbness
may indicate the gravity of the impending de-
struction of Jerusalem or perhaps the importance
of waiting to speak Yahweh's word only. The
idiom was used in imprecations and oaths (cf. Ps
137:6).

E.A.M.

693 "ym (hadnak) H, dedicate, inaugurate. ASV
and Rsv similar.)

301

693 59m (hanak)

Derivatives

693a tym (hanik) trained servant.

693b tmaIm (hdnakkd) dedication.

693c mam (hakkad) hook fastened in jaw,
fish hook.

The verb occurs infrequently (five times) with
the object ‘‘house,”’ either private (Deut 20:5) or
religious (e.g. I Kgs 8:63). Although usually ren-
dered ‘‘dedicate’’ a more accurate translation 1s
‘begin’ or ‘‘initiate.’’ See Prov 22:6 for hdnak
translated as ‘“‘train’’ (a child). Synonyms are
qadésh *‘to set apart,’ a notion not inherent in
hanak, and the phrase m4lé’ yad ‘fill the hand,”
thought by some to mean “’filling the hand (with
an offering?) for Yahweh” (cf. Jud 17:5, 12; Ex
29:24f.), a phrase used with respect to *‘people.”’

hdnak is best understood as ‘‘inaugurate.”’
There is not in the term itself the notion that ded-
ication is to someone or to something, though
that concept is present in the synonyms. With
one exception (Prov 22:6, where the meaning is
‘*start’’; cf. NEB), hdnak and its derivates refer to
an action in connection with structures such as a
building (I Kgs 8:63), wall (Neh 12:27), an altar
(Num 7:10), or an image (Dan 3:2).

hanak is almost certainly a community action
which in the case of cult structures involves offer-
ings. The ceremony of dedication (hanukka) for
Solomon’s altar extended over seven days (II Chr
7:9). Dedication of Solomon’s temple as well as
the temple at Ezra’s time was marked by numer-
ous Sacrifices (I Kgs 8:63; Ezr 6:17).

Judging from Israelite practice, the initial use
of a religious structure was given special signifi-
cance. The completion of a project was observed
with an inauguration of the structure, an event
appropriately accompanied by sacrifice and joy.
Rites of inauguration have their place. Else-
where, with the use of other vocabulary, greater
emphasis Is given to the consecration of people to
God.

hanik. Trained servants, trained men (RSV). A
hapax legomenon in Gen 14:14. Now translated
as ‘‘armed retainer’’ used by Palestinian chief-
tains as mentioned in the Egyptian Execration
Texts (nineteenth-eighteenth centuries 8.c. and in
a fifteenth century B.c. cuneiform inscription
from Taanach, Israel. It is of textual significance
that this hapax has good second millennium
parallels. No point is to be made of the number of
armed retainers born in Abraham's house (318).
Nor is it accurately to be compared to the Scarab
of Amenophis III which records that the princess
Gilukhipla arrived from Naharaim (Haran) with
317 women of the harem (A. DeBuck, Egyptian
Reading Book I, 1948, p. 67).

hanukka. Dedication, inauguration. The term

693.1 97am (hdnamel)

occurs eight times in Hebrew and twice in each of
the Aramaic portions of Ezra and Daniel.

The noun is most famous because of its inter-
testamental use for the reestablishment of wor-
ship in the temple after the excesses of Antiochus
Epiphanes. This Hanukkah feast is mentioned in
Jn 10:22. It falls in late December.

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., JBL 58:96.
, BASOR 94:24. Lambdin, Thomas O.,
JAOS 73:150. Reif, S. C., *“‘Dedicated to 337,”
VT 22: 495-501.

V.P.H.

Bm = (hinnam). See no. 694b.

693.1 99M (hdnamél) sleet.

694 wm (hdnan) I, be gracious; pity; in Hith-
pael stem to beseech, implore.

Derivatives

694a tim (hén) favor, grace.

694b team (hinndm) freely, for nothing.

694c 69m (hin) grace. Occurs only in
Job 41:4.

694d 3M (hanniin) = gracious.

694e tAIn (haninad) favor.

694f tmamm (t*hinnad) supplication.

694g TINRh (tahdnin) supplication.

Cognate with Akkadian enénu, hanadnu *‘to
grant a favor,’’ Ugaritic hnn ‘‘to be gracious, to
favor’ (UT, 19: no. 882), and Arabic hanna *‘to
feel sympathy, compassion.”

It is used in the Qal stem fifty-six times, in the
Hithpael seventeen times, in the Hophal once, in
the Piel once, in the Polel twice, and in the Niphal
once.

The verb Adnan depicts a heartfelt response by
someone who has something to give to one who
has a need. Ap-Thomas’s suggestion that the
verb comes from a biliteral root ‘‘to bend, to in-
cline,’’ i.e. to condescend, is not convincing. Ac-
cording to Flack the verb describes ‘’an action
from a superior to an inferior who has no real
claim for gracious treatment.”

In reaction to earlier studies, Neubauer in his
recent monograph defines the verb as God's in-
tervention to save and to help his faithful servant
or nation with the emphasis on loyalty rather than
on grace and love. He arrives at this conclusion
by an extrapolation from social relations to
theological relations. His attempt to read such a
nuance into the various occurrences of hdnan
and its derivatives leads to forced interpretations.

The Lxx translates the verb with oikteired *‘to
pity or have compassion,’’ with eled ‘‘to show
mercy or sympathy,’’ or in the Hithpael stem
with deisthad *‘to supplicate.”’

302

The verb is used in social or secular contexts as
well as theological ones. It often has the sense of
showing kindness to the poor and needy.

Job begs his friends, ‘*Pity me, pity me’’ (Job
19:21).

The Hithpael stem means “‘to beseech,”’ as in
Gen 42:21 where the brothers recalled how
Joseph had pleaded with them. The Syrian cap-
tain besought Elijah for his life and for the lives of
his soldiers (11 Kgs 1:13). Esther implored the
king with tears (Est 8:3; cf. 4:8).

The apparent Niphal in Jer 22:23, néhant, is
probably a textual error for a form derived from
the verb ‘dnah as shown by the Lxx, Peshitta,
and Targum. Modern translations follow the Lxx
katastenaxeis and render ‘“‘you will groan.”

The overwhelming number of uses in the Qal
stem, some forty-one instances, have Yahweh as
the subject. The plea honnéni, ‘*be gracious to
me,’ appears nineteen times in the Psalms. The
Psalmist asks Yahweh to show him favor in view
of his loneliness (Ps 25:16 [H 17]), his distress (Ps
31:9 [H 10]), his transgressions (Ps 51:1 [H 3])
where the favor he asks for is that God will erase
the indictment against him, etc. Cf. Isa 33:2.

The Lord graciously gave Jacob his children
(Gen 33:5) and prospered him (Gen 33:11).
Joseph's benediction upon Benjamin (Gen 43:29),
and Aaron’s benediction (Num 6:25) ask for
God's gracious dealing.

Amos (5:15) urges his hearers to establish jus-
tice that the Lord might be gracious to them. In
the final analysis the Lord is sovereign in acting
graciously to those whom he selects (Ex 33:19).

The Hithpael is used in supplications to God:
by Moses who begs to see the Promised Land
(Deut 3:23); by Solomon in dedicating the temple
(I Kgs 8:33, 47, 59; 9:3; II Chr 6:24, 37); by the
Psalmist (Ps 30:8 {H 9]; 142:1 [H 2]); and by
Hosea (12:4 (H 5]) of Jacob’s appeal to the angel
who wrestled with him. Job, who is advised by
Bildad to supplicate God (Job 8:5), concedes that
though he were righteous this would be his only
recourse (Job 9:15).

Instead of taking hann6t as an infinitive in Ps
77:9 [H 10], *‘Hath God forgotten to be gra-
cious?”’ (Av), Dahood suggests taking it as a sub-
stantive, parallel to rahdmdyw ‘‘bowels.’’ He
translates, ‘‘Have the inmost parts of God dried
up?”’

The verb Adnan and its derivatives are compo-
nents of the names of fifty-one persons. These
include: Baalhanan, Elhanan, Hananel, Hanani,
Hananiah, Hannah, Hanun, Henadad, Jehoha-
nan, Johanan, Tehinnah. Cf. the Punic names
Hanno and Hannibal.

The woman's name Hannah has given us
Anna, Ann, Nan, Nancy, Anita (Spanish) and
Annette (French). Johanan has given us the name
John: Jean (French), Giovanni (Italian), Juan

(Spanish), Johann, and Hans (German), Jan
(Dutch), and Ivan (Russian).

For synonyms of hdanan, etc. see especially
hesed and rahiim.

hen. Favor, grace, charm, etc. This word oc-
curs sixty-nine times, including forty-three times
in the phrase ‘‘to find favor in the eyes of,’’ seven
times with the verb “‘to give,’ and three times
with the verb ‘‘to obtain’’ (Est 2:15, 17; 5:2),
which leaves fourteen independent uses of the
word.

The word never appears with the article or in
the plural; it has the personal suffix once in Gen
39:21,

The vast majority of occurrences are secular
and not theological in significance. In contrast
with the verb Adnan, the focus of attention is not
on the giver, but on the recipient, of what is giv-
en. In contrast with the frequent occurrences of
the verb and other derivatives, in the Psalms hén
occurs but twice in Ps 84:11 [H 12] *‘the Lord will
give favor’’ (Rsv), and in Ps 45:2 {H 3] of the
‘‘grace’’ on the lips of the bridegroom.

hén appears thirteen times in Proverbs, often
with an aesthetic significance of charm or beauty.

As Neubauer has stressed, many of the pas-
sages in which this phrase is found concern the
relations of a superior to an inferior, e.g. a king to
his subject. But it is too much to hold that the
phrase is a terminus technicus so that Jacob in
Gen 32:5 [H 6]; 33:8, 10, 15, is actually acknow-
ledging himself a vassal of Esau.

The phrase is found in the crucial passage on
the justification of divorce in Deut 24:1 which
was the basis for the debate between Hillel and
Shammai. Rabbi Akiba held that a man might di-
vorce his wife ‘‘even if he found another fairer
than she, for it is written: ‘1f she find no favor in
his eyes.’ ”’

In theological usage Noah and Moses are said
to have found grace in the sight of the Lord (Gen
6:8; Ex 33:12). It was the Lord who caused
Joseph to find favor with the chief jailer (Gen
39:21), and the Israelites favor with the Egyptians
(Ex 3:21; 11:3; 12:36). In Num 11:15 Moses is
saying to the Lord no more than, *‘Do me a favor
and please kill me.”

In Zech 12:10 the house of David and the in-
habitants of Jerusalem will have poured upon
them ‘‘the spirit of hén and tahdninim.’’ The
Targum reads ‘‘a spirit of mercy and compas-
sion’’; Unger takes this as the Holy Spirit.

The shouts of acclamation at the completion of
Zerubbabel’s temple in Zech 4:7, literally, “‘hén,
hén,’’ are interpreted by Unger to mean, **What
gracefulness (beauty) it has!’ Sellin has
suggested, ‘‘Bravo, bravo!”’

In a number of passages hén means *‘charm”™’
or an attractive personality which creates a fa-

303

694 13h (hanan)

vorable impression. In the Aramaic Proverbs of
Ahigar we have the phrase An ghr hymnwth “for
a man’s charm is his truthfulness’’ (ANET, no.
132, p. 429). It is the heeding of wisdom which
produces this favor: Prov 3:4; 13:15; Eccl 9:11;
10:12. The woman with this grace or charm, not
just physical beauty (Prov 11:16; cf. 11:22), is
worthy of honor.

The woman who fears the Lord is praised, in
contrast to one who posseses merely deceitful
charm and vain beauty (Prov 31:30). Nahum 3:4
compares Nineveh to a prostitute who is fébat
hén, which the Lxx renders kalé kai epicharis and
the Vulgate speciosae et gratae, i.e. ‘beautiful
and pleasing.’’ Cf. NaB ‘‘fair and charming’’; NEB
‘‘fair-seeming."’

hinnam. Freely, for nothing, unjustly, without
cause, in vain. Cf. Latin. gratis, English
gratuitously, This adverb occurs thirty-two
times. It has no inherent religious significance.

It can mean *‘for nothing” as in Gen 29:15. In
Ex 21:2, 11 it is used of the Hebrew slave freed;
in Num 11:5 of the food which was eaten for free
in Egypt; in Isa 52:3 of the Jews who have sold
themselves into slavery ‘‘for nothing.”’

In Prov 23:29 the alcoholic has wounds *‘with-
out cause’ (KJv) or rather ‘‘for nothing’? (NAB).
The NEB paraphrases, ‘‘Who gets the bruises
without knowing why?”

The Psalmist complains that his enemies plan
evil for him ‘‘without cause’’ (Ps 35:7; ‘‘unpro-
voked,’’ NEB). Cf. Ps 109:3; 119:161.

The word hinnam is used in several senses in
Job. Satan asks (Job 1:9) whether Job fears God
‘for nothing,’’ that is, without an ulterior pur-
pose. God responds (Job 2:3) by replying to Satan
that he has incited him against Job ‘‘without
cause’’ or ‘‘without justification.”* Job (Job 9:17)
later complains that his wounds have been multi-
plied ‘‘for no reason” (3B). Eliphaz accuses Job of
taking someone's pledge ‘‘unjustly’* (Job 22:6).

The word can also mean “‘in vain,’* as in Prov
1:17 of the bird net set in vain. In Ezk 6:10
Yahweh warns that he has not spoken in vain.

Dahood has suggested that hinndm, e.g. in Ps
35:7, should be translated ‘‘secretly, stealthily’’
from the Ugaritic Ann. The traditional rendering,
however, makes good sense.

The Aramaic verb which is cognate with He-
brew hdnan is uSed in the Peal stem in Dan 4:27
{Aram 24] in Daniel’s advice to Nebuchadnezzar
‘*to show mercy’’ to the poor, and in the Hithpael
stem in Dan 6:11 [Aram 12] of Daniel’s supplica-
tion.

hannin. Gracious. This word occurs thirteen
times, eleven times in combination with rahiam
‘‘merciful, compassionate.’ The Lxx usually
translates it eleémon ‘*merciful.’’ The adjective
describes the gracious acts of Yahweh. His grace

695 99m (hanan)

is revealed together with his righteousness, as
most of the passages which speak of him as han-
nun also speak of his judging evil, e.g. Joel 2:13.

All occurrences of hannin refer to God (Ex
22:27 [H 26]; 34:6; II Chr 30:9; Neh 9:17, 31; Ps
86:15; 103:8; 111:4; 116:5; 145:8; Joel 2:13: Jon
4:2). In Ps 112:4, the rsv supplies ‘‘the Lord”’ as
the one who is gracious, but the description is
probably of the righteous man who shares the
characteristics of his God.

Perhaps the most striking use of this word is
the great proclamation of the name of God to
Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex 34:6). The verse is
alluded to repeatedly in later writings (Num
14:18, but does not use this phrase; Ps 86:15;
103:8, 145:8; Joel 2:13; Jon 4:2).

haininéa. Favor, pity. It occurs but once in Jer
16:13. The Lxx translates it e/eos ‘*pity, mercy.”
Because of Judah’s apostasy the Lord says that
he will no longer grant his pity.

t‘hinna. Supplication, mercy. The word oc-
curs twenty-four times and means a prayer for
grace on all but two occasions when it means
‘*mercy.’’ Half of all the occurrences appear in
Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple
(I Kgs 8~9; II Chr 6).

In Josh 11:20 t°hinnd designates the *‘mercy”’
of the victor for the vanquished, and in Ezr 9:8
Yahweh's ‘“‘grace’’ (kJv) or ‘“‘mercy’’ (NAB) for
the remnant of his people. In both cases the Lxx
has eleos **mercy.”’

tahainaén. Always used in the plural tahdniinim.
Supplications. Similar in general to the preceding
but representing less a formal entreaty (used only
once in II Chr 6:21 in Solomon’s prayer) than the
outpourings of a troubled soul; used in parallel to
‘*weepings”’ in Jer 3:21, 31:9. It is used seven
times in the Psalms, all except once in the phrase
gol tahdninay ‘the voice of my supplications’’
(KJV), “‘my cry for mercy’’ (NEB).

Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., ‘‘Some As-
pects of the Root HNN in the Old Testament,”’
JSS 2: 128-48. Flack, E. E., *‘The Concept of
Grace in Biblical Thought,’’ Biblical Studies in
Memory of H. C. Allemen, ed. J. M. Myers, Au-
gustin, 1960, pp. 137-54. Lofthouse, W., ‘‘Hen
and Hesed in the Old Testament,’”’ ZAW 51:
29-35. Reed, William L., ‘Some Implications of
HEN for Old Testament Religion,’ JBL 73:
36-41. Richardson, TWB, pp. 80, 100. Snaith, N.
H., The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament,
London: Epworth, 1944, pp. 127-31. Torrance,
T. F., ‘‘The Doctrine of Grace in the Old Testa-
ment,’’ SJT 1: 55-65. TDNT, IX, pp. 376-81.
THAT, I, pp. 587-96.

E.Y.

695 Wm (hdnan) HI, be loathsome (Job 19:17,
only).

304

696 Fim (hanép) be defiled, polluted, profaned,

corrupt. (ASV similar; RSV in most cases
uses ‘‘pollute’’ for the kJv renderings.)

Derivatives

696a tAIM (honep) hypocrite.

696b thm (hdnép) hypocrite.

696c MpIM (hdnuppa) profaneness, pollu-
tion, only in Jer 23:15.

The core notion is of inclining away from right
whereas in Arabic it may mean to incline to a
right state. In Aramaic the root means ‘'‘to act
falsely toward,’’ ‘‘act with hypocrisy’’; in Akka-
dian (Amarna letters) ‘‘exercise ruthlessness to-
ward’’ (BDB). The verb appears eleven times,
seven of which are in the Qal stem.

The verb can refer to land being polluted for
various reasons. In the Qal stem there is men-
tioned the transgression of laws, violation of
Statutes and the breaking of the covenant, all of
which pollute the land (Isa 24:5). Breaking of
marriage vows to marry another precludes a re-
turn to the first mate; in the same way a favored
people who drifted back and forth between devo-
tion to idols and the Lord, pollutes the land (Jer
3:1). The evidence of immorality and other gross
wickedness of the Canaanite fertility cult was to
be seen on every hilltop in the land, thus polluting
it (Jer 3:2, 9). Because of many sins Zion was in
danger of God's discipline by being polluted by
pagan nations (Mic 4:11).

The Hiphil stem describes the pollution of
land. The murderer who had shed innocent blood
was regarded as polluting the land (Num 35:33).

Prophet and priest could be polluted. Their evil
actions were to be found even in the house of the
Lord and their pollution polluted the temple (Jer
23:11). Daniel’s prediction regarding Antiochus
Epiphanes indicated that he was to flatter (but
actually pollute) those who had already broken
the covenant. Some misguided rulers would ac-
tually serve their interests in the corruption of the
sanctuary but the counterforce of those who
knew God (the Maccabees) would take action
against this evil (Dan 11:32).

The adjective denotes a godless man, a man
who forgets God (Job 8:13) and lives in opposi-
tion to all that is right (Job 17:8; Isa 9:17; 10:6).
Of the thirteen times it is used, it appears eight
times in Job, emphasizing the action and tragedy
of the godless. Any hope which the godless have
will perish (Job 8:13). The godless can never
come into the presence of God (Job 13:16). As-
sociation with the godless is a barren experience
(Job 15:34). The godless have their pleasures but
momentarily (never forever, Job 20:5). The god-
less should not hold governmental positions lest
the people fall into a trap (Job 34:30). The man
who forgets the fear of God is godless, a menace
to society. He will be judged.

David demonstrates the upside-down character
of the godless. Those who had turned against him
were likened to the coarse jesting at godless ban-
queting tables (Ps 35:16). The character of the
godless, being and actions, God will judge. Retri-
bution will come so swiftly that even the godless
will tremble and be terrified (Isa 33:14).

honep. Hypocrisy, Isa 32:6. The fool (worst
word, nabdal q.v.) with whom no one can reason,
is the one who practices ungodliness or profane-
ness.

hanép. Hypocrite, hypocritical. (ASV, RSV, and
Niv usually translate this word as ‘‘godless,”
possibly the better rendering from the core idea.)

L.G.

697 *53m (hdnaq) strangle. Occurs in_ the
Niphal (1 Sam 17:23) and the Piel (Nah
2:13).

Derivative

697a pM (mahdnaq) strangling.

698 som (hsd) I. Assumed root of the following.

698a ten (hesed) kindness, loving-
kindness, mercy and similar words
(KJV). (RSV usually has steadfast love,
occasionally loyalty, NASB
lovingkindness, kindness, love, Niv
unfailing love.)

698b mom (hasid) holy one, godly,
saint. Rsv faithful, godly one, loyal.
Niv, Saint, godly.

698c mpm (hdsidd) stork (perhaps be-
cause it was thought to be kind to its
young).

For centuries the word hesed was translated
with words like mercy, kindness, love. The LXX
usually uses e/evs **mercy,’’ and the Latin mis-
ericordia. The Targum and Syriac use frequently
a cognate of tob. The root is not found in Akka-
dian or Ugaritic. The lexicons up through BDB
and GB (which said Liebe, Gunst, Gnade, love,
goodness, grace) are similar. KB however is the
“mutual liability of those... belonging together.’”

In 1927 Nelson Glueck, shortly preceded by I.
Elbogen, published a doctoral dissertation in
German translated into English by A. Gottschalk,
Hesed in the Bible with an introduction by G. A.
LaRue which is a watershed in the discussion.
His views have been widely accepted. In brief,
Glueck built on the growing idea that Israel was
bound to its deity by covenants like the Hittite
and other treaties. He held that God ts pictured as
dealing basically in this way with Israel. The Ten
Commandments, etc. were stipulations of the
covenant, Israel's victories were rewards of cov-
enant keeping, her apostasy was covenant viola-
tion and God's hesed was not basically mercy,

305

698 IDEM (isd)

but loyalty to his covenant obligations, a loyalty
which the Israelites should also show. He was
followed substantially by W. F. Lofthouse
(1933), N. H. Snaith (1944), H. W. Robinson
(1946), Ugo Masing (1954), and many others.

There were others, however, who disagreed.
F. Assension (1949) argued for mercy, basing his
views on the oT versions. H. J. Stoebe (doctoral
dissertation 1951, also articles in 1952 VT and in
THAT) argued for good-heartedness, kindness.
Sidney Hills and also Katherine D. Sakenfeld
(The Meaning of Hesed in the Hebrew Bible, a
New Inquiry), held in general that hesed denotes
free acts of rescue or deliverance which in pro-
phetic usage includes faithfulness. For this histor-
ical survey and references see Sakenfeld pp. I-13
(hereafter called Sak.); also LaRue in the book by
Glueck (here called G.)

The writer would stress that the theological dif-
ference is considerable whether the Ten Com-
mandments are stipulations to a covenant re-
stricted to Israel to which God remains true and
to which he demands loyalty, or whether they are
eternal principles stemming from God's nature
and his creation to which all men are obligated
and according to which God will judge in justice
or beyond that will show love, mercy and kind-
ness.

On the meaning of our word hesed it is conven-
lent to start, as G. and Sak. have done, with the
secular usage, i.e. between man and man. Glueck
argues that hesed is practiced in an ethically
binding relationship of relatives, hosts, allies,
friends and rulers. It is fidelity to covenantal
obligations real or implied. Sakenfeld goes over
the same material and concludes that indeed a
relationship is present (love almost necessitates a
subject—object relation) but that the hesed is
freely given. **Freedom of decision”’ is essential.
The help is vital, someone is in a position to help,
the helper does so in his own freedom and this ‘is
the central feature in all the texts’’ (p. 45).

Glueck certainly seems to find obligation
where there is none. Stoebe gives an extensive
treatment of hHesed in THAT (pp. 599-622) and
remarks (p. 607) that I Kgs is an instance where
hesed is unexpected. Benhaded was defeated. He
could claim no obligation. He hoped for mercy,
kindness. Stoebe cites the men of Jabesh also
(II Sam 2:5). Saul had died in defeat. The care of
Saul's body seems clearly to have been a free act
of kindness.

Also Laban's willingness to send Rebekah to
Isaac was not from any covenant obligation
(though G. cites the appeal to providence in v.
50). It was a kindness to a long-lost relative. He
could easily have said ‘‘no.** The beautiful story
of Ruth is tarnished by considering Ruth’s action
as motivated by contractual obligations. The
Lord had no obligation to get the widows new

698 ser (hsd)

husbands in Moab (1:8-9). Ruth went with Naomi
from pure love. Boaz recognized her action as
goodness in 2:11—12 and calls it hesed in 3:10.
Even Glueck inclined toward kindness here. The
action of Rahab was kindness (Josh 2:12). Her
loyalty would naturally and legally be to her king
and city. The angels in Gen 19:19 were hardly
bound by covenant obligation—or any obliga-
tion—to Lot. Indeed the basis of their action 1s
said in v. 16 to have been their compassion (cf.
Isa 63:9). In Gen 21:23 Abimelech cites his previ-
ous hesed as grounds for making the covenant
with Abraham which required further hesed.
Glueck makes something of 1 Sam 20:8, 14, 15
where David and Jonathan swore friendship. This
covenant, says G. was the basis of the hesed.
Here, perhaps, is G's major mistake. He forgets
that covenants arise on the basis of a relationship
and that the obligations are often deeper than the
covenant. Verse 17 shows that Jonathan’s love
moved him to make the covenant. When
Jonathan died, David lamented for him out of
love, not obligation (II Sam 1:26). David's hesed
to Saul‘’s house is said to be for the sake of
Jonathan, not because of a legal obligation
(II Sam 9:1, 3, 7). Glueck seems to miss the mark
widely when he says it was neither grace nor
mercy; it was brotherliness required by covenan-
tal loyalty. Such a view has failed to see the depth
of David's character. Stoebe calls it the spon-
taneous proof of a cordial friendly attitude
(herzlich freundlich Gesinnung). Other examples
must be omitted, but they are similar. All parties
agree that in Est 2:9, 17 the word is used of favor,
kindness, but some try to make this usage un-
usual being post-exilic.

When we come to the hesed of God, the prob-
lem is that of course God was in covenant rela-
tion with the patriarchs and with Israel. There-
fore his hesed can be called covenant hesed
without contradiction. But by the same token
God’s righteousness, judgment, fidelity, etc.
could be called covenant judgment, etc. The
question is, do the texts ascribe his hesed to his
covenants or to his everlasting love? Is not hesed
as Dom Sorg observed (see Bibliography) really
the oT reflex of **God is love’*?

A prominent early usage is in God's declara-
tion of his own character: Ex 20:6 parallel to Deut
5:10 and also Ex 34:6-7. These passages are dis-
cussed by G., Sak. and Stoebe from the
viewpoint of documentary division first. But
aside from this Sak. emphasizes the freedom of
God's hesed. in all these passages. She notes the
proximity to words for mercy in Ex 34:6—7 and
remarks that it is ‘this aspect of God's hesed (as
his mercy) which takes on greater importance in
exilic and postexilic writing’’—of which she en-
visions a good bit—(p. 119). However, she con-
siders Ex 20 and Deut S as in a ‘‘covenantal con-

306

text’ (p. 131) and holds that **those who are loyal
(loving) will receive hesed while those who are
disloyal (hating) will be punished”’ (p. 131). She is
led into this covenantal emphasis by the prior
idea that since secular treaties speak of love,
brotherhood and friendship between suzerain and
vassal, that therefore these are covenant words
and show that a covenant was at least implied.
This view forgets that love is a covenant word
because kings borrowed it from general use to try
to render covenants effective. They tried to make
the vassal promise to act like a brother, friend
and husband. It does not follow that God's love is
merely a factor in a covenant; rather the coven-
ant is the sign and expression of his love. McCar-
thy more acceptably says, ‘the form of the Sinai
story in Ex 19-24 which is reflected in the text
without later additions does not bear out the con-
tention that the story reflects an organization ac-
cording to covenant form.”’ His view is that the
power and glory of Yahweh and the ceremonies
conducted effected the union ‘‘more than history,
oath, threat and promise’ (McCarthy, D. J.,
Treaty and Covenant, Pontif. Bib. Inst., ed. of
1963, p. 163).

The text itself of Ex 20 and Deut 5 simply says
that God's love (hesed) to those who love him
(‘ahab) is the opposite of what he will show to
those who hate him. The context of these com-
mands is surely God's will for all mankind, al-
though his special care, indeed his covenant, is
with Israel. That hesed refers only to this coven-
ant and not to the eternal divine kindness back of
it, however, is a fallacious assumption.

The text of Ex 34:6~7 is fuller and more sol-
emn, coming as it does after the great apostasy. It
was a tender revelation of God’s self to Moses.
Sakenfeld is right here ‘‘that forgiveness must
always have been latent [at least!] in the theologi-
cal usage of hesed’’ even before the exile (p.
119). The association with divine mercy is surely
patent in the words and in the context of the oc-
casion of the apostasy. The word raham with its
overtones of mother love, and hanniin ‘‘grace”’
combined with the phrase ‘‘slow to anger’’ all
emphasize the character of God who is love. He
is great in hesed and ’emet (of which more later).
He keeps hesed for thousands which is im-
mediately related to forgiveness of sin. That all
this simply says that God keeps his oath seems
trivial. The oath is kept because it is the loving
God who speaks the oath.

Sakenfeld nicely brings together the several
passages dependent on Ex 34:6-7. They are:
Num 14:18-19; Neh 9:17; Ps 86:15; 103:8; 145:8
(cf. 9 and 10); Joel 2:13; and Jon 4:2. Of these
passages, only Ps 86:15 includes the word ’emet
after hesed. They all speak of the love of the
Lord and some mention his forgiveness. None
specifically ground the hesed in covenant.

The phrase hesed and ‘emet ‘‘truth’ men-
tioned above is thought by some to argue for the
concept of loyalty or fidelity in hesed. It occurs
some twenty-five times with about seven more in
less close connection. Most agree it is a hen-
diadys and one noun serves to describe the other.
Therefore the phrase means ‘‘faithful love’’ or
‘true kindness” or the like. Kindness and faith-
fulness is a fair equivalent hendiadys in English.
The combination hardly seems to further the idea
of fidelity to a covenant in the word hesed. If the
term already meant that, why would the qualifier
‘faithful’? be added? Usually, as in the usage of
hesed alone, there is no covenant expressed to
which fidelity is due. It is alleged in 1 Kgs 3:3, but
although God's hesed to David in making his son
king was indeed according to covenant; it was
also according to his love which lay back of his
covenant. The text does not ascribe it to coven-
ant loyalty. Stoebe points out in Ps 89 that the
covenant of v. 3 is based on the hesed of v. 2 [H 4
and 3] (THAT, p. 615).

Another pair of nouns is covenant, b° rit, and
hesed used seven times with some other in-
stances of use in near contexts. The main in-
stance is Deut 7:9, 12 which has echoes in I Kgs
8:23; II Chr 6:14; Neh 1:5; 9:32; and Dan 9:4. It
itself is called by Stoebe (THAT, p. 616) a para-
phrase of Ex 34:6. He remarks that Deut 7:8 al-
ready bases all God’s favor on his love. If this
pair be translated *‘covenantal love’’ or ‘‘coven-
ant and love,’’ it should be remembered that the
love is back of the covenant. This point is illus-
trated by Jer 2:2 where the hesed of Israel's
youth is likened to the love of a bride. The love of
a bride is the basis of the promise, not the result.

It should be mentioned that hesed is also
paired about fifteen times with nouns of mercy
like rahim, e.g. Ps 103:4; Zech 7:9 (and cf. Ex
34:6-7 above), hén, e.g. Gen 19:19; Ps 109:12,
tanhium, Ps 94:18—19, etc. These instances usu-
ally stand as paired nouns not really in an adjecti-
val relation. The implication is that Aesed is one
of the words descriptive of the love of God.

So, itis obvious that God was in covenant rela-
tion with Israel, also that he expressed this rela-
tion in hesed, that God’s hesed was eternal (Note
the refrain of Ps 136)—though the hesed of Ephra-
im and others was not (Hos 6:4). However, it is
by no means clear that hesed necessarily in-
volves a covenant or means fidelity to a coven-
ant. Stoebe argues that it refers to an attitude as
well as to actions. This attitude is parallel to love,
rahum goodness, tdb, etc. It is a kind of love,
including mercy, hannin, when the object is ina
pitiful state. It often takes verbs of action, ‘‘do,”’
‘‘keep,’’ and so refers to acts of love as well as to
the attribute. The word ‘‘lovingkindness’’ of the
KJv is archaic, but not far from the fulness of
meaning of the word.

307

699 *spm (hdsad) I, be

700 man (hasd)

hasid. Holy one, saint. Whether God's people
in the oT were called hdsid because they were
characterized by hesed (as seems likely) or were
so called because they were objects of God's
hesed may not be certain. The word is used
thirty-two times, twenty-five of them in the Pss.
It is used in sing. and pl. Once, Ps 16:16, it refers
to the Holy One to come. The word became used
for the orthodox party in the days of the Macca-
beans.

Bibliography: Dentan, R. C., “The Literary
Affinities of Exodus 34:6ff.,° WT 13: 34-51.
Freedman, D. N., *‘God Compassionate and
Merciful,’ Western Watch 6: 6-24. Glueck, Nel-
son, Hesed in the Bible, trans. by A. Gottschalk,
Hebrew Union College Press, 1967. Kuyper,
Lester J., ‘“*Grace and Truth,’ Reformed Review
16: 1-16. Sakenfeld, Katherine D., The Meaning
of Hesed in the Hebrew Bible: A New Inquiry,
Scholars Press, 1978. Snaith, N.H., The Distinc-
tive Ideas of the Old Testament, Schocken, 1964,
pp. 94-130. Sorg, Dom Rembert, Hasid in the
Psalms, Pro decimo Press, 1953. Stoebe, H. J.,
‘*Die Bedeutung des Wortes Hasad im Alten Tes-
tament,’’ VT 2:244-54. Yarbrough, Glen, ‘‘The
Significance of hsd in the Old Testament,’ Un-
published Ph.D. Dissertation, Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary, 1959. TDNT, IJ, pp. 696—
701. THAT, J, pp. 599-622.

R.L.H.

reproached,
ashamed. This verb occurs only once, in
the Piel (Prov 25:10).

Derivative

699a "70m (hesed) shame, reproach (Lev
20:17; Prov 14:34).

700 mom (hasd) seek refuge, flee for protection

and thus figuratively put trust in (God), con-
fide, hope in (God or person). ASV, RSV

similar.
Derivatives
700aomiom «=(hdsut) refuge, shelter, only
in Isa 30:3.

7006 «OM «=(mahseh)

The root is probably to be distinguished from
batah “rely on,’ ‘take refuge in’’ as denoting
more precipitate action. The etymology is doubt-
ful. With derivatives the root is used fifty-six
times, predominantly in the Psalms and similar
poetic and hymnic literature.

While it is used literally of taking shelter froma
rainstorm (Isa 4:6; 25:4; Job 24:8) or from any
danger in the high hills (Ps 104:18), it is more
often used figuratively of seeking refuge and thus
putting confident trust whether in any god (Deut

refuge, shelter.

701 9DR (hasal)

32:37) or in the **shadow’’ (protection) of any
major power such as Egypt (Isa 30:2; cf. the plant
in the parable of Jud 9:15).

This idea of taking refuge may well derive from
the common experience of fugitives or of men at
war, for whom the adjacent hills provided a ready
‘*safe height’’ or ‘‘strong rock’’ to which the often
helpless defender could hurry for protection. In
this way the noun mahseh ‘‘place of refuge’’ is
used as a snyonym of mda‘6z ‘‘stronghold,”’ mis-
gab ‘secure height,’’ or mdnés ‘“‘place of es-
cape.”’

As is the case with the parallel terms, the
‘‘rock’’ (sar, Ps 62:7), *‘rock of my refuge’’ (sar
mahsi Ps 94:22), *‘the shield, cover’ (mdgén, Ps
144:2; Prov 30:5), or the ‘‘wings’* denoting pro-
tection (Ruth 2:12; Ps 17:8; 36:7 [H 8]), the ‘‘Ref-
uge’’ is used as an epithet for God. He above all
is the Refuge (mahseh, Ps 14:6; 46:1 [H 2]; 62:8;
91:9), the Shelter (Ps 61:3 [H 4], ksv), the ‘‘strong
Refuge’’ (Ps 71:7), and Fortress (Ps 91:2). God is
ever the sole refuge of his people. Trust in him
(godliness) protects the individual by its solidar-
ity (Prov 14:26; Jn 4:10). The Qal stem of hdsd is
primarily used of man putting trust in God as his
Rock (II Sam 22:3), Strength (Ps 18:2 [H 3]), and
Stronghold (NEB ‘“‘sure refuge,’’ Nah 1:7). It is
always better to trust in God rather than to trust
(bdatah) in princes (Ps 118:8—9). He acts as the
shield or cover (mdgén) of all who take refuge in
him (II Sam 22:31; Ps 18:30 (H 31)).

The analogy of taking refuge in God may occa-
sionally refer to the temple of God in Jerusalem
where the afflicted of his people could always
find refuge (Isa 14:32 rsv: cf. Ps 61:4). This was a
development of the ancient custom whereby the
fleeing criminal could seize the horns of the altar
and so find safety from revenge (I Kgs 1:50). The
interpretation of Prov 14:32 (‘‘the righteous hath
hope in his death,”’ kv) is difficult but should
probably be emended from b°®mété (‘‘in his
death’’) to b°tummo (interchanging the **m"’ and
‘*t’’) to read ‘‘seeks refuge in his integrity’’ (so
LXx), aS opposed to the wicked who is driven
away in his wickedness.

‘To seek refuge’’ stresses the insecurity and
self-helplessness of even the strongest of men. It
emphasizes the defensive or external aspect of
salvation in God, the unchanging one in whom we
‘*find shelter’ (F. D. Kidner, The Psalms, 1973,
ad loc Ps 46:1). David could view the cave to
which he had fled as a stronghold, whereas others
would see it as a trap.

The result of taking refuge in God is to be
‘“*blessed’’ (Ps 2:12) and be ‘‘saved’’ (Ps 17:7).
Such a person should rejoice (Ps 5:11 {H 12}),
find goodness (Ps 31:19 [H 20}) and ‘*possess the
land’? (Isa 57:13).

The root occurs in proper names. An ancestor
of Baruch and Seraiah is called Mohseiah

308

702 Bom (hdsam)

703. 30m (Asn).

(mah? séyd, ‘the Lord is a refuge,’ Jer 32:12;
51:59). Hosah, a Levite listed as the gatekeeper
of the western and Shellecheth gate of the temple
(f Chr 16:38) had sixteen sons and brothers in
similar service (26: !10—11, 16). Hosah was also the
name of a place in Asher (Josh 19:29).

Bibliography: Delekat, L., ‘‘Zum Hebrais-
chen Worterbuch,’’ VT 14: 7-66. Tsevat, M., ‘‘A
Study of the Language of the Biblical Psalms,”
JBL Monograph 9: 4ff., 48ff.

D.J.W.
miom = (hasat). See no. 700a.
som (hdasid). See no. 698b.
bem (hasil). See no. 70la.
yom (hdsin). See no. 703c.
701 Yom (hdsal) finish off, consume. Used of

the locusts destroying crops (Deut 28:38).

Derivative
70la tom (hasil)

The word is derived from the verb hdsal ‘‘to
consume’’ (Deut 28:38). It occurs six times. The
LXx mistakently translates it four times as erusibé
‘*smut,’’ and twice as brouchos *‘unwinged lo-
cust.” The kJv translates it as ‘‘caterpillar.”’
KB’s suggestion of ‘‘cockroach’’ is erroneous.
The word appears in Ugaritic as hsn
‘*grasshopper,’’ parallel to irby *‘locust’’ (UT 19:
no. 883).

In Joel 1:4 and 2:25, hdsil is used as the **con-
suming’ young locust.

See also ’arbeh.

locust.

E.Y.

stop up, muzzle (Deut 25:4;

Ezk 39:11).
Derivative

702a ase =(mahsém) muzzle (Ps 39:2).

Assumed root of the following.
703a tom (hdsen) riches, treasure.
703b «30M (hdsdn) strong (Amos 2:9;
Isa 1:31).
703c 8=— POM (hain)
89:9).

hosen. Riches, treasure. (ASV and RSV similar,
KJV also ‘‘strength.’’) The word is used five
times. The meaning is ‘‘wealth,’” usually **physi-
cal prosperity.’’ The exception is Isaiah's refer-
ence to the Lord as a ‘‘wealth of salvations, wis-
dom, and knowledge”’ (Isa 33:6). The kJv trans-
lates ‘‘strength’’ here and also (with the Lxx) in
Jer 20:5 (see hin).

strong, mighty (Ps

C.P.W.

704 ppem (haspas) scale-like (Ex 16:14, only).
Derivation uncertain.

705 em (hasér) lack, have a need, be lacking.

Derivatives
705a =m (heser) poverty (occurs
twice).
705b «630M (hdser) want, lack (occurs
twice).

705c «tsem (hdsér) needy, lacking.

705d 90M «(hesrén) deficiency (occurs
once).

705e soma (mahsér) need, poverty.

The earliest occurrence of this verb describes
the decrease of the waters which prevailed over
the earth at the flood (Gen 8:3, 5). The lack is
seen in the decrease of the numbers of the right-
eous in Sodom, i.e. the lack of five from the fifty
seen in the decrease of the numbers of the right-
eous in Sodom, i.e. the lack of five from the fifty
Abraham first proposed (Gen 18:28).

hdsér is most frequently used to express the
sufficiency of God's grace to meet the needs of
his people. They never lack. In the wilderness,
when the people followed God's command they
never lacked manna (depending on God's daily
supply; Ex 16:18). Moses reminded them of this
just before they entered Canaan (Deut 2:7) and
this became their basis of hope in Canaan (Deut
8:9).

This proved to be so for those who trusted the
Lord, e.g. the widow (I Kgs 17:14), the Psalmist
David (Ps 23:1), all who seek the Lord (Ps 34:10
(H 11]), and those who worship the Lord (Isa
51:14). He who has a good, God-fearing wife will
see his abundance from God through her (Prov
34:11).

Conversely, the lack of bread or other bless-
ings points to God’s disfavor because of lack of
faith (Isa 32:6; Ezk 4:17).

Ultimately, because of the faithlessness of the
people, not only would they sense the lack of
blessings but would even credit it to their not
serving the pagan gods of Canaan (Jer 44:18). We
see how God gave them up to their reprobate
minds.

The root occurs in other Semitic languages
such as Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic, not,
however, so far, in Ugaritic.

haser. Lacking, in need of. (The same gener-
allyinasv and rsv.) This adjective is tn form the
same as the verb hdsér (see above). It is used
primarily, however, in reference to the lack of
wisdom and understanding. Thus it occurs most
frequently in the wisdom literature and primarily
in Prov (thirteen times out of nineteen).

The adjective occurs a few times in the sense of
the lack of things, as does the verb e.g., lack of

309

706 *NPM (hdpa’)

707 mpm (hapa) cover,

708 tpn (hapaz)

madmen (J Sam 21:15 {H 16]); lack of bread (II
Sam 3:29; Prov 12:9); lack of oil (I Kgs 17:16).

The primary use of this adjective is in express-
ing man’s predicament spiritually of lacking wis-
dom or understanding which leads to God. Those
who lack understanding commit sin (Prov 6:32);
deserve the rod (Prov 10:13); belittle their
neighbors (Prov 11:12); follow what is worthless
(Prov 12:11); rejoice over folly (Prov 15:21);
make foolish vows (Prov 17:18); and are slug-
gards with a field full of weeds (Prov 24:30). If a
ruler, he becomes a cruel oppressor (Prov 28:16).
Although he may lack nothing of material things,
one without God has no power to enjoy tt all
(Eccl 6:2). In short, if anyone lacks wisdom he
shows himself to be a fool everywhere, even in
public (Eccl 10:3).

Yet, if one realizes this lack, he can gain wis-
dom by looking to the provider of wisdom, the
Lord (Prov 9:4). One who lacks can be ad-
monished by God's wisdom to seek wisdom
(Prov 9:16).

J.B.S.

See no. 705d.
See no. 71] la.

wen (hesroén).
Am (hap).

do secretly. hapd’ occurs
only once, in the Piel (II Kgs 17:9).

overlay. (aSV has
‘‘overlay’’ in Chr passages where RSv uses
‘‘“covered’’ or once ‘‘ceiled.*’)

The Qal is used to express the covering of the
head or face in a time of shame such as the shame
of Haman (Est 6:12; 7:8) or the shame of David
and those with him in his flight from his son Ab-
salom (11 Sam 15:30; cf. also Jer 14:3-4).

The Piel is used to express the overlaying of
one object with another as in the gold overlays in
the construction of the Lord's house (II Chr 3:5,
7, 8-9).

In each case, the idea seems to be that of hiding
the less attractive underneath the more attrac-
tive. This is borne out by the cognate languages,
especially Arabic, which use the root chiefly to
express the act of hiding. It does not occur in
Ugaritic.

Bibliography: Gordis, Robert, ‘Studies in
Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Meanings,’ JQR
27: 33-58.

J.B.S.

mpm (hippa). See no. 710b.

708 wm (hapaz) hasten, flee, fear, be terrified

(RSV often prefers ‘‘be frightened’”’ or *‘flee”’
for KJv ‘‘make haste.’

709 IDM (hpn).

709 BRM (hpn)

Derivative

708a «=o tiem (hippdzén) haste (7).

There is no clear distinction between Qal and
Niphal forms in meaning. In two contexts it paral-
lels terms meaning fear (Deut 20:3, **tremble’’;
Ps 48:5 [H 6], rsv “‘took to flight’*: kv “*hasted
away). Some contexts give support, though less
than decisive support, for a meaning of ‘‘hasten”’
(i.e. in terror). The hasty flight of Mephi-
bosheth’s nurse (I] Sam 4:4) and the hasty retreat
of the Aramaeans (II Kgs 7:15) are examples.
Once, the term serves as a poetic parallel for
‘*fled’’ (Ps 104:7). ‘‘Being in terror’ suits well the
context of Ps 116:11 (Rsv “‘consternation’’), Ps
31:22 (H 23] (rsv ‘‘alarm’’), and I Sam 23:26
(‘‘David was fearful so that he went away”
writer's translation). The meaning of this term in
Job 40:23 is unclear (kKJv ‘“‘hasteth’’; Rsv
‘‘frightened’’). **Flee in terror’’ may summarize
its meanings.

hippazon. Haste (7), fear (7), fleeing (?). <A
technical term of uncertain meaning which de-
scribes the manner in which the Hebrews were to
eat the first Passover (Ex 12:11) and the manner
in which they left Egypt (Deut 16:3). In these
contexts either ‘‘in haste” or “‘in fear’’ is possi-
ble. The poetic parallel to “‘flight’’ (Isa 52:12 in
RSV) Suggests a meaning such as “hasty flight’’ or
‘fearful flight.”’

dP ols

rem «(hippadzon). See no. 708a.

Assumed root of the following.

709a «IBM (hdpen) hollow of hand (e.g.
Eccl 4:6; Ezk 10:7).

710 Spm (hapap) I, cover, shelter, shield.
Derivatives

710a 4M (hdp) shore, coast.
710b tRBM (huppa) canopy.

The verb hdpap occurs only in Moses’ blessing
(Deut 33:12), describing the security of Benja-
min. He is loved by the Lord ‘'who shields (kv
‘*covers’') him all the day.”

huppa. Canopy, chamber. (Rsv same; ASV uses
‘‘covering’ in {sa 4:5.) It is used three times in
the oT. In Isa 4:5 the idea of protection seems
paramount, and huappa is in close conjunction
with suwkka, a word for ‘“‘booth’’ or “shelter”
(v. 6). This important passage describes the fu-
ture glory of Zion in terms of the wilderness wan-
dering. Just as the pillar of cloud and fire shielded
Israel from the Egyptians, a protective canopy
will provide shade and refuge from storms for
Mount Zion.

310

Twice happa is related to a wedding. In Joel
2:16 it is parallel to héder, which means ‘‘bed-
room, inner chamber.”’ The bride is instructed to
go from her bedroom, the groom from his canopy
to plead that the Lord might spare his people
from judgment. Normal joys are interrupted dur-
ing this spiritual crisis.

There is some question as to whether the
canopy was a Special tent where the marriage was
consummated, or whether it was a protective
covering over the wedding ceremony itself.
Psalm 19:5 [H 6] compares the sun rising in its
strength to a bridegroom coming out of his
canopy. This expresses the joy of youthful love
as the groom anticipates a new life with his bride,
perhaps specifically referring to the sun’s course
as a happy wedding procession (cf. MT 25: 6-10).

H.W.

711 Spm (hpp) Il. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
7ila mM (hap) innocent, pure (RSV), OCc-
curs only at Job 33:9, where Elihu
accuses Job of claiming to be ‘‘inno-
cent, ‘‘pure,’’ “‘blameless’’ (NEB).
Derived from the verb hapap ‘“‘to
rub, to cleanse,’ the word means
‘*clean.”’
E.Y:

712) PSR (hapés) I, take delight in, be pleased

with, desire.

Derivatives

7l2a_ trem (hapés) delighting in.
712b 0 tpDm (hépes) delight.

The basic meaning is to feel great favor to-
wards something. Its meaning differs from the
parallel roots, hamad, hdshagq, and rasa, in that
they connote less emotional involvement. hadmad
and hdashagq are usually translated ‘desire,’ and
rasa “‘accept,’’ favor being based on need, or
judgment of approval. In the case of hdpés, the
object solicits favor by its own intrinsic qualities.
The subject is easily attracted to it because it is
desirable. A fourth root, gi/, somewhat parallel,
connotes even greater emotional involvement.
Here the subject gives expression to his delight in
a joyful attitude and conduct. The root hdpés is
used more frequently than the other words, a
total of 123 times, including the verb and its de-
rivatives.

hadpés occurs only in the Qal stem, and it
means ‘‘to experience emotional delight.’* This
delight may be felt by men or by God. Men are
said to experience it in respect to women.
Shechem, son of Hamor, had ‘‘delight’’ in
Jacob’s daughter Dinah (Gen 34:19). The contes-
tants in King Ahasuerus’s beauty contest did not

return to him after the first viewing unless he had
“delight’’ in them (Est 2:14). Men also experi-
ence it with other men. When King Saul wanted
David to marry his daughter Michal, he in-
structed his servants to inform David that the
king had ‘‘delight’’ in him (1 Sam 18:22).

This delight may be experienced in respect to
matters and things. Joab used the word when he
asked David why he persisted in having a census
taken, or the army mustered (see pdqad), 1.e.
why he had ‘‘delight™’ in it (II Sam 24:3). The
word is also used in reference to people delight-
ing in certain activities. King Ahasuerus asked
Haman what should be done to the man whom
the king “‘delighted’’ to honor (Est 6:6). Still
another use of the word is in an absolute sense, as
in a repeated expression of Song: “Nor awake
(my) love, until he please’ (2:7; 3:5; 8:4).

The word is used of God having delight in cer-
tain people. In David's song of deliverance, he
says that God provided for him because he *‘de-
lighted’* in him (II Sam 22:20). The Queen of
Sheba expressed a blessing to God because he
‘‘delighted’’ in Solomon (I Kgs 10:9). God is said
to experience this delight toward good works of
men. For instance, he ‘‘delights’’ in his sabbath
being kept and his law observed (Isa 56:4), in
“mercy’’ and “knowledge of God*’ (Hos 6:6),
and in “‘truth’’ (Ps 51:8). In respect to himself,
God engages in activities in which he takes ‘‘de-
light’’ (Ps 115:3; 135:6). Samson's father, Man-
oah, feared death for himself and wife because
the Angel of the Lord had appeared to them, but
his wife replied that had God ‘delighted’ to do
this, he would not have received their sacrifices.

hapes. Delighting in, having pleasure in. This
adjective, used similarly to the verb, occurs in
ten passages, nine of which depict man’s activity.
With men who ‘‘delight’’ tn God's righteous
cause, God is said to be pleased (Ps 35:27).
Nehemiah prays that God would be attentive to
the prayer of those who ‘‘delighted’’ to fear his
name (Neh 1:11).

hepes. Delight, pleasure. The noun hépes is
used more frequently, thirty-nine times, and in
varying contexts. It is used in such expressions
as ‘land of delight’* (Mal 3:12) or ‘‘words of de-
light’’ (Eccl 12:10), where it speaks of the plea-
sure which the “‘land’’ or ‘‘words*’ give. Of the
righteous man, Ps 1:2 says his “*delight”’ is in the
law of the Lord. Persons can be objects of this
delight, when they please other persons (Ps 16:3).
hépes may be used for that which a person wishes
strongly to do or have. For instance, Solomon
gave the Queen of Sheba all her ‘‘delight’’ (1 Kgs
10:13). Job indicates that he had not withheld the
poor from their **delight’’ (Job 31:16). The word
is used further in reference to a person's great
interest, his business. An interest of Israel was in

311

714 "pm (hapar) I, dig, search for.

715 9BM (hapér)

fasting, and this is said to have been her *‘de-
light’’ (Isa 58:3). Isaiah writes that the ‘‘delight”’
of God will prosper in the hand of Christ (53:10).

The word ts also used in reference to that in
which God finds delight. The Persian king,
Cyrus, would perform that in which God had
*“*delight’’ (Isa 44:28).

Bibliography: Staples, W. E., ‘‘The Meaning
of Hépes in Ecclesiastes,” JNES 24: 110-12.
THAT, I, pp. 621-22.

L.J.W.

713 yom (hapés) I, bend down.

This root must be distinguished from hapés I,
‘*take delight in,’ because of its one use in Job
40:17: **He bends down his tail like a cedar.” The
root is found also in Arabic, where it means
‘lower, depress.’* This word has no Hebrew de-
rivative and is uncertain in meaning. Pope Job in
AB, posits ‘“‘arches’’ as suitable for the tail. The
problem is that many take this to refer to a hip-
popotamus which has a small tail. Could the word
‘*tail’’ mean appendage? In that case the appen-
dage could be the trunk stretched out (Lisowsky)
like a cedar.

L.J.W.

(ASV and
RSV similar.)

Derivative

714a omapnpM (hdparpadra) mole, only
in Isa 2:20 (one word in the pss and
some Greek witness).

The basic idea is to dig in the ground for some
reason; and, on this count, the word is quite
parallel to kdrd. It can also mean to search for an
object. It is used twenty-two times, in the Qal
stem. The word is used often for digging a well. It
is so employed in connectton with Abraham (Gen
21:30), and Isaac (Gen 26:15, 18, 19, etc.). It is
used for digging a pit as a trap (Ps 7:15 [16]); for
digging in quest of a hidden object (Jer 13:7); and
even for a horse's pawing as he grazes (Job
39:21). The idea of searching is employed less
often, but is clearly meant. For instance, the
word is used in connection with the work of
Joshua's spies, sent to search out Jericho (Josh
2:2-3). It is used regarding the eagle as it
‘*seeketh’* (searches for) its prey (Job 39:29).

L.J.W.

715 3pm (hapér) II, be ashamed, feel abashed,

be confounded. (asv and Rsv similar.)

The basic idea concerns the loss of. self-
possession through humiliation, embarrassment,
or confusion. It ts close in meaning to the root
bosh. In fact, in fourteen of its seventeen usages,

716 wen (hapas)

it is parallel with bésh. bésh is used more fre-
quently, which suggests that hdpér is mainly a
word of amplification. A typical example of both
appearing in the same context occurs as Micah
predicts a day when “‘seers’’ will ‘‘be ashamed”
(bé6sh) and ‘‘diviners’’ will ‘‘be confounded”
(hdpér, Mic 3:7). No discernible difference in
meaning exists between the two roots in such a
context. Both words include the connotation of
disappointment, as used in Job 6:20; Job there
speaking of ‘“‘companies of Sheba’’ coming and
looking in vain for water and thus experiencing
bésh and haper.
One Hiphil usage is clearly causative in nature;
a son being said to ‘“‘cause shame’’ (bésh) and
‘bring reproach’’ (hdpér) on his parents, when
he does not respect them properly (Prov 19:26).
Two Hiphils speak of manifesting shame; for in-
stance, Israel being urged not to fear because she
would not ‘“‘be ashamed’’ (b6sh and would not
‘‘be put to shame” (hapér); the thought being
that the land would not display a scene of hard-
ship and destruction (Isa 54:4).
L.J.W.

mapspm (hdparpara). See no. 714a.

716 Wem (hapas) search, search for, disguise
oneself.

Derivative
716a TwEM (hépes) plot.

hdpas is used primarily in the Piel and Hithpael
(eight times each), rarely in Qal, Niphal, and Pual
(six times). *‘To disguise oneself,’’ i.e. ‘‘to have
oneself be searched for,’’ is the regular Hithpael
usage.

The few occurrences in the Qal stem use
‘‘search’’ in a metaphorical sense. One can
search for wisdom (Prov 2:4), or probe one’s be-
havior (Lam 3:40), doing some serious soul-
searching (Prov 20:27).

The Piel is used for concrete situations, 1.e.
searching through a house for plunder (I Kgs
20:6) or for prophets of Baal (II Kgs 10:23). God
will search out the wicked of Jerusalem (Zeph
1:12), even as Saul searches for the fugitive
David (I Sam 23:23; Amos 9:3). A lost cup and
lost idols are the objects of searches by Joseph
(Gen 44:12) and Laban (Gen 31:35).

In the difficult Ps 64:6 (H 7], some mental
searching is in progress. The wicked are devising
‘‘a well conceived plot," perhaps a ‘‘well re-
searched’ scheme to trap God's servant. Three
times in the verse the root Adpas appears.

The Hithpael *‘disguise oneself’’ usually refers
to kings who effect the disguise by laying aside
their royal garb. Saul fooled the witch of Endor

312

(I Sam 28:8), but neither Ahab (I Kgs 22:30 = II
Chr 18:29) nor Josiah (II Chr 35:22) survived the
battles which they had entered in disguise. Once,
a prophet pulled a headband over his eyes to keep
Ahab from recognizing him (1 Kgs 10:38).

hépes. Plot, shrewd device. This masculine
noun occurs in Ps 64:6 [H 7] only, in conjunction
with the Pual participle.

H.W.

717. *wem (hapash) be free.

Derivatives

7Ti7a Wem (hdpesh) saddle cloths, only in
Ezk 27:20. Meaning dubious.

717b tawenm (hapshad) freedom, only in
Lev 19:20.

Tl7c «oT9WER (hopshi) free.

717d ASWEM (hopshit) freedom, separate-
ness, only in II Kgs 15:5=II Chr
26:21.

hapash occurs only in the Pual stem in Lev
19:20, referring to a female slave who is pledged
to a husband but commits fornication with
another man. Both she and the man who violated
her are to be punished. They are not put to death,
since she is not free and presumably could not
defend herself.

hupsha. Freedom. This feminine noun ap-
pears only in Lev 19:20, referring to a slave girl
who had not been freed.

hopshi. Free. An adjective, probably related
to Ugaritic hbt ‘‘soldier’’ or **free commoner’”’
(UT 19: no. 930), and the Aubshu of the Amarna
letters. The majority of its sixteen occurrences
refer to freedom from slavery. A male or female
Hebrew slave was to be freed in the seventh year
without payment (Ex 21:2, 5). In fact, the owner
was to supply the released slave with provisions
of grain and wine and animals from the flock
(Deut 15:12—13, 18). Evidently owners were re-
luctant to follow this command. During the siege
of Jerusalem in the reign of Zedekiah, Hebrew
slaves were given their freedom, but when the
Babylonians temporarily withdrew, the owners
quickly reclaimed their slaves. Jeremiah blasted
this hypocrisy (Jer 34:9-11, 14, 16).

If a man knocked out a slave's tooth or de-
stroyed his eye, the slave was set free as com-
pensation (Ex 21:26—27). Isaiah speaks of letting
the oppressed go free during a genuine fast (58:6).

Sheol is a place where the slave is finally free
from his master (Job 3:19), but the *“freedom”’ of
death is equated with being cut off from the Lord
in the difficult Ps 88:5 [H 6].

David's father was released (ya‘dseh hopshi)
from taxes or other obligations as a reward for
David’s slaying Goliath (I Sam 17:25).

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., **Canaanite
Hofsi, ‘free’, in the Amarna Tablets,’’ JPOS 4:
169. , “Canaanite Hapsi and Hebrew
Hofsi Again,’ JPOS 6: 106. Gordis, Robert,
‘Studies in Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Mean-
ings,’’ JQR 27: 33-58. Henry, K. H., **Land Te-
nure in the Old Testament,’’ PEQ 86: 5—15. Men-
delsohn, I., “The Canaanite Terms for ‘Free Pro-
letarian’,’’ BASOR 83: 36~39.

H.W.

WEN (hopshi). See no. 717c.
mwenm (hopshit). See no. 717d.
yn (hés). See no. 721b.

718 33m (haséb) dtg, divide, hew, hewer, make,
mason. (ASV and RSv similar except that
RSV translates ‘‘set up’’ in Prov 9:1, ‘‘flashes
forth’ in Ps 29:7, and occasionally ‘‘stone-
cutters.’’)

Derivative

718a = 3M) «(mahséb) hewing. Always
occurs in the phrase ’abné mahséb
**hewn stones.”

The basic meaning of the word is ‘‘to hew,”’
“to cut or dig by blows with a tool or instru-
ment.’ It is used in this basic sense in Isa 10:15 of
cutting with an axe and in Job 19:24 of engraving
with an instrument of iron. It is used most often
in the sense of hewing out cisterns or digging
wells (Deut 6:11; Isa 5:2; Jer 2:13; Neh 9:25;
II Chr 26:10) and is used once with the connota-
tion of hewing out a tomb (Isa 22:16).

The word also has the sense of *‘to mine’’ or
‘‘quarry,’’ as in mining for copper (Deut 8:9) and
quarrying for stone (II Chr 2:2, 18 [H 1, 17}). In
the participial form the word connotes *‘stonecut-
ters’ or ““masons”’ (e.g. I Chr 22:2).

It may be used in the sense of ‘‘to fashion,’’ as
with pillars (Prov 9:1), and ‘‘to hew a carcass’
(Isa 51:9).

Metaphorically the verb connotes the devastat-
ing effect that the words of the prophets had on
Israel (Hos 6:5). It is also used to describe the
hewing of the nation of Israel as from a mass of
rock (Isa 51:1). In Ps 29:7 it is used of the cleav-
ing of fire, apparently a reference to forked light-
ning which was caused by the voice of the Lord.

T.E.M.

19 AYM (hasd) divide, live half (of one’s life).
Derivatives
719a ASEM «(hésdt) division, middle.
7196 f98R (hadi) half.
719c = kM) «(hés?) «arrow, an
form of hés.

alternative

313

719 mgm (hasda)

719d) = MEM (mehesa) half, of spoils, only
in Num 31:36, 43.
719e tment (mahdasit) half, middle.

This verb occurs primarily in the Qal stem,
eleven times, and also four times in the Niphal. It
is used of dividing up quantities of all sorts, in-
cluding groups of people.

The concept of *‘dividing’’ is applied to things,
people, and time. Precise quantities are some-
times specified, such as ‘‘half a hin’’ of oil or
wine which accompanied an offering (Num
15:9-10; 28:14). Every time a census was taken,
exactly half a shekel (mahdsit) was paid per per-
son (Ex 30:13). When Israel defeated the Midian-
ites, they divided the plunder equally between
the warriors and the rest of the congregation
(Num 31:27, 29f., 42, 47). The width of each
board of the tabernacle was one and one-half
cubits (Ex 26:16).

Half of the blood of an offering was poured in
basins, the other half sprinkled on the altar (Ex
24:6). To insult David, the Ammonites shaved off
half the beards of his servants and cut off their
clothes ‘‘in the middle,”’ i.e. at the hip (I] Sam
10:4). The Jordan River was divided by Elijah
and then Elisha (II Kgs 2:8, 14), and the Mount of
Olives will be split in half from east to west at the
Lord's return (Zech 14:4).

Groups of persons are divided also. Jacob di-
vided the children among his wives at Esau’s ap-
proach (Gen 33:1), and Gideon split his three
hundred into three companies (Jud 7:16; 9:43).
‘*Half the people of Israel’’ joined Judah in
reinstating David as king (II Sam 19:40 [(H 41)),
and during a civil war in Israel, half followed
Tibni while half supported Omri (I Kgs 16:21).
The empire of Alexander the Great was divided
into four parts (Dan 11:4). Also in Gen 33:1 the
division is into four groups, not the two which is
the more common usage. Ezekiel envisions the
day when Judah and Israel will no longer be two
separate kingdoms (37:22).

The “‘half-tribe’” of Manasseh”’ is a technical
term referring to the part of the tribe that settled
in Transjordan. Usually Ads? is used, (Num
32:33; Josh 1:12) but sometimes mahdsit (Josh
21:25; I Chr 6:71 [H 55}).

References to time include the expression **in
the middle of the night.’ While some translations
render this ‘‘midnight,’’ it was not necessarily
midnight when the Angel of the Lord slew the
firstborn in Egypt (Ex 12:29). Nor did Samson
carry off the gate of Gaza at precisely twelve
o’clock aM (Jud 16:3). The Psalmist prays that
God will not remove him ‘‘in the midst of my
days’’ (102:24 [H 25]). It is rather the wicked who
“will not live out half their days’? (Ps 55:23
[H 24]). Fortunes illegally obtained will disap-
pear in the middle of one’s life (Jer 17:11).

720 33M (hsn)

The important reference in Dan 9:27 to ‘‘the
middle of the week" apparently signifies the
midpoint of the seven-year period called ‘‘the
Great Tribulation’ (Dan 12:1, 7 [cf. v. 11]; Rev
11:3). The last half of this period appears to be
detailed as 1290 days in Dan 12:11.

hasi. Half, middle. This masculine noun oc-
curs 123 times and shows a broad range of us-
ages.

mahasit. Half, middle. mahdsit, a feminine
noun, is used fourteen times. It is a close
synonym of hdsi.

H.W.

mem (hésér). See no. 719a.

‘ym (hdsi). See no. 719b.

%yn (hési). See no. 719c.

—im (hasir). See nos. 723b, 724a, 725Sa.

720 33m (hsn). Assumed root of the following.

720a = 1¥mM) =(hésen) bosom of a garment (Ps
129:7).

720b «38M (hosen) bosom (Neh 5:13; Isa
49:22).

721 En (hasas) divide.
Derivatives

721a pam (hasds) gravel.

721b tpm (hés) arrow.

721c *pgm (hadsas) shoot arrows (Piel
only, Jud 5:11). Perhaps this verb is
derived from hes.

hés. Arrow. Most of its fifty-six uses occur in
poetry. Arrows are deadly weapons normally
shot from a bow, but Uzziah built a catapult that
could shoot arrows or stones (II Chr 26:15). Pow-
erful armies were armed with sharp arrows (Isa
5:28), though God kept Assyria from shooting a
single arrow at Hezekiah’s Jerusalem (II Kgs
19:32 = Isa 37:33). Israel's army (Num 24:8) and
kings (Ps 45:5 {H 6]) possessed sharp arrows also.
The spelling hési derived from has4 is also used.

Arrows were consulted by the king of Babylon
as a means of divination, along with idols and
livers (Ezk 21:21 {H 26]). Elisha had King Joash
shoot an arrow and strike the ground with his
arrows (If Kgs 13:15, 17-18) to symbolize
victory.

Wicked men shoot their arrows to fell the
righteous (Ps 11:2). Often this refers metaphori-
cally to the bitter, violent words hurled at the
godly (Ps 57:4 (H 5); 64:3 [H 4]; Jer 9:7). God is
the one who nullifies these dangerous arrows (Ps
58:7 {H 8]; 91:5) and makes his arrows drunk with
the blood of his enemies (Deut 32:42).

Yet God's arrows of judgment are aimed at Is-
rael (Deut 32:23), and the Psalmist, Job, and

314

Jeremiah all complain about God's arrows sunk
deep into them (Ps 38:2 [H 3]; Job 6:4; Lam 3:12).
In theophanies, flashes of lightning are often re-
ferred to as arrows (Ps 18:14 (H 15]; 144:6; Hab
3:11).

Psalm 127:4 compares children to the arrows in
a soldier's hand, and in Isa 49:2 the Servant of the
Lord is called a select (polished?) arrow.

Toward the end of the oT period, the Persian
armies depended heavily on their archers. They
carried large quivers on their backs and were
trained to shoot with great rapidity.

H.W.

mMax3n (hdsdsra). See no. 726a.
syum(hssr). See no. 726b.

722 “3m (hsr) I. Assumed root of the following.

722a =t5xmM «(hasér) court, enclosure.

Cognate with Ugaritic hzr and its dialectal var-
iant Atr (UT 19: nos. 855, 852a) ‘court’; cf.
Aramaic hutrd, Phoenician hsr, Arabic hazirat
‘‘an enclosure for sheep.’’ It occurs in the singu-
lar 120 times, in the feminine plural 20 times, and
in the masculine plural 5 times. The Lxx usually
translates it aulé, and occasionally epaulis or
skéné.

Near Eastern houses were built around a court.
Such a court might contain a well (II Sam 17:18).
The plague of frogs died out from the houses, the
courtyards (kJv ‘‘villages’’), and the fields (Ex
8:13 [H 9]).

Most of the references to courts concern Ssa-
cred or royal buildings. Ahasuerus’s palace in
Susa had an “‘outer’’ and an “‘inner’’ court.
Haman waited in the ‘‘outer’’ court (Est 6:4), for
no one was permitted to enter the ‘‘inner’’ court
without the king’s permission (Est 4:11).

The numerous references in Ex and Num are to
the court of the tabernacle, a large rectangular
space one hundred cubits by fifty cubits. They
describe in particular the hangings and the pillars
around its periphery. The court was functional,
allowing space for the worshipers to gather, to
slaughter animals, and to eat. It was symbolic of
the worshiper approaching God and yet God
being set apart in the temple itself.

Solomon’s building complex at Jerusalem in-
cluded: the ‘‘inner’’ court of the temple (I Kgs
6:36; 7:12); the court of the palace (1 Kgs 7:8),
perhaps the ‘‘middle’’ court of II Kgs 20:4 (fol-
lowing the Qere); and the ‘‘great’’ court covering
the entire area of the complex (I Kgs 7:9, 12).

The temple that Ezekiel beheld in his visions
had an outer and an inner court (Ezk 40:17-19).
The people assembled in the outer court, which
was surrounded by thirty rooms (Ezk 40:17). On
the sabbath and the new moon the gate of the

inner court was opened so that the prince could
worship at its threshold (Ezk 46:1-3).

Although many have asserted that Solomon's
temple had only one court, Ezekiel’s vision and
other references (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12; Il Kgs 21:5;
23:12; I] Chr 4:9; 33.5) indicate that the first tem-
ple had an inner court of priests and an outer
court. The second temple of the New Testament
era had a court of the gentiles and an inner court
which was subdivided into courts of the women,
Israel and the priests.

Even in the oT era the Psalmist had invited the
nations to come into the courts of the Lord (Ps
96:8). The Psalmist declares that he longs for the
courts of the Lord (Ps 84:2 [H 3]), for even a day
in his courts 1s better than a thousand elsewhere
(Ps 84:10 [H 11]).

E.Y.

723 93m (hsr) II. Assumed root of the following.
723a tsxm (hdasér) village.

723b 0 93m «(hasir) settled abode,
(Isa 34:13; 35:7).

haser. Village, settlement. Cognate with the
Akkadian hasdrum found at Mari; cf. Arabic
hadara *‘to dwell’ and S Arabic hdr ‘‘enclosed
camp.’ It occurs forty-six times (thirty-two times
in Joshua), always in the masculine plural. The
Lxx usually translates it Admé, occasionally
epaulis.

In some cases the hAdsér may have been no
more than a settlement of the tents of Bedouins
(Gen 25:16; Isa 42:11). In contrast to cities, vil-
lages were unwalled (Lev 25:31). In the distribu-
tion of land in Joshua, 114 cities are allotted to
Judah together with daughter or satellite villages
(Josh 15:32, 36, 41, 44).

Bibliography: Orlinsky, H., ‘‘Hasér in the
Old Testament,'° JAOS 59: 22-37. Wolf, C. U.,
Village,’ in IDB, IV, p. 784.

haunt

E.Y,

724 93m (hsr) Ill. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

74a t33m (hasir) grass.

Derived from a root “‘to be green’’; cf. Arabic
hadira. It appears as Asr in the Old Aramaic Se-
fire 1.A 28 text, and in the Akkadian treaty of
Ashurnirari V (Rev 4.20) as séri **green”™’ in the
sense of grass.

In Palestine grass grows rapidly after the
winter and spring rairis. It wilts just as rapidly
before the heat of summer or the blistering
khamsin, the dry desert wind.

Because of its ephemeral nature, grass is often
used as a Symbol of the transitoriness of man’s
existence: the wicked will soon wither like the
grass (Ps 37:2); men are like the grass which
flourishes in the morning but fades in the evening

315

726 “EM (hsr)

(Ps 90:5; cf. Ps 103:15). The fleeting nature of
man, which ts like that of the grass, is contrasted
with the abiding character of God’s Word (Isa
40:6-8; cf. Jas 1:10-11). Inasmuch as it is the
Creator who comforts us we are not to be afraid
of mortal man who Is like the grass (Isa 51:12).

The flat roofs of the Palestinian houses would
often sprout some grass which would wither even
before it grew much because it had no depth of
soil. So Israel’s enemies would wither before the
Lord (II Kgs 19:26; Isa 37:27; Ps 129:6).

725 sm (hsr) IV. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
725a taxm (hasir) leek.

From a root ‘‘to be narrow, ’’ as the leek looks
like an elongated onion. It appears but once, in
Num 11:5 in the list of Egyptian foods which the
Israelites missed in Sinai. The Allium porrum,
called iaget by the.Egyptians, is featured in such
texts as the Medinet Habu calendar, the Ebers
papyrus, the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, etc.
Pliny (Natural History 19.33) mentions that the
most esteemed leeks come from Egypt, and says
that Nero ate nothing but chives, i.e. chopped
leeks, on certain days of the month.

See also deshe’, yereq, ‘éSeb.

Bibliography: Fauna and Flora of the Bible,
London: United Bible Societies, 1972. Shewell-
Cooper, W. E., ‘Flora,’ in ZPEB, II, pp.
571,578.

By:

726 “3m (hsr) V. Assumed root of the following.

726a TNR EN (hadsdsrad) trumpet.

7266 «*"98EM (hssr) sound the trumpet This
denominative verb occurs only in the
Piel and the Hiphil. (Qere *5¥n).

hasosra. Trumpet. Perhaps from a root ‘‘to be
narrow, describing its shape, the word occurs
twenty-nine times, always in the plural except
Hos 5:8. Of these occurrences sixteen are in I and
II Chr. It is translated by the Lxx salpigx and by
the Vulgate tuba, both “‘trumpet.”

The trumpet was made of beaten silver (Num
10:2). According to Josephus in Antiquities
3.12.6 (291), ‘‘In length a little short of a cubit, it
is a narrow tube, slightly thicker thana flute... .”
The trumpets of Herod's temple are depicted on
the Arch of Titus and on silver denarius coins of
Bar Cochba. Early Egyptian examples were
found in Tutankhamon’s tomb. It should be dis-
tinguished from the shdépar, the curved ram's
horn trumpet.

Moses was commanded to make a pair of
trumpets (Num 10:2). The number of trumpets
was increased to 7 (I Chr 15:24) and to 120 (II Chr
5:12).

With the possible exception of their use at the

727 mon (haga)

coronation of Joash (II Kgs 11:14; If Chr 23:13),
trumpets were used by the priests (Num 10:8;
I Chr 15:24; 16:6; II Chr 23:13: cf. Sir 50:16).

Trumpets were used for a variety of purposes.
They were used to summon the tribes, or their
leaders, and to signal the breaking of camp (Num
10:24). Trumpets were blown while the burnt
offering was being offered in Hezekiah’s rite
(11 Chr 29:27-28; cf. Num 10:10).

Although the ram's horn (shépar) was usually
employed for military purposes, priests some-
times used the trumpets in times of war so that
the Lord would respond (Num 10:9; 31:6; IJ Chr
13:12, 14).

In Hos 5:8 the prophet commands the blowing
of the horn and the trumpet as a signal of the
enemy's approach.

The trumpets must have emitted a high, shrill:

sound. The signals depended upon the number of
trumpets used, the types of sounds, and their se-
quence. The fri‘d (rsv ‘‘alarm’’) seems to have
been a rapid succession of three notes (Mishnah,
Rosh ha-Shanah 4.9). At the first ‘‘alarm’’ the
camps on the east set out, etc. (Num 10:5). The
ordinary way of blowing the trumpet (1aqa‘) pro-
duced a sustained sound. Mazar’s excavation
discovered in 1968 a fragment from Herod's tem-
ple with the inscription “for the house of the
blowing (of the trumpet),’’ designating where the
priest stood on the parapet to blow the trumpet:
LBYT HTOQY'H.

See also shépar, geren, ydbél.

Bibliography: Finesinger, Sol Baruch, ‘*Mu-
sical Instruments in the OT,’’ HUCA 3: 21-75,
esp. pp. 61-63. Yadin, Yigael, The Scroll of the
War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of
Darkness, London: Oxford University, 1962, pp.
87-113. TDNT, VII, pp. 76-85.

E.Y.

See no. 728a.
See no. 629a.

PP (hdq).
pm (héq).

727 2m (haqa) carved, portrayed, set a print
(aAsv and Rsv similar, also render ‘‘set a
bound’’).

The root is parallel to hdgag ‘‘engrave’’ and
occurs four times in the ot: three times as Pual
participle and once as a Hithpael form. The doors
of the temple were adorned with carved work
(hammehuqgeh, | Kgs 6:35). Ezekiel saw the
idols of Israel portrayed by carving on the walls
of the temple chamber (Ezk 8:10). Oholibah in
her idolatry saw men portrayed on the wall (Ezk
23:14).

The Hithpael form (Job 13:27) is difficult to
interpret. GKC S4f suggests the meaning, ‘“‘to
draw a line for oneself.’’ The verb was rendered
aphikou (‘to reach unto’’) by the Lxx and con-

316

siderasti (‘consider’) by the Vulgate. Older in-
terpreters paralleled the verse to Job 14:15, deriv-
ing the meaning that God had limited Job by
drawing a line about his feet that he could not
cross. That act may be compared to Solomon's
limitation of Shimei (I Kgs 2:36—37). Hence the
KJv: “Thou puttest a print for the souls of my
feet,’ and asv and rsv: ‘‘Thou markest a line
about the soles of my feet.’ The NEB and M. Pope
in Job, AB assume a custom of cutting a brand
into the heels of a slave so that the heels make
identifiable tracks in the earth. Similarly, it is im-
possible for Job to escape.

J.P.L.

728 DM (haqaq) engrave, portray, decree, in-

scribe, govern. (asv and rsv similar, but
ASV translates the participial form as ‘‘gov-
ernor,'’ and RSV uses ‘commander’ when
the context is military.)

Derivatives

728a t2Mm (hog) Statute.
728b «tmpm (huqqd) enactment.

haqaq occurs in the Qal, Polel, and Hophal
stems a total of nineteen times, and has the pri-
mary meaning of cutting in or engraving in stone
as hewing a tomb in the rock (Isa 22:16) and as
drawing a picture on a brick (Ezk 4:1) or a wall
(Ezk 23:14). It may also describe writing on the
palm of one’s hand (Isa 49:16) or in a book (Isa
30:8; Job 19:23). It is set alongside kdtab
(“‘write’’) in Isa 30:8. God has drawn a circle
upon the face of the deep and has marked out the
foundations of the earth (Prov 8:27, 29).

This root occurs in the Polel stem. haqaq re-
fers to enacting a decree (Isa 10:1; Prov 8:15; cf.
Jer 31:35), hence the participial form (m° hdgéq)
designates a ruler, lawgiver (Gen 49:10; Isa
33:22), or commander (Jud 5:9, 14). The root may
also parallel shéber (‘‘staff’’) designating the
ruler’s staff which is the symbol of ruling (Num
21:18; Ps 60:7 {H 9]; 108:8 [H 9}).

Genesis 49:10 is a significant messianic passage
(see R. L. Harris, *‘Excursus”’ in J. O. Buswell,
Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion,
II, Zondervan, 1963, p. 544). Whether m‘* hogéq
is translated ‘‘lawgiver’’ (KJv) or ‘‘ruler’s staff’
(RSV), it is clearly a symbol of rule and therefore
promises the kingship to Judah. Critical authors
attempt to date this prediction after the event, but
Gen 49 is widely admitted to be earlier than the
monarchy. The Lxx reading makes the verse even
clearer by taking “‘between his feet’’ as a
euphemism for ‘“‘loins.’” The king would belong
to Judah's descendants. Interestingly, a fragment
from the Dead Sea Scrolls quotes this verse and
applies it to “the coming of the legitimately
anointed (king), the scion of David’’ for whom

they hoped (T. H. Gaster, The Dead Sea Scrip-
tures, rev. ed., Doubleday, 1964, p. 334).

The Pual participle describes that which is de-
creed.

hog. Statute, custom, law, decree (asv and RSV
translate also ordinance, due and bound.) The
masculine noun hdg is from the root hadqag
which means ‘“‘to scratch’’ or ‘to engrave,”’
hence ‘‘to write.’* It occurs 128 times, and its
feminine counterpart huggd occurs 102 times.

It was a common practice among the ancients
to engrave laws upon slabs of stone or metal and
to set them up in a public place (e.g. the code of
Hammurabi, engraved on diorite stone). But this
root is not limited to the writing of laws on stone.
The Lxx chiefly used three words to render hdq:
prostagma ‘‘order’’ or ‘‘injunction,’’ dikaiOma
“regulation’’ or ‘“‘requirement,’’ and nomimon
‘commandment.’ The use of Adg in Qumran is
similar to that in the oT.

hég occurs in sequences with other words for
law: d°®barim (words), térd (law), mishpat
(judgment), ‘édut (testimony), and miswd (com-
mandment). These words are used almost indis-
criminately. In a few cases hég and mishpat are
used as if intended to summarize two kinds of
Israelite law (Ex 15:25; Josh 24:25; Ezr 7:10). But
efforts to distinguish clearly between their conno-
tations have not been entirely successful. Al-
brecht Alt has suggested such a distinction in his
categories of casuistic and apodictic laws. But he
admits that hdqg is not limited to the apodictic
form. More recent efforts to make hég designate
that to which men must respond in obedience is
in general true, but fits only some of the cases.

As “‘rule’’ or ‘‘prescription’’ hédg may desig-
nate duties imposed by God (Ex 18:16) or man
(Gen 47:26; If Chr 35:25; Jud 11:39). In the case
of the latter, it conveys the import of *‘statute’’ or
‘custom,’ as in the phrase ‘‘statutes of your
fathers’’ (Ezk 20:18; I Sam 30:25). The verb most
frequently used with hdég is shadmar ‘‘to keep,”
which stresses the concept that huggim (plural)
are precepts and rules to be obeyed. When used
inconnection with b* rit (covenant) it denotes the
demands which God made upon his covenant
people. The decree of the Lord gives the king his
rights and duties over the people of God (Ps 2:7).

hog at times designates a legal right. Joseph
gives Pharoah a fifth of the land’s produce (Gen
47:26). Isaiah (10:1) alludes to iniquitous decrees
by which the poor were legally fleeced. Even
natural laws such as the ‘‘bound’’ of the sea
(Prov 8:29) give the sea its right of sway. There
are regulations for the heavenly bodies (Ps
148:6), the rain (Job 28:26), and the sea (Jer 5:22;
Job 38:10).

hég at times designates ‘‘privilege’’ or ‘‘due.”’
The Egyptian priests had a right which exempted

317

728 22m (hagaq)

them from selling their land (Gen 47:22). The
priest's share in the sacrifice was a perpetual
right (Ex 29:28; cf. Lev 24:9), established by
God's decree.

hog as ‘‘custom’’ is demonstrated in the case
of the memorial for Jephthah's daughter (Jud
11:39). It is also seen in the demand that Israel
not walk in the customs (hagqd) of Canaan (Lev
18:3, 30; 20:23).

huqqa. Enactment, statute, ordinance
manner. (ASV and RSV similar, but when dealing
with pagan rites render the root ‘‘custom’’ (Lev
18:30; 20:23; II Kgs 17:8; Jer 10:3).

A feminine noun from the root hdgag ‘‘en-
scribe’’ or ‘‘engrave.’’ haqgqd is used in the com-
bination hagqoét ‘6lam (perpetual statute) to des-
ignate an ordinance from God which Is perpetu-
ally binding, e.g. the regulations of Passover (Ex
12:14), Unleavened Bread (Ex 12:17; cf. 13:10),
Booths (Lev 23:41), Day of Atonement (Lev
16:29, 31, 34), the Aaronic priesthood (Ex 29:9),
the perpetual hght (Ex 27:31; Lev 24:3), the
priest’s linen clothing (Ex 28:43), blowing of
trumpets (Num 10:8), laws for the sojourner
(Num 15:15), and laws of uncleanness (Num
19:10, 21).

Certain prohibitions are also called perpetual
Statutes, e.g. against eating of fat and blood (Lev
3:17), against a priest drinking wine and strong
drink when entering the tent of meeting (Lev
10:9), against sacrificing to devils (satyrs?) (Lev
17:7), against eating certain foods (Lev 23:14),
against Levites inheriting land (Num 18:23).

There are also ordinances of Passover (Ex
12:43; Num 9:12, 14; cf. 9:3); the altar (Ezk
43:18); the house of the Lord (Ezk 44:5); the law
(Num 31:21; 19:2); judgment (Num 27:11); life
(i.e. leading to life, Ezk 33:15), and the statutes of
Omri (i.e. the customs of Omri, Mic 6:16).

In certain passages hugqG parallels judgment
(mishpat II Sam 22:23; Ps 18:22 [H 23]) and
commandment (miswad, Deut 6:2; 28:15, 45;
30:10). It occurs in legal sequences **command-
ments, statutes, and ordinances’’ (Deut 8:11;
30:16); ‘‘commandments, statutes, and ordi-
nances’’ (Deut 8:11; 30:16); ‘‘commandments,
testimonies, and statutes’ (Jer 44:23); and
‘charge, statutes, ordinances, and command-
ments’ (Deut 11:1; cf. I Kgs 2:3).

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., **The LXX
Renderings of Old Testament Terms for Law,”’
HUCA 7: 259-60. Braulik, Georg, ‘‘Die Aus-
driicke fiir ‘Gesetz’ im Buch Deuteronomium,”’
Bib 51: 39-66. Falk, Zeev W., ‘‘Hebrew Legal
Terms,’ JSS 5: 350. Jones, G. H., ‘‘The Decree
of Yahweh (Ps_ II.7),” VT 15: 336-44.
Morgenstern, Julian, ‘‘The Book of the Cove-
nant, II,’”» HUCA 7: 19-258. , ‘The Dec-
alogue of the Holiness Code,’” HUCA 26: I-27.

729 32M (haqar)

Van der Ploeg, J., ““Studies in Hebrew Law,”’
CBQ 12: 248-59, 416-27; 13: 28-43, 164-71,
296-307. Victor, Peddi, *“A Note on dg in the
Old Testament,’ VT 16: 358-61. THAT, I, pp.
626-32.

J.PAx

729 Spm (haqar) search, investigate, examine.

Derivatives

729a tIpM «(héger) searching, inquiry.

7296 «SDM «~(mehqar) range (as place to
be explored). Only in Ps 95:4 (cf. Job
38:16).

haqar is used primarily in the Qal stem, but
also four times in the Niphal, and once in the Piel
(Eccl 12:9). It can refer to initial phases of a
search or the end result, but always connotes a
diligent, difficult probing.

A concept common to wisdom literature,
which is concerned with investigating legal cases
(Prov 18:17) and the plight of the needy (Job
29:16), searching out a particular subject (Job
5:27; 8:8; 28:27), or examining proverbs (Eccl
12:9). A search can have as its object information
about a city (II Sam 10:3 = I Chr 19:3) or a coun-
try (Jud 18:2) or even mining prospects (Job
28:3). Sometimes the search is fruitless, e.g. the
attempt to find out the weight of the bronze used
for the temple (I Kgs 7:47) or to search out the
foundations of the earth (Jer 31:37).

Often a person's character or feelings are being
probed. Jonathan sought to ‘“‘sound out’’ his
father’s attitude toward David (1 Sam 20:12). The
Lord is the one who searches and Knows us (Ps
139:1; Job 13:9). He probes the heart and exam-
ines the mind (Jer 17:10), and if there is sin and
unfaithfulness, he is not deceived (Ps 44:2]
(H 22]).

heger. Searching, inquiry. This noun is used
of the *‘heart-searching”™’ of the tribe of Reuben,
which failed to aid Deborah and Barak against the
Canaanites (Jud 5:16).

Usually, the emphasis is on the impossible.
The heart of kings is unsearchable (Prov 25:3).
Six of its ten usages refer to the unsearchable
nature of God, e.g. his greatness (Ps 145:3) and
his understanding (Isa 40:28). His miraculous
deeds are inscrutable (Job 5:9; 9:10), and the
number of his years past finding out (Job 36:26).

H.W.

3m (hdr). See nos. 757a, 758a.
sm (har). See no. 758b.

730 SM (hr’) Assumed root of the following.

730a STM O(here’) dung (Isa 36:12; I
Kgs 18:27), i.e. h’ré yénim ‘‘dove’s
dung.”’

318

730b «ANTM «(mahdra’a) draught
house (II Kgs 10:27).

731 ssn (haréb) I, dry up; be in ruins, lay waste;

make desolate.

Derivatives

73la 35m (haréb) dry, desolate.

731b t35 Rm (h6reb) I, dryness, desolation.

731c tasm (horeb) I, Horeb.

731d tm30m (horba) ruins.

73le tmp5m (hdrdba) dry land.

731f Wa5sm (hérdbén) drought. Used
only in Ps 32:4, as a metaphor of
fever heat.

harab is used in the Qal, Niphal, Pual, Hiphil,
and Hophal stems. Cognate with Akkadian
harabu ‘‘be desolate’; Ugaritic hrb **become
dry’* (UT 19: no. 1000); Arabic hariba **be void
of water and vegetation.’” The verb occurs
thirty-seven times, including twelve times in Isa.
BDB divides into two roots: be dry and be in
ruins. We follow KB which takes this word as
one root with a semantic extension.

The verb harab originally meant *‘to be dry.”’
Secondarily it and its derivatives denoted, on the
one hand, the heat which caused dryness, and on
the other, the desolation of waste areas, the de-
vastation caused by wars.

The verb is used in the Qal stem of the waters
which dried up after the flood (Gen 8:13), and in
the Pual stem of the bowstrings which had not
been dried which were used to tie up Samson
(Jud 16:7). Gideon sought to test the Lord with
the fleece which was alternately wet then dry
(horeb, Jud 6:37, 39-40). In Isa 48:21 horba
means ‘‘deserts.”’

The verb in the Hiphil stem is used of Sen-
nacherib’s boast that his warriors were so nu-
merous that they had dried up rivers with the
soles of their feet (II Kgs 19:24; Isa 37:25). Job
14:11 compares the drying up of a river to death.

One of the characteristics of the might of
Yahweh is his ability to dry up the seas and the
rivers (Isa 44:27; 50:2; Nah 1:4). He dried up the
Sea of Reeds (Av, ‘‘Red Sea’’) for the passage of
the Israelites (Ps 106:9; Isa $1:10).

When Judah forsook the Lord’s living waters,
Jeremiah called upon the heavens to be appalled,
literally ‘‘be exceedingly dried up,’ at such per-
fidy (Jer 2:12).

In some passages horeb refers to ‘*heat’’ rather
than to ‘‘dryness.’* Jacob complained to Laban,
that he had been consumed by the heat (kJv
‘‘drought’’) of the day and the cold of the night
(Gen 31:40). Jehoiakim’s corpse was to be ex-
posed to the heat of the day and the cold of the
night (Jer 36:30). Job complains, ‘*‘My bones are
burned with fever’’ (3B, Job 30:30).

In Isa 4:6; 25:4-5 the Lord’s protection is
likened to the refreshing shade from the heat,
provided by the clouds.

Especially in the writings of Isa, Jer, and Ezk
who both foresaw and witnessed the devastations
of invading Assyrian and Babylonian armies, the
word Adrab and its derivatives denote desolation
and ruin.

A rare use of the word in an earlier period is its
occurrence as a Hiphil participle to describe
Samson as the ‘‘ravager’’ (Jud 16:24, rsv) of the
Philistine country.

In the postexilic period Nehemiah 1s saddened
to learn that Jerusalem is still in ruins (Neh 2:3,
17), but Ezra thanks God for hts grace in permit-
ting the Jews to repair the temple’s ruins (Ezra 9:9).

However, when the Jews’ dedication to re-
building the temple flagged, the prophet Haggai
rebuked them with a paronomasia or play on
words. He proclaimed that because the Lord's
house had remained ‘in ruins’’ (Aaréb, Hag 1:4,
9) the Lord would bring a ‘‘drought™* (Adreb, Hag
I:11) upon the land.

Yahweh warned that he would bring desolation
upon his own people if they turned to idols (Lev
26:31, 33). Such desolation was sent in turn
against Israel (Amos 7:9), and Judah (Jer 7:34;
22:5; 25:9; Ezk 6:6) because of their disobedience
and apostasy.

In Judah’s case the desolation was to be limited
in time (Jer 25:11), and remedial in purpose (Ezk
12:20; Zeph 3:6—7). Jer 33:10 promises that in the
desolate place *“‘without man or inhabitant or
beast’’ voices of gladness would be heard once
more. Ezk 36:38 prophesies that the waste cities
will be filled with “flocks of men’’ and Ezk 36:35
that the desolate land will blossom like the **gar-
den of Eden.”

But it is above all the prophet Isatah who
voices the promise of a resurrection from the
ruins of God's judgment. It is the Lord who will
raise up the ruins of Jerusalem (44:26). Their des-
olate places will one day be too limited for the
increased population (49:19). The Lord will com-
fort Zion’s waste places and transform them into
an Eden (51:3). Jerusalem's ruins will break forth
into singing (52:9), as they will be rebuilt (58:12;
61:4).

In Zeph 2:14 the Hebrew reads, ~*Desolation
(héreb) is on the threshold.”* Following the Vul-
gate and the 1.xx. which reads Avrakes represent-
ing the Hebrew ‘oréh, the rsv, 38, and NAB trans-
late “‘raven’’ and the NEB “‘bustard”™’ as an indica-
tion that Nineveh will become the lodging place
of wild birds and animals.

See also dalal, ydbésh, sha’a, shamam.

haréb. Dry, waste, desolate. The adjecttve oc-
curs twice in the sense of **dry”’ (Lev 7:10: Prov
17:1) and eight times in the sense of *‘desolate.

319

731 35m (hareb)

horeb. Dryness, drought, heat, desolation. This
noun occurs sixteen times. Compare the proper
noun Horeb.

horeb. Horeb. An alternative name for Mount
Sinai, derived from Aarab and signifying a deso-
late region. It occurs seventeen times, including
nine times in Deut. The documentary hypothesis
suggests that this name for the mountain of God
is characteristic of D and E (Ex 3:1: 17:6; 33:6),
while Sinai is used in the J and P sections (see,
however, Deut 33:2),

In some passages Horeb seems to designate an
area larger than Mount Sinai (Deut 4:10; 9:8;
18:16). Moses struck the rock in the region of
Horeb (Ex 17:6), but not on Mount Sinai which
the Israelites did not reach until later (Ex 19:1).

Suggestions as to the location of Horeb/Sinai
have included: |. a volcanic mountain al-Hrob tn
Midian southeast of Aqaba: 2. Jebel! el-Halal,
thirty miles west of Kadesh-barnea; 3. Sinn Bishr
(2000 feet), thirty miles southeast of Suez: and
4. one of three peaks in southern Sinai.

Deuteronomy 1:2 indicates that it was an
eleven-day journey from Horeb to Kadesh-
barnea. Elijah in his flight went forty days and
forty nights to Horeb (I Kgs 19:8). Both refer-
ences would fit a location in southern Sinai, as
would the identification of Paran with the Wadi
Feiran.

Peaks in southern Sinai identified with Horeb/
Sinai include: 1. Jebel Serbal (6825 feet), iden-
tified as early as Eusebius: 2. Ras es-Safsafeh
(6739 feet) with a considerable plain below it; and
3. Jebel Musa (7363 feet), the favored site loom-
ing over St. Catherine’s Monastery, established
by Justinian in the sixth century.

The Psalmist recalls how the Israelites made a
calf at Horeb (Ps 106:19). When Solomon in-
stalled the ark, it contained only the two tables of
stone which Moses placed in it at Horeb (1 Kgs
8:9; II Chr 5:10). One of the last exhortations of
the or is the injunction to remember the law of
Moses which the Lord had commanded him at
Horeb (Mal 4:4 |H 3:22]).

horba. Waste or desolate places, ruins. The
word occurs forty-two times, including twenty-
six times in the plural, mostly in Isa, Jer, Ezk.

haraba. Dry land. The word occurs eight
times. In all but two cases (Gen 7:22: Hag 2:6) the
land has been made dry by God's miraculous in-
tervention: at the Sea of Reeds (ksv ‘*Red Sea,”
Ex 14:21): at the Jordan (Josh 3:17, 4:18: II Kgs
2:8); and at the Nile as a threat by Yahweh (Ezk
30:12).

hérabon. Heat or drought. Occurs but once at
Ps 32:4. The Psalmist declares that before he con-
fessed his sin his strength had been dried up by
the ‘*heat™ or the ‘‘drought”’ of summer.

732 33m (harab)

Bibliography: Hyatt, J. P., Exodus, London:
Oliphants, 1971, pp. 203-207. Phythian-Adams,
W. J., **The Mount of God,’’ Quarterly of the
Palestine Exploration Fund 1930: 135-49, 193-
209. Rothenberg, Beno, and Aharoni, Yohanan,
God's Wilderness, Thomas Nelson, 1962.

E.Y.

732 39m (hdrab) Ui, slay, fight.
Derivative
732a t39m (hereb) sword.

Cognate with Arab haraba ‘‘to plunder’ and
harbu *‘war, battle.’’ It occurs only in the follow-
ing passages: in the Qal at Jer 50:21,27 in the
sense of *‘slay’’ (Rsv); in the Niphal at I] Kgs
3:23, ‘*The Kings have surely fought together”’
(RSV; the KJv reads ‘‘the kings are surely slain’’).

hereb. Sword, dagger; rarely knife or a chisel.
Cognate with Akkadian harbu; Ugaritic hrb
“sword, “‘knife’’ (UT 19: no. 893); Egyptian
hrp; Arabic harbatu ‘‘javelin’’; Greek harpé
‘*sickle’’; Latin harpe “sickle.”

hereb, which occurs 407 times, is the most fre-
quently mentioned weapon in the oT. The Lxx
translates it 195 times as rhomphaia ‘‘sword’’;
165 times as machaira ‘short sword,” ‘‘dag-
ger, ‘‘knife’’; 8 times as xiphos ‘‘straight
sword’: and 4 times as egcheiridion ‘‘dagger.”’

From archeological and iconographic evidence
we know that the common swords of the third
and early second millennia 8.c. were rather short,
straight swords made of bronze. In the second
millennium a curved sickle-shaped sword, called
by the Egyptians khopesh ‘‘foreleg,’’ became
popular. Yadin believes that the expression ‘‘to
smite with the edge of the sword,” e.g. in
Joshua’s campaigns, refers to this type of smiting
sword. Examples have been recovered from
Shechem and Gezer.

At the end of the second millennium, the Philis-
tines and other Sea Peoples introduced the long,
Straight sword made of iron (cf. | Sam 13:19),
which could be used to cut and to stab. Such iron
swords have been found at Beit Dagon and Tell
el-*Ajjul (see illustrations in Yadin cited in the
bibliography).

Swords were worn ina ‘‘sheath”’ (ta‘ar, 1 Sam
17:51), which was hung on a ‘‘girdle’’ (see hdagar
and hdgoéra). This was normally worn on the left
side.

Apparently the tempering of iron to make steel
usable for swords was a military secret kept from
the Israelites by the Hebrews. This advantage
was held by the Philistines until David’s day. The
I Sam 13:19-22 passage preserves a very accurate
analysis of the days when the Philistines had the
long iron swords and the Israelites had only the
short bronze daggers.

320

Ehud, a left-handed man, was able to conceal
his weapon in his girdle on the right side. He
made for himself a two-edged short sword, about
eighteen inches long, with a small hilt (Jud 3:15-
16, 21-22).

In the days of the united monarchy the Israel-
ites adopted the heavy swords of the Philistines,
which could penetrate armor (I Sam 17:5, 38, 51:
21:9). As it was also pointed for stabbing, such a
sword was used by Saul to commit suicide (I Sam
31:4).

Once in Ps 89:43 [H 44] the expression sur,
literally *‘rock, flint’’ of ‘‘his sword”’ denotes the
edge of the sword, reflecting an archaic practice
when blades were made of flint; cf. Akkadian
surru, Surtu ‘flint,’ “‘blade.”’

The usual Hebrew expression translated **edge
of the sword”’ is pi-hereb, literally ‘**mouth of the
sword”’ (Ex 17:13; Num 21:24; Josh 6:21, etc.).
The Hebrew phrase, literally ‘‘a sword of
mouths** occurs in Ps 149:6 and Prov 5:4. This
phrase is translated **two-edged’’ sword, follow-
ing the Lxx distomos, literally “‘double-
mouthed,’ but meaning “‘two-edged.’’ (Cf. Heb
4:12; Rev 1:16; 2:12.) The sword is said ‘‘to de-
vour’’ its victims (Deut 32:42; II Sam 2:26; 11:25;
etc.).

In Ezk 21 there is a vivid description of the
‘*sword of Yahweh”’ at work as an instrument of
his judgment. In vv. 1-7 [H 6-12] his sword is
unsheathed for action. Then in the furious Song
of the Sword (vv. 8-17 [H 13-22]) we see the
sword polished, then brandished, and even ad-
dressed as a living object (v. 16 [H 21]). Though it
is the king of Babylon who wields the sword
against Judah (vv. 18-27 [H 23-32]) and against
Ammon (vv. 28-32 [H 33~-37]), it is actually
Yahweh himself who exercises the divine judg-
ment (v. 17 {H 22]).

In the following passages the word is used as a
metonymy for “‘war’’: Lev 26:25; II Chr 29:9; Jer
14:15; 24:10; Ezk 7:15; 33:2ff. etc.). In Ps 22:20
[H 21] hereb is used as a metaphor for a violent
end.

In a different simile harsh words and sharp
tongues are likened to swords. Proverbs 12:18 de-
scribes rash words as being like ‘sword thrusts”
(RSV). The Psalmist’s enemies have tongues like
‘‘sharp swords’’ (Ps 57:4 [H 5]). The wicked
‘‘whet their tongues like swords’’ (Ps 64:3 [H 4]).
Cf. Ps 55:21 [H 22} where malicious words are
compared to ‘‘drawn swords”’ and Ps. 52:2 [H 4]
a ‘’sharp razor.”

Succumbing to a temptress is as fatal as an
encounter with a ‘‘two-edged sword” (Prov 5:4).

The ‘flaming sword” in the hands of the
cherubim who guarded Eden has been explained
by Cassuto and von Rad as the objectification of
lightning (cf. Ps 104:3-4). It is rather the symbol
of God's holiness and judgment.

In a few passages hereb may represent a tool
or knife rather than a sword or dagger. In Jer 5:17
a foreign enemy will batter down the cities with
the hereb, a phrase omitted by the NEB and 5B as
an incongruous addition. Inasmuch as we have
Assyrian reliefs of sappers undermining the walls
of a besieged town with their daggers, the phrase
is not so incomprehensible. The same practice
may be in mind in Ezk 26:9, where the kJv trans-
lates ‘with his axes*’; cf. NAB ‘“weapons.""

Although Ezekiel (Ezk 5:1) may very well have
used a sharp sword to shave himself, a smaller
‘blade’? (JB) would have been handier.

The instruments used for circumcision were
“flint knives’’ (Josh 5:2-3: cf. Ex 4:25). For an
Egyptian depiction of the rite of circumcision
using such a knife, see ANEP fig. 629. The early
Stone altars to Yahweh were not to be built or
engraved with the use of a “tool” (Ex 20:25;
Deut 27:5).

There are some passages in which the reading
hereb in the text poses problems. In a list of
natural calamities in Deut 28:22 the preferable
vocalization (cf. Lxx, Vulg.) is horeb ‘‘drought™
(rsv). In Lam 5:9 the hereb of the desert is read
as héreb ‘‘heat’’ by the NEB and NaB.

Job 5:15 says that God saves méhereb mip-
pihem, literally ‘‘from a sword, from their
mouth.’ The naB takes this as a form of the
common expression ‘‘the edge of the sword,’’ but
the RSV, NEB, and JB omit méhereb from their
translations.

In Isa 1:20 the NEB has chosen to revocalize
hereb as hadriib, a word which does not appear in
the oT, but is known from later Jewish texts, and
translates: ‘“Locust beans (i.e. carobs) shall be
your only food."

Bibliography: Meek, Theophile J., **Archae-
ology and a Point in Hebrew Syntax, BASOR
122: 31-33. Wever, J. W., ‘‘Sword,”’ in IDB, IV,
pp. 469-70. Yadin, Yigael, The Art of Warfare in
Biblical Lands, London: Weidenfeld and Nicol-
son, 1963, pp. 134~36, 140-45, 172-75, 194-95,
204-9, 222-23, 228, 232-37, 340-41, 344445,
348-50, 358-59, 384-85, 420-25, 438. :
‘Warfare in the Second Millennium B.C.E.,”” in
The World History of the Jewish People: H, Pat-
niarchs, ed. Benjamin Mazar, Rutgers, 1970, pp.
129-33,

EY:

Hasn (hérdbén). See no. 731f.

33 39m (hdrag) quake (Deut 32:25; Ps

18:46).

34 %35m (Argel). Assumed root of the following.
734a 935m (hargol) a kind of locust.

321

735 593M (harad)

Its etymology is uncertain. The word occurs
only in Lev 11:22 in the list of leaping insects
considered edible. The Lxx renders it akris ‘‘lo-
cust’’ (NEB ‘green locust’’). Both KJv “‘beetle”’
and rsv ‘‘cricket’’ are hardly correct, since those
insects are omnivorous and thus not suitable for
food.

See ‘arbeh.

735 9m (harad) quake, move about, (be) star-

tled, tremble, (be) afraid; causative stems
to (cause to) move, terrify (RSv emphasizes
terror and panic).

Derivatives

735a 4 otsam = (haréd) afraid, trembling.
735b otms9m (hdrdda) quaking, trembling.

The root meaning is ‘“‘to shake,’ from which
meanings such as ‘‘tremble’’ and ‘‘fear’’ are de-
rived. Physical shaking describes the quaking of
Mount Sinai (Ex 19:18). Geographic quaking
serves as a poetic figure for human trembling (Isa
10:29, 41:5; Ezk 26:18). Physical movement may
be the point of this verb and hdrdda as well in
II Kgs 4:13 referring to the solicitous moving-
around of typical Near Eastern hospitality (cf.
however “‘be anxiously careful’ and ‘anxious
care’’ suggested by BDB). *‘Come trembling”
(Hos 11:10-11) probably emphasizes the notion
of bird-like (v. 11!) movements and may refer to
movements of joy or terror.

Most occurrences refer to trembling from emo-
tional agitation before an unusual circumstance.
Isaac trembles upon perceiving Jacob’s decep-
tion (Gen 27:33). Adonijah’s guests react simi-
larly when they learn that Solomon has been
crowned (I Kgs 1:49). Boaz’s startled awakening
in the night 1s described by the same word (Ruth
3:8; RSv ‘‘startled’’). It can describe a military
force either as passively demoralized (1 Sam 13:7)
or as broken into outright panic (I Sam 14:15).

The Hiphil functions causatively meaning ‘to
cause to move’ or “‘to frighten.”’ It describes
throwing an army in terror (Jud 8:12; I] Sam
17:2). Most Hiphil usages occur in two recurring
idioms: the description of desolation as the ab-
sence of anyone to frighten away the wild animals
(Deut 28:26; Isa 17:2; Jer 7:33) and the descrip-
tion of security as the absence of anyone to ter-
rorize (Job 11:19; Jer 30:10; Ezk 34:28).

haréd. Afraid, trembling. Root meaning may
appear in describing the fearful of Gideon’s army
as “‘trembling’’ (Jud 7:3). Eli's anxiety concern-
ing the ark is described as “‘his heart trembled”
(I Sam 4:13). Four passages speak of trembling
before God's word or commandment. In Isa 66:2,
5, these are the penitent and faithful; in Ezr (9:4,
10:3) it refers, perhaps as a technical term, to
those leaders who perceive God’s word of judg-

736 93M (hard)

ment and support Ezra’s reforms. In all four pas-
sages a meaning of ‘‘awe™ or ‘‘reverence’’ is in-
dicated (cf. similar usages of pdhad and ydare’).

harada. Quaking, trembling, fear, care (?) (RSV
‘“*panic’’). Primarily describes human trembling
before some strange or fearsome event. Typi-
cal examples are the terror of Daniel's compan-
ions before a vision (Dan 10:7) and the trembling
of the nations at Tyre’s downfall (Ezk 26:16). The
terror of a demoralized army is called the **panic
of God’’ (I Sam 14:15: rsv ‘‘great panic’’: note:
while this expression may mean “‘‘great panic” it
may also emphasize the miraculous, divine origin
of the panic!). It is not clear whether the ‘‘cry of
panic’’ (Rsv Jer 30:5; KJv “‘voice of trembling’’)
refers to the shout which causes panic or the ter-
rifted cry of those in panic. For ‘‘care™’ in II Kgs
4:13 see below.

A.B.

736 mm (hard) burn, be kindled (of anger).
(AsV and Rsv similar, except that Rsv avoids
the translation **wroth,’* usually employing

‘angry. )
Derivatives
736a =oT5M (hadron) heat, burning (of
anger).
736b «tM (hori) heat, burning (of
anger).

This word is related to a rare Aramaic root
meaning “‘to cause fire to burn,’ and to an
Arabic root meaning **burning sensation,’’ in the
throat, etc. The Hebrew verb is always used in
reference to anger. The meaning of the root dif-
fers from such words for ‘‘anger’’ as ‘dnap,
za‘am, and qdasap, in that it emphasizes the
kindling” of anger, like the kindling of a fire, or
the heat of the anger, once started. The verb and
its derivatives are used a total of 139 times.

hard is used in reference to the anger of both
man and God, and in parallel ways. In respect to
man, the noun ‘ap ‘‘anger.’’ frequently occurs as
subject, “‘anger was kindled.*’ For instance, the
‘‘anger’’ of Potiphar, Joseph's master in Egypt,
‘*was kindled" toward him, over his wife’s false
accusation (Gen 39:19). An equally common
usage is without a subject, thus giving a medio-
passive meaning, “It was kindled.’ Of Jacob it is
said that, ‘*It was kindled to him,”* meaning that
his anger was kindled when he learned that
Laban had pursued him.

In respect to God, the noun ‘ap is employed as
subject in Num 11:1. The ‘‘anger’’ of the Lord
‘‘was kindled”’ toward Israel because of further
murmuring. An instance of the medio-passive
voice is found in I] Sam 22:8 (cf. Ps 18:7 [H 8}),
according to which the ‘‘foundations of heaven
moved and shook, because it was kindled to

322

God.** Only once is the subject of the verb
**God** (man is never the subject), in Hab 3:8,
‘**Was the Lord displeased against rivers?” (liter-
ally, ‘‘Was the Lord kindled against rivers?’’).

In the Niphal stem, the root appears three
times, and each, in contrast to that just noticed
for the Qal stem, either has or implies a personal
subject, referred to in a passive sense. For in-
stance, in Song 1:6 the Shulamite bnde says
that the sons of her mother “‘were angry” (liter-
ally, ‘were kindled’’) with her.

In the Hiphil stem, the root appears only twice
and neither in a causative sense. In Job 19:11, it is
used tn the same way and meaning as in Qal,
when the subject ‘ap is employed. In Neh 3:20, it
carries the unusual sense of intensifying an idea;
Baruch, a worker on the wall of Jerusalem, being
said to have ‘‘earnestly”* (literally, ‘in a burning
manner’) repaired his part of it.

The Hithpael stem occurs four times, always
meaning, *‘Fret not yourself’ (Ps 37:1, 7-8: Prov
24:19). The reflexive thought is: *‘Do not kindle
yourself” in respect to the wicked, etc. Again, a
personal subject is implied.

An unusual feature regarding the root is that
two instances of the Tiphel (causative) stem
occur (Jer 12:5; 22:15). Both imply the existence
of a personal subject, the one speaking of a per-
son “competing” (literally, ‘“‘burning to out-
race’’) with horses; and the other of *‘compet-
ing” (literally, “burning to outshine’’) with other
people for status by living in cedar.

haron. Heat, burning (of anger). This noun
derivative, which occurs forty-one times, is used
only in reference to God. A frequent use finds it
followed by ‘ap, giving the translation, *‘The
fierceness (literally, ‘‘burning’’) of the anger of
Yahweh" (Num 25:4). Many times it is followed
simply by ‘ap with a suffix, giving “‘the fierce-
ness (“‘burning’’) of his (your, my, etc.) anger’
(Deut 13:18). A few times the word itself carries
the suffix, without the use of ‘ap, but these are
infrequent. It may be added in respect to Jer
25:38 that hdrén, as here shown in some texts, Is
better taken as a variant for Hereb **sword.”

hori. Heat, burning (of anger). This noun
bearing the same meaning as /idron, 1s used twice
of God and four times of man. It is always fol-
lowed by ‘ap. For instance, Jonathan left the
presence of his father, Saul, in ‘the fierceness
(burning) of anger’’ because of Saul's attitude
toward David (I Sam 20:34).

Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ~*“Doest
Thou Well to be Angry?’ HUCA 26: 29-41.
THAT, I, pp. 633-34.

L.J.W.

mM) (harttz). See no. 737a.
am) (hadron). See no. 736a.

See no. 743a.
See nos. 752a,b, 753a.

sm (hariil).
pan (haris).

737 '3m (hrz). Assumed root of the following.
37a NM (hartiz) string of beads (Song
1:10).

smsm (harhar). See no. 756b.

738 ein (hrt) I. Assumed root of the following.
738a =fOIN (heret) graving tool.

738b «=f OIwVIN (hartOm) magician (Ex 8:7 [H

3], 18-19 [H 14-15}; Dan 4:7 [H 4}).

heret. Graving tool, pen. Aaron used a heret
to shape the golden calf (Ex 32:4). Some modern
versions paraphrase the expression to give the
idea of casting or molding (cf. sPs, JB, NEB).

The only other occurrence of the word is in Isa
8: where God commands the prophet to write
the name of Maher-shalal-hash-baz on a tablet
with *‘a man’s heret.’’ The Berkeley translation
has *‘common script... The Amplified has ‘‘a
graving tool and in ordinary characters [which
the humblest man can read.|"° The Jerusalem
Bible has ‘“‘ordinary writing,’’ NEB has *“common
writing,’ and NAB has “‘ordinary letters,’ the Niv
“ordinary pen.”’

hartom. Magician, diviner, scribe. This word,
describing some variety of occultist, appears in
both Hebrew (hartummim) and Aramaic
(hartummin). It is the word for Egyptian **magi-
cians’ (Gen 41:8, 24; Ex 7:11, 22; 8:3, 14-15;
9:11) and for the Babylonian *‘magicians’’ (Dan
1:20; 2:2, 10, 27: 4:4, 6: 5:11). The last five refer-
ences are in the Aramaic section of Daniel. Only
2:10 uses hartOm in the singular.

According to Gen 41:8, the pharaoh summoned
all the Aartummim (magicians) and hadkamim
(wise men). The word is_ parallel - to
m® kashsh* pim (sorcerers), ‘ashshadpim (enchan-
ters,q.v.), and kasdim (Chaldeans) in Dan 2:2. In
the Aramaic list of Dan 2:27 vdz*rin (sooth-
sayers) replaces in°kashsh* pim, while hakkimin
(wise men) replaces AaSdim.

Because it seems related to the word heret
(q.v.) meaning “stylus” or the like, some transla-
tions take fAartom to mean “‘scribe.’’ (See
Young's Literal Translation, the asv marg., the
1913 Improved Edition Bible, and the Berkeley
Version in the Gen and Ex passages.)

It may, however, be a loan word from Egyp-
tian. It consists of four radicals, unlike most
Semitic words, which have three. There is an
Egyptian word hrj-tp which may mean *‘‘magi-
clans’’ or “‘priests,’’ although it usually means
“governor, ‘chieftain,’ ‘‘adviser.”’

Bibliography: Cornfeld, G., ‘Magic, Divina-
tion and Superstition,” in Pictorial Biblical En-
cyclopedia, Macmillan, 1964. Loewenstamm,
Samuel E., *‘*The Making and Destruction of the

323

739° OAR (Art)

740 t°9h (héri), IM (héri)

Golden Calf,’ Bib 48:481-90. Ward, William A.,
‘‘Egyptian Titles in Genesis,’’ BS 114: 40-59.
Zuck, Roy B., ‘‘The Practice of Witchcraft in the
Scriptures,” BS 128: 352-60.

R.L.A.

II. Assumed root of the following.
739a oem «(harit) bag, purse (II Kgs
5:23; Isa 3:22).

penn (hartom). See no. 738b.
‘an (hori). See no. 736b.

740 tm (hori), 5M (héri) Horite, Hori. (asv

and rsv translate the same.)

This noun appears to be a loan. word. Formerly
it was thought to be related to the root Arr III,
having to do with a hole or cave, though usually
hrr refers to a small hole. Now it is generally
considered to be the Hebrew spelling for Akka-
dian hurru (Ug. hry). It is to be distinguished
from hori ‘white bread or cake.”’ It occurs ten
times, twice as a personal name.

The extrabiblical sources clearly attest the
presence of Hurrians in Palestine after 1550 B.c.
(cf. the Ug. texts, the Amarna tablets, cuneiform
tablets from Taanach and Shechem, and certain
Egyptian writings; Noth, The Old Testament
World, pp. 233, 240ff.). During the second half of
the second millennium the Egyptians knew SW
Asia as Hr. Hurrian names appear in Near East-
ern inscriptions of this period (confirmed by Hur-
rian tablets from Boghazk6y). Albright says that
in the Old Testament the names of the Horites are
Hurrian; therefore, ‘‘there can be no doubt that
this (i.e., Hurrian) is the language spoken by the
biblical Horites’’ (From the Stone Age to Chris-
tianity, 1947, p. 36).

Our problem is that the biblical Horites were
residents of Edom, not Palestine. The Horites
appear to be the Hurrian inhabitants of Edom
(Gen 36:20), who were driven out of the region by
Esau’s descendants (Deut 2:12, 22). It has been
suggested, therefore, that the Horites are the
non-Palestinian Hurrians, and the Hivites are the
Palestinian Hurrians (Thomas, Archaeology and
Old Testament Study, p. 81). This would explain
how Zibion could be a Hivite (Gen 36:2) and the
son of Seir the Horite (Gen 36:20). If so, they
occupied some places in central Palestine, includ-
ing Shechem (Gen 34:2) and Gibeon (Josh 9:6—7).
The Lxx reading ‘‘Horite’’ strengthens this
suggestion.

The Hurrians are to be distinguished from the
Subarians, the Sumerians, the Semites, and the
Indo-Europeans. They originated in the moun-
tains E and NE of Mesopotamia which they
gradually infiltrated. By the fifteenth century B.c.
they boasted a kingdom, Mittani. During this era

741 398 (harak)

their nobles seem to have been Indo-European
(as attested by their names).

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., From the
Stone Age to Christianity, Doubleday, 1947.
Gelb, I. J., Hurrians and Subarians, 1949, Noth,
M., The Old Testament World, 1, Edinburgh:
Clark, 1964. Speiser, E. A., Introduction to Hur-
rian, ASOR Annual, 1941. Thomas, D. Winton,
Archaeology and Old Testament Study, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1967.

L.J.C.

pam (harit). See no. 739a.

ean (hiryénim), i.e. htré ydnim. See
no. 730a.

pean (haris).

wean (hdrish).

wean (Adrishi).

See no. 752c.
See no. 760c.
See no. 760e.

741 s9m (harak) I, set in motion, start (Prov
12:27).

742 35m (hrk) II. Assumed root of the following.
742a pBsaam (hdrakkim) lattice or other
opening through which one may

look (Song 2:9).

743 S=m (Ari). Assumed root of the following.
743a osm «(hariul) a kind of weed, perhaps
chickpea (e.g. Prov 24:31; Zeph

2:9).

744 *p9m (haram) I, ban, devote, destroy utter-
ly. (aASv and Rsv similar, except that both
prefer “‘devoted’’ or ‘“‘devoted thing’’ in
passages not dealing with destruction.)

Derivatives

744a tann (hérem) devoted thing, ban.
744b oO Ta5m «(hermén) Hermon.

The root Arm is used only in the causative
stems; forty-eight times in the iphil and three in
the Hophal. The basic meaning ts the exclusion of
an object from the use or abuse of man and its
irrevocable surrender to God. The word is related
to an Arabic root meaning “to prohibit, espe-
cially to ordinary use.’’ The word ‘‘harem,”’
meaning the special quarters for Muslim wives,
comes from it. It is related also to an Ethiopic
root, meaning “‘to forbid, prohibit, Jay under a
curse.’’ Surrendering something to God meant
devoting it to the service of God or putting it
under a ban for utter destruction.

The idea of devoting an object for service to
God appears in Lev 27:28. Whatever is devoted
to the Lord, whether man, animal, or property, 1s
considered most holy by God and is therefore not

324

to be sold or redeemed by substituting something
else. According to Num 18:14 and Ezk 44:29, all
such objects are to be given to the priests for the
support of the religious ceremonies. The gold,
silver, bronze, and iron from Jericho, for in-
stance, were so designated (Josh 6:19, gddesh
layhwh).

Usually hadram means a ban for utter destruc-
tion, the compulsory dedication of something
which impedes or resists God’s work, which is
considered to be accursed before God. The idea
first appears in Num 21:2-3, where the Israelites
vowed that, if God would enable them to defeat a
southern Canaanite king, they would ‘‘utterly de-
stroy’’ (i.e. consider as devoted and accordingly
utterly destroy) his cities. This word is used re-
garding almost all the cities which Joshua’s
troops destroyed (e.g. Jericho, Josh 6:21; Ai,
Josh 8:26; Makkedah, Josh 10:28; Hazor, Josh
11:11), thus indicating the rationale for their de-
struction. In Deut 7:2-6, the command for this
manner of destruction is given, with the explana-
tion following that, otherwise, these cities would
lure the Israelites away from the Lord (cf. Deut
20:17-18). Any Israelite city that harbored
idolators was to be ‘‘utterly destroyed’ (Deut
13:12-15; cf. Ex 22:19).

A man who was the object devoted to God
came under the same ban. Leviticus 27:28—29
states that he was to be put to death. He could
hardly be assigned to ceremonial service, for this
was the work of Levites. To make this regulation
agree with the sixth commandment (Ex 20:13; cf.
21:20), however, the thought must be that the
persons so devoted were captives in wars such as
those of Jericho or others under the ban, e.g. the
Amalekites (I Sam 15:3).

Because the root gddash ‘‘to be holy,” also
carries the thought of setting apart from ordinary
use in surrender to God (especially in the Piel),
we must distinguish objects set apart because
‘“devoted,’’ from those set apart because
‘holy.’ In a text discussed above, Lev 27:28-29,
the two were brought together in that the devoted
object was considered most holy by God. This
suggests that the two were closely related, and
this was true in respect to objects devoted for
ceremonial service. But in respect to the objects
to be destroyed, they were considered to be of-
fensive to God and injurious to his work. Objects
to be set apart because holy were pleasing to him
and useful.

A few times the root is used in respect to for-
eign nations ‘‘utterly destroying’ a city or coun-
try (cf. II Kgs 19:11; IY Chr 20:23). Light on this
may come from the Mesha inscription. On line 17
King Mesha (cf. II Kgs 3:4) uses the word as he
explains that he slaughtered all the inhabitants of
Nebo because he made the city a ‘‘devoted”’ city
to his god Chemosh.

9

héerem. Devoted thing, devotion, ban. This
noun derivative is used twenty-eight times in the
oT to refer either to the object devoted or to the
ban itself. The story of Jericho’s fall to Israel
provides clear examples of the first use. The
whole city is called a ‘‘devoted thing’’ (Josh
6:17), and all Israelites are warned to keep them-
selves from the ‘‘devoted thing,’’ which likely is
a reference to items within the city all of which
had to be burned if flammable and if not, given to
God. When Achan disobeys and takes of these
items, Israel’s army is defeated by the people of
Ai, and God says that Israel has now become a
‘devoted thing”’ itself until the ‘‘devoted thing”’
(Achan in his sin) is destroyed from its midst
(Josh 7:12-13). So, then, Jericho the heathen city
was ‘‘devoted”’ because it stood in the way of
God’s work through Israel in making conquest of
Canaan. Israel became ‘‘devoted’’ because of sin
which entered and made the nation unusable in
God's work. Achan in his sin became ‘‘devoted”’
because he was the reason for Israel's hindrance
as the people of God.

Also note passages using hérem to refer to the
ban itself. According to 1 Kgs 20:42, Benhadad,
the Syrian king, was a man under the “‘ban”’ of
God. In Isa 34:5, Edom is said to have been a
people under the ‘‘ban’’ of God. The kingdom of
Judah was given to the ‘‘ban’’ in that Babylonia
was permitted to bring the captivity on her (Isa
43:28).

hermén. Hermon. The name of Mount Her-
man, meaning ‘‘sacred.’’ Also called siryén and
§nir (Deut 3:9) or Si?’6n (Deut 4:48).
Bibliography: Malamat, Abraham, **The Ban
in Mari and in the Bible,”’ in Biblical Essays, pp.
40-49. Richardson, TWB, p. 68. THAT, I, pp.
635-38.
L.J.W.

745 BSR (haram) II, slit, mutilate.
‘‘flat’’; rsv *‘mutilated.’’)

(ASV uses

Derivative
745a tasm (herem) net.

hdram is related to the Arabic root meaning
“to slit’’ or “‘to perforate’’ the partition between
the nostrils, for the insertion of a ring. It is used
only once, in Lev 21:18. The form is a passive
participle, and it describes a face (nose) as ‘*muti-
lated,’’ one of the deformities which would dis-
qualify a priest from service.

herem. Net. This noun is used nine times. Its
meaning comes from the idea of something perfo-
rated. It is used twice in reference to the net of a
hunter (Mic 7:2; Eccl 7:26); and seven times to
the net of a fisherman (Ezk 26:5, 14; 32:3; 47:10;
Hab 1:15-17).

L.J.W.

325

748 pan (hrs).

749 9M (harap)

wasn (hermén). See no. 744b.

746 wisn (hermésh) sickle (Deut 16:9; 23:25

{H 26}). Derivation uncertain.

747° 39" (hdradn) Haran.

Haran was the city in which Abraham and his
family settled after they left Ur (Gen 11:31-—32).
After the death of Terah, Abraham's father, Ab-
raham and his family began their journey to Ca-
naan (Gen 12:1). Haran is called the ‘‘city of
Nahor’”’ in Gen 24:10 because Nahor, Abraham’s
brother, settled there. Haran was the home of
Laban, the brother of Rebekah. Rebekah encour-
aged Jacob to flee to Laban’s home at Haran
when Esau allegedly threatened his life (Gen
27:43). Jacob’s fortunes improved greatly during
his long stay with Laban. The account of Jacob's
arrival at Haran is recorded in Gen 29:1-8.

Rabshekah, in his boastful challenge to
Hezekiah, mentioned Haran among cities de-
stroyed by the Assyrians (II Kgs 19:12; Isa
37:12). Ezekiel 27:23 cites it as a center of trade.
The city was an Assyrian provincial capital for
some time, as well as the capital of Ashur-urballit
after the destruction of Nineveh.

T.E.M.

Assumed root of the following.
748a obsm =(heres) sun (Job 9:7; Jud
14:18).

osm (heres). See nos. 748a, 759b.
miosm (harsét). See no. 759c.

749 "IR (harap) I, reproach, blaspheme, defy,

jeopardize, rail, reproach, upbraid.
Derivative
749a MBI (herpad) reproach.

Basically, the word means ‘‘to reproach,”’ with
the specific connotation of casting blame or scorn
on someone.

The connotation of casting blame is evident in
Job 27:6 where Job protests that his heart does
not reproach him for any of his days. In Prov
27:11 the wisdom teacher desires that his pupil
may be wise so that the teacher may not incur
blame from others. In Neh 6:13 the word seems
to be used in the sense of ‘‘defame,’’ i.e. impute
blame or guilt to someone in order to harm his
character.

In most instances the word is used in the sense
of casting scorn. In Ps 74:10 the word occurs in
parallelism with nd’as (scorn, condemn) and in
Prov 14:31 it is the antithesis of kabéd (honor)
and may be understood as disgrace or dishonor.
In Jud 5:18 the people of Zebulon are described
as scorning their lives even to death.

750 AIM (harap)

In contexts where an adversary reproaches
with scorn or insults, “*taunt”’ is an acceptable
translation (Jud 8:15: Ps 119:42). Where one is
pictured as treating another with contempt or
scorn the word may bear the nuance of **mock-
ing’ (II Kgs 19:22). The connotation **defy™’ is
evident in contexts where one Sets at naught the
strength of an enemy (I Sam 17:10ff.).

T.E.M.

750 Sam (harap) I, spend harvest time. This
denominative verb occurs only in Isa 18:6.

Parent Noun

750a AIM (horep) harvest time, autumn.
751) *A5m (harap) Wl, acquire. This verb oc-

curs only once, in the Niphal (Lev 19:26).

752. yam (haras) I, bestir oneself, decide, decree,
determine, maim, move. (RSV similar ex-
cept that it translates ‘“*growl”’ and “*muti-
late’ in Ex 11:7.)

Derivatives
752a tyssm (haris) I, sharp, diligent.
752b 0 opasm «(hariis) I, trench, moat, only
in Dan 9:25.
752c 830 psam.ss (haris) a cut, thing cut, sharp
instrument.
752d 9 BEIM (harsannim) an insignificant

vine product, grape seeds(?).

Basic to the meaning of Adras are the concepts
‘*to cut or sharpen’’ and ‘“‘to decide.’ (The
former meaning is represented in the noun hdrits
and the Akkadian cognate hardsu which means
“to cut, “‘cut off,’ **deduct’’ as well as “‘to
determine’ and ‘'to clarify.’*)

The connotation “to cut’’ is most clearly seen
in Lev 22:22 where the word occurs in a proscrip-
tion against the use of maimed animals for sac-
rifice.

Other usages of the word with the connotation
of ‘‘cut’’ occur in more metaphorical passages. In
Josh 10:21 the word is used in an expression
which means “‘to speak against.’ The translation
**moved’’ (KJv: ASV; RSV) has little support either
in the Hebrew or Akkadian usage. The expres-
sion literally means “‘to sharpen the tongue’* and
evidently connotes speaking against another with
hostility. The same meaning seems to be inherent
in the use of the word in Ex 11:7 where it is used
of a dog and expresses the idea of angry growling.
In II Sam 5:24 David was commanded to “be
sharp’ when he heard a sound in the trees, I.e. he
was to act quickly. (The Chronicler renders the
command as ‘go out to battle.’’)

The concept “decide, determine’ is clearly
evident in I Kgs 20:40 where one decided his own

judgment. In all other instances the word con-
notes the concept of ‘‘determined”’ and refers to
something which cannot be changed. Perhaps the
basic idea of ‘‘cut’’ is evident here in that that
which is incised cannot be altered.

haras. Decision, pointed things, sharp, threshing
instrument, wall. The concept of sharpness in-
herent in the verb is evident in the noun hdariis
when it is used of a threshing sledge (Isa 28:27;
41:18; Amos 1:3; Job 41:30 [H 22]). Metaphori-
cally the word was used of “‘sharpness”’ as an
attribute, i.e. diligence (Prov 10:4; 12:24, 27;
13:4; 21:5).

The concept of *‘cut”’ is evident in its reference
to a moat (Dan 9:25). The word is used metaphor-
ically of a strict decision in the sense that some-
thing which is cut or incised cannot be altered
(Joel 3:14 [H 4:14]).

753° PSA
753a

(hrs) IL. Assumed root of the following.
ryan) (hdrus) UT, gold (e.g. Zech
9:3; Prov 3:14).

754 s3x5m (hrsb). Assumed root of the following.

754a mMBEnN (harsibba) bond, fetter (Isa
58:6), pang (Ps 73:4).
eysam (harsannim). See no. 752d.
755 am (hdraq) gnash or grind the teeth (e.g.

Job 16:9: Lam 2:16).

756 <9" (hdrar) I, be burned, charred. The
ASV translates ‘“*burned’’ except in Ps 69:3
[H 4]. The rsv concurs in all places except
Isa 24:6 where it renders ‘*scorched,’* and

in Ps 69:3 {H 4] where it renders
‘*parched.”’
Derivatives
756a 9m (harér) parched place. Only

in Jer 17:6, referring figuratively to

the life of the godless.
snam (harhir) violent

fever, only in Deut 28:22.

Basically this root connotes the product left
from burning (cf. Ugaritic Arr *‘roast’’). It is to be
distinguished from /irr II, having to do with nobil-
ity or being freeborn. and Arr III, having to do
with a hole. It is not to be confused with hard *‘to
burn’ (usually of anger). Adrar ‘‘burned,
charred’ is mostly a poetic root. It is used twelve
times.

This root describes the inhabitants of the earth
who were objects of God's wrath (Isa 24:6), what
is left after fire has worked on bone (Ezk 24:10-
11), metal, or wood (Ezk 15:4; Ps 102:3 [H 4)}). It
can also be used of the inward effect of fever (Job
30:30), and of the parching of a throat due to

756b heat,

326

excessive weeping (Ps 69:3 [H 4]). It occurs once
in the Pilpel stem (indicating rapidly repeated ac-
tion), setting forth the contentious man's con-
tinual agitation (kindling) in fostering and sustain-
ing strife (Prov 26:21).

757 39m (hrr) II. Assumed root of the following.
757a t3 mh (hor) noble (usually occurs in
the plural).

The asv and Rsv translate the same except in
Eccl 10:17 where the rsv renders ‘‘free-man™
(asv ‘“‘nobles’’), and Isa 34:12. hor is usually
connected with the root Arr II, which (concluding
on the basis of Semitic cognates) has to do with
being or becoming free. There is a possible con-
nection between hor ‘‘noble’’ and the root Awr
‘be or grow pale, white’’ (the princes of Israel
have fair complexions, Lam 4:7). Distinguish
from hdr, ‘‘hole’’ and from hdr ‘‘white cloth.”’
Our word occurs thirteen times.

The horim, along with the elders, were leaders
of cities (I Kgs 21:8) who had authority to bring a
man to trial. They were of sufficient prominence
to escape hand-to-hand warfare and were found
in the inner palace during the Babylonian seige.
They were slain before Zedekiah’s eyes, along
with the princes (Jer 39:6), according to prophecy
(Isa 34:12). Later the horim were listed beside
the priests and rulers (s° gdnim) as the leaders of
Israel during the postexilic reconstruction (Neh
4:14 (H 8], 19 {H 13]). They appear to be the
heads of the people, perhaps equivalent to the
farim ‘““princes”’ (cf. Ezr 9:2). Since the word
occurs in contexts where Israel has close contact
with Aramaic-speaking peoples, it might well be
an Aramaic loanword.

The horim supervised construction of the wall
during the reconstruction (Neh 4:14 [H 8]). They
had sufficient funds to loan to the common
people (Neh 5:7). They controlled farming and
merchandising (Neh 13:17). They had ready ac-
cess to the ruling body (Jer 39:6; Neh 6:17) and
were a body to be reckoned with.

hérim seems to be almost synonymous at times
with sarim (cf. Jer 27:20 and II Kgs 24:14). If it is
synonymous, then monarchical usage denotes
administrators and heads of influential families,
i.e. men of position, while postexilic usages em-
brace ‘influential people.’" On the basis of an
identification with sarim, these hérim were not
“nobles’’ in the sense of a landed aristocracy.

Bibliography: McKenzie, John L., ‘The El-
ders in the Old Testament,’ Bib 40: 522-40. Van
der Ploeg, J., ‘“Les Chefs du Peuple d’Israel et
leurs Titres," RB 57: 57-58.

L.J.C.

758 9m (hrr) If. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

327

760 won (harash)

758a "3m (hor), WM (hor) hole (e.g.
II Kgs 12:9 (H 10]; Song 5:4).

7586 osm (har), 3m (har) hole (Isa
42:22; 11:8).

759 wsn (hrs). Assumed root of the following.

759a twan (heres) earthenware.

759b =BumM (heres) an _ eruptive
(Deut 28:27).

759c 0 miwsm: s(Arswt, Kethib), moan (har-
sit, Qere) potsherds (Jer 19:2).

disease

This word, which occurs seventeen times, rep-
resents the potters product (Isa 45:9) which 1s
dried and fired (Ps 22:15 {H 16]), or even glazed
(Prov 26:23). Bottles (baqgbiuq), bowls (k° ir), and
pots/pitchers (nébe/) are made of it. It is in ves-
sels made of heres that documents were stored
(Jer 32:14). heres can apply generally to a vessel
(Prov 26:23), or it can mean pieces of potsherd at
least large enough to use to carry a coal from a
hearth or dip water for a drink (Isa 30:14). Hence,
heres is the baked clay so commonly unearthed
by archaeologists.

Being porous, it absorbed the fat of holy things
and the uncleanness of unclean things. Thus it
was to be broken when contacted by either holi-
ness or uncleanness (Lev 6:28 [H 21]; Num
15:12). A clay vessel was to be used in the trial of
jealousy (Num 5:17) and in leprosy purification
rites, symbolizing man’s commonness before
God. The Psalmist prophetically compares the
Messiah’s strength to a dried up and baked piece
of clay (potsherd, Ps 22:15 (H 16]). During the
exile the ‘‘most precious’ royalty of Israel be-
came as valueless and common as clay pots (Lam
4:2). God reminds the people of their relative
worthlessness and vulnerability by comparing
them to clay vessels (Isa 45:9). Jeremiah (19:1)
bought (and subsequently broke) an earthenware
pot to symbolize how Israel had so absorbed sin
that they had to be destroyed according to God's
law regarding polluted pottery (Lev 11:33).

Ld.

760 wan (hdrash) I, engrave, plow, devise.

Derivatives

760a twam (hdrdsh) engraver.

760b = onwan (hdrdshet) carving.

760c wean (harish) plowing, plowing time.

760d Myon (mahdrésha), NYIM> (ma-
hdreshet) ploughshare.

760e wean (Adrishi) harsh. Used only
in Jon 4:8. Meaning uncertain and
uncertain to which root Adrash it is
related. kV ‘vehement, NIV
‘*scorching."’

The basic idea is cutting into some material,
e.g. engraving metal or plowing soil. The word is

761 wn (harésh)

used twenty-six times, of which twenty-three are
in the Qal stem, two in the Niphal, and one in the
Hiphil. The Ugaritic noun Arsh means “‘crafts-
man.’’ Another Ugaritic word Art cognate to He-
brew hdrash means ‘‘to plow.” This would argue
for two overlapping roots in Hebrew.

harash is used a few times for engraving metal.
For instance, one of the expert craftsmen from
Tyre, whom King Solomon summoned to work
on the temple, is described as a ‘‘worker’’ (“‘en-
graver,’’ a participle) in brass (I Kgs 7:14). More
often the word is used for plowing the ground.
Elisha, when Elijah called him to service, is said
to have been ‘plowing’ with twelve yoke of
oxen (I Kgs 19:19), One of the Mosaic laws was
that a person should not *‘plow’’ with an ox and
an ass together (Deut 22:10).

The idea of ‘‘plowing’’ is also used figura-
tively. It symbolizes wicked activity (Hos 10:13),
Israel being charged with having **plowed’’ in-
iquity. It stands for oppression in Ps 129:3, as the
Psalmist cries out, ‘‘The plowers plowed upon
my back.’ A third usage is to mean ‘‘devise,”’
usually in connection with evil. For instance, a
proverb states, ‘‘Devise not evil’? against your
neighbor (Prov 3:29). hdrash refers to both evil
and good in Prov 14:22. Those who “‘devise evil’’
are said to err and those that ‘‘devise good’’ to
receive mercy and truth. hdrash occurs twice in
the Niphal concerning Micah’s prediction (Jer
26:18 quoting Mic 3:12) that Jerusalem would be
‘*plowed’” like a field. The one Hiphil usage
shows no clear difference in meaning from Qal,
as Saul is said to have *‘practised’’ (*‘devised’’)
evil against David (1 Sam 23:9).

harash. Engraving, carpenter, smith, mason.
Whereas the verb majors on plowing soil, its
noun derivative, occurring thirty-five times,
stresses engraving, usually metal, but also wood
or stone. Gold brought from Uphaz is said in Jer
10:9 to be the work of the *‘workmen’”’ (‘‘engrav-
ers’’). David states that in preparation for the
building of the temple he had gathered gold and
silver to be worked on by the hands of “‘artific-
ers’’ (‘‘engravers’’) of the day (I Chr 29:5). Fre-
quently, however, the word refers to more than
the work of engraving. For instance, the gold
calf, erected in Israel by Jeroboam, is said to
have been made by ‘‘workmen,’’ the context im-
plying all the activity involved with making it,
such as casting the metal as well as engraving it
(Hos 8:6). In Isa 40:19, hardsh is used for the
‘‘workman™’ who melts a graven image. It is also
properly translated ‘“‘smith,’’ in I Sam 13:19,
which refers to people who could sharpen iron
implements. This verse is now elucidated by
reading hdardsh as ironsmith. Coppersmiths were
long active in Israel, but the Philistines had
brought in the tron age and kept the working and

328

specifically the tempering of iron a military se-
cret. The new long iron swords were denied to
the Israelites. Only the Philistine smiths could
sharpen the plow points which they did by heat-
ing, beating them out and tempering again (Fine-
gan, LAP, p. 149). See hereb.

harash is used a few times in reference to
wood and stone. In the days of the good high
priest Jehoiada, money is Said to have been given
to the ‘‘carpenters”’ (‘‘workers of wood’) and
builders for repairing the temple (II Kgs 12:12).
The skilled work necessary to cut the names of
the twelve tribes on two onyx stones is said to
have been that of an ‘“‘engraver’’ in stone (Ex
28:11). hdrash refers to both stone and wood in II
Sam 5:11 (1 Chr 14:1 same), as Hiram, king of
Tyre, is said to have sent “*carpenters’’ (**work-
ers of wood’’) and ‘“‘masons’’ (‘‘workers of
stone’’) to David for the construction of a palace
in Jerusalem.

The word is used numerous times without in-
dicating any type of material. For instance,
Nebuchadnezzar is said to have taken captive to
Babylon all the ‘“‘craftsmen’’ and smiths of
Judah. The word is used also to describe the
work of Bezaleel and Aholiab, specially chosen
to lead in the tabernacle construction, an en-
deavor which no doubt involved materials of var-
ious kinds (Ex 35:35; 38:23). In one instance, the
word is used to refer to a person ‘‘skilled”’ in
respect to bringing destruction (Ezk 21:36).

Bibliography: Mendelsohn, I., ‘‘Guilds in
Ancient Palestine,” BASOR 80: 17-21. :
**Guilds in Babylonia and Assyria,’* JAOS 60:
68-72.

L.J.W.

761 wm (harésh) UH, be silent, speechless, deaf.

(ASV and RSv similar.)

Derivatives

76la twam (hérésh) deaf.
761b wan (heresh) silently, secretly, only
in Josh 2:1.

The basic idea is of non-communication, ex-
pressed by either not speaking or not hearing.
That is, the word may refer to the subject being
silent, or to the object being deaf. The root
damam 1s parallel in meaning to Aarésh as *‘being
silent.”’

The verb is used only seven times in the Qal,
thirty-eight in the Hiphil, and once in the
Hithpael. In the Qal, it usually concerns silence
in speaking. It always refers to God. For in-
stance, David calls upon God not to keep ‘'s?-
lence’’ toward him in a time of need (Ps 35:22).
The Psalmist prays similarly in Ps 83:1] [H 2],
employing hdarésh and démam in parallel. Only o
ce is the Qal stem used definitely to mean ‘‘be

deaf,’’ namely, in Mic 7:16, where the prophet
speaks of nations being ‘‘deaf’’ in respect to Is-
rael in a future day. Used in the Hiphil stem, it
usually concerns silence in speaking, but, in con-
trast to the Qal, almost always refers to man. The
meaning is quite the same, however. For in-
stance, Abraham’s servant is said to have ‘‘held
his peace’ (‘remained silent’’) as he observed
Rebekah, wondering if she was God's choice as
Isaac’s wife. Only in Job 11:3 does the Hiphil
carry a clear causative meaning. Once the Hiphil
means ‘‘be deaf’; namely, when the people
urged Samuel to ‘‘cease not’ (literally, ‘‘do not
be deaf’) to cry to God for them, as the Philis-
tines were drawing near. The word appears once
in the Hithpael, with the expected reflexive
meaning (Jud 16:2).

hérésh. Deaf. Though the verb is seldom used
in reference to non-hearing, the derived adjective
carries this sense in each of its nine usages, call-
ing for the translation ‘“‘deaf’ (Ex 4:11; Lev
19:14; Ps 38:13 [H 14] etc.).

L.J.W.

762 wm (Arsh) TI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
762a = =WSM (horesh) wood, wooded
height (e.g. Isa 17:9; Ezk 31:3).

763 wim (hrsh) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
763a «twonm (heresh) magic art or possibly
mechanical art.

This noun is used only in Isa 3:3. BDB favors
the meaning ‘‘magic art,’ citing Aramaic and
Ethiopic roots in support. KB and Gesenius
agree. Accordingly, the phrases ‘‘skillful magi-
cian’’ and ‘‘expert enchanter”’ are parallel. KD
and E. J. Young favor ‘‘mechanical art,’’? and
interpret the two phrases as contrasts: ‘skillful
artificer’’ and ‘‘expert enchanter.’’ Ugaritic uses
the noun Arsh in the area of magic and sorcery
(Aisleitner WUS no. 976).

t

L.J.W.
764 nam (hdrat) grave, engrave (Ex 32:16).

mye (hasip). See no. 766a.
7655 sem (hasak) withhold; keep in check; re-
frain.
The asv and rsv translate similarly, each at-
tempting to render the same idea. The root refers
to the free action of holding back something or

someone (also used intransitively, Ezk 30:18; Job
16:5. See G. R. Driver, JTS 34: 380). The actor

329

767 sym (hdshab)

767 syn (hashab)

has the power over the object. This root is to be
distinguished from mana‘ ‘‘to withhold, deny.”’
Ug. hsk means *‘take hold of.’’ Our root occurs
twenty-eight times.

Elisha spared Naaman, i.e. restrained, stopped
him from paying for his cure (I] Kgs 5:20). A
somewhat different connotation occurs where
Job remarks that comforting words can dull the
edge of grief, keeping it under control and holding
it back (Job 16:5-6). In Jer 14:10 the people are
condemned because they did not control them-
selves but wholeheartedly gave in to evil. In-
terestingly, God tells Isaiah (Isa 58:1) to be
equally unbridled in denouncing this sin. In the
eschatalogical age God's unrestricted blessings
stand in stark contrast to man’s present sin.
Those who are in the most helpless position (the
barren, since God alone controls the womb, cf.
rehem/raham) are to construct dwellings without
restraint in anticipation of that blessing (Isa 54:2).

God may restrain man’s sinfulness. Thus he
keeps Abimelech from taking Sarah (Gen 20:6),
and David from killing Nabal (I Sam 25:39). So
the Psalmist beseeches God to keep him from
presumptuous sin (Ps 19:13 (H 14]).

Ld,

766 WR (hasap) strip, lay bare.

Derivatives

766a wh (hdsip) little flocks (I Kgs
20:27). Meaning uncertain.

766b = Awme (mahsop) a laying bare, a
stripping (Gen 30:37).

The asv and RSv generally agree in concept but
vary a little as to wording. The basic meaning
here is to strip off a covering so as to bare what is
covered. Adsap occurs almost exclusively in
poetical literature and is very similar to (if not
equal to) the more common g4ld. This root oc-
curs nine times (or ten times; see Ps 29:9).

This word is used to describe the armies who
like locusts that strip trees of leaf and bark, will
devastate Israel (Joel 1:7). So God in judgment
will strip Edom (Jer 49:10). Judgment and dis-
grace result in having one’s clothes stripped off
below the waist (as with captive slaves, Isa 20:4,
or harlots, Jer 13:26). God brings such extreme
humility even upon his own people (Jer 13:26). It
is also used of the action of the Lord as he bares
his arm to effect salvation before the eyes of all
the earth (Isa 52:10).

Ugaritic (Sp) suggests another radical mean-
ing of haSap, viz. to draw out a liquid from a
large vessel ‘‘to scoop’’: cf. Isa 30:14; Hag 2:16.

| Ol Oe

think, plan, make a judg-

ment, imagine, count. (ASV and RSV mainly

768 mwm (hashd)
similar, though rsv avoids the translations
‘*imagine’’ and ‘‘count.*’)

Derivatives

767a =3wnm (hésheb) ingenious work.
7676 «BWR (heshbon) reckoning, ac-

count.

767c 3=—s WH O(hishshadbbn) device, inven-
tion.

767d Tmawn (mahdshabda) thought, de-
vice.

The basic idea of the word is the employment
of the mind in thinking activity. Reference is not
so much to ‘‘understanding™ (cf. bin), but to the
creating of new ideas. The root appears mainly in
the Qal stem, but also in both Niphal and Piel,
and once in Hithpael. The verb alone appears 121
times.

Six clear variations of the basic thought of this
root can be distinguished in the oT. The most
frequently used is that of ‘‘planning,”’ **devis-
ing.’ This variation ts employed in reference to
both man and God, and it appears tn both Qal and
Piel. Israelites, for instance, are warned not to
‘‘devise”’ evil against a brother (Zech 7:10). In
one verse, Gen 50:20, there is reference to both
man and God, as Joseph uses the word twice:
first in saying that his brothers ‘‘meant”’
(planned) evil in their earlier treatment of him,
but that God *‘meant”’ (planned) it for good.

The next most frequent use is in the sense of
‘‘making a judgment.’’ This too is employed in
reference to both man and God, and it appears in
Qal and Niphal. The well-known text, Isa 53:4,
uses it: ‘*“We did esteem (judge) him stricken,
smitten of God, and afflicted.’* God is the subject
as Job exclaims, *‘He counts (judges) me for his
enemy” (33:10). The uses in Niphal are simply
the passive of Qal.

A third use, rather infrequent, is that of merely
running thoughts through the mind, meditating
(Qal and Piel). Malachi speaks commendably
about those who feared the Lord and ‘‘thought””
about his name (3:16). The Piel is employed
(without any clear distinction in meaning) as
David shows surprise, in respect to the identity of
man, that God should take “account” (have
thoughts) of him (Ps 144:3).

A fourth variation means *‘to impute,”’ actually
a specialized sense of ‘to make a judgment.”
This variation occurs three times in Qal and three
in Niphal, the latter simply being the passive. It
refers to both God and man. Shimei, after having
blatantly cursed David, beseeches David not to
‘*impute’’ sin unto him (II Sam 19:20). More sig-
nificantly, God is spoken of as imputing. Ab-
raham believed God and God ‘‘counted™ (im-
puted) it to him for righteousness (Gen 15:6; Rom
4:3). David states that the man is blessed to

330

whom the Lord “‘imputes”’ not iniquity (Ps 32:2;
Rom 4:8).

A fifth variation means “‘to invent,” a use
found only in the Qal. It is employed of Bezaleel,
chosen by God to be head builder of the taberna-
cle, describing a part of his work as *‘devising™’
(inventing) artistic productions, using gold,
silver, and brass (Ex 31:4: 35:32, 35). Uzziah,
king of Judah, placed in Jerusalem, war machines
‘invented’ by clever men (II Chr 26:15).

The last variation means “accounting,”
**bookkeeping,'* used only in the Piel. In the time
of the aged high priest, Jehoiada, when repairs
were being made on the temple, the word is used
to say that the priests ‘reckoned’ (accounted)
not with the workmen in connection with money
for the project, because the workers were honest.
In the Mosaic legislation, the word is used sev-
eral times in respect to the *‘accounting’” neces-
sary for figuring the fluctuating value of prop-
erties and produce, in the light of an approaching
year of Jubilee (Lev 25:27, 50, 52: 27:18, 23). The
one use of the Hithpael is simply a reflexive of
the second variation noted, ‘‘to make a judg-
ment’? (Num 23:9).

mahashaba. Thought, device. This noun de-
rivative appears in three basic meanings:
‘thought,’ ‘‘plan,”’ and “invention,” all three
corresponding to basic variations noted for the
verb. It is used to mean “thought” in Gen 6:5,
**Every imagination of the ‘thoughts’ of his heart
was ‘“‘evil.’’ The second, ‘plan.’ occurs when
the Israelites are made to say, in contrast to
God's will for them, that they would follow their
own ‘‘devices (plans) and do as they wanted”
(Jer 18:12). The third is used in reference to a
skilled worker, whom Hiram of Tyre sent to Sol-
omon to work on the temple. He was described
as being able to work out any “invention” neces-
sary for the task (11 Chr 2:14).

L.J.W.

nNawnm (heshbon). See no. 767b.
nswnm (hishshabon). See no. 767c.

768 mvn (hasha) silent, inactive, still.

The asv tends to translate ““hold one’s peace”
where the rsv renders **keep quiet.’’ The basic
meaning of the root is ‘‘to keep quiet,’ i.e. to be
inactive, especially with reference to speaking; it
is used also of wares (Ps 107:29). This is a poeti-
cal root which strongly parallels /iarash and
damam (cf. Isa 42:14).

The Psalmist gives insight into the nature of sin
by reporting that his silence in the face of aggra-
vation left him with sin within (Ps 39:2 [H 3]; cf.
Vv. 8 [H 9], also Mk 7:20).

Among the prophets, only Isaiah uses this
word. God, comparing himself to a warrior, says

that formerly he was silent, but now he will speak
against the sin of his people (Isa 42:14). When he
did not speak they ignored him (Isa 57:11; cf.
Rom 2:4). Now he will speak in judgment (Isa
65:6). The judged, however, are to remonstrate
against his silence as the cause of their affliction.
In the eschaton the Servant of the Lord pledges
himself to tireless activity until the righteous of
Jerusalem shine forth as brightness (62:1). He
will appoint watchmen upon her gates to call out
continually to God on her behalf (64:6) until God
responds. Restoration does not rest upon man
either as to instigation (man needs a mediator) or
accomplishment (justification is an act of God).
LAC:

See no. 773b.
See no. 773d.
See no. 774b.

sw (hashiq).
mwnm (hishshigq).
awn (hishshar).

769 wm (hdshak) be dark, darkened, black,
dim, hidden. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

769a tnwm (hoshek) darkness.

769b wm (hashdk) obscure, low, only
in Prov 22:20.

769c tmawn (hdshekad) darkness.

769d tawma (mahshak) darkness.

Little doubt surrounds the meaning of this de-
nominative verb coming from the noun hoshek
(darkness). It occurs eighteen times, seventeen
times in poetical books. Exodus 10:15 is the only
occurrence of hashak ina prose passage. There it
refers to the plague of darkness over Egypt.
Elsewhere the word ts used to indicate judgment

or curse. (See Job 3:9: 18:6: Ps 105:28; Isa 5:30; ’

13:10; Jer 13:16; Ezk 30:18; Amos 5:8: 8:9; Mic
3:6.)

The author of Eccl used hashak to describe the
dim vision that comes with old age: *‘Those who
look out the windows shall be darkened”’ (12:34).
Lamentations 5:17 uses the word similarly. The
Psalmist may be praying down the curse of blind-
hess on his enemy when in Ps 69:23 he asks that
their eyes ‘‘be darkened.”

In Lam 4:8 hdshak refers to the sun-blackened
skin of the exiles.

A cognate accusative appears in Ps 139:12:
‘For you darkness itself is not dark’’ (NAB). Only
Job 38:2 clearly conveys the idea of hiding in it.
There God asked the patient hero the tmmortal
question, *“‘Who is this who darkens counsel
without knowledge?”*

hoshek. Dark, darkness, obscurity, night, dusk.
The noun hoshek is the common word for ‘‘dark-
ness, and in about half of its eighty occurrences
it means literally the opposite of light.

Genesis 1:2 uses hdshek referring to the

331

770 *5ym (hashal)

770 *>wn (hashal)

primeval ‘‘darkness’’ which covered the world.
In verse 4 the celestial luminaries divided the
‘‘darkness’’ from the light (cf. v. 18). And in
verse 5 the ‘‘darkness’’ was called “‘night.”’
Elsewhere héshek is equal or parallel to “‘night,”’
as in Josh 2:5; Job 17:12; 24:16; and Ps 104:20.

This word is used for the plague of **darkness”’
on the Egyptians (Ex 10:21-22; Ps 105:28). It also
accompanied God's appearance on Mt. Sinai (Ex
14:20; Deut 4:11; $:23).

In several places it refers to the *‘darkness”’ of
the grave (I Sam 2:9; Job 10:21; 18:18; 34:22; Ps
88:12 [H 13]; Eccl 6:4).

The word occurs far more frequently in Job,
Psalms, and Isaiah than in all the other books
together. Often it has a figurative meaning as
noted in the paragraph above. Among those
meanings are ‘ignorance’ (Ps 18:28 {H 29];
107:10; Isa 9:2 [H 1]); ‘‘evil’’ (Isa 5:20); ‘*hidden-
ness’’ (Ps 18:1! [H 12}; 139:11-12); “blindness”
(Job 12:25; 22:11; Isa 29:18); and ‘‘judgment””
(Job 3:4; Ps 35:6; Isa 47:5; 59:9). The few times
the other prophets use hdshek it is mostly in this
last sense (cf. Ezk 32:8: Joel 2:2, 31 |[H 3:4];
Amos 5:18, 20; Nah 1:8; Zeph 1:15).

hasheka. Dark, darkness, dark places. Like the
verb (hadshak, q.v.) and masculine nouns
(hédshek, and mahshadk, this feminine noun also
means ‘‘darkness’” in the few places where it oc-
curs.

The first appearance of hdshékd ‘‘darkness”
and the only one in a prose section is in Gen
15:12. There it is a supernatural ‘‘darkness”’
paralleled by the Hebrew word tardéma meaning
‘deep sleep’ or “torpor.”

*™ Psalms 82:5 and 139:12 both use hashékd; in
fact, 139:12 also has hdshek. Both refer to a
darkness that cannot hide or limit God.

The word appears twice in Isaiah. In 8:22 it is
parallel to sara (distress), m“‘ap saga (anguished
gloom), and ‘adpéla m°nuddah (thick blackness).
In 50:10, as in Ps 82:5, it ts figurative for ‘‘igno-
rance,”’ ‘evil, or “‘unbelief.”’

This word may occur in Mic 3:6, but since
grammarians cannot distinguish between this
feminine noun and a feminine form of the verb tn
the third person singular of the verb hdshak,
there is a difference of opinion. The sense of the
verse is not altered, however, in either case.

mahshak. Dark, darkness, dark place, hiding
place. The noun mahshadk appears only in poet-
ical passages. In Ps 88:6 [H 7] mahshak is parallel
to ‘grave’ (cf. Ps 143:3; Lam 3:6) and is used in
connection with wickedness (Ps 74:20; Isa 29:15),
terror (Ps 88:18 (H 19]), and blindness (Isa 42: 16).

R.L.A.
shatter. Used only once,
in the Niphal.

770.1 92wn (hashmal)

770.1 Yawn (hashmal) a_ shining substance,
amber or electrum.
771 Yawn (hashman) ambassadors. Occurs

only in Ps 68:31 [H 32]. Meaning and deri-
vation uncertain.
772 WH
T72a

(hshn). Assumed root of the following.

Tiwm (hdshen) breastpiece. (kiv and
ASV are Similar, ‘*breast-plate’’; Rsv
renders it ‘“breastpiece.’’)

It occurs twenty-three times in the oT. Arabic
cognates indicate that the word means “‘beauty,”’
pointing to its value and importance among the
holy garments of the high priest. It was made of
the same materials as the ephod (Ex 28:15). It was
a square pouch a span (about three inches) on a
side, with gold rings at the corners. On it were
twelve gems on which were engraved the names
of the tribes of Israel. Gold cords fastened the
upper rings to the gems on the shoulders of the
ephod. The breastplate symbolized the unity of
the nation, the dependence of the people on the
person and ministry of the high priest, their pres-
ence before God as a beloved people, and the
channel} of the revelation of God’s will. With it
were the Urim and Thummim whereby the will
of God was conveyed to the people (Ex 28: 15-30).
The Lxx designates it as the ‘‘oracle of judgment”’
for ‘‘breastplate of judgment”’ or ‘‘breastplate of
the (oracular) decision,’’ in Hebrew. It was con-
sidered the most important item among the dis-
tinctive garments of the high pnest. Josephus’s
account of the breastplate is elaborate, but not
entirely reliable (Antiquities of the Jews 3.7.5)

Bibliography: AI, p. 350f.
C.LAE.
773 wm (hadshaq) be attached to, love. The
ASV and RSv basically agree with the av, im-
proving Deut 10:15, Ps 91:14, Isa 38:17 (but
RSV ‘‘desired to build”’ is hardly adequate in
I Kgs 9:19 = II Chr 8:6).
Derivatives
773a tpwnm (hésheq) desire, thing desired.
773b 0 AWM (hashiiq) fillet or ring clasping
a pillar of the tabernacle.
773c «(*pym (Ashq) to furnish with fillets or
rings. Denominative verb used
only tn the Piel and Pual.
773d = PWR O(hishshiq) spoke of a wheel

(I Kgs 7:33).

hashaq emphasizes that which attaches to
something or someone; in the case of emotions
(to which the biblical usage is limited) it is that
love which is already bound to its object. It
should be distinguished from ‘Ghab ‘‘love,”’
‘awa “desire, wish,’ hamad ‘‘desire, take plea-

sure in.’’ Also, contrast hdshaq, II ‘to join, fur-
nish with fillets or rings.’’ Our root occurs twelve
times.

This root may denote the strong desire of a
man toward a beautiful woman (Gen 34:8) who
could, however, be put away if she did not live up
to expectations (Deut 21:11-14).

A deep inward attachment (in a positive sense)
is descriptive of God’s love of Israel (Deut 10:15).
He was bound to them of his own volition (love)
and not because of anything good or desirable in
them (Deut 7:7). It is to God’s attachment (love)
that Hezekiah attributes his deliverance (Isa
38:17). This is the love that will not let go. If a
man has such an attachment toward God he will
be delivered (Ps 91:14).

hésheq. Desire, thing desired. InIKgs 9:1, 19
(II Chr 8:6) the temple and palace, as well as
other structures necessary for the functioning of
the kingdom, are described as hésheq to Sol-
omon. These were not constructed merely for his
own pleasure. But he was emotionally bound to
them by his love of pleasing God (cf. I Kgs 9:1).

LC,

774 “wm (hshr). Assumed root of the following.

74a =m3WR (hashra) collection, mass (II
Sam 22:12).

774b | WN (hishshir) hub of a wheel (1
Kgs 7:33).

775 wwrm (hshsh). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
75a wwnm (hdshash) chaff (Isa
33:11).

5:24;

776 HM (hét) Heth.

‘A son of Canaan and the eponymous ancestor
of the Aitti (Gen 10:15; I Chr 1:13). The name
occurs fourteen times, twice in the phrase
‘‘daughters of Heth’’ (Gen 27:46), and ten times
in the phrase ‘sons of Heth’’ (Gen 23:3, 5, 7, 10
[twice], 16, 18, 20; 25:10; 49:32). It is plain from
the collocation of this phrase with hitti (cf. Gen
23:10; 25:9, 10; 49:30, 32) that they are equiva-
lent.

Ti6a PAM (hitti) Hittite.

An ethnic term which is apparently but not cer-
tainly cognate with Hittite HATT/, Egyptian, ht,
Akkadian hatta, Ugaritic ht, hty (UT 19: nos.
1021, 1024). The name Is transliterated by the Lxx
as khettaios. The name occurs forty-eight times,
including twenty times in lists of the inhabitants
of Canaan along with such groups as the Amo-
rites, Canaanites, Girgashites, Jebusites, and
Perizzites.

Leaving out of account the geographical list-

332

ings (Num 13:29; cf. Gen 10:15; 1 Chr 1:13) and
the expanded list of Gen 15:19f., the Hittites oc-
cupy the first place five times (Deut 7:1; 20:17;
Josh 9:1; 12:8; II Chr 8:7), and second place ten
times (Ex 3:8, 17; 13:5; 23:23; Josh 3:10: Jud 3:5;
I Kgs 9:20; Ezr 9:1; Neh 9:8). In prominence the
Hittites are second only to the Canaanites.

In the patriarchal narratives of Gen the Hittites
occupy the areas of Hebron and Beersheba.
Numbers 13:29 reports that together with the
Jebusites and the Amorites they held the hilly
areas. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah
for the burial of Sarah from Ephron the Hittite
(Gen 23:10).

Esau grieved his parents by marrying the
daughters of Heth, apparently in the Beersheba
region (Gen 26:34; 27:46). These women are also
considered ‘‘daughters of the land’’ and *‘daugh-
ters of Canaan’’ (Gen 27:46; cf. 28:1; 36:2).

From the period of the Conquest and the
Judges, apart from the lists there are but two in-
dependent occurrences of the word. In Josh 1:4
Joshua is promised ‘‘all the land of the Hittites to
the Great Sea.’ As the reference to the Hittites 1s
omitted by the Lxx, it may possibly be a gloss. In
Jud 1:26 a man of Luz (Bethel), who aided the
Israelites against his own city, departed to the
land of the Hittites. Hittites are also mentioned in
connection with David and Solomon (I Sam 26:6;
I Kings 11:1 etc.).

In a passage decrying the abominations of
Jerusalem, Ezekiel (Ezk 16:3, 45) declares that
the city’s father was an Amorite and her mother a
Hittite.

An analysis of the names of nine individuals
who are called Hittite indicates that they all have
Semitic names: Ephron (Gen 23:10); his father
Zohar (Gen 23:8); Esau’s wives, Judith, Base-
math, Adah (Gen 26:34; 36:2); and Ahimelech (1
Sam 26:6). Uriah (II Sam 11:3) may be a name
derived from the Hebrew word ‘ér ‘‘light, fire,”’
or from the Hurrian word iwri ‘‘lord.”’

In nonbiblical references the name Hittite can
have a number of meanings. In rare instances it
can designate the aboriginal Hattian people of
Anatolia. Usually, it designates the Indo-
Europeans (Nesites and Luwians) who invaded
Anatolia c. 2000 B.c. and established a mighty
empire which flourished c. 1700-1200 s.c. The
remnants of this empire in the form of the king-
doms of Carchemish, Hamath, etc. in northern
Syria are called Neo-Hittite by scholars. The As-
syrians and the Babylonians in the first millen-
nium B.c. used the term mat Hatti ‘‘land of
Hatti’’ to designate Syria and Palestine.

It is fairly clear that the references to the Hit-
tites in the days of David, Solomon, and Elisha
(1000-900 B.c.: cf. II Kgs 7:6) are probably to the
Neo-Hittites of Syria. Some scholars such as
Montgomery, Noth, Gurney, and Van Seters be-

333

777: «omam (hata)

777 mpm (hata)

lieve that even earlier references reflect anachro-
nistic allusions to the Neo-Hittites.

On the other hand, in spite of the inconclusive
nature of the external evidences, other scholars
such as Bruce, Gordon, Kitchen, Simons, and
North maintain that the patriarchal Hittites may
very well have stemmed from the imperial Hit-
tites of the second millennium sB.c. The name of
Tidal (Gen 14:1) has been compared with the
royal Hittite name Tudhalia. M. Lehmann has
suggested that Gen 23 reveals acquaintance with
a Hittite legal background. A Hittite text of Mur-
shili II mentions a migration of the people of
Kurushtama from Anatolia into Egyptian terri-
tory c. 1350 B.c., which might conceivably be
Palestine.

E. Speiser, followed by Gelb and Gray, believe
that the designation hitt? may be a textual error
for hori (q.v.) or ‘‘Hurrians.’’ As noted above,
Uriah’s name may be Hurrian. We know that
there were many Hurrians in central Palestine in
the second millennium B.c.; in the Amarna period
(fourteenth century) the king of Jerusalem bore
the name Abdi-Hepa (or Warad-Hepa if the first
half of the name be read also as Hurrian), i.e.
‘Slave of the Hurrian goddess Hepa.’ The
Masoretic text and the Lxx confuse the names
Hittites, Hurrians, and Hivites more than once.

H. Hoffner has argued that the simplest solu-
tion is to regard the Hittites of the patriarchal
stories and of the lists as an indigenous Canaanite
tribe, whose name is homonymous with the im-
perial Hittites, but who are quite independent of
them.

Bibliography: Bruce, F. F., “Hittites, in
NBD, pp. 528-29. Gelb, I. J., ‘‘Hittites,’ in IDB,
II, pp. 612-15. Gurney, O. R., The Hittites, rev.
ed., Penguin, 1966. Hoffner, H. A., ‘The Hittites
and Hurrians,”’ in Peoples of Old Testament
Times, ed. D. J. Wiseman, Oxford: Clarendon,
1973, pp. 197-228. , ‘Some Contributions
of Hittitology to Old Testament Study,’ Tyndale
Bulletin 20: 27-55. Lehmann, Manfred R., **Ab-
raham’s Purchase of Machpelah and Hittite
Law,’ BASOR 129: 15-18. North, Robert, **The
Hivites,’’ Bib 54: 43-62. Speiser, E. A., Genesis,
in AB. Tucker, Gene M., ‘‘The Legal Back-
ground of Genesis 23,’ JBL 85: 77-84. Van Set-
ers, John, ‘The Terms *Amorites’ and ‘Hittites’
in the Old Testament,’ VT 22: 64-81.

E.Y..

mm (hat). See nos. 784a,b.

snatch up, usually fire, coals.

Derivative

77a tammy (mahtda) snuffdish,
tray, censer.

firepan,

778 *30m (hatak)

This feminine noun seems related to the root
hth meaning ‘to take”’ or “to catch,”” referring to
fire (cf. Ps 52:5 {H 7]; Prov 6:27; 25:22: Isa 30:14).
(The noun m°hittad differs only in the vowels and
dagesh and means ‘“‘destruction”’ or “‘ruin.**)

mahta first occurs in connection with the de-
scription of the tabernacle and its tools for ser-
vice. They were made of gold (Ex 25:38: 37:23,
Num 4:9) and were parts of or used with the
seven-branched lamp. Some, used with the altar,
were bronze (Ex 27:3; 38:3; Num 4:14). Of course
in a culture which had no matches, firepans or in
common life potsherds would be used to carry
the coals to light one fire from another.

According to I Kgs 7:50 and IJ Chr 4:22, Sol-
omon made new firepans for the temple, which
were later taken as booty by the conquering
Babylonians (II Kgs 25:15; Jer 52:19). These are
the bronze tools associated with the altar.

In Lev 10:1, 16:12, and Num 16, mahta refers
to something other than the utensils used with the
lampstand or the altar. Most translate mahtd in
these places as ‘‘censer.’’ Numbers !6 describes
the rebellion of Korah. The earth swallowed up
the rebels but their “‘censers’’ were beaten out as
a plating for the altar (16:39-40 [H 17:4-5]).

R.L.A.

See no. 784d.
Simm (hittal). See no. 779b.
monn (hathat). See no. 784e.
‘Am (Airtt?). See no. 776a.
ream (hittit). See no. 784f.

mam (hitta).

778 =*3NM (harak) are determined (KJV): de-
creed (ASV, RSV. Amplified. JB, NAB); settled
(Berkeley Version): marked out (NEB).

This verb appears only in the passive stem
(Niphal), and only in Dan 9:24, the famous *'se-
venty weeks’ passage. In rabbinic Hebrew the
root Atk basically means “‘cut,’’ hence the trans-
lation ‘‘decreed** in most versions. (See Marcus
Jastrow. Dictionary of the Targumin, the Talmud
Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Litera-
ture, I, Pardes, 1950, p. 513.)

R.L.A.

779 *9nm (hatal) entwine, enwrap. Occurs
only in the Pual and Hophal (Ezk 16:4).

Derivatives
779a Pm (hartalla) swaddling band-
(Job 38:9).

7796 OoSIMM (hitril) bandage (Ezk 30:21).

780 onm (hatam) affix a seal, seal up. This
verb occurs tn the Qal, Niphal, and Hiphil.

334

Derivatives

780a tDM NM (hdtam) seal, signet (ASV, RSV
the same except rSv has signet ring
in Hag 2:23).

780b otnennm (hdtemet) a signet seal.

The basic meaning of this root is ‘*to seal.”
Various kinds of documents were authenticated
by affixing seal impressions from stamp or cylin-
der seals. The one was stamped into clay or wax
while the other was rolled across it, leaving an
impression. Letters (I Kgs 21:8), decrees of kings
(Est 3:12; 8:8, 10; Dan 6:17-18), covenants (Neh
10:1 (H 2]), land purchase deeds (Jer 32:10, 11,
44), and books (Dan 12:4) were sealed. Also an
unintelligible prophecy is said in a simile to be
sealed (Isa 29:11).

Hence sealing designates that which is securely
enclosed (Dan 12:9) by lying under a seal (Dan
12:9), e.g. the stars (Job 9:7), a treasure (Deut
32:34), or one’s transgression (Job 14:17). Isaiah
was to Seal up his teaching in his disciples, that is,
to keep it securely (Isa 8:16). A sealed fountain is
a metaphor for a chaste woman (Song 4:12).

The root also signifies to close up the hand of
man so that he cannot work in winter (Job 37:7)
and signifies that which is closed up (Job 24:16)
as when a man’s running sore or discharge of the
urinary tract is stopped (Lev 15:3).

hotam. Seal, signet. This masculine noun,
from the root hdatam “to seal,’ refers to a seal
made of engraved stone impressed in clay or wax
to authenticate a document. If it were a cylinder
seal like those used in Mesopotamia it would be
suspended around the neck on a string (Gen
38:18). A stamp seal such as was more common
in Palestine would be carried, or worn on a finger
(Jer 22:24). However taba‘at is the ordinary
word for signet ring. Jezebel used Ahab’s seal to
authenticate the order of Naboth’s death (1 Kgs
21:8: cf. sir 42:6). Numerous stamp seals and cy-
linder seals have been found in archeological ex-
cavations in Palestine.

The stones and gold plate on the priest's gar-
ment were engraved as a jeweler engraved sig-
nets (Ex 28:11, 21, 26; 39:6, 14, 30). As distinc-
tive property of its owner, a seal could prove that
Judah had been with Tamar (Gen 38:18: but v. 25
has hdtemet). ‘The signet on the right hand” is a
figure for that which is particularly precious to
one (Jer 22:24: Hag 2:23).

In figures of speech the beloved desires to be
as the seal on the heart and upon the arm (Song
8:6). One speaks of morning changing the earth
like clay under the seal (Job 38:14) the figure
probably being derived from the rolling of a cy-
linder seal over clay: of Leviathan’s back shut up
closely as with a seal (Job 41:15 {H 7]): and of a
king as the signet of perfection (Ezk 28:12).

hotemet. Signet. Used for impressing docu-
ments, the cylinder seal was widely known in the
ancient near east. As a mark for personal prop-
erty, the seal, practically a signature, was undis-
putable evidence that Judah had been with Tamar
(Gen 38:25; cf. v. 18).

Bibliography: Tufnell, O., “‘Seals and
Scarabs,’ in IDB, pp. 254-59. Huey. F. B.
‘Seal,’ in ZPEB, V, pp. 319-24.

J.P.L.

781 3mm (htn). Assumed root of the following.

78la AM (hotén) wife’s father, father-in-
law. KB use the word Aodtén in the
sense of son-in-law. The Ug is Atn.
UT 19: no. 1025: vb. ‘‘to marry.”
noun: “son-in-law” (KJv, ASv, and
RSV, *‘father-in-law.”*) The word ap-
pears twenty-two times, of which all
but four citations refer to Jethro,
priest of Midian. Moses’ father-in-
law. KB reverse the persons calling
Moses the son-in-law.

78ib *1nM (hatan) make oneself a daugh-
ter’s husband. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun
78lc fm (hatan) daughter’s
bridegroom.
78id = maAN (hdtinnd) marriage, wedding,

only in Song 3:11.

husband,

The denominative verb occurs only as a
Hithpael **make oneself a daughter's husband,”’
‘become somebody's son-in-law.”’ (kJv, asSv, and
Rsv render alike in Josh 23:12, “‘make mar-
riages. *)

Joshua, in his final address to Israel, explicitly
warned them against contracting marriages with
the native Canaanites lest the latter become a
snare to the people of God (Josh 23:12-13). Once
Solomon was established on the throne of Israel,
he began the well-known practice of contracting
marriages for political purposes (I Kgs 3:1). The
nation had been admonished on this very score
with regard to the nations aJready resident in the
land of promise (Deut 7:3). The questionable
value of contracted marriages to settle problems
between peoples had already been witnessed in
the case of the sons of Jacob and Shechem the
Hivite, who had violated the sanctity of Jacob's
household. Saul the king enticed David to be-
come his son-in-law to satisfy his inordinate
jealousy (I Sam 18:26-27). Examples of the rela-
tionship of sons-in-law to a father-in-law are seen
in the history of Jacob (Gen 29-31) and Moses
(Ex 2:20-22: 4:18).

hatan. Daughter’s husband, bridegroom. The
first designation shows the relationship to the
bride’s father; the second, to the bride. (kJv, asv,

335

781 JAR (htn)

and rsv translate alike.) Some twenty references
to the noun are found in the ot. The root appears
in Ugaritic as noun and verb.

Married life was the normal state among the
Hebrews. The family was the basic social unit.
Marriage had important family and tribal conse-
quences. If a woman proved unsatisfactory to her
husband, she would return to her father’s house,
with an aftermath of strained relations between
the families (Jud 14:20: I Sam 18:19). The natural
procedure, then, was for the families involved to
contract the conditions for the union. This did not
rule out automatically the consent of the couple
(Gen 24:8), and love matches were possible also
(Gen 29:20; 34:3: Jud 14:1: I Sam 18:20). The
husband was his bride’s master (Isa 62:4), but
this was not an absolute norm (Gen 21:10ff.).
When the husband was incorporated into the
tribe of his wife, the children were considered as
belonging to her tribe or family (cf. Jacob and
Laban, Gen 31:31. 43: Moses and Jethro, Ex
2:21; 4:18).

Betrothal among the ancient Israelites was a
binding agreement, considered a part of marriage
(Gen 24:58, 60). Dowry was paid to the parents of
the bride, and this was the central element in the
betrothal. In Jacob’s case it took the form of a
stipulated number of years of service; for David it
involved a specific task for Saul (1 Sam 18:25).
The betrothal consisted of a settlement of the
terms of the marriage in the presence of witnes-
ses. The union could take place some months or
even years after the betrothal. Unfaithfulness of a
betrothed couple was considered adultery (Deut
22:23: see also Mt 1:19).

At the time of the marriage the wedding pro-
cession was the first part of the ceremonies (Ps
45:15). The friends of the bndegroom (Jn 3:29)
went, as a rule by night, to take the bride and her
party to the groom’s home (Mt 9:15), an event
marked by much joy (Jer 7:34). The marriage
supper took place in the home of the groom, a
feast as elaborate as means permitted. No formal
religious ceremony was part of the marriage
ceremony, unlike our custom. The union was
consummated in the bridal chamber or tent (Gen
24:67).

The biblical basis for marriage is in Gen 2:18,
24. It is to be monogamous (Gen 2:24). Polygamy
was common (Jud 8:30: II Sam 5:13), but the as-
sumption underlying references in Ps 128: Prov
12:4; 31:10-31 is monogamy. The prophets used
marriage as a figure of God's love for Israel (Isa
61:10: 62:5: Hos 2:21—-22: Song). Marriages which
involved close relattons (but not first cousins)
were forbidden (Lev 18, 20). Children were a
blessing and harrenness a misfortune (Psa
127:3-5). Little is known about the marriage
ceremony. The act 1s referred to simply as *“‘tak-
ing a wife’ (Ex 2:1). Some type of feast as a

782 ADM (hatap)

celebration took place (Gen 29:22). Processions
for the bride and groom were a chief part of the
celebrations.

Bibliography: Burrows, M., The Basis of Is-
raelite Marriage, American Oriental Society,
1938. Epstein, L. M., Marriage Laws in the Bible
and the Talmud, Harvard University Press, 1942.
Goodman, P. & H., The Jewish Marriage An-
thology, Jewish Publishing Co., 1965. Kahana,
K., The Theory of Marriage in Jewish Law, Brill,
1966. Neufeld, E., Ancient Hebrew Marriage
Laws, Longmans, 1944.

C.L.F.
manm (hdtannd). See no. 781d.
782 "nm (hdtap) seize, snatch away (Job
9:12).
Derivative

782a =oADM (hetep) prey (Prov 23:28).

783 nm (hdtar) dig, row (e.g. Jon 1:13;

Amos 9:2).

Derivative

783a = =oASHM> (mahteret) breaking in, bur-
glary (Jer 2:34).

784 mom (hatat) (be) broken, abolished, afraid,
dismayed causative stems: to break, ter-
rify, dismay, (Rsv ‘‘be in panic,’’ “‘to
panic’’; ASv ‘‘cracked’’).

Derivatives

784a tAm (hat) I, terror, fear.
784b «Oomm o(hat) =H, shattered, dismayed.
784c «otnnm (hdtat) terror, only in Job

6:21.

784d otmpm (hitta) terror, only in Gen
35:5.

784e 3 tmmann (hathat) terror, only in Eccl
12:5.

784f tmennm (hittit) terror.
784g «ofmmms (m°hitta) destruction, ruin,
terror.

The basic idea is ‘‘to be broken”’ from which
other abstract and secondary ideas are derived
such as ‘‘be abolished’’ or ‘‘be in panic.’’ Four
ranges of meanings are attested for this word and
its derivatives: 1) literal breaking, 2) abstract de-
struction, 3) demoralization, and 4) terror.

Both Qal and Niphal forms of the verb are sta-
tive. Both may refer either to being broken or to
derived ideas such as fearing or being de-
moralized. They can be slightly distinguished in
that the secondary significance of the Qal form
refers to the broader idea of demoralization or

336

dismay in general while the Niphal form has
clearly assumed the meaning of **to fear.”’

For the Qal form, literal breaking is indicated
in describing the ‘‘cracked’’ condition of land
under drought (asv Jer 14:4; rsv ‘‘dismayed’’).
The ‘‘destruction’’ of Misgab (Jer 48:1; rsv *‘for-
tress’’ for “*misgab’’) may preserve the root
meaning.

However, most of its usages refer to secondary
meanings. It describes the terror or panic of milt-
tary leaders whose courage has been broken (Isa
31:9). With the broader meaning of ‘‘de-
moralized,'’ usually translated ‘‘dismayed,”’ it
may describe defeated nations (Isa 20:5; Jer
48:20, 39), gods of defeated nations (Jer 50:2) or
classes of people (Jer 8:9). In harmony with its
meaning, the typical parallel for the Qal form of
this verb is bésh ‘‘to be ashamed” as in most
examples cited above. Demoralization, stemming
from frustration, may be expressed by this verb
as applied to Job’s three friends after they gave
up arguing with Job (Job 32:15).

The Niphal signifies breaking or destruction in
reference to people: Ephraim is shattered (Isa
7:8), and God’s enemies will be broken to pieces
(I Sam 2:10). However, God’s righteousness shall
never be broken (Isa 51:6).

The meaning ‘to fear’’ is several times attested
in passages where the Niphal parallels other
terms for *‘fearing.’’ It describes the terror of the
Hebrew army at Goliath’s challenge (I Sam
17:11) and it appears in the negative command
not to fear (Deut 1:21; Josh 8:1). Like other verbs
of fearing (cf. ydré’ and pdhad) it can refer to
awe or reverence as in revering God's name (Mal
223);

Other derived stems develop the meanings
noted above. The Piel is causative, ‘‘You ter-
rified me’? (Job 7:14; note: most authorities re-
gard the Piel of Jer 51:56 as a textual error and
translate it passively or statively, ‘bones are
broken’’). The Hiphil is causative, meaning ‘‘to
break” (Isa 9:4 [H 3]; ‘hast broken’’) and ‘‘to
terrify’’ (Job 31; 34; note also the difficult pas-
sage, Hab 2:17).

hat. Dread, fear. Twice refers to the internal
emotion of fear (Gen 9:2; Job 41:33 [H 25)]). II,
broken, demoralized. Once describes the broken
bows of the mighty (I Sam 2:4) and once de-
scribes emotional demoralization (Jer 46:5; usu-
ally translated **dismayed’’).

hatat. Calamity (kKiv ‘‘casting down’; asv
‘‘terror’’). Describes Job’s state (Job 6:21).
‘*Calamity’’ or ‘‘misfortune’’ drawn from the
idea of ‘‘breaking’’ best fits the context.

hitté. Terror, fear. Used once (Gen 35:5) for
the supernatural terror cast upon the surrounding
cities after the massacre of Shechem.

hathat. Fears, terrors. Occurs only in the
plural, referring to the fears of old age (Eccl
12:5).

hittit. Terror. Used only in Ezk 32:24-32 to
describe the terror cast upon the nations by Tyre
and by the military power of the other nations
listed there.

m‘hitta. Destruction, ruin, terror (KJV, ASV
‘“dismaying’’; RSv ‘‘horror’’). Three meanings:

337

784 nD (hatat)

1) Literal physical ruins (Ps 89:40); 2) Destruc-
tion in an abstract sense may be described (e.g.
Prov 10:14; 18:7); and 3) An external object of
terror (Jer 17:17; 48:39). In several passages it is
unclear whether abstract ruin or an external ter-
ror is described (e.g. Prov 10:15; 10:29). There
are no clear examples in which this term refers to
the internal emotion of terror.

A.B.

785 *SONO (1é’té') sweep. Occurs only in the
Pilpel, in Isa 14:23, weté’té’tiha b® mat’ até’
hashméd ‘‘and I will sweep it with the
broom of destruction.”

Derivative

785a = =SOSEI (mat’até’) broom. Occurs
only in Isa 14:23.

9136 (1°bual). See no. 788a.
"338 (tabbar). See no. 790a.

786 M38 (ftabah) slaughter, butcher, slay, kill

ruthlessly. (ASV and RSv similar.)
Derivatives
786a M30 (tebah) slaughter, slaughtering,
animal.

7866 «fama (tibha) slaughtered meat,
flesh, slaughter, meat.

786c m3 (tabbah) cook,
guardsman.

786d tama (tabbaha) female cook.

786e tm3e> (matbéah) slaughter.

body guard,

The primary literal meaning of this root is *‘to
deliberately slaughter or butcher an animal for
food,’’ but this concept is most often employed
metaphorically to depict the slaying of men. The
synonym zdbah, though similar in its basic
nuance, conveys the additional idea of *‘slaughter
for sacrifice’’ from which the offerer often par-
takes. hdrag (q.v.) and shahat (q.v.) are found in
parallelism with tdabah; harag conveys the sense
of killing with violence in war or conflict while
shahat emphasizes beating the subject in order to
kill it or, since the Akk shahdtu means ‘‘flay,”’
‘‘to kill for sacrifice’’ which often included skin-
ning.

The central meaning of the root occurs only
three times (Gen 43:16; Ex 22:1 [H 21:37]; I Sam
25:11). The root is predominantly used metaphor-
ically, portraying the Lord's judgment upon Is-
rael and upon Babylon as a slaughter. The em-
phasis is placed upon Israel’s leaders, the
‘*shepherds,”’ who ironically are being slain. This
carnage is executed by Nebuchadnezzar’s inva-
sion in 586 B.c. (Jer 25:34; Ezk 21:10 {H_ 15})
which leaves slaughtered corpses in Jerusalem’s
streets (Lam 2:21). Cursing upon Israel was
promised in the Mosaic covenant (Lev 26; Deut
28), where God declares that he will ultimately
curse Israel’s rebellion by depriving her of her
own herds which will be confiscated and
slaughtered for food by foreigners (Deut 28:26,

341

31). Though Babylon is the *‘sword’’ used by
God to ‘‘slaughter™’ Israel in judgment, Babylon
too will perish as a lamb led to slaughter through
the Lord’s wrath (Jer 51:40). This comparison to
a lamb brought to slaughter emptasizes two as-
pects of judgment depicted by this root. First, the
slaughtered victim is unaware of the conse-
quences.of the course which he is following, as
implied by Jeremiah’s self-description as a lamb
led by the men of Anathoth to slaughter, uncon-
scious of their plans (Jer 11:19; cf. Jer 51:40).
This is vividly portrayed by tebah when it is em-
ployed to describe a young man who does not
realize the consequences of being seduced by a
prostitute (Prov 7:22). Second, the element of
planning by the executioner is clearly present in
contexts where this root is employed (cf. Jer
11:19; Prov 7:22). Psalm 37:14 portrays the
wicked plotting to ‘‘slay’’ the upright.

A unique use of tebah and tabah is provided in
Prov 9:2 when ‘‘wisdom’’ is personified as one
preparing ‘“wisdom’’ as her food (tabh4 tibhah)
for foolish mankind to eat.

tibha.
matbe-

tebah. Slaughter, slaughtering, animal.
Slaughtered meat, flesh, slaughter, meat.
ah. Slaughter, place of slaughter.

These three derivatives are employed to repre-
sent the slaughtered victim. The sense of an ani-
mal being slain is conveyed only by tebah in Gen
43:16 and tibhad in I Sam 25:11 (as cognate ac-
cusatives). Otherwise, tebah is employed primar-
ily to represent people as the slaughter victim,
especially by God’s judgment (cf. two exceptions
discussed above in Prov 7:22; 9:2). All nations
will ultimately experience the Lord’s vengeance
demonstrated in their slaughter (Isa 34:2) through
Babylon’s campaigns (of 586 B.c. and following)
and at the end time. Israel will be slain by the
Lord’s **sword,’’ Babylon (Ezk 21:10, 15 (H 15,
20)]—note the relation to hdrag, ‘‘slay’’ hdldlim
and resah ‘‘slaughter”’ in Ezk 21:11, 14, 22 [H 16,
19, 27]); Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Babylon will
be brought down to the slaughter by the Lord (Isa
34:6; Ezk 21:28 [H 33]; Jer 50:27; cf. matbéah in
Isa 14:21). tebah emphasizes God’s justice
whereby he purposes to punish those who refuse
to respond to his call (Isa 65:12)}—those who have
failed to understand that the ultimate conse-
quences of failing to listen when God speaks, is
physical destruction.

tebah is employed to describe the Messiah's
death for sin, emphasizing his silence by the
comparison to a lamb when it is slaughtered (Isa
53:7). Although a lamb is silent because it is ig-

787 93% (tabal)

norant of its destiny, certainly the Messiah was
fully cognizant of the Father’s will in his death,
the horribleness of which is conveyed by the fig-
ure of ‘‘slaughter.”’

The noun fibhdé is used (in parallel to hdrag)in
Jer 12:3 for the judgment of the wicked and in Ps
44:22 [H 23] for Israel’s affliction which the right-
eous endure because of their stand for the Lord.
Apparently ’ebhé (Ezk 20:15 (H 21]) is an error or
an alternate for tibhad.

tabbah. Cook, bodyguard, guardsman. tabbaba.
Female cook. These two derivatives convey the
idea of a ‘‘cook’’ who slaughters and prepares
meat: tabbah, for a masculine ‘‘cook”’ (only in ]
Sam 9:23-24) and tabbadha, used only once in I
Sam 8:13 for a female ‘‘cook.’’ The normal use of
tabbah (twenty-nine times) describes a ‘*body
guard’’ or ‘‘guardsman.’’ Genesis employs the
term with sar and saris to describe Potiphar and
the prison warden, chief officials in Egypt. The
basic nuance of ‘‘executioner’’ lies behind the
development of the noun, though both in the
Joseph account in Egypt (Gen 37-41) and in the
function of Nebuzaradan, the ‘‘chief (rab) of the
guard’’ of Nebuchadnezzar in II Kgs 25 and Jer
39-52, the sense of the term has become that of
‘‘chief official.’’ This is supported by the parallel
officials mentioned in Jer 39: 13——‘‘the chief of the
soothsayers’’ and ‘‘the chief of the eunuchs’’—
and by the cognate Aramaic noun in Dan 2:14
which describes a high court official commis-
sioned to execute the Babylonian wise men. This
passage may argue that the function of ‘*execu-
tion’ is still the duty of officials receiving this
title. Whether in Egypt or Babylon, the official
with this title is the king’s representative to exe-
cute discipline, judgment, and leadership.
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 929-33.
R.H.A.

787 93% (tabal) I, dip, plunge.
similar.)

(ASV and RSV

The verb conveys the immersion of one item
into another: bread in vinegar (Ruth 2:14), feet in
water (Josh 3:15), a coat in blood (Gen 37:31).
bapté is the common Lxx rendering of this root.

‘‘Dipping’’ is employed in Israel’s religious
ritual of cleansing. (See I Sam 14:7 for dipping in
the literal sense). In the sin offering, whereby the
sinner’s (individual or national) iniquity is
atoned, the priest dips his finger into the blood of
the sacrificial animal and sprinkles it before the
veil or places it upon he altar’s horns (Lev 4:6,
17; 9:9). The sinner is identified with the animal's
blood shed as a representation of the death paid
for the sin. Hbrews 9:19-22 draws on this figure
of cleansing by blood. Similarly, bllod was placed
on the doorposts at Passover, representing the
lamb’s blood shed substitutionally for the first

342

born (Ex 12:22). Identification is also conveyed
in the cleansing ritual for lepers (Lev 14:6, 16, 51;
II Kgss5:14) and the dead (Num 19:18). Hyssop,
or the priest’s finger, is dipped in water or oil,
cleansing agents, and sprinkled upon the unclean
object to identify it as cleansed.

Job 9:31 employs the root to represent Bildad
‘‘plunging’’ Job into the filthy pit of accusations.
Blessing is depicted by ‘‘dipping’’ one’s feet in oil
(Deut 33:24; cf. Job 29:6).

Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 535-36.

R.H.A.

788 %3% (tb/) II. Assumed root of the following.

788a 7938 (t° bill)
in Ezk 23:15.

turban. Occurs only

789 yop (taba‘) sink, sink down, drown, settled

or planted. (asv and Rsv translate ‘‘fas-
tened’’ and ‘‘shaped’’ respectively for
‘‘settled’’ or ‘‘planted.’’)

Derivative
789a tMYS% (tabba‘at) ring, signet-ring.

The central meaning is ‘‘to sink into some-
thing.’’ The literal meaning of the root is clearly
pictured by the stone which sank in Goliath’s
skull (I Sam 17:49). However, the root is nor-
mally employed metaphorically. To be ‘*sunk in
the mire’’ (Jer 38:6) portrays the idea of one trap-
ped in a given circumstance, whether in indeci-
sion and entanglement (Jer 38:22), in predic-
aments of sin (Ps 9:15 (H 16]), or in despair over
affliction and distress (Ps 69:2, 14 [H 3, 15)).
God’s work of creation is described in terms of
‘‘sinking’’ a foundation (Job 38:6—parallel to
‘‘laying a cornerstone’’) and establishing the
mountains (Prov 8:25). Destruction is conveyed
by this root in the collapse of Jerusalem’s gate
(‘‘sunk into tte ground,’’ Lam 2:9) and the drown-
ing of the Egyptian army in the Reed Sea (Ex
15:4).

tabba‘at. Ring, signet ring. This term denotes
an official seal-ring of the Pharaoh or king which
makes decrees official by its imprint (Gen 41:42;
Est 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10). The synonym hdétam
(q.v.) has this same nuance and implies that the
Messiah, represented by Zerubabbel, will be
God’s official seal and certainty of all his decrees
(Hag 2:23). This meaning, or that of an ordinary
finger ring, is used in Ex 35:22, Num 31:50, and
Isa 3:21. The noun is employed twenty-eight
times in Ex to describe the rings used for poles
(or bars) which hold the tabernacle together,
which carry the furniture, or which enable the
high priest’s breastplate to be fastened to the
ephod.

R.H.A.

790 "93% (tbr). Assumed root of the following.

790a 958 (tabbir) highest part,
center. Occurs in Jud 9:37; Ezk
38:12.

791 M36 (tébet) tenth month (December-
January). This noun, a loan from Akka-
dian, occurs in Est 2:16. (For other month
names see no. 613b.)

sine (tahdér). See no. 792d.

792 9% (tahér) be pure, clean.
Derivatives

792a TM (tdhar) clearness.
7926 «T9N8 «(f*har) cleanness.
792c tase (téhora) purification.
792d =t73MW «(fahdr) clean, pure.

The root thr 1s cognate with Uganitic thr (var-
lant zhr), used of gems of lapis lazuli (UT 19:
no. 1032); cf. S. Arabic thr ‘‘pure’’ and Arabic tah-
ara ‘‘to be pure, clean.’’ The verb occurs ninety-
four times in the Qal, Piel, Pual, and Hithpael
stems. It is used almost exclusively of mtual or
moral purity. Once, however, in the Piel it refers
to the cleansing of the skies by the winds in Job
37:21, “‘sweeps the clouds away’’ (NAB), and
once as a Piel participle it refers to the purifying
of silver (Mal 3:3).

All told tahér and its derivatives occur 204
times. In the great majority of cases they appear
in the priestly literature: about forty-four percent
in Lev and Num, about sixteen percent in Ex
(especially of the pure gold for the cult), and
about fourteen percent in Chr and Ezk.

The Lxx generally translates tdhér and its de-
rivatives by kathariz6, katharos, katharismos,
etc. ‘‘to purify,’ “‘pure,’’ ‘‘purity.”’

In a material sense the adjective tahdr is used
to describe the pure gold of the appurtenances of
the tabernacle in numerous passages in Ex: of the
ark (25:11), the mercy seat (25:17), the table
(25:24), various vessels (25:29), the lampstand,
Av ‘‘candlestick’’ (25:31); the plate (28:36), the
incense altar (30:3), etc. Garments for Aaron
were made with cords as of pure gold (Ex 39:15);
cf. Ex 37 passim. The lampstand of gold is also
described as a pure lampstand (Ex 31:8; 39:37).

Also made of pure gold were the appurte-
nances of the temple (I Chr 28:17), its inner deco-
rations (II Chr 3:4), and Solomon’s throne (II Chr
9:17). The ‘pure table’ of the showbread (II Chr
13:11) is interpreted by the rsv to be a ‘‘table of
pure gold.”’

The Lord commanded Moses to make per-
fumed incense which would be ‘pure and holy”
(Ex 30:35).

The price of wisdom is above that of pearls,

343

792 958 (tahér)

topaz, and pure gold (Job 28:18-19). The words
of the Lord are pure words, (jB) *‘without alloy,”’
as Silver (Ps 12:6 [H 7]).

In Zechariah’s vision (Zech 3:5) the high pnest
Joshua was to exchange his filthy garments for
rich apparel, including ‘*‘a clean turban”’ (Av,
‘fair mitre’’). Its glistening purity would be
emblematic of his newly sanctified state.

The word tahér is used of the purification of
the booty taken in war either by fire or by ‘‘the
water of impurity’’ (Num 31:23). The verb and its
derivatives are most frequently used of the
purification necessary to restore someone who
has contracted impurity (see (dmé’) to a state of
purity so that he could participate in the ntual
activities (Lev 22:4~7).

After the birth of a child a mother had to wait a
certain period and then bring certain offerings to
be cleansed ‘‘from the flow of her blood’’ (Lev
12:7-8). A man who had a discharge waited seven
days, then washed his clothes and bathed in order
to be clean (Lev 25:13). The identification of the
discharge (see zib) is uncertain. Was it diarrhea?
Or did it include any running sore?

A ‘“‘leprous’’ man who had been healed had to
go through an elaborate ceremony to be declared
clean (Lev 14): Two live ‘‘clean’’ birds had to be
provided. The priest killed one bird, dipped the
living bird in its blood, sprinkled the man with the
blood, declared him clean, and then released the
bird (vv. 4-7). The man then had to wash his
clothes, shave, and bathe (v. 8), and repeat all
this a week later (v. 9). The priest then sacrificed
the man’s offerings of lambs, cereal and oil, and
anointed parts of the man’s body with blood and
oil (vss. 11-20). Less expensive offerings were
prescribed for the poor (vss. 21-32). The leprous
man healed by Jesus was instructed to show him-
self to the priest and offer for his cleansing what
Moses had commanded (Mk 1:44; Mt 8:4; Lk
$:14; cf. Lk 17:14). A house which was ‘“'‘lep-
rous’’ was purified through a similar process (Lev
14:48-53). See sdra‘at ‘‘leprosy, disease.”’

For the purification from the defilement of
death either by contact with a corpse, a tomb,
etc., Special ‘‘waters of impurity’’ prepared with
the ashes of a red heifer had to be sprinkled (Num
19): After the heifer had been burned, a clean
person had to gather the ashes and place them
outside the camp in a clean place (v. 9). The de-
filed man was to be sprinkled with this water on
the third and the seventh day of his week of im-
purity (vss. 11, 12). He would then wash his
clothes, bathe, and then be clean (ve. 19).

Soldiers who killed in warfare also required
such purification (Num 31:19). In Ezekiel’s vi-
sion of Gog, Israel would spend seven months
burying the multitude of corpses to cleanse the
land (Ezk 39:12, 14, 16).

Priests and Levites, in particular, had to be

792 378 (tahér)

cleansed to fulfil their ritual functions. Moses
was commanded to sprinkle ‘‘the water of expia-
tion’’ (Rsv) upon the Levites to cleanse them
(Num 8:5—22). Later the duty of the Levites in-
cluded the cleansing of all that was holy in the
temple (I Chr 23:28). During Hezekiah’s reform
they purified the temple (II Chr 29:15).

In the post-exilic period when the temple was
rebuilt the priests and the Levites purified them-
selves so that the passover could be celebrated
(Ezr 6:20). Likewise at the dedication of the wall
of Jerusalem the priests and the Levites purified
themselves, the people, the gates, and the wall
(Neh 12:30, 45). When Nehemiah returned to
Jerusalem a second time he cleansed the temple
chambers which had been defiled by Tobiah (Neh
13:9), and ordered the purification of the Levites
and the priests from everything foreign (Neh
13:22, 30). When the Lord returns he will purify
the sons of Levi as a refiner (m ¢ tahér) of silver
(Mal 3:3).

Ritual purity was intended to teach God's holl-
ness and moral purity. Lev 16:30 (rsv) declares,
‘‘For on this day shall atonement be made for
you, to cleanse you; from all your sins you shall
be clean before the Lord.’’ Hauck says: ‘*Be-
cause the religion of Israel emphasises so
strongly the holiness of God, it develops the con-
cept of purity with corresponding energy. The
law works out a whole series of regulations.
Some purifications are preparatory. They set
man in a necessary State of holiness for encounter
with God (Ex 19:10; Num 8:15). Some are expia-
tory. They restore forfeited purity by lustrations
(Lev 16:1ff., 19:23ff.; Ezk 39:12; I] Chr 29:15;
34:3, 8 (TDNT, III: 416).

It was not the ritual purification from the of-
ficiating priest which ultimately mattered, but the
forgiveness from God which rendered men clean
before him. Hezekiah prayed for those who sin-
cerely sought the Lord though they may not have
observed all the rules for ritual cleansing: ‘*For a
multitude of the people... had not cleansed
themselves, yet they ate the passover otherwise
than as prescribed. For Hezekiah had prayed for
them, saying, ‘The good Lord pardon every one
who sets his heart to seek God... even though
not according to the sanctuary’s rules of cleans-
ing’ *’ (RSV, II Chr 30:18—19).

Ritual sanctification and purification could be
practiced by idolaters in preparation for their
cults (Isa 66:17). On the other hand, whereas
faithiess Israel brought forth unsatisfactory offer-
ings to the Lord (Mal 1:7-10), the Gentiles would
one day offer a pure offering (Mal 1:11).

Not external appearance but an inward attitude
is what is required for true purity. ‘‘He who loves
purity of heart... will have the king as his
friend” (Prov 22:11). Following the Lxx, the Rsv
of Prov 15:26 reads: ‘*The thoughts of the wicked

344

are an abomination to the Lord, the words of the
pure are pleasing to him.’’ The Heb. reads,
‘pleasant words are pure.’’ [Citations are from
the rsv below. ]

True purity cannot be achieved by any man on
his own. Rather, ‘*There are those who are pure
in their own eyes but are not cleansed of their
filth’’ (Prov 30:12). Eliphaz asks, ‘*Can a man be
pure before his Maker?’ (Job 4:17).

Only God can cleanse. There are those, to be
sure, who will not be cleansed. The Lord asks
Jerusalem, ‘‘How long will it be before you are
made clean?’ (Jer 13:27). But for others, the
Lord promises: ‘*I will cleanse them from all the
guilt of their sin against me’’ (Jer 33:8).

The Lord promises cleansing in a number of
key passages in Ezekiel: *‘I will sprinkle clean
water upon you, and you shall be clean from all
your uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will
cleanse you’ (36:25; cf. 36:33). ‘*They shall not
defile themselves any more with their idols....;
but I will save them... and will cleanse them”
(37:23).

That such cleansing was not just intended for
the people of God in the future but for individuals
is demonstrated by that most personal of Psalms
(Ps 51), in which the writer, identified in the
superscription with David after his sin with
Bathsheba, cries out: ‘*Wash me thoroughly from
my iniquity’’ (vs. 2 [H 4}); ‘‘Purge me with hys-
sop, and I shall be clean’’ (vs. 7 [H 9]); ‘‘Create in
me a clean heart, O God” (vs. 10 [H 12]).

See also: bar, bor, bdrar, zak, zakd, zakak,
kdbas, ndqi, rahas; for impurity see tamé’.

tohar. Clearness; purification. This substan-
tive is used but once in Ex 24:10 of the clearness
of the sky, ‘‘clear blue’’ (NEB), and twice of ritual
purification in Lev 12:4, 6.

t°_ har. Cleanness, purity. This hapax legome-
non occurs in Ps 89:44 [{H 45] in a passage which
speaks about the Lord’s power to cast the king's
throne to the ground. The av renders it, ‘*Thou
has made his glory to cease."’ Some Hebrew
MSS read *mithdr, perhaps ‘‘purity, splendor.”
The naB reads ‘‘luster.’’ Following the conjec-
tural emendation matteh are the rsv ‘“‘the scep-
ter,’ JB ‘“‘his glorious scepter’; cf. NEB ‘“‘his
glorious rule.”’

tohora. Purification, cleansing. This noun is
used thirteen times, always of ritual purity.

tahor. Pure, clean. The adjective occurs
ninety-four times and is used in a material sense
as of ‘‘pure’’ gold, in a ritual sense, and in an
ethical sense.

Bibliography: Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms
of the Old Testament, Eerdmans, reprint, 1953,
pp. 142-46. Gispen, W. H., *‘The Distinction be-

tween Clean and Unclean,’’ Oudtestamentische
Studién 5: 190-96. Rinaldi, Giovanni, ‘‘Note Eb-
raiche: Lev. c. 12 (1%; AIMB).”” Aegyptus 34:
50-55. Huppenbauer, Hanswalter, ‘‘""8 und
mane in der Sektenregel von Qumran,”’
Theologische Zeitschrift 13: 350-51. Vaux, Ro-
land de, Ancient Israel, 1961, pp. 460-64. Mil-
grom, Jacob, ‘‘The Biblical Diet Laws as an
Ethical System,” Interpretation 17: 288-301.
Hauck, F. and Meyer, R., ‘*xa8aodc,’’ in TDNT,
III, pp. 413-23. Noth, Martin, Leviticus, SCM,
1965. Snaith, N., Leviticus and Numbers, Nel-
son, 1967. Paschen, Wilfried, Rein und Unrein,
Kosel-Verlag, 1970. Neusner, Jacob, The Idea of
Purity in Ancient Judaism, Brill, 1973, pp. 7-31.
Levine, Baruch, In the Presence of the Lord,
Brill, 1974, pp. 77-91. Harris, R.L., Man—God’s
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 139-44.
E.Y.

793 3530 (t6b) (be) good, beneficial, pleasant,
favorable, happy, right. Hiphil ‘to do
good,” etc.

Derivatives
793a f3i® (t6b) good (adjective and

noun).
7936 t338 (tab) good things, goodness.
793c 330 (t6ba) good, welfare.

This root refers to ‘‘good’’ or ‘‘goodness’” in
its broadest senses. Five general areas of mean-
ing can be noted: 1) practical, economic, or mate-
rial good, 2) abstract goodness such as desirabil-
ity, pleasantness, and beauty, 3) quality or ex-
pense, 4) moral goodness, and 5) technical
philosophical good. This article is organized as
follows: 1) the verb téb, 2) the adjective 166 to-
gether with its substantival uses, 3) the noun fab.
It is frequently difficult to distinguish between
verbal and adjectival derivatives from 6b. This
difficulty is insignificant for present purposes
since both usages deal with the same range of
meanings.

The verb frequently occurs with an impersonal
subject, “It is good ...’’ This idiom may describe
a state of happiness or well-being as in describing
the illusory well-being of the Hebrews in Egypt
(Num 11:18), the well-being of a slave with a
good master (Deut 15:16), and Saul’s restful con-
tentment resulting from David’s music (I Sam
16:16). To be good to someone or in their eyes
indicates that person’s desire or will. It was good
in God’s eyes (i.e. God’s will) to bless Israel
(Num 24:1). Job asks God if it was God’s will to
oppress (Job 10:3). Balaam saw the tents of Israel
as good, meaning, beautiful or fair (Num 24:5).
Pleasantness or desirability is meant when the
woman’s love is ‘‘better’’ than wine (Song 4:10).

345

793 3538 (t6b)

Wine being ‘‘good’’ indicates the joy produced
by drinking (Est 1:10).

The Hiphil means to actively engage in good, in
contrast to the stative meaning of the Qal. It can
refer to doing practical good to someone else, as
the Hebrews promised to Hobab (Num 10:29, 32)
or it can refer to doing the right thing. Both Jehu
(II Kgs 10:30) and David (I Kgs 8:18) are thus
praised. (Some alleged Hiphils of this verb are
better classified under ydtab q.v.).

téb. Good, pleasant, beautiful, delightful, glad,
joyful, precious, correct, righteous. (The nouns
tob and téba are treated as substantival usages of
the adjective, since there is no distinction in
meaning between them.) Hebrew idiom often
uses 16b where English idiom would prefer a
more specific term such as ‘‘beautiful’’ or ‘‘ex-
pensive.”’

‘*Good’’ is well attested referring to practical
or economic benefit. Good fruit (Gen 2:9) and the
grain of Pharaoh’s dream (Gen 41:5, 36) were
good for eating. The ‘‘good’’ of Joseph’s en-
slavement (Gen 50:20) included such practical
benefits as food and national survival. Practical
administrative disadvantages were involved in
Moses’ judging which was ‘‘not good’ (Ex
18:17). Other practical goods denoted by this
term are: the promise of victory denied to Ahab
(II Chr 18:7); hospitality and friendship (Gen
26:29); beneficial counsel (II Sam 17:7, 14); gen-
eral economic prosperity (I Kgs 10:7); agricul-
tural prosperity (Hos 10:1, asv); and God’s inten-
tions (Amos 9:4). The violent life (Prov 16:29)
and deeds which undermined the morale of the
nation (Neh 5:9) are called ‘‘not good.’ The
‘*good’’ of labor may refer to the practical gain
from work (Eccl 3:13; but cf. rsv ‘‘pleasure’’).

‘*Good”’ is used in respect to a wide variety of
abstract perspectives. A good name is better than
descendants in respect to fame and reputation
(Isa 56:5). David's loyalty to Achish, his feudal
lord, is described as ‘‘good’’ (I Sam 29:9, rsv
‘‘blameless’’). Elihu challenged his companions
to determine what was good in respect to truth or
validity (Job 34:4). For the wise men, slowness of
anger was more desirable than the violent
strength of the warrior ideal (Prov 16:32).
Likewise, the poor wise child was ‘‘better’’ than
the stubborn king (Eccl 4:13).

Esthetic or sensual goodness may be denoted.
It describes the beauty, or desirability, of the
‘‘daughters of men’’ to the “sons of God’’ (Gen
6:2), Rebekah’s beauty (Gen 24:16), and
Bathsheba’s beauty (II Sam 11:2). English idiom
prefers ‘handsome’ when this term describes
men (I Sam 16:12). Sensory delight is at issue in
describing the ‘‘sweetness”’ of cane (Jer 6:20),
and in Namaan’s judgment that the waters of
Damascus were ‘“‘better’’ than the muddy waters

794 MIO (twh)

of the Jordan (II Kgs 5:12). Sensual desirability ts
included in describing one vintage as better than
another (Jud 8:2).

‘‘Good’’ frequently means ‘“‘happy.’’ It de-
scribes the happy occasion of a royal wedding (Ps
45:1 [H 2}). A happy feast can be described as a
‘‘good day” (Est 8:17; rsv ‘‘holiday’’; cf. I Sam
25:8). The ‘good heart’’ describes happiness
(II Chr 7:10; Prov 15:15). Happiness may be in-
duced by alcohol (Eccl 9:7).

A related idiom is the usage of *‘good in [one’s]
eyes’’ to express preference or will. Examples
are the escaped slave’s preference for a domicile
(Deut 23:16; RSV “‘where it pleases him’’) and
Zelophehad’s daughters’ preferences for hus-
bands (Num 36:6). God’s will may be thus ex-
pressed (I Sam 3:18). It describes perverted, sin-
ful desires (Gen 19:8; Jud 19:24). In such cases,
the idiom is without moral significance.

tob may include ideas of superior quality or
relative worth. As such it describes the ‘‘pure”’
gold of Havilah (Gen 2:12) and high quality per-
fumed oils (Song 1:3; rSv ‘anointing oils’’). Qual-
ity craftsmanship is thus designated (Isa 41:7), as
is quality or nobility in human character, as when
Moses is described as ‘‘goodly’’ (i.e. ‘‘noble’’;
Ex 2:2).

An important usage of this term refers to moral
goodness. The command, ‘*Depart from evil and
do good’ (Ps 34:14 [H 15]) clearly contrasts
‘*good’’ with moral evil. The ‘good way’”’ which
God will teach his reluctant people refers to
moral life (1 Kgs 8:36). ‘‘Good’’ and ‘‘nght’’
yashar, often occur as parallel terms for moral
goodness (II Chr 14:1; 31:20).

Finally, Eccl uses 6b in the sense of the
philosophical summum bonum. Ecclesiastes 2
tells the reader that there is no higher good than
the life of hedonistic pleasure (v. 24) and, in this
context, raises the question of what is the
‘‘Good’’ which man should seek. Other refer-
ences could be interpreted similarly (Eccl 3:22;
8:15).

Some usages blend two or more of the areas
ofmeaning discussed above. The *‘good land”’ of
the Old Covenant included practical, economic,
and esthetic overtones (Deut 1:25; Josh 23:13).
Likewise, the concept of God as ‘‘good”’ is rich
with the overtones of all possible meanings of the
term ‘‘good”’ (I Chr 16:34; Ps 145:9). In light of
the above discussion, each individual usage must
be clearly examined to see which of the above
meanings are possible.

A number of literary expressions need special
treatment. ‘‘Good and evil’’ serves as an idiom of
universality (Num 24:13; II Sam 13:22). Some
have suggested that the tree of knowledge of
good and evil involves no more than this idiom of
universality (Gen 2:9), but the total context of
early Gen is based upon a moral significance for

346

the phrase. To acknowledge the word of another
as ‘‘good’’ was to indicate assent or acceptance;
moral judgment is not the issue (II Kgs 20:19; cf.
I Sam 20:7). The ‘‘good eye’’ indicates generosity
(Prov 22:9; rsv ‘‘bountiful eye’’). In Eccl, *‘to see
Good’’ is translated as experiencing the good
things or the joys of life (Eccl 5:17; rsv ‘‘find
enjoyment’’; Eccl 6:6; Rsv “‘enjoy no good’’).

tab. Goods, prosperity, goodness, fairness, gra-
ciousness. The same categories of meaning are
found as for the adjective above except for the
technical philosophical usage. It refers to mate-
rial things in Joseph’s dealings with his family
(Gen 45:18, 20, 23) and in the goods taken in seek-
ing a bride for Isaac (Gen 24:10), though the latter
case involves quality as well as economic value.
For abstract meanings, ‘‘goodness of heart’’ re-
fers to joy (Deut 28:47; Isa 65:14). Esthetic
beauty is involved in Hos 10:11 (lit. *‘fairness of
neck’’; possibly also Zech 9:17). The ‘‘good-
ness’” of God which can be appealed to for for-
giveness (Ps 25:7) is something akin to kindness
or graciousness. ‘‘Goodness’’ of taste and
knowledge may refer to correctness (Ps 119:66;
lit. ““correctness of taste and knowledge’’). From
context (vv. 17-20) God’s moral goodness is the
object of praise in Ps 145:7. These examples
show that the meanings of this term are nearly as
broad as those of the adjective; thus the full range
of possible meanings for the adjective must be
considered in exegeting this term.
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 13-15. THAT, I,
pp. 652-63.
A.B.

794 M3 (twh) spin. This verb refers to the

work of the women in spinning curtains for
the tabernacle (Ex 35:25-26).
Derivative

794a BID (matweh) that which is
spun, 1.e. yarn (Ex 35:25).

795 mie (tiah) coat, plaster, overlay, besmear.

(asv and Rsv also render the term by ‘‘daub.’’)
Derivatives

795a OM (fiah) a coating, only in Ezk
13:12.
795b TMine® (tuhdt) inward parts.

The primary meaning of this root is to cover
over one item with another. It is employed to
describe the silverplating of temple stones (I Chr
29:4) and the process of cleansing a house in-
fected with a plague (‘‘leprosy?’’) (Lev 14:42-
48). The priests remove the infected plaster and
stones which harbored the disease and repair the
house with new stones and plaster. False

prophets use tu#ah figuratively to ‘‘cover-up”’
God's truth (Ezk 13:10-15) or politicians’ wick-
edness (Ezk 22:28).

tuhot. Inward parts. This noun (found twice in
the oT) describes an object covered over, hidden,
or concealed. Ps 51:6 [H 8] clearly communicates
the sense of “inward being’’—inner man covered
by the body. t#hdr is parallel to sdtum, a ‘‘closed
up place,’ and to the seat of the sin nature (v. 5),
denoting the residence of truth or faithfulness,
referred to elsewhere as ‘‘heart’’ (Ps 15:2; cf.
I Sam 12:24). There is no agreement concerning
the etymology of this term in Job 38:36, and the
meaning of the word poetically parallel to it is
debated. t#h6ét is understood as 1) man’s inward
being’ (cf. Ps 51:6 [H 8]), 2) ‘‘clouds’’ (in the
sense of that which is covered), or 3) ‘‘Thot,’’ the
Egyptian ibis bird (parallel to the sense of
‘“‘cock’’ for sekwi). The context describes man’s
inability to direct storm and rain clouds. Verse 36
implies that God is the source of wisdom im-
planted either in the inner man (perhaps the best
rendering), or ina cloud to make it give rain, or in
the ibis. {For discussion of the third view, that
tuhdét is the Egyptian god of wisdom and sekwi
either ‘‘cock’’ or the planet Mercury (coptic
souchi, so Pope, **Job,’’ in AB, p. 302); cf. Al-
bright’s remarks in YGC pp. 244-8. He argues
from UG that tuhét does indeed refer to Thot,
but that sekwiy means ‘‘mariner’’ (Ug Thkt
‘‘ship,’’ UT 19: no. 2680). He says that souchi,
Coptic for ‘‘Mercury,’’ is a mistake of modern
Coptic students. The possible reading then would
be, ‘*Who puts wisdom in Thot (or the ibis, sym-
bol of Thot) or who gives understanding to the
mariner?’’ On the whole, the first view as indi-
cated above is probably preferable. r.L.H.]

R.H.A.

796 Bie (ftw), ws (tyt). Assumed root of
the following.

796a TO (tit) mire, mud, damp dirt, clay.

(ASV iS similar; RSV also employs
‘‘bog.*’)

The term represents wet dirt, sediment, or
building clay. y@awén has a similar meaning; re-
pesh has the nuance of ‘‘sludge.”’ ‘adpdr is em-
ployed in antithetical parallelism to t?t—the dry
dirt versus the wet. The meaning of the verbal
root is unknown (BDB), although there is an Ak-
kadian cognate fifu.

There are two basic literal meanings: ‘‘mud,”’
or “‘mire,’’ which settles in a cistern (cf. Jer 38:6)
and clay employed for bricks (Nah 3:14). Twice
the literal meaning is used in similes. Leviathan is
represented as a crocodile whose scales leave
marks in the ‘‘wet dirt’’ (Job 41:30 [H 22]), and
the restlessness of the wicked is pictured as a

802 Ime (tahan)

turbulent sea stirring up the *‘mud’’ from the bot-
tom (Isa 57:20).

Figuratively, this noun is employed to portray
God’s deliverance of believers from enemies (II
Sam 22:43) or his judgment upon foes (Mic 7:10;
Zech 10:5) by trampling them like ‘*mud”’ or dust
in the streets. The figure of one sinking into the
‘**mire’’ at the bottom of a cistern is used to depict
the instability, loneliness, and helplessness of
one in distress (Ps 40:2 [H 3]; 69:2, 14 [H 3, 15}).
The abundance of ‘‘mud”’ in the ancient streets is
employed to describe Tyre’s wealth in gold (Zech
9:3).

R.H.A.

mipeie (16tapdt). See no. 804a.

797 *%3~% «6(tal) hurl, cast. Does not occur in
the Qal.
Derivative
797a = moebe (taltéld) a hurling. Occurs

only in Isa 22:17.

mD3O (t6pah), also mpe (tdpah). See

no. 818c.

798 “33% (twr). Assumed root of the following.

798a 30 (tur) row.
798b =o (tira) encampment, battlement.
799 wie (ta5) rush, dart, Occurs only in Job

9:26, k°nesher yatis ‘dlé ’dkel ‘like eagles
swooping down upon their prey”’ (NIV).
800 *mme (tdhd) hurl, shoot. Occurs only in
Gen 21:16 (in the Pa’lel), harhéq
kimtahawé gqeshet, literally ‘‘making dis-
tant like shooters of a bow”’ i.e. about a
bowshot off.
me (tahad), mime (tahdt). See no. 795b.
ime «(f° hon). See no. 802a.
simte? (¢°hdr). See no. 803a.

801 mme (tahah) be besmeared. Occurs only
in Isa 44:18.
802 3M (fahan) grind, crush. (asv and Rsv
similar.)
Derivatives
802a «1iM® «=(t°hdn) grinding mill. Occurs
only in Lam 5:13.
802b «MIM «(tahdnd) mill. Occurs only

in Eccl 12:4.

tahan means to reduce to powder by rubbing
between two harder objects (cf. Ex 32:20; Num
11:8; Deut 9:21).

347

804 ABY (Tp).

803 Smw (thr)

Figuratively tdhan portrays extreme political
oppression against the poor (parallel to daka’, Isa
3:15), wifely submission through performance of
normal domestic duties (Job 31:10), humility to
perform menial tasks resulting from judgment
(Isa 47:2), and teeth (Eccl 12:3).

R.H.A.

803 sme (rhr). Assumed root of the following.

803a tine (fhér) hemorrhoid, tumor. (asv
similar; Rsv employs ‘‘ulcer’’ in Deut
28:27 [26].

A swelling or tumor. UT, 19: no. 1034 (thr)
gives no meaning. t*hdr (always plural) is the
Qere reading for ‘dpel six times; t®hdér is em-
ployed outnght twice (I Sam 6:11, 17). The verbal
root is not found in Hebrew, but it means ‘‘eject”’
in Arabic and ‘‘strain at stool’’ in Aramaic
(BDB).

t©hdr, as the Qere reading, was probably em-
ployed as a euphemism for ‘dpel by the Maso-
retes. Deuteronomy 28:27 relates ‘dpel to the
general term sh°hin ‘‘boils’’ or ‘‘eruptions,’’ and
to other skin diseases—scurvy and itch. These
are physical disorders which Yahweh will bring
upon Israel in judgment for disobedience to the
Mosaic covenant. Many render the term ‘‘tumor’’
in I Sam 5-6 from its description as a ‘‘plague’’
(maggépd) and its association with ‘‘mice,”
known for carrying bubonic plague characterized
by swellings in the lymph glands of the groin,
armpits, etc. (I Sam 6:3-4). This malady was able
to be visualized by images. The Philistines made
golden images of the ‘‘tumors’’ and ‘‘mice”’ as
trespass-offerings (’@sham) for the guilt incurred
by their invasion of Yahweh's rights. These im-
ages of Yahweh’s judgment upon the Philistines
were given as restitution for their guilt (I Sam 6:3)
to secure healing in perhaps a homeopathic way.

R.H.A.

Assumed root of the following.

804a tMIpyie (f6tapdt) frontlets, bands,
marks. (asv and Rsv employ only
‘*frontlets.*’)

Always plural. Denotes a mark or sign placed
on the forehead between the eyes as a memorial.
It 1s debated whether the verbal root is ¢ttp
(BDB), “‘encircle,’’ or tpp ‘“‘strike’’ or ‘‘tap.”’

The placing of **frontlets’* upon the forehead is
always associated with making *‘signs upon your
hand.’ A common means of identifying slaves in
the ancient near east was to mark their hands
and/or their foreheads. Perhaps these *‘frontlets”’
were marking Israelites as the Lord’s servants
who were to be identified by allowing the Law to
permeate their thoughts and actions. The literal
‘*marking’’ (whatever the form) had its primary
sense in the figurative equation with God’s com-

348

mandments as the ‘‘frontlets’’-—the statutes of
the feast of unleavened bread (Ex 13:1-10), the
regulations of the firstborn (Ex 13:11-16), and the
overall stipulations of the Mosaic covenant (Deut
6:8; 11:18). These ‘‘frontlets’’ were to be
‘*memorials’’ on the forehead (cf. the substitu-
tion of zikkdrén for té6tdpét in Ex 13:9), remind-
ing the Israelite to think upon the commandments
of the Lord and to keep them. Later Jewry took
these **frontlets’’ in a literal ostentatious way and
were rebuked by Jesus (Mt 23:5). They tied little
boxes on their foreheads and wrists and placed
Scripture verses in them as a reminder. One of
these phylacteries was found in the caves of
Qumran.

me (tiah). See no. 79Sa.
ee (fit). See no. 796a.
ma (tira). See no. 798b.

&» (ral). See no. 807a.

805 soo (r1ala’) patch, spot.

806 m9 (tlh). Assumed root of the following.

806a toy (tdleh) lamb. (asv and Rsv
similar.) A ‘‘young lamb”’ (cf. I Sam
7:9). The root tl is unknown
(BDB).

God's tenderness and gentleness is displayed
by shepherding his kingdom subjects as new
‘lambs’ (Isa 40:11). Millennial perfect environ-
ment—without fear or harm—is portrayed by a
defenseless lamb feeding with its perennial de-
stroyer.

R.H.A.

moeem (taltéla). See no. 797a.

807 55e (tll) I. Assumed root of the following.

807a thy (tal) dew.

Uganitic tl ‘‘dew”’ and verb fll ‘‘to fall’’ (of
dew); UT 19: no. 1037. This masculine noun is
from the assumed root td/al. The great difference
between temperatures of night and day in Pales-
tine causes heavy dews, which keep vegetation
alive during the summer drought. The amount var-
ues in different regions, but in Gaza there is dew
250 nights of the year. The Bible often notices
this feature. One spending the night out of doors
was ‘“‘wet with dew’’ (Song 5:2). Considered a
gift from the sky (Deut 33:28; Prov 3:20), dew
was withheld by God for disobedience (Hag
1:10); was withheld along with rain by Elijah's
prayer (1 Kgs 17:1); but was given in times of
God’s favor (Zech 8:12). Hence dew was consid-
ered a blessing (Gen 27:28) and the lack of it was
a privation (Gen 27:39) or a curse (II Sam 1:21).
Job is unable to answer who has begotten it (Job
38:28).

Morning dew in the wilderness was accom-
panied by manna which remained when the dew
had evaporated (Ex 16:13-14; Num 11:9). The
sign to Gideon, dew being on the fleece but not
on the surrounding ground, was then reversed,
the ground being wet and the fleece dry (Jud
6:37—40), which would be just as unusual.

Figuratively, God’s and the king’s favor (Prov
19:12), man’s speech (Deut 32:2), and the bless-
ings of unity of brethren (Ps 133:3) are compared
to the fall of dew. God’s quiet watching is as a
cloud of dew (Isa 18:4). Job’s former prosperity is
compared to dew on branches (Job 29:19). An
unexpected attack (11 Sam 17:12), Jacob’s influ-
ence among the nations (Mic 5:7 [H 6]), and the
vigor of youth (Ps 110:3) are all also compared to
dew. Israel in their unfaithfulness were like the
dew that goes away early (Hos 6:4; 13:3).

Bibliography: Baly, Denis, The Geography of
the Bible, 1957, pp. 43-45.

A ca Oe

808 *59m (falal) II, cover over, roof. Occurs
only in the Piel stem (Neh 3:15; Gen 19:8).

809 Nw (famé’) become unclean.

Derivatives

809a {Nm (tamé’) unclean.

809b TAN (fum’a) uncleanness.

809c SNM (fom’a) uncleanness, only in
Mic 2:10.

tamé’ is cognate with Jewish Aramaic [° md’,
Syriac tama’; cf. Egyptian Arabic tamy ‘‘alluvial
mud”’ from tama *‘to flow over.’’ The verb oc-
curs 155 times in the Qal, Niphal, Piel, Pual,
Hithpael, and Hothpaal stems. It occurs but once
in the Pual stem in Ezk 4:14 and once in the
Hothpaal in Deut 24:4.

All told, fame’ and its derivatives occur 279
times, about 64 percent in Lev and Num, and 15
percent in Ezk. The Lxx translates these words
by akathartos 121 times, akatharsia 38 times,
and miaind 94 times, respectively ‘“‘unclean,”’
‘‘uncleanness,’’ and ‘‘to defile.”’

Animals and foods were considered clean or
unclean by their nature. Persons and objects
could become nitually unclean. Personal un-
cleanness could be incurred through birth,
menstruation, bodily emissions, “‘leprosy,’’ sex-
ual relations and misdeeds and contact with
death. Priests and levites were especially con-
cerned with the issues of cleanness and unclean-
ness.

The greatest uncleanness was idolatry which
defiled the temple and the land. The prophets, in
denouncing moral uncleanness, used ritual un-
cleanness as a metaphor for the wickedness
which only God can cleanse.

349

809 NIM (tamé’)

Most of the ordinances dealing with ritual un-
cleanness appear in Lev 11-15: chapter 11 deals
with clean and unclean animals, chapter 12 with
birth, chapters 13-14 with ‘“‘leprosy,’’ and chap-
ter 15 with emissions and menstruation.

Leviticus 7:19-21 stipulates that one who had
come into contact with anything unclean was not
to eat of the sacrifice. An unclean person who
presumed to do so should be cut off. (An unclean
person could eat unconsecrated meat [Deut
12:15, 22].) The unclean person had to be sent
outside the camp, as the Lord dwelt in its midst
(Num 5$:1-4; cf. Lev 15:31).

Genesis 7:2 speaks of clean and unclean ani-
mals which Noah took into the ark, and Gen 8:20
of the clean animals which he sacrificed to the
Lord. The unclean animals which are listed in
Lev 11 included the camel, the hare, and swine
(vv. 1-8); sea creatures without fins or scales,
e.g. eels (vv. 9-12); birds such as the raven and
the vulture which eat carrion (vv. 13-19); most
insects except the locust (see ‘arbeh, vv. 20-23);
crawling animals such as weasels, mice, and
lizards (vv. 29-31). Cf. Deut 14:3-21.

Objects such as earthernware vessels, ovens,
food and drink which had been contaminated, for
example, by a mouse had to be broken or dis-
carded (Lev 11:33-35).

It was in order not to defile themselves with
non-kosher food that Daniel and his friends in
Babylon determined to eat vegetables and water
(Dan 1:8; cf. I Mace 1:62-63; II Macc 7).

After giving birth to a son, a woman was con-
sidered unclean for seven days until his circumci-
sion and then for thirty-three more days in the
‘‘blood of purification’’ (Lev 12:2-4). For a
daughter she was to be unclean for eighty days
(Lev 12:5). Birth was not only a mysterious pro-
cess but one which involved ritual uncleanness
(cf. Gen 8:21; Job 14:1, 4; 18:14; 25:4).

Sexual relations per se resulted in ritual un-
cleanness until sunset. Both the man and the
woman had to bathe in water to be cleansed (Lev
15:18). Intercourse was forbidden during a wo-
man’s menstrual uncleanness (Lev 15:24; 18:19).

A woman's normal menstruation rendered her
unclean for seven days (Lev 15:19-24). When
David noticed Bathsheba bathing on her roof, she
was ‘‘purifying herself from her uncleanness’’
(II Sam 11:4).

A woman with a discharge of blood beyond her
normal period was considered unclean until
seven days after such a flow ceased (Lev 15:25-
28). Thus the woman with the issue of blood who
was healed by Christ, continually conveyed un-
cleanness to all about her. But instead of Jesus
being defiled, the woman was cleansed (Mt
9:20ff.; Mk S:25ff.; Lk 8:43ff.).

A man who had a discharge or emission from
his ‘‘flesh’’ was rendered unclean for seven days

809 S728 (fameé’)

(Lev 15:2-13). Though the description of the
emission is not explicit, it was probably an ab-
normal discharge from the penis, but may have
included any abscess, diarrhea or running sore.

The disease represented by the Hebrew word
sdra‘at in Lev 13-14 was apparently not true lep-
rosy, elephantiasis graecorum or as it is called
today, Hansen's Disease. The Lxx and Vulgate,
however, translated it /epra; cf. RSV ‘‘leprous
disease," NEB ‘malignant skin disease.’ The
‘‘leprosy’’ (KJv) of Lev 13-14 seems to refer to
epidermal maladies including boils, rashes, im-
petigo, and ringworm. They were ritually and
medically contagious. Of more significance,
perhaps, were the contagious and dangerous dis-
eases with skin symptoms, such as scarlet fever
and smallpox.

Upon the appearance of ‘‘leprosy”’ the patient
was to be examined by the priest after a quaran-
tine of a week or two (Lev 13:4—5). If declared
unclean, he was to wear torn garments, leave his
hair disheveled, cover his upper lip, and cry,
‘‘Unclean! Unclean!”’ until he recovered (Lev
13:45—46; cf. Lam 4:14-15). Once cured he was to
present himself to the priest who would declare
him cleansed (Lev 14:1—32; see tahér).

The word sG@ra‘at is also used of a mold, mil-
dew, or fungus which spread in garments (Lev
13:47—S9) and the walls of a building. Garments
were burned if the ‘‘leprosy’’ persisted, and the
building had to be broken up (Lev 14:45) if the
“leprosy” remained.

Death was especially defiling. A priest was not
to defile himself with the dead, except his closest
relatives (Lev 21:1-3; Ezk 44:25). The high priest
was not to defile himself even for his father or
mother (Lev 21:11).

Those who had become unclean through con-
tact with the dead were to eat the Passover a
month later (Num 9:6—11). Touching a grave con-
veyed impurity (Num 19:16). This led to the later
custom of whitewashing sepulchres to warn
passersby of their presence (cf. Mt 23:27; Acts
23:3).

To cleanse such defilement, the pnest em-
ployed the water of the ashes of the red heifer
(Num 19:1-22, see tahér).

One who had to be particularly wary of becom-
ing unclean through contact with a corpse or even
by entering a room where a dead man lay (Num
6:6) was the Nazirite. If someone suddenly fell
dead beside him and contacted him, he became
unclean and had to be cleansed and begin the
days of his Nazirite vow over again (Num 6:9-—
12). The Nazirite Samson also had to beware of
eating anything unclean (Jud 13:4, 7, 14).

Priests were to teach the distinction between
what was clean and what was unclean (Lev 10:10;
cf. Ezk 22:26; 44:23). Priests were not to ap-
proach the holy elements while they were un-

350

clean (Lev 22:1-9). Aaron was to make atone-
ment for the uncleannesses of the people by kil-
ling the goat of the sin offering (Lev 16: 15-16).

God’s temple was to be guarded against de-
filement. Jehoiada stationed guards at the temple
so that no one who was unclean could enter
(II Chr 23:19). Alas, it was the priests under
Zedekiah who made the temple unclean (II Chr
36:14). Because of Israel's apostasy the Lord
permitted his temple to be defiled by the heathen
(Ps 79:1), abominations (Jer 7:30; 32:34), slayings
(Ezk 9:7), idolatry, adultery, and human sacrifice
(Ezk 23:37-39).

The land was defiled if an executed criminal
was left on the tree overnight (Deut 21:23; cf. Gal
3:13). The sacrifice of innocent children polluted
the land with blood (Ps 106:38).

Idolatry defiled the land (Ezk 36:18: cf. Gen
35:2). The Lord asked Judah, **How can you say,
‘I am not defiled, I have not gone after the
Baals?’** (Jer 2:23). Israel had defiled herself by
the idols which she had made (Ezk 22:4; cf.
14:11; 36:25; 37:23).

Inasmuch as the people had made themselves
unclean through their idolatry (Ezk 20:7, 18, 30,
31), Yahweh would defile them through their gifts
(Ezk 20:26), that is, by the horrible practice of
child sacrifice. The Israelites would be exiled and
forced ‘‘to eat’’ unclean food in Assyria (Hos
9:14). Amaziah, the priest who opposed Amos,
was to die in an unclean land (Amos 7:17).

What was the basis for the various regulations
concerning uncleanness? Baruch Levine has
gone so far as to suggest that impurity was the
‘‘actualized form of demonic forces’ which even
threatened God himself. Impurity in this view has
a quasi-independent power.

Certain elements of impurity were associated
with contagious disease and death. The laws of
uncleanness gave Israel a very effective quaran-
tine for public health. Some matters of impunity
were aesthetically repulsive. Other elements may
originally have been associated with idolatry.

Whatever theories are adduced to explain the
laws of uncleanness, the Scriptures themselves
emphatically associate them with the holiness of
God. The so-called Law of Purity (Lev 11-16)
was placed side by side with the Law of Holiness
(Lev 17-26). In the passages which list unclean
foods, the holiness of Yahweh is emphasized as
the reason for avoiding unclean foods.

The regulations regarding uncleanness set Is-
rael apart from other nations. These were object
lessons or adumbrations (Heb 8:5; 10:1) of God's
holiness which could not co-exist with the un-
cleanness of sin.

Especially in the prophets, the ideas of ritual
uncleanness were used as metaphors of moral
uncleanness. Haggai used the contagion of the
defilement of death to denounce the immoral be-

havior of Israel which contaminated even their
offerings (Hag 2:13—14). The behavior of Judah is
likened by Ezekiel to the impurity of a woman in
her menses (Ezk 36:17).

Hosea (5:3; 6:10), Jeremiah (2:23; 13:27), and
above all Ezekiel (23:7, 13, 17; 24:13; 43:7) de-
nounced the infidelity of Israel as defiling adul-
tery or harlotry. Cf. Ps 106:39.

Micah decried as impurity crimes of injustice
(Mic 2:10; cf. 2: 1-7). Isaiah realized that he was a
man of ‘‘unclean lips’’ (Isa 6:5) and confessed,
‘‘We have all become like one who is unclean,
and all our righteous deeds are like a polluted
garment’’ (Isa 64:6 [H 5)).

Unfortunately the prophets’ ethical perception
of the precepts of uncleanness was replaced by
an increasing preoccupation with ritual minutiae.
The last division of the Mishnah, the Zohoroth
and its twelve tractates, deals with the casutstry
of uncleanness.

It was in protest against their exaggerated em-
phasis upon ritual cleanness that Jesus de-
nounced the hypocrisy of the Pharisees (Mt
15:10-20; 23:25-28). By his fiat Jesus declared all
foods clean (Mk 7:19, rsv; cf. I Tim 4:45). It was
supremely ironic that the Jewish leaders who de-
nounced Jesus were so scrupulous that they did
not step into Pilate’s judgment hall lest they be
defiled and become unfit to eat the Passover (Jn
18:28).

See also gd’al II, halal, hanép. For purity and
purification see (ahér.

Bibliography: See under tahér.

E.Y.

810 *m7 (fama) stopped up. Occurs only in
the Niphal, in Job 18:3 or possibly by-form
for famé’ ‘*be unclean.”

811 we (famén) hide, conceal, bury. (asv and
RSV sometimes translate ‘‘lay’’ or ‘‘lay up”’
when traps are hidden.)

Derivative

8ifa Ty7a~N (matmdn) treasure.

The primary meaning of this root ts ‘‘to hide an
object so that it cannot be found.’’ The normal
sense of the root has developed also a specific
nuance of ‘hiding by burial,’’ especially of im-
portant or precious items (Gen 35:4; Ex 2:12;
Josh 7:21-22; II Kgs 7:8). The or hymnic and
wisdom literature normally employ the root to
convey the concept of one being ensnared or
trapped by the devices of the wicked or enemies,
whether literally or figuratively. The emphasis is
upon 1) the unknown secrecy of these snares of
life that lie in wait and 2) the petitions and expec-
tations of the righteous to be delivered from en-
snarement by an omniscient God who knows

351

815 Bye (ta‘am) taste, eat; perceive.

815 Bye (ta‘am)

their paths and sees the traps (cf. Ps 31:4 (H 5}:
142:3 [H 4]). Job invokes similar snares upon the
wicked (Job 18:10; 20:26; 40:13). Job also em-
ploys the verb to portray the inner sin that lies
hidden from man’s sight (Job 31:33). Isaiah com-
mands Israel to hide herself for safety and secu-
rity in the time of Yahweh's judgment (Isa 2:10).

matmon. Treasure; hidden treasure (ASv and
RSV render it *‘stones’’ in Jer 41:8). This deriva-
tive, similar to the passive participle in Deut
33:19, conveys the idea of a treasure precious
enough to be hidden (normally silver and riches,
but even food stuffs). Figuratively the word por-
trays the preciousness of an item which is greatly
desired: wisdom, discernment (Prov 2:4), and
death (Job 3:21).

R.H.A.

812 838 (fn’). Assumed root of the following.
812a =830 (fene’) basket.

813 *mIM (fdnap) soil, defile. Occurs only tn

the Piel stem, in Song 5:3.

814 mye (fa'a) wander astray, stray, err. (ASV

translates ‘‘seduce’’ and RSv renders ‘*mis-
led’’ due to the Hiphil form.)

The basic meaning is **to deviate from what is
right.’’ ra‘d is employed once (Ezk 13:10) of false
prophets who lead Israel into error by condoning
evil practices (which the Mosaic covenant con-
demned) and declaring *‘peace’’ when judgment
was imminent.

R.H.A.

(ASV and
RSV similar.)

Derivatives

815a Taye (ta‘am) taste.
815b Byws = (mat'am) tasty food, dainties.

The primary meaning of the root ts *‘to try, or
to evaluate, with the tongue, normally with a
view to consumption if the flavor is suitable.”
Akkadian tému has a similar semantic range. A
major difference between this verb and bin is that
bin emphasizes understanding as well as decision
making. bin is also more comprehensive, includ-
ing perception through all the senses. The
synonym ndkar stresses recognition and acknow-
ledgment.

The root is employed in three basic situations.
First, it is used for the act of eating food, an act
which also incorporates the normal process of
‘‘tasting’’ the flavor (I Sam 14:24, 29, 43). Close
to this first usage ts the second—the concept of
‘tasting’ to ascertain flavor (II Sam 19:35
{H 36]). This sense is employed in comparison

816 IY (ta‘an)

with the function of the ear testing words (Job
12:11; 34:3), showing how the final meaning of
this verb developed—the idea of evaluation and
decision, i.e. perception. *‘Discernment’’ is made
by the wife as she experiences the profits of her
labor to be good (Prov 31:18) and by the Psalmist
who discovers God’s faithful protection to be
good when he decides to take refuge in Yahweh
(Ps 34:8 (H 9)).

ta‘am. Taste, discretion, judgment, discernment,
decree. (ASV and RSV translate ‘‘behavior’’ in
I Sam 21:13 [H 14] and in Ps 34 superscription,
the ASv translates ‘‘reason’’ in Prov 26:16 and
‘‘understanding” in Job 12:20.)

Though the derivative noun is employed to
convey the more basic idea of ‘“‘flavor’’ (Ex
16:31; Num 11:8), its predominant usage is to de-
note ‘‘discretion’’ and ‘‘discernment.’’ Good
‘‘judgment’’ comes only from God's command-
ments (Ps 119:66) and is in the sovereign control
of God (Job 12:20). A woman with discretion is
praised (I Sam 25:33), while a woman without
godly discernment ts like a pig with a gold ring in
its snout (Prov 11:22).

A variant meaning of this noun is discovered
when David changes his ‘‘conduct’’ and acts like
a madman before Achish (I Sam 21:13 {H 14]).
David made a decision to act differently when he
appraised the need of the situation. He changed
his ‘‘discretion’’ or *‘behavior.’’ Another variant
meaning is ‘‘decree.’’ This occurs when a judg-
ment has been made and then formalized (Jon
3:7). The Aramaic influence of t°‘ém may have
affected this usage by the Assyrian king.

R.H.A.

816 Ie (td‘an) I, load. Occurs only in Gen
45:17.

817 *3ye (td‘an) II, pierce.
the Pual, in Isa 14:10.

Occurs only in

MO (tap). See no. 82la.

818 MEY (ftapah) extend, spread (out).
Derivatives

818a =BYMBe (tippuihim) dandling, only
in Lam 2:20.

818b MB (fepah) span, hand breadth.

818c Mp (tépah) span, hand breadth.

818d Amey (mitpahat) cloak.

The basic meaning is “‘to stretch, expand, or
draw out a surface.”’ fdpah stresses ‘‘space,”’
while nadta emphasizes the stretching ‘‘action’’
and “‘direction,’’ pdras accentuates ‘‘unfolding”’
often, to cover something, pdsd conveys ‘‘con-
tagion,’’ and shatah highlights *‘dispersement.”’

The root describes the creation of heaven’s ex-

352

819 Spe (tdpal)

820 “Bae (fipsar)

821 Abe (tapap)

panse, demonstrating God's sovereign, omnipo-
tent, and external attributes (Isa 48:13).

topah. Span, hand-breadth. topah is _ inter-
changeable with tepah and identical in meaning.
The root of the plural form is uncertain (perhaps
from tapha) (KB).

The derivatives are linear measurements
equivalent to the hand's width at the base of the
fingers. The t6pah (about 3 inches) is apparently
the difference between the common and the long
cubit in Ezk 40:5. In contrast, zeret ‘‘span,”’
(q.v.) equals the distance between the thumb and
the little finger when extended. tepah and tdpah
are primarily used to convey measurements of
tabernacle and temple structures and furnishings.
David compares life’s brevity to a few hand-
breadths (Ps 39:5 (H 6]}). The architectural sense
in I Kgs 7:9 is uncertain; perhaps it is a ‘‘cover-
ing’’ or a ‘‘border’’ (cf. Ex 25:25).

R.H.A.

mee (tdpah), also
no. 818c.

MBI (t6pah). See

smear or plaster over.

scribe, marshal, Probably a
loan word from Sumerian through the Ak-
kadian dup sharru.

trip, take quick little steps, only
in Isa 3:16.

Derivative

82la TAY (tap) children, little children, lit-
tle ones. (ASV and Rsv _ translate
‘‘families’’ and ‘‘dependents”’ re-
spectively in Gen 47:12.)

The primary meaning is ‘“‘human beings from
the ages of 0 to 20, with stress on the younger
ages’’ (cf. Num 14:29-31). A similar root, ‘6dlé/,
stresses ‘‘infancy.’’ Another synonym, én, por-
trays a much larger classification for *‘people”’
which may be limited to “‘sons.’’ fap is always
employed in the singular in the generic sense.
The verbal root from which this noun derives 1s
thought by some to be tpp (BDB), others tnp
(KB) with the verb fdpap ‘‘trip along’ being a
denominative verb.

This noun is commonly employed to represent
the remaining element of mankind apart from
men and women (e.g. Josh 8:35), though some-
times it is limited to those badnim of Israel who
have not yet known good or evil (Deut 1:39; cf.
Il Chr 20:13; 31:18) or to females who have not
had sexual relations (Num 31:17-18). The term is
used frequently in military contexts where the
‘little children’’ are to be protected or taken as
spoils of war—a specific stipulation of the Law

(Deut 20:14). ‘*Little ones’’ are slaughtered when
a nation is exterminated (Jud 21:10). When God’s
judgment comes upon Israel, all the wicked, in-
cluding ‘“‘little children,’ will experience the
Lord’s wrath (Ezk 9:6).

R.H.A.

822 wee (tdapash) be gross.
823 “98 (fadrad) pursue, chase, be continuous.

824 m5 (trh). Assumed root of the following.
824a 8 (tari) fresh.
Binw = (f°rém). See no. 826.
825. *mae8 (tadrah) toil, be burdened. Occurs
only in the Hiphil, in Job 37:11, ‘ap-b¢ri
yatriah ‘ab ‘‘he burdens with moisture the

cloud(s).”’
Derivative
825a m5 (torah) burden.
8 (fri). See no. 824a.

826 BN (fterem) BINw (trém), not yet, be-
fore that. Adverb of time. Not found in
cognate languages.

827 96 (farap) tear, rend. (asv and RSV
translate the Hiphil as ‘*feed”’ in Prov 30:8.)

Derivatives
827a AS (fardp) fresh plucked, only in
Gen 8:11.

827b SY (ferep) prey, food, leaf.
827c TmeNe (frépd) animal torn (by beasts).

The primary meaning of this root is *‘to seize a
creature with predaciousness, tear the flesh, and
consume it.”’ A similar root, gdzal, q.v. em-
phasizes ‘*tearing away and gaining possession;”’
paragq stresses ‘‘partition,’’ as in tearing apart;
qara‘ is similar to padraq and is used primarily for
‘tearing of garments.”

353

827 AID (tarap)

While the root is employed to convey the pri-
mary meaning, the very is predominantly used to
illustrate the predatory nature of people who con-
tinually conquer and destroy others. The tribes of
Benjamin and Gad, respectively, are likened to a
ravenous wolf (Gen 49:27) and a lioness (Deut
33:20); the kings of Israel and Judah are viewed
as young lions destroying their people (Ezk 19:3,
6), while Assyria and Edom are pictured as fero-
cious lions in their conquests (Nah 2:12 [H 13};
Amos 1:11). Israel’s false prophets are depicted
as lions ravening the Israelites, taking their trea-
sures as payment for prophecies which devoured
their lives. Israel’s princes were ravenous wolves
which preyed upon the people, shedding blood
for dishonest gain (Ezk 22:25, 27). God’s judg-
ment is likened to a beast tearing its prey (Ps
50:22), though God will ultimately heal his
people’s wounds of judgment (Hos 6:1). In
Yahweh's kingdom, Israel will be an instrument
of judgment like unto a predacious lion (Mic 5:8
(H 7}).

t*répa. An animal torn (by beasts), torn flesh.
(asv translates ‘‘prey’’ in Neh 2:12 {H_ 13].)
t‘répd 1s predominantly used in the Mosaic cove-
nant stipulations: 1) When one kept his neighbor’ s
domestic animal and that animal was slain by a
wild beast, no restitution was to be made to
the neighbor, for the animal’s death was acci-
dental (Ex 22:13 [H 12]). 2) The Law forbade
the eating of flesh from an animal torn by beasts
(Ex 22:31 [H 30]), especially by the priests when
they ministered, for a priest would die if he pro-
faned the holy things (Lev 22:8). Ezekiel prac-
ticed this principle (Ezk 4:14), and this law will
also be valid for millennial priests (Ezk 44:31). 3)
The consumption of fat from a torn animal was
prohibited, though this fat may be used for other
purposes (Lev 7:24). 4) If one ate torn flesh, pro-
visions for cleansing were stipulated (Lev 17:15;
cf. Lev 22:8). 5) Each prohibition concerning the
consumption of a torn animal is found in a con-
text forbidding the eating of blood because torn
animals are not bled properly and would there-
fore fall under this ban as well.

R.H.A.

>

828 38° (ya'ab) long for, desire.
in Ps 119:131.

Occurs only

829 ANS (yda’a)
Jer 10:7.

befit, befitting. Occurs only in

830 %ms (yd’al) I, be foolish, become fools, act
foolishly, show wicked folly. (asv and RSV
similar, except that rsv translates ‘‘have no
sense’’ in Jer 5:4.)

The primary meaning of this root is *‘to exhibit
a moral behavior which demonstrates a lack of
understanding of God’s righteous ways.” It is
similar in meaning to nabal.

The term involves both an ignorance of God's
ways and an active insensibility and opposition to
the known righteous behavior which God desires
of his people for their own good.

When the Lord is dealing with foreign nations,
the emphasis of this root lies upon the lack of
understanding of God’s purposes and ways. The
princes of Egypt have led their people astray be-
cause they did not understand the Lord's pur-
poses for Egypt (Isa 19:13). Parallel terms in the
context indicate that these leaders were ‘‘de-
ceived” (nishsh®’' i) and ‘‘scoundrels’’ ('éwilim)
who were morally bad. Likewise, the Lord
judged the Babylonian diviners because their
words and boastings were empty of God's nghte-
ous ways (Jer 50:36),

The common usage of this root when it is used
to describe Israelites concerns a failure to behave
morally according to their understanding of
God’s righteous revelation. Miriam deliberately
acted contrary to God's revealed truth when in
jealousy she questioned Moses’ humility and
leadership (Num 12:11). Jeremiah claims that the
people of Jerusalem, being weak (dallim), be-
haved improperly when they did not seek to do
God’s truth or justice, but rather swore falsely,
refused to repent, and obstinately rejected cor-
rection and instruction (Jer 5:4).

Foolishness, therefore, as conveyed by this
term, does not stress the inability to act in-
telligently, but rather the moral failure to behave
according to God's prescribed holy conduct.

R.H.A.

831 ON (ya'al) I, shew willingness; be pleased;
be determined; undertake to do; begin or make
a beginning. (asv and RSv similar, though
both also translate ‘‘taken upon’”’ and ‘“‘be
content’’; aSv in addition renders ‘‘would’’
and rsv translates *‘persist.’’)

357

The primary meaning of this verb is ‘‘to make a
volitional decision to commence a given activ-
ity.’’ Archomai is normally employed in the Lxx
to translate this Hebrew term.

This volitional decision to begin an act clearly
indicates the function of one’s mind to initiate.
This causative aspect of the verb is highlighted by
the fact that it only occurs in the Hiphil form. The
verb concentrates on the volitional element
rather than upon emotional or motivational fac-
tors. It stresses the voluntary act of the individu-
al’s will to engage in a given enterprise, not what
may have brought him to that decision.

This basic concept is expressed in three ways
in the oT. First, the verb is employed in a context
of politeness or modesty, as when Abraham de-
clares that he ‘would like to speak”’ (Gen 18:27,
31). The individual has determined to act, but
they state their decision politely. Men employ
this verb in this manner to offer invitations (Jud
19:6) and to encourage (cf. II Kgs 5:23; 6:3; Job
6:28).

Second, the essential idea found in this root
may take the form of ‘‘willingness.** One is **will-
ing to initiate an action” (cf. Ex 2:21; Josh 7:7;
Jud 17:11). David, humbled by the import of the
Davidic covenant, modestly petitions God to ‘‘be
willing’’ to bless David's descendants (II Sam
7:29). Samuel is reminded that the Lord will not.
forsake Israel, for he ‘‘was willing’’ (or pleased)
to make Israel his people (I Sam 12:22). In both
incidents, the Lord took the initiative to choose
Israel as his own People and the descendants of
David as the Messianic line. God must, therefore,
bless them both.

Finally, the central meaning of this verb takes
the nuance of ‘‘determination”’ and ‘“‘resolve.”’
Both the Canaanites and the Amorites made the
decision to begin to retain their residence in the
land of Canaan with resolve (cf. Josh 17:12; Jud
1:27, 35). Likewise, Ephraim was determined to
begin to walk in the ways of man which were in
contrast to the stipulations of the Mosaic coven-
ant (Hos 5:11). Because of this stubborn volition
of Ephraim, the Lord judged her.’

Theologically, this verb strongly supports the
concept of man’s freewill, for man can make de-
cisions to initiate any given action (within human
control), but God holds him responsible for that
volitional] decision.

R.H.A.

832 “8° (yor) Nile; Nile-canals; river; stream;

canal. (Normally asv translates ‘“‘river’’
and rsv translates ‘‘Nile.’’)

833 *w? (ya’ash)

The primary meaning is ‘‘a river or stream
which forms a definite channel through the land,
usually referring to the Nile and/or its canals.”
The term is probably an Egyptian loan-word from
‘io’r, ‘iotr. Synonyms are: ndhar, a general term
for a larger ‘‘river;’’ (often the Euphrates) nahal,
denoting a “dry wady; ‘dpig, describing a
‘*stream-bed;’* and peleg sometimes suggesting
an ‘‘artificially-cut canal.”

This noun is employed five basic ways. First, it
refers to the river Nile. In judgment contexts, the
drying up of the Nile portrays Egypt's life-source
being severed (Isa 23:3); the Nile’s dominance
over the land of Egypt is compared to the com-
prehensiveness of Egypt’s judgment (Isa 19:6-8;
Ezk 29:3-10) and that of others (Isa 23:10); the
fluctuation of the Nile is likened to the rise and
fall of nations (Jer 46:7-8; Amos 8:8). Second, the
Nile’s canals are depicted by the plural of this
term, often describing the vastness of Egypt (Isa
7:18). Third, this noun sometimes conveys the
general idea of ‘‘river’’ (Isa 33:21). Fourth,
Daniel employs the term in reference to the Tigris
river (or Hiddekel, cf. Dan 10:4 and Dan 12:5—7).
Fifth, Job uses this noun to describe man’s ability
to cut rock channels (Job 28:10; cf. peleg).

Bibliography: TDOT, VI, pp. 596-601.

R.H.A.

833 *we® (yd'ash) despair. Occurs only in
the Niphal and Piel stems.

AN (y’twn) Kethib. See no. 188a.

834 *33° (yabab) cry shrilly.
the Piel stem, in Jud 5:28.

Occurs only in

See no. 835c.
See no. 216a.

"13° (y* bil).
‘p3a* (y*busi).

835 %3° (ydbal) bring, carry, lead, conduct.
(ASV Same; RSV translates ‘‘bear’’ in Ps 60:29
{H 30).)

Derivatives

835a 93° (ydabal) watercourse, stream, as
irrigating. Occurs only in Isa 30:25
and 44:4, as the plural construct,
yiblé (-mdadyim).

835b 939° (yabal) stream, only
17:8.

835c 993° «(y¢ bal) produce (of the soil).

835d tod (bul) produce, outgrowth, only
in Job 40:20; Isa 44:19.

835e tes (ydbél), 93° (ydbél) trumpet.

835f 93° (yabbal) runnings, suppurating,
only as the feminine singular yab-
belet, as a substantive in Lev 22:22.

in Jer

358

835g 398 (aubal) stream, river, only in
Dan 8:2, 3, 6.
835h t9sm (rébél) world.

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘to cause
to transport an object from one place to
another.’’ The verb occurs only in the causative
stems. Ugaritic is similar. The Akkadian wabadlu
‘to bring’’ also has a by-form tabdlu with the
same meaning.

The root conveys two essential nuances. First,
the basic sense of ‘‘bring’’ is used when the ob-
ject of the verb is inanimate. The object is nor-
mally 1) a gift (shay) offered in homage to
Yahweh in response to his presence (Ps 76:11
[H 12]), especially in time of judgment (Isa 18:7)
and in his temple (Ps 68:29 (H 30]), or 2) a present
given to others. Israel’s deportation to Assyria ts
viewed as a present to Assyria (Hos 10:6), and
Israel brought oil to Egypt as a bribe (Hos 12:1
[H 2]). Passively, this nuance is employed to de-
pict the expansion of Tyre (Isa 23:7).

Second, when the object is people, the sense of
this root is normally ‘‘lead.’’ This verb conveys
Yahweh's leading in three ways. First, he will
lead Israel back to Canaan in Israel's future res-
toration. Then, in the millennial kingdom,
Yahweh will lead Israel in paths where they will
not stumble (Jer 31:9). Second, all who seek
Yahweh will be led by him into the blessings of
the Davidic covenant (Isa 55:12). Third, Yahweh
will lead Israel into judgment (Ps 60:9 [H 11);
108:10 [H 11], et al.). It is also significant that the
Messiah, himself, is to be led as a lamb to slaugh-
ter on behalf of the sins of the people (Isa 53:7).

y°bal. Produce (of the soil), increase. (ASv and
RSV also translate ‘‘fruit.”’ RSV uses ‘‘pos-
sessions”’ in Job 20:28.) y° bal primarily refers to
the produce which grows up directly from the
ground. The synonym p‘ri indicates the ‘‘fruit”’
of trees as well as other plants (cf. Ezk 37:24).
t©ba’ad emphasizes the ‘‘yield”’ or ‘‘income’’ of
the product. y°bul is primarily associated with
the blessings and cursings of Yahweh. In the
Mosaic covenant, the land is blessed or cursed in
response to Israel’s obedience or disobedience to
the covenant (Lev 26:4, 20; Deut 11:17; 32:22),
though ultimately she will receive the blessings of
the land in the millennium (Ezk 34:27; Zech 8:12).
Judgment is often manifested through the de-
struction of a nation’s produce by Yahweh or by
another nation (Jud 6:4; Ps 78:46; Hag 1:10).
Figuratively, even the production of one’s house
may depart during judgment (Job 20:28).

yobel. Trumpet, ram’s horn, jubilee. This noun
is most likely derived from the root yabal (BDB),
though some think the root is more appropniately
ybl ‘‘toss’’ or the Phoenician yb/ *‘ram.’’ From
usage, it appears that two roots may be repre-

sented in the singular noun form. The horn em-
ployed to call assemblies and announce one’s
presence in Ex 19:13 and Josh 6 most likely de-
rives from the Phoenician yb/ ‘‘ram,”’ since the
horn is probably made from the ram’s horn. This
term is distinct from shdpdar which ts the general
and most common word for any kind of trumpet
or horn. Some think the ydbél in Josh 6 refers to
the same ‘‘horn’’ that is employed at the begin-
ning of the year of jubilee. On the other hand, this
noun in Lev and Num is never translated, but
transliterated by the word “‘jubilee.’’ The context
of these passages is the ‘‘year of jubilee’’ when
the land lies fallow, all possessions (especially
the land, its produce, and slaves) revert to the
original owners, and produce is provided for the
people by Yahweh's blessing upon the land in the
previous year, therefore it seems that the deriva-
tion of ‘‘jubilee’’ is probably from yabal ‘‘to
bring (forth).’’ The produce is ‘‘brought forth” to
provide for the fallow jubilee year, and property
is ‘“‘brought’’ or “‘returned’’ to the original own-
ers. The ‘year of jubilee’ begins with the blast of
the shopar on the Day of Atonement each fiftieth
year. It is a year that is holy (separated) unto
Yahweh (Lev 25:10-15).

bal. Produce (of a tree), food. (asv translates
Isa 44:19 ‘‘stock”’ and rsv renders it ‘“‘block.’’)
bul is only employed twice in the oT. In Isa 44:19
the reference is used to depict an idol constructed
from wood (or product of a tree). This term in Job
40:20 refers to the edible product of trees.

tébel. World. This noun is used in three basic
situations. First, the noun is employed to repre-
sent the global mass called earth, including the
atmosphere or heavens (cf. Ps 89:12; II Sam
22:16; et al.). tébél is often in parallelism or
apposition with ’eres (1 Sam 2:8; Isa 26:9; 34:1; et
al.) when ‘eres is used in its broadest sense of
‘the world.’ The *‘world’’ was created by God,
not false gods (Jer 10:12; Ps 93:1) and it belongs
solely to him (Ps 24:1). God’s eternality is illus-
trated by his existence before the creation of the
‘‘world’’ (Ps 90:2) and his wisdom (perhaps a
personification of Christ) was present prior to the
world’s creation (Prov 8:26, 31). Creation itself
gives a ‘‘worldwide’’ witness to God’s glory (Ps
19:4 [H 5]) which should result in Yahweh's
praise (Ps 98:2). Yahweh will judge this ‘*world,”’
making it empty (Isa 24:4), though in the millen-
nium God will cause Israel to blossom and fill the
whole world with her fruit (Isa 27:6).

Second, tébél is sometimes limited to ‘‘coun-
tnes’’ or ‘‘the inhabitable world.’ This meaning
.ls more closely related to the root meaning. It
refers to the world where crops are raised. This is
observed in the judgment message against the
king of Babylon (not Satan) for violently shaking
the ‘‘world’’ or ‘‘inhabitable world’ (Isa 13:11;

359

836 DS (yabam)

14:17). Lightning is said to enlighten the
‘‘world’’—undoubtedly referring to a limited land
area (Ps 77:18 [H 19]; 97:4).

Third, tébél may also refer to the inhabitants
living upon the whole earth. This is demonstrated
by the parallelism of tébel with /°’amim (Ps 9:8
[H 9}]) and ‘ammim (Ps 96:13; 98:9). The context
of these references is Yahweh's judgment upon
the world’s inhabitants—a judgment both exe-
cuted in righteousness and instructive of Yah-
weh’s righteousness (Isa 26:9; 34:1).

In several passages the sense of tébél as the
global earth in combination with its inhabitants 1s
clearly observed. Everything belongs to Yahweh
as his creation (Ps 50:12). Yahweh alone controls
this world (Job 34:13; Nah 1:5) and his power is
over all the earth which always responds to his
presence (Job 37:12; Ps 97:4).

Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 75-85.

R.H.A.

836 3° (yabam) perform the duty of a brother-

in-law.
Parent Noun

836a tps’ (yabam) husband's
brother-in-law

836b tha’ (y°béma) brother’s wife,
sister-in-law.

brother,

The primary meaning of this denominative
verb is ‘‘to assume the responsibility to marry
one’s widowed sister-in-law in order to raise up a
male heir to the deceased brother.’’ The verbal
root is probably a Piel denominative verb derived
from the noun yabdam (‘‘brother-in-law’’) (BDB)
but which developed its specific nuance from the
brother-in-law’s function in the law of levirate
marriage. The Ugaritic root means to “‘beget,
create’’ with the noun derivative, ybmt, meaning
possibly *‘progenitress,’’ used as an epithet of the
goddess Anath (cf. Dahood, Biblica 46: 313; UT
19: no. 1065).

The verbal root is only employed in two con-
texts in the ot: Gen 38 and Deut 25. In Gen 38:8
the root is used by Judah to encourage his son,
Onan, to marry Tamar, Onan’s sister-in-law, and
to go in to her and raise up “‘seed”’ to his brother,
Er. The context clearly indicates that this meant
that Onan was to have sexual relations with
Tamar in order to beget a male descendant to
carry on Er’s name.

This principle, illustrated in Gen 38, is known
as ‘‘the law of Levirate marriage.’’ This law, de-
lineated in Deut 25:5—]0, was designed to provide
a male heir to a man who died without a son so
that that deceased man might have his *‘name”’
continued (‘‘build up his... house*’) in Israel and
have his property retained in his name. The law
was only applicable when a man died without

837 Was (yabésh)

having a male heir. The first son born to the union
of the widow and her brother-in-law carried on
the name of the son’s ‘‘legal’’ father (his mother’s
first husband), even though he was conceived by
proxy. The importance of keeping the name in
the family is stressed when the law forbids the
widow to marry outside her husband’s family. Of
course, the custom kept the title to the property
within the clan.

The act of assuming the responsibility to per-
form this duty for the deceased brother is the
essence of the meaning of yabam. If the brother-
in-law refused to perform this duty of raising up a
male heir to his deceased brother, then before the
elders the widowed sister-in-law would publicly
disgrace her brother-in-law by taking his shoe off
his foot and spitting in his face. From that mo-
ment on, he would be known throughout Israel as
‘the house of him who has his shoe loosed.”’

yabam. Husband’s brother, brother-in-law. (Ase
Vv and rsv the same.) This masculine noun is
employed only in the Deut 25 passage to refer to
the ‘‘brother-in-law’’ who is to perform the duty
for his deceased brother described above. One of
the best known examples of the execution of the
law of levirate marriage is in the book of Ruth
where Boaz performs this duty for his deceased
relative by marrying Ruth and raising up heirs for
his kinsman who had died. However, another
Separate biblical principle is also integral to the
argument of the book of Ruth—that of the
kinsman redemption whereby Boaz redeemed the
land that Naomi had to sell in her poverty.
yabam refers to the performing of the duty de-
scribed in the law of levirate marriage whereas
go'él is used to depict the function of the ‘‘rede-
mption”™’ of property.

In the book of Ruth the nearest kinsman was
willing to purchase the property which Naomi
had had to sell in her poverty, but when he dis-
covered that he must also perform the duty of
levirate marriage and marry Ruth, he refused to
perform either responsibility. It was at this point
that Boaz assumed these duties.

y°bema. Brother’s wife, sister-in-law. (RSV and
ASV the same.) UT 19: no. 1065 renders the term
‘“widowed sister-in-law’’ and also proposes
‘*progenitress (of heroes).’’ Variant vocalizations
are y°bama and y° bameh. v° bém4 is employed
in the Deut 25 context to designate the widowed
*‘sister-in-law.’’ In the book of Ruth, the term is
used outside the context of levirate marriage just
to refer to Ruth's “‘sister-in-law,’’ Orpah (Ruth
1:15).

E. A. Speiser *‘Of Shoes and Shekels’’ in
Oriental and Biblical Studies Univ of Pennsyl-
vania, 1967, pp. 151-56.

R.H.A.

360

837 ws (yabésh) be or become dry, be dried up,
make dry, wither. (ASV, RSV Same.)
Derivatives

837a twas (yabésh) dried, dry.
837b tmMWa? (yabbdshd) dry land.
837c mwas? (yabbeshet) dry land, only

in Ps 95:5; Ex 4:9.

The primary meaning of this root is *‘to be or
become dry without moisture from necessary or
normal fluids.”’ The synonym hdrab is almost
equivalent to yabésh though harab is employed
more frequently to indicate bodies of water be-
coming dry, whereas yabésh is employed more
often to portray dryness of vegetation.

Though the verbal root is employed to convey
the concepts of plants withering for lack of inter-
nal moisture and land becoming parched for lack
of rain, the root is used primarily in the oT to
communicate four basic theological truths. First,
this verb is employed to describe two important
OT miracles: the dryness of the earth’s surface
which God caused after the Noahic flood (Gen
8:7, 14) and the dryness of the ground upon which
the children of Israel walked as they crossed the
Reed Sea in the exodus from Egypt and the Jor-
dan river in the conquest of Canaan (Josh 2:10; Ps
74:15). The second theological verity is closely
related to the first. This root is used to portray
certain attributes of God. God’s immutability is
observed in his drying up the Jordan river just as
he previously dried up the Reed Sea (Josh 4:23).
The sovereignty of God is emphasized in his
ability to cause plants and lands to dry up at his
command (Isa 40:24; Ezk 17:24; et al.). God’s
omnipotence ts clearly seen in the miracles men-
tioned above (cf. Job 12:15).

The third truth communicated by this verb is
judgment. The literal judgment of Yahweh in
which he makes a land barren by withholding rain
and drying up all water and produce in that land is
common throughout the ot. This type of judg-
ment is poured out upon Moab (Isa 15:6); Egypt
(Isa 19:5~7; Zech 10:11), Babylon (Jer 50:38;
51:36), and most of all Israel and Judah (Jer 12:4;
Isa 42:15; Joel 1:20; et al.). Israel’s scattering
until the end times is symbolized by ‘‘dry bones”’
(Ezk 37:11). Individuals who oppose God are
sometimes judged by the withering of a limb
(I Kgs 13:4; Zech 11:17), and those who forget
God will perish like a withered plant (Job 8:12;
15:30; 18:16).

Finally, the frailty of mankind and life 1s com-
pared to grass that withers (Isa 40:7-8). The brev-
ity of man’s normal lifespan is likened to grass
that grows up in the morning but withers and dies
by the evening (Ps 90:6). This, in turn, is con-
trasted to the enduring quality of God’s Word
(Isa 40:7-8). The failure of man’s vitality and

strength is compared to the dryness of a potsherd
in a Messianic psalm (Ps 22:15 [H 16]) while the
distress of man (Ps 102:4, 11 [H 5, 12]) and his
death (Job 14:11) are likened again to grass that
withers. A broken spirit can even produce
psychosomatic illnesses (“‘dries up the bones,’’
Prov 17:22).

yabésh. Dried, dry. Though identical in form
with the verbal root, this word is probably a par-
ticipial form frozen as an adjective—all three
forms are alike in many of the stative verbs.

yabésh is primarily employed figuratively. The
Lord’s judgments are likened to the burning of
dry fuel (Ezk 20:47 [H 21:3]; Nah 1:10). Other
concepts conveyed by the figure of ‘‘dryness”’
are harassment (Job 13:25), captive Israel (Ezk
37:2, 4), Yahweh’s sovereignty (Ezk 17:24), de-
sire for food (Num 11:6), and the sterility of an
eunuch (Isa 56:3).

yabbasha. Dry land, dry ground. The synonym
hadrdba is equivalent in meaning, whereas siyyda
stresses ‘‘drought.”’
yabbaéshaé emphasizes ‘‘dry land”’ in contrast
to bodies of water (cf. Jon 2:11). Two basic
theological events are partially described by this
noun: the separation of the ‘‘dry land’’ from the
waters in creation (Gen 1:9-10) and the crossing
of the Reed Sea and the Jordan river in the
exodus and conquest respectively (Ex 14:16—29;
Neh 9:11).
R.H.A.

nwz? (yabbeshet). See no. 837c.

838 39° (ydgab) till, be husbandman.

Derivative
838a 32° (ydgéb) field.

839 "99 (ydga) I, suffer, grieve, afflict. (asv,
RSV similar.)

Derivatives

839a ti3a° (ydgdn) grief, sorrow, anguish.
839b TRIM (tiga) grief, sorrow, heaviness.

The primary meaning is a mental troubling re-
sulting from affliction. yaga@ stresses mental sor-
row in affliction. kd’ab accentuates the pain.
‘and emphasizes humbling.

In Lam the root describes Jerusalem’s grief re-
sulting from God’s judgment in 586 B.c. Jeru-
salem’s great iniquities occasioned this judgment
which God desired not to bring. Israel will also
suffer in the end-time judgments (Zeph 3:18).
Such ‘‘sorrow’’ will ultimately be removed and
placed upon Israel’s tormentors because of God’s
faithfulness and compassionate restoration of Is-
rael (Lam 3:32-33; Isa 51:11, 23; cf. y@g6n in Isa
35:10).

361

841 13° (yen).

842 a> (yagéa’)

yagon. Grief, sorrow, anguish. Is employed to
portray both individual sorrow experienced in
times of difficulty (e.g. David when pursued by
enemies, Ps 31:10 {H 10]) and national grief (Ezk
23:33). Grievous judgment demonstrates God's
power (Ps 107:39), though God is ‘‘grieved’’ over
Israel’s rebellion (Jer 8:18).

tagaé. Grief, sorrow, heaviness. This noun
stresses the emotional sadness of grief. Such grief
comes to a foolish son’s parents (Prov 10:1) and
to the perverse man’s heart (Prov 14:13). Only
God’s Word brings relief from this state of mind
(Ps 119:28).

R.H.A.

840 *mQ° (ydga) II, thrust away. Occurs only

in the Hiphil, in II Sam 20:13.

133° (yag6n). See no. 839a.
"332 (ydgér). See no. 843a.
y°a (yagia‘). See no. 842d.

Assumed root of the following.

84la m3 (gat) winepress, wine vat.

841b AMMa (gittit) Meaning unknown.
Probably a musical instrument.

Probably derived from ygn (BDB). The pri-
mary meaning is ‘‘a vat for treading out juice
from grapes’’ (synonymous with pura). yegeb
describes the container that receives juice from
the gat.

The Law prohibited the use of winepresses on
the sabbath (cf. Neh 13:15). God’s judgment is
compared to the treading of grapes (cf. Lam 1:15;
Isa 63:2).

The word is at least as old as the Amarna let-
ters, where it appears in the form Gi(n)t- in place
names.

R.H.A.

gittit. Gittith. This is a musical term of uncer-
tain meaning, perhaps related to the Philistine
city Gath and occurring in the heading of three
Psalms (8, 81, 84). Each time it is connected with
the preposition ‘al ‘‘upon,’’ ‘‘according to,”’ or
even ‘‘in the fashion of.’’ Since gat is also the
word for ‘‘winepress,’’ some feel it refers to the
celebration of the grape harvest at the Feast of
Tabernacles. All three psalms are joyful hymns of
praise. Other interpreters think ‘‘Gittith’’ sig-
nifies either a tune or an instrument well-known
at Gath. David spent several months as a vassal
of the king of Gath and could have become famil-
iar with it then. For other such terms see sela.
H.W.

842 ys (yagéa‘) toil, labor, grow or be weary.

(ASV, RSV Similar.)

843 3a° (yagor)

Derivatives

842a YQ’ «(yaga') gain (product of labor),
only in Job 20:18.

842b pad (ydgéa') weary, wearisome.

842c «tmpas (y*gi'ad) wearying.

842d ya’ (ydgia’) weary, only in Job
3:17, as a plural construct in the
phrase y°gi‘é kéah ‘weary of
strength” i.e. toil-worn.

842e 8a’ (y*gia’) toil, product.

The primary meaning is ‘‘to work until one is
tired and exhausted.’’ The two synonyms ya‘ép
and /d’d (q.v.) tend to stress the nuance of
‘‘weariness.”’ The adjective ydgé(a)‘ is identical
in form and is translated ‘‘weary, wearisome,
toilsome.’”’

The root is used to convey two basic thrusts:
1) an emphasis on the toil of work, and 2) the
weariness that results from labor. God meant that
toil should result in the benefits of the end prod-
uct. This is especially true in farming (Josh
24:13). However, whenever Israel ‘‘toiled’’ in
idolatry and ‘“‘grew weary’’ of God’s ways (Isa
57:10; Mal 2:17), she reaped the product of her
labor: God’s judgment. This judgment often took
the form of drought, famine, and devastation, so
that Israel was unable to harvest the fruits of the
land. This, in turn, caused Israel to complain that
her ‘“‘labor’’ in the land was only in vain (Isa
49:4). The Lord promises, however, that in the
millennium Israel will no longer labor in vain, but
she will reap the fruit of the land—the product of
her labors (Isa 62:8; 65:23). A similar type of
judgment ts brought upon Babylon because of her
‘‘labor’’ in sorcery (Isa 47:12, 15). However,
there is no deliverance for Babylon (Jer 51:58;
Hab 2:13).

The Scriptures warn against toiling for wealth,
for the labor of a fool only wearies him (Prov
23:4; Eccl 10:15).

Because Israel ‘‘grows weary’’ of the Lord’s
ways by practicing idolatry, they will also ‘‘be-
come weary’’ of God’s judgments (Lam 5:5).
Men grow physically weary and emotionally
weary, but the Lord never ‘‘grows weary’’ in His
works and ways (Isa 40:28—31; Ps 6:8 [H 7]). The
Lord is ‘‘wearied’’ only by the iniquities of man
(cf. Isa 43:24).

y°gia’. Toil, labor, product, gain. (asv and RSV
similar, though Rsv translates ‘‘wealth’’ in Isa
45:14.)

This noun denotes the work of creatures that
yields a product. It is primarily employed to de-
scribe the fruit of labor in agriculture and animal
husbandry. It is the blessing of God for one to eat
the produce of his own labor (Ps 128:2), but if
Israel turned from God’s ways and ‘‘worked”’ in-
iquity (Isa 55:2; Hos 12:8 [H 9]), God promised to

362

judge her with famine (Deut 28:33; cf. Jer 3:24;
Hag 1:11). In this sense the noun emphasizes the
end product of ‘‘labor’’ being destroyed, while
the verb stresses the action of ‘‘toil’’ that pro-
duced the final fruit. Egypt was judged in like
manner (Ps 78:46) through the plagues.
Nehemiah warns of similar discipline (Neh 5:13),
while David’s imprecations against his enemies
consist of analagous judgments (Ps 109:11).
R.H.A.

843 2° (yagér) be afraid, fear, dread.

Derivative

843a “43° (yadgér) fearing, only in Jer

22:25; 39:17.

The basic meaning is *‘to fear something with
great dread’’ (similar to pdhad q.v.). ydré’ (q.v.)
has nuances of ‘‘reverence.’’ Probably a byform
of guar ‘‘be afraid’’ (q.v.).

The root primarily describes ‘‘fear’’ of God’s
discipline when one has disobeyed, or thinks he
has disobeyed, God’s ways (Deut 28:60; Job 9:28;
Ps 119:39). Moses ‘‘fears’’ when the golden calf
is built (Deut 9:19).

R.H.A.

844 "° (yad) hand, power, monument, axle,

tenon, Stay side, part, time. (ASV and RSV

similar.)

The primary meaning of this noun is ‘‘the ter-
minal part of the arm used to perform functions of
man’s will.’

This term is employed literally of man’s hand
which does normal work functions (Gen 5:29),
good or bad (Gen 4:11). The law of lex talionis
(“‘hand for a hand’’) is a penalty involving de-
struction of bodily parts for bodily parts harmed
by another (cf. Harris, R. L.. Man—God'’s Eter-
nal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 117-18).

Significant theologically is the manifold way in
which the word ‘‘hand’’ is employed idiomati-
cally. These idioms arise from the versatility of
the hand. The phrase “‘into (or ‘‘under’’) some-
one’s hand’’ conveys authority involving respon-
sibility, care, and dominion over someone or
something. One may be under the custody of this
authority. In the Amarna letters, the Canaanite
gloss ba-di-u means ‘‘in his hand.’’ Mankind is to
have the rest of creation ‘‘under his dominion’’
(Gen 9:2). Sarah’s authority over Hagar (Gen
16:6, 9), Joseph’s over Potiphar’s house (Gen
39:3-8), that of Moses and Aaron over Israel
(Num 33:1), and David over Aram (I Chr 18:3)
are all expressed by this phrase. Yahweh is to
have authority over our lives. We place our
hearts and spirits into his care, sovereignty, and
judgment (Ps 31:5, 15; [H 6, 16]; II Sam 24:14).
Moreover, this idiom portrays ‘‘victory over

someone’’ when one is ‘delivered into one’s
hands.”’ Deliverance, on the contrary, is de-
scribed as being ‘‘delivered out of one’s hands.”’
Often Yahweh promised Israel that he would
‘‘deliver her enemies into her hands”’ (Gen 49:8;
Josh 6:2) and that he would deliver Israel ‘‘out of
her enemies’ hands’’ (Ex 3:8). Refuge cities pro-
vided ‘‘deliverance’’ for the innocent slayer
‘‘from the hand”’ of the revenger of blood (Num
35:15).

The hand symbolized ‘*power’’ or *‘strength’’
(Deut 8:17). Deuteronomy 32:36 described Is-
rael’s loss of power by saying ‘‘their hands were
gone.’ Moses’ hand was poignantly used to por-
tray power in the plagues against Egypt (Ex
10:12-25). The most notable use of this metaphor
is its conveyance of God’s power. I Chronicles
29:12 declares that in Yahweh’s hand is power
and might (cf. Ps 89:13 [H 14]). His hand is not
‘‘short’’ (or ‘‘weak’’) (Isa 59:1), but mighty. A
predominant demonstration of his power was his
deliverance of Israel from Egypt (Ex 13:3-16;
Num 33:3). All the world witnessed Yahweh’s
power through this event (Josh 4:24). His hand
created the world (Ps 8:6; 95:5) and works truth
and justice (Ps 111:7). He upholds and guides the
righteous with his hand (Ps 37:24; 139:10). He
continually lifts up his hand on our behalf (Ps
10:12). A corollary idea is that of ‘‘ability’’ to
accomplish a task. The phrases ‘*hand reaches’’
or “‘hand finds’ denote the ability to do or obtain
something (Lev 14:21-32).

‘*Possession’’ ts a common function of the
hand. Therefore, ‘‘in one’s hands”’ often bears
that connotation. The Ishmaelites had Joseph in
their possession (‘‘hands,’’ Gen 39:1). Yahweh
declared that he would take David’s kingdom
from his son (I Kgs 11:12, 31-35).

‘‘Submission’”’ is indicated by the phrase “‘to
give one’s hands under’’ someone else. Sol-
omon’s officials ‘‘submitted’’ to him (J Chr
29:24). Yahweh exhorted Israel to ‘‘submit’’ to
him and not rebel.

‘*To stretch out the hand’’ conveys two ideas.
It expresses the ‘‘attacking’’ of an object (Josh
8:19, 26); second, it describes the psalmist’s
yearning for the Lord (Ps 143:6).

‘Putting one’s hand to’’ something expresses
‘‘work’’ and the activity in which that person is
involved (Deut 2:7; 30:9). ‘‘Strengthening the
hands’’ is helping someone (cf. Jonathan helping
David; I Sam 23:16).

Obstinate rebellion is described by the phrase
“high hand’’ (Num 15:30). Contrarily, the same
expression conveyed God’s mighty deliverance
of Israel from Egypt (Ex 14:8). *‘Shaking the
hand’’ symbolized God’s warning and destruc-
tion of judgment (Isa 10:32; 19:16). Contempt 1s
likewise visualized by this symbol (Zeph 2:15).

‘*Laying hands on’’ has four basic connota-

363

844 1 (yad)

tions. First, this phrase was employed to depict
killing (Gen 37:22, 27). Second, it was used in the
ritual ceremony of blessing (cf. Gen 48:17).
Third, commissioning for a specific office or task
was normally accompanied by the laying on of
hands (cf. Moses’ inauguration of Joshua and
Acts 13:1-3). Fourth, the important theological
concept of substitution was continually portrayed
through the laying of hands upon a sacrificial
animal. On the Day of Atonement, the high priest
transferred the nation’s sins to the goat (*‘sub-
stitution’’), by laying his hands upon the goat.
Individuals depicted their sins as transferred to
and borne by the sacrificial anima! through this
expression (Ex 29:10-19; Lev 1:4). Ultimately
this figure was fulfilled in Christ’s bearing of our
sins upon the cross (Col 2:14).

The ‘‘uplifted hand’’ expressed several nu-
ances. First, it symbolized prayer as one lifted up
his hands toward the sanctuary (Ps 28:2). Sec-
ond, the uplifted hand periodically accompanied
a public blessing (Lev 9:22). Third, it was com-
mon for one to lift up his hand in an oath. When
Abram vowed not to take spoils of war, he lifted
up his hand to the king of Sodom. Another means
of expressing a vow was to place the hand under
the thigh of the other person as Abram’s servant
did when swearing that he would be faithful to
Abram’s charge (Gen 24:2, 9). The most signifi-
cant vows of scripture are those anthropomor-
phically made by God. The oath most remem-
bered in the scripture by this accompanying sign
is God’s unconditional and eternal covenant
promise to make a nation from Abram and bless
the world through that nation, Israel (Gen 12:1-3;
cf. Ex 6:8; Num 14:30). God also swore to avenge
the blood of his servants (Deut 32:40).

Consecration was depicted by the idiom ‘’fill
the hands.’’ Some suggest that the sense of filling
means the hands were full and had no time for
other business, though others think that ‘*filling”’
was with a sacrificial portion since this phrase
was predominately used in the commissioning of
priests (Ex 29:9-35; 16:32). Ritual cleansing was
portrayed by ‘‘washing the hands” (Lev 5:11),
making the person ritually righteous (II Sam
22:21). This symbolic action also denoted ‘‘ab-
solution from guilt’? (Deut 21:6—7; cf. Mt 27:24).

To give to one was to “‘open the hand’ (Deut
15:8, 11), whereas to ‘*shut the hand” was to
withhold (Deut 15:7). God opens his hand to
satisfy the desire of every living thing (Ps 145:16).

One who ‘'slacks his hand”’ (or withdraws his
hand) ‘‘gives up’’ (Josh 10:6); the slothful **buries
his hand in a dish’’ (Prov 19:24). The silent places
the ‘‘hand to the mouth’’ (Prov 30:32).

‘*Hand”’ is interestingly employed to mean an
‘‘ordinance’’ (Ezr 3:10) or a ‘‘monument’”’ (cf.
ritual stelae at Hazor) used perhaps to establish a
covenant or as religious commemorations (I Sam

845 “3° (yadad)

1§:12; Isa 56:5). The Law was symbolically
placed on the hand of the Israelite to remind him
of its centrality in life (Deut 6:8). The instrumen-
tality of giving ordinances and God’s word was
expressed with *‘by the hand of.”

Perhaps the joining of hands led to the use of
yad to denote ‘‘axles’’ which held the wheels of
the molten sea together (I Kgs 7:32-33) and the
‘“stays’’ (tenons) to fasten the boards of the
tabernacle or temple (Ex 26:17-19; I Kgs 7:35—
36). The hand hanging at the side most likely pre-
cipitated the use of yad for ‘‘side, coast, or bor-
der’ (Ex 2:5; Num 2:17; 34:3). The spreading of
the hands denoted “‘space’’ (Gen 34:21), while
‘‘hand”’ also meant ‘‘part’’ or ‘‘time’’ (Gen 43:34;
47:24). A different root, ydd, ‘‘to love,’ may be
the basis for translating yad ‘*penis’’ in the con-
text of Isa 57:8, 10 (cf. UG 19: no. 1072).

Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 426-29. THAT,
I, pp. 667-73.
R.H.A.
845 s° (yddad) I, cast a lot.
846 “3° (ydd) II. Assumed root of the following.

846a i
846b tmis
846c AAS

(yddid) beloved, lovely.
(y°diddt) love song.
(y‘didit) beloved one.

yadid. Beloved, lovely. The basic meaning of
the noun is ‘‘one greatly loved’’ by God or by
man. The noun is derived from the verb ‘‘love”’
(ydd) (BDB; KB).

This noun is primarily employed to describe
the nation of Israel (or Judah) and individuals as
those who are greatly loved by the Lord. Such
love by God bmings protection (cf. Benjamin;
Deut 33:12) and prosperity (Ps 127:2) upon the
beloved people. This love demonstrates the rea-
son for God’s continual faithfulness to his people
Israel, even when they were disobedient and un-
faithful (Jer 11:15). Itis upon the basis of this love
of God for Israel that she petitions for the Lord to
hear and deliver her from judgment (Ps 60:5 [H
7}; 108:6 [H 7]). Isaiah describes the Lord, the
vinedresser of unfaithful Israel, as his beloved
(Isa 5:1), showing his great love for the Lord. The
psalmist rejoices in the temple dwellings as
‘‘lovely’’ (or ‘*beloved’’), 1.e. the place where he
delights to worship the Lord.

y°didét. Love (song); (song of) love. The pri-
mary meaning of this noun is ‘‘love’’ or “‘be-
loveds.’’ The form is grammatically equivalent to
the feminine plural of yadid, being understood as
that form by BDB, but listed separately by KB.

This noun is employed only once in the or,
being used to describe a song of love, or a song of
beloveds, which they most likely sang for the
groom or the couple as a wedding song at their
wedding (Ps 45:1). The plural form probably indi-

364

cates the broad use of this psalm as a wedding
hymn.

R.H.A.
847 ms* (yada) confess, praise, give thanks,
thank. (ASV, RSV similar, except that RSV

also uses ‘“‘acknowledge’’ and ‘‘extol.’’) In
the Qal and Piel it means *‘throw, cast.”’

Derivatives
847a mins (hayy’dét) songs of praise,
only in Neh 12:8.
847b tmsin (16da) confession, praise.

847c tm (y*ditan), Yn
Jeduthun.

The primary meaning of this root is “‘to ac-
knowledge or confess sin, God's character and
works, or man’s character.’’ The basic difference
between this verb and its synonym, halal, is that
the latter term tends to stress ‘‘acclaim of,’
‘‘boasting of,’’ or “‘glorying in’’ an object, while
yada emphasizes ‘‘recognition’’ and ‘‘declara-
tion’’ of a fact, whether good or bad. The Lxx
normally renders yad4 with exomologeo.

The root verb is employed three basic ways.
First, it was used to convey the acknowledgment
or confession of sin, individually or nationally.
The basic idea was clearly observed in David's
personal confession described in Ps 32:5 in which
the poetic parallelism demonstrates that confes-
sion was making known the sin to God and not
hiding it. It is important to note that the confes-
sion of sin is to be made to God. The epitome of
national confession is found in the Day of
Atonement ceremony when the high priest laid
his hands on the head of the goat, thereby sym-
bolically transferring the nation’s sins on to the
goat, while the high priest confessed aloud all the
sins of the nation of Israel (Lev 16:21). The
Hithpael form is normally employed when this
verb is used to convey the confession of national
sins. This stem was also employed when the great
confessions of Israel’s sins were made by Daniel
(Dan 9:4, 20), Ezra (Ezr 10:1), Nehemiah (Neh
1:6), and the people of Israel (Neh 9:2-3) during
and after the Babylonian captivity. National con-
fessions of sin were normally public. God greatly
desires that we acknowledge our sins before him
(cf. I Jn 1:9) in order to maintain a proper rela-
tionship with him.

Second, this verb was predominatly employed
to express one’s public proclamation or declara-
tion (confession) of God’s attributes and his
works. This concept is at the heart of the meaning
of praise. Praise is a confession or declaration of
who God is and what he does. This term is most
often translated ‘‘to thank’’ in English versions,
but such is not really a proper rendering accord-
ing to Westermann:

(y¢ datin)

In the Old Testament... there is as yet no verb
that means only ‘“‘to thank.’’ Hddah, which is
usually translated as ‘‘to thank,’’ is not used in
the Old Testament a single time for an expres-
sion of thanks between men. Thus it is clear
from the start that this hédddh cannot be
equated with our ‘‘to thank,’’ which can be
directed equally to God and to man. In those
places in the O.T. where our ‘‘thank’’ as some-
thing taking place between men is most clearly
found, the verb used is bérék, which does not
have the primary meaning of ‘‘praise’’ but
means ‘‘bless.”’

In view of these facts, it is clear that the O.T.
does not have our independent concept of
thanks. The expression of thanks to God is in-
cluded in praise, it is a way of praising. (Wes-
termann, Claus. The Praise of God in the
Psalms. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1965,
pp. 26-27.)

The best rendering of the term is ‘‘confession,”’
for the person confesses or declares God’s attrib-
utes and works, as seen abundantly in the psalter
(cf. Ps 89:5 [H 6]; Ps 105; Ps 106; Ps 145) and
elsewhere (cf. I Chr 29:13). Therefore, yada is
one of the key words for ‘‘praise.”’ It is continu-
ally found in Hebrew poetry in parallelism with
such praise terms as hdlal ‘‘to praise,’’ zamar
‘‘to praise with musical instruments,’ ram ‘‘to
exalt,’ zdkar ‘‘to remember,’ kdbad ‘‘to
glorify,’ and ndgad ‘‘to declare.’’ Thanksgiving
follows praise, for when one declares God’s
attributes and works, he cannot help but be thank-
ful for these. Praise leads regularly to thanksgiv-
ing. [Westerman has drawn attention to an impor-
tant point. However, it may be doubted if his
formulation be necessary in all particulars. If,
sometimes, thanks is included in praise, then
those numerous instances where ydda is used to
praise God for some act or thing may well be
equated to our concept giving thanks, especially
if a basic meaning of the root is ‘to acknowl-
edge’’ as BDB suggests. R.L.H.]

Praise normally has Yahweh, or his Name, as
its object (Ps 97:12; 99:3; 136:1-3, 26). Only the
living, not the dead, praised God (Isa 38:18-19;
Ps 6:5 [H 6]; 30:9 [H 10]; 88:10 [H 11]). Initiators
of praise included righteous individuals (Ps
140:13 [H 14]), the people of Israel (Ps 106:47),
the nations (Ps 45:17 [H 18]), all the kings of the
earth (Ps 138:4), the heavens (Ps 89:5 [H 6}), and
the wrath of men (Ps 76:10 [H 11]). They all con-
fessed God’s great character and his wondrous
works. Praise of Yahweh was public, found
among the nations (II Sam 22:50) and in the great
assembly of the people of Israel (Ps 35:18). When
an individual, or a people, came to praise
Yahweh, they gave praise orally by word or song
(Ps 109:30; 28:7), often accompanied with musi-

365

847 my (yada)

cal instruments (II Chr 5:13; Ps 33:2; 43:4). Such
praise was normally given in the tabernacle (or
temple) (Ps 100:4; 122:4) under the direction of
those Levites appointed by David strictly for the
ministry of celebration through praise and con-
fession of Yahweh's person (I Chr 16:4). This
was a major aspect of worship which was to be
carried on every morning and evening in the
tabernacle (I Chr 23:30). This praise was to be
given wholeheartedly (Ps 86:12; 111:1) with an
upright heart (Ps 119:7) in accordance with
Yahweh's righteous ways (Ps 7:17 [H 18]). Such
praise was to be continual—forever (Ps 30:12
[H 13]).

Third, yadda was also employed to convey
man’s praise of man, the confession of some truth
about a man (Ps 49:18 [{H 19]). The name
‘‘Judah,’’ meaning ‘‘praise,’’ comes from this
root, for Judah’s brothers would praise (or con-
fess) him (Gen 29:35).

toda. Confession, praise, sacrifice of praise,
thanks, thanksgiving, thank-offering. This cog-
nate noun, being derived from yada, basically
means ‘‘confession,’’ either of sin or of God's
character and works. The term was employed
uniquely in reference to the sacrificial system of
Israel. One could bring a ‘‘thank-offering’’ (or
‘*praise-offering’’) in which he would make dec-
larations of praise to God and/or confession of sin
to God as he offered his sacrifice. When the ac-
companying confession concerned sin, the offer-
ing was classified as a ‘‘peace-offering’’ and was
so offered in order that the individual may be
accepted before God (cf. Lev 7:12-15; 22:29).
Such an offering and confession glorified God,
showing his righteousness in contrast to the per-
son's sin (Ps 50:23), and was a means by which
one ordered his way aright.

When the sacrifice was accompanied with
praise (confession) of God, it was especially a
time of joy (Ps 95:2; Jer 17:26; 33:11). God was
magnified by such praise (Ps 69:30 [H 31]). Psalm
100 is a typical psalm of praise for this type of
occasion as indicated both in its superscription as
well as in its content. Singing appears to have
been a common means through which one con-
fessed God’s greatness (Ps 147:4). It also seems
that in given situations many made vows that
they would come to the tabernacle (or temple)
and offer a sacrifice of praise and confession
when God delivered them from their present cir-
cumstance (Ps 56:12 [H 13]; 116:17; cf. Jonah in
Jon 2:10 and Manasseh in II Chr 33:16).

There are instances where confession is made
without sacrifice. The returned exiles from Baby-
lon gave praise; Israel praised God for the re-
building of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 12:31-40);
Achan confessed his sins to Yahweh before
Joshua (Josh 7:19-21).

848 pn (yada’)

y‘ditan. Jeduthun. The name of one of the
three leaders of the musical guilds in the taberna-
cle (and the temple) under king David (I Chr 9:16;
25:1-7; IT Chr $:12: 29:14; 35:15). These per-
petual guilds were appointed to celebrate, con-
fess, and praise Yahweh with song and musical!
instruments. The primary instrument of Jedu-
thun’s guild was the harp, though the trumpet,
lyre, and cymbals were perhaps used as well (I
Chr 16:42; J] Chr 5:12). In the superscriptions to
Psalms 39, 62, and 77, the reference to
‘‘Jeduthun”’ is most likely a reference to him and
his guild as the musical performers who were to
render the psalm instrumentally and/or vocally. It
is therefore interesting that the name “‘Jeduthun’”’
is most likely derived from yddd, one of the
major terms for praise (cf. BDB, pp. 392-393).

R.H.A.
See no. 847c.

MMII (v diutun),

848 ps’ (yada') know. (RSv, asv similar.)

Derivatives

848a pt (déa')

848b mys (dé'a) knowledge.

848c fThys (da‘at) knowledge.

848d 2 yt (yidd*‘Oni) familiar spirit.

848e tys (mdda‘), ys (mdda‘) rel-
ative.

848f trys (mdda‘at) kindred,
only in Ruth 3:2.

848g ty (madda') knowledge.

848h ty (maddia'), ya (maddia')
why?

knowledge, opinion.

kinship,

This root, occurring a total of 944 times, is used
in every stem and expresses a multitude of
shades of knowledge gained by the senses. Its
closest synonyms are bin *‘to discern”’ and na@kar
‘*to recognize.’’ The root is found in Akkadian,
Ugaritic, and the Qumran materials. In addition
to ‘*know.”’ the KJv uses the archaic forms ‘‘wot"’
and ‘‘wist.”’

yadda‘ is used of God’s knowledge of man (Gen
18:19; Deut 34:10) and his ways (Isa 48:8; Ps 1:6;
37:18), which knowledge begins even before birth
(Jer 1:5). God also knows the fowl (Ps 50:11).

yada‘ is also used for man’s knowledge and for
that of animals (Isa 1:3).

The participle occurs in phrases describing
skill in hunting (Gen 25:27), learning (Isa 29:11-
13), lamentation (Amos 5:16), sailing the sea (II
Chr 8:18), and playing an instrument (I Sam
16:16).

In certain contexts it means “‘to distinguish.”
‘*To know good and evil’’ (Gen 3:5, 22) is the
result of disobeying God. To distinguish between
these is necessary for the king (II Sam 19:36). A
child cannot distinguish between the left and right
hands (Jon 4:11) nor between good and evil (Deut

366

1:39; Isa 7:15). The context of the latter passage
and the similar statement in Isa 8:4 may indicate
that the reference is to a child’s not being able to
distinguish what is beneficial and harmful. While
ordinarily gained by experience, knowledge is
also the contemplative perception possessed by
the wise man (Prov 1:4; 2:6; 5:2; Eccl 1:18).

yadda‘ is used to express acquaintance with a
person in such statements as ‘‘do you know La-
ban?’’ (Gen 29:5; Ex 1:8; I] Sam 3:25). The Pual
participle designates kinfolk (II Kgs 10:11, etc.)
and acquaintances (Job 19:14; Ruth 2:1, etc.).
yada‘ is also used for the most intimate acquain-
tance. God knows Moses by name and face to
face (Ex 33:17; Deut 34:10). He knows the Psal-
mist’s sitting and arising (Ps 139:2).

yada‘ is also used for sexual intercourse on the
part of both men and women in the well-known
euphemism **Adam knew Eve his wife’ and its
parallels (Gen 4:1; 19:8; Num 31:17, 35; Jud
11:39; 21:11; I Kgs 1:4: ] Sam 1:19). It is used to
describe sexual perversions such as sodomy (Gen
19:5; Jud 19:22) and rape (Jud 19:25).

In addition to Knowledge of secular matters
ydda’ is also used of one’s relation to the divine,
whether acquaintance with other gods (Deut
13:3, 7, 14) or with Jehovah (I Sam 2:12; 3:7). The
heathen do not know God (Jer 10:25) and neither
does Israel, according to the prophets (Jer 4:22).
The plagues of Egypt were sent so that the Egyp-
tians might know that Jehovah is God (Ex 10:2,
etc.). He will destroy (Ezk 6:7) and restore Israel
so that they may know that he is God (Isa 60:16).
The prophet Ezekiel, in particular, uses the
phrase ‘‘that you may know” in his threats (Ezk
6:7, 10, 13, 14; 7:4, 9, 27, etc.).

dé‘a. Knowledge. This feminine noun is trans-
lated gnosis in the Lxx, and scientia in the Vul-
gate. The Lord is a God of all knowledge (Job
36:4; I Sam 2:3). The wicked question his knowl-
edge (Ps 73:11). He is the object of man’s knowl-
edge, and Isaiah envisions an earth full of the
knowledge of the Lord (Isa 11:9). The prophet
preaches knowledge (Isa 28:9) and the ideal ruler
rules by it (Jer 3:15). The noun may be only
another form of da‘at (see below). The masculine
noun déa‘ is quite similar.

da‘at. Knowledge, cunning (Asv and Rsv simi-
lar). This feminine noun is from the root yadda‘
‘‘to know.’’ The root expresses knowledge
gained in various ways by the senses. The noun
occurs ninety-three times in the Old Testament,
most frequently in the wisdom literature, with
forty-one instances in Prov, ten in Job, and nine
in Eccl. It is used forty-two times in the Qumran
materials and is also used in Ugantic and Akka-
dian.

da‘ at is a general term for knowledge, particu-
larly that which is of a personal, experimental

nature (Prov 24:5). It is also used for technical
knowledge or ability such as that needed for
building the tabernacle and temple (Ex 31:3;
35:31; I Kgs 7:14). da‘at is also used for discern-
ment (Ps 119:66). Both deeds committed uninten-
tionally (Deut 4:42; 19:4; Josh 20:3, 5; b° li da’ at)
and mistaken opinions are ‘*without knowledge’’
(16’ da‘ at, Prov 19:2).

da‘ at is possessed by God (Job 10:7; Ps 139:6;
Prov 3:20), from whom nothing can be hidden (Ps
139:1-18). He teaches it to man (Ps 94:10; 119:66;
Prov 2:6). It appears parallel with wisdom
(hokmd) and understanding (t° band), instruction
(musar), and law (térd). Wisdom is used in series
with ““science’’ (madda‘, Dan 1:4) and is the op-
posite of ‘‘folly’’ Ciwwelet, Prov 12:23; 13:16;
14:18; 15:2). Hence da‘at is the contemplative
perception of the wise man (Prov 1:4; 2:6; 5:2;
Eccl 1:18).

da‘at is also used for moral cognition. Thus
the tree in the Garden of Eden was a tree of the
knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:9, 17). By
eating its fruit man came to know in a way com-
parable to the knowledge of God (see above).
This important reference may also be taken as the
figure of speech Known as merism to indicate ob-
jective awareness of all things both good and bad.
In this sense the sinful pain did become like God
(Gen 3:22). Cassuto says, ‘Before they ate of the
tree of knowledge, the man and his wife were like
small children who know nought of what exists
around them” (U. Cassuto, Genesis, vol. I, p.
112).

Particularly distinctive is the prophetic concept
of ‘knowledge of God"* (da‘ at ’éléhim) which is
particularly prominent in Hosea (4:1, 6; 6:6; cf.
Prov 2:5). Knowledge of God is derived from
those outstanding historical events in which God
has evidenced and has revealed himself to chosen
individuals such as Abraham and Moses. These
revelations are to be taught to others. “‘Knowl-
edge of God” appears in parallel with **fear of the
Lord” (vir’at YHWH Isa 11:2: cf. 58:2; Jer 22:16)
as a description of true religion. The man who has
a right relation with God confesses him and obeys
him. To do justice and righteousness and to judge
the cause of the poor and the needy is to know
God (Jer 22:15-16). On the other hand where
there is no knowledge of God there is swearing,
lying, killing, stealing, committing adultery and
breaking all bonds (Hos 4:1-2). Such will bring
destruction upon a people (Hos 4:6: cf. [sa 5:13).
Knowledge of God ts more pleasing to him than
sacrifice (Hos 6:6). The prophetic view of the
messianic age is of a time in which the knowledge
of God covers the earth as water covers the sea
(Hab 2:14; cf. Isa 11:9).

yidd*‘oni. Wizard (k)v and some _ modern
translations): fortune-teller (Berkeley Version.

367

848 ys (yada‘)

NAB); familiar spirit (PS, NEB), Spirit (NEB, NAB):
magician (JB); and sorcerer (J8). Since the root of
yidd’ ‘oni is the verb ydda‘ ‘‘to know,” implied
in the title, therefore, is esoteric knowledge not
available to the ordinary person.

yidd® ‘Oni always occurs parallel to ‘6b (witch,
q.v.). It may be a description of an 6b or it may
be the masculine counterpart. (Similarly,
‘‘witch’’ and ‘‘wizard”’ are a feminine and mas-
culine pair in English.) As the Hebrew word yid-
d‘‘oni is related to knowledge, so the English
word ‘‘wizard”’ is related to wisdom.

God forbad his people to consult the yidd° ‘dni
(Lev 19:31: 20:6, 27; Deut 18:11) as well as other
diviners. Despite the fact that Saul outlawed
them, he still consulted an ’66 ‘‘spirit’’ according
to I Sam 28. How the Israelite kings dealt with
these spiritists was a significant factor in charac-
terizing the king as good or evil (JI Kgs 21:6:
23:24; II Chr 33:6). Isaiah spoke of them with
utter scorn (8:19; 19:3).

moda‘. Kinsman. The Lxx follows the Kethib,
rendering this feminine noun as gnorismos ‘‘ac-
quaintance, from a Piel participial form. The
Vulgate and English versions follow the context
where Boaz is a kinsman (Ruth 2:1; cf. 2:20; 3:2,
12; 4:3).

moda‘ is used figuratively in Prov 7:4, parallel-
ing sister, to describe wisdom.

moda‘at. Kindred, kinsman. The Ltxx renders
this feminine noun as gnorismos **acquain-
tance,’’ but the Vulgate translates propinquus
**kindred.’* The English versions follow the Vul-
gate and context (Ruth 3:2; cf. 2:20; 4:3). For
the Levirate marriage custom. see Gen 38; Deut
25:5; Mt 22:23, and cf. yadbam.

madda‘. Knowledge, science, thought. This
masculine noun is used in contexts with wisdom
(hokma). Solomon's request was for wisdom and
knowledge (II Chr 1:1!0-12). The Hebrew chil-
dren surpassed others in Knowledge (Dan 1:4, 7;
KJV and aSv, ‘Science’; RSV, “‘learning’’). It is
paralleled with that done in secret, hence
‘thought’ (Eccl [0:20). It also occurs in Sir 3:13:
13:8.

J.P.L.
maddtia‘. Why? wherefore? on what ac-
count? (ASv and Rsv are similar.) BDB and KB

suggest that it ts a contraction of ma vadiia'
‘‘what being known,” i.e. “from what motive.”
It is variously translated in the 1xx by fis, dia t,
hina ti, hina ti totito, ti hoti, hés ti. Hence, this
interrogative adverb ts used to inquire about a
motive (cf. Gen 26:27), as an indirect question
(cf. Ex 3:3), or as a rhetorical device, as tn Isa
5:4f., °°When I looked for good grapes, why did it
only yield bad?” (Niv).

849 313° (yahab)

Bibliography: Baumann, E., ‘‘yada‘ und
seine Derivate,” ZAW 28: 25-41, 110-41.
Davies, T. W., Magic, Divination and De-
monology, reprint, KTAV, 1969. Dentan, Robert
C., The Knowledge of God in Ancient Israel,
Seabury, 1968. McKenzie John L., **Knowledge
of God in Hosea,’ JBL 74: 23ff. Piper, O. A.,
‘*‘Knowledge,’’ in IDB, pp. 42-44. Richardson,
TWB, pp. 121-22. Thomas, D.W., ‘* Additional
Notes on the Root yd‘ in Hebrew,’ JTS 15:
54-57. TDOT, I, pp. 696-703. THAT, I, pp.
682-700.

P.R.G.

359 (yidd*‘éni). See no. 848d.
m (yah). See no. 484b.

849 3m (yahab) give, ascribe, come! Aramaic
ythab ‘‘give.”’

Derivatives

849a tom (y*hab) lot.
849b tam (habhab) gift.

yahab is used some thirty-three times, only in
the Qal imperative. The Aramaic is used twenty-
eight times in different tenses. The more common
synonym is natan rendered by didémi ‘‘give,’’ in
Lxx. Yet diddmi 1s also used, almost exclusively,
for the Aramaic y* hab. Our word emphasizes the
notion of presenting or setting an object or person
somewhere. The Lxx renders the noun y*hdaéb
with merimna (Ps 55:22 [H 23]) ‘‘what has been
given you’’ (KJv ‘*burden’’).

The verb is used only in the Qal imperative in
the following ways: (1) as an interjection *‘Come!
Come now!”’ (Gen 11:3, plus four times) trans-
lated in Lxx by the adverb deute, mostly used as
a hortatory particle (cf. Isa 1:18, Lxx). (2) The
basic idea is expressed by ‘‘give!’’ It is used with
the object of what is to be given with indirect
object expressed, in Gen 29:21 ‘give me my
wife’’ the idea being of having her presented to
Jacob, in Deut 1:13 of giving, i.e. presenting men
for appointment. The notion of choosing or
nominating would be involved here. A develop-
ment of the above is ‘‘set!’’ ‘‘place!”’ asin II Sam
11:15, ‘‘Set/place Uriah on the front of the bat-
tle!’

(3) The most theologically important meaning
is used in the command to ‘‘give’’ (KJV) or ‘‘as-
cribe’’ (ASV, RSV) glory to the name of the Lord
(Deut 2:3; Ps 29: 1-2; 96:7-8; I Chr 16:28-29). It is
interesting to note that though these passages are
practically the same, the Lxx renders I Chr by
didédmi “‘give’’ and the Ps passages with pher6o
which basically means ‘‘to bring, present, bear’’
whether a burden or a gift. ‘‘Ascribe’’ with the
synonyms “‘attribute’’ or ‘‘credit’’ would suggest
‘inferring of cause, quality, authorship’’ (Web-

368

850 * (yahad) become a Jew.

ster). Hence the passages would demand
everyone to acknowledge the Lord Yahweh as
the great king and offer such ascription of glory
and greatness aS iS commensurate with his
majesty. Cf. Rev 21:24 which alludes to Isa 60:11
where the kings of the earth shall bring (phero)
their glory to the new Jerusalem.

In the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra,
the cognate has the more general meaning of Heb
natan ‘‘give.’’ In Biblical Aramaic the verb
y*hab in the simple stem is not used in the imper-
fect and the verb n° tan is used only in the imper-
fect. In many of these passages, the sovereignty
of God is set forth as the giver of wisdom (Dan
2:21, 23), life (Dan 7:12), kingdoms, power,
strength and grandeur (Dan 2:37-38; 5:18-19),
deliverance from physical danger (Dan 3:28) and
the one who is in control of the destinies of
people and nations (Ezr 5:12, Dan 7:12, 25, 27).

ychab. Gift, lot (what is given). The two de-
rived nouns (see also habhab) are considered
corrupt or unexplained in KB. y°hdb in Ps 55:22
[H 23]) is translated ‘‘burden’’ (kJv, ASV, RSV)
with the additional marginal note ‘‘what he has
given you’’ (RSV taking the word as a perfect of
the verb). Instructive is the Lxx merimna ‘‘care,
anxiety, burden’ in this passage, used four times
for d° dgd ‘‘anxious care.” In Sir 34:1 and 42:9 it
is linked with sleeplessness. The thought then
would be God’s providence, whether it forbodes
evil or good, should not induce fear or brooding
anxiety, but contrariwise should cause one to
turn in quiet confidence to the Lord who gives a
new perspective on life. God then does not
guarantee our desire, but rather he is the one who
knows our needs better than we ourselves.

habhab. Gift. Hosea 8:13, they sacrifice flesh
for the sacrifices of ‘‘mine offerings’ and eat it,
KJv; ‘‘they love’’ sacrifice, they sacrifice flesh
and eat it, rSv; as for the sacrifices of ‘‘mine of-
ferings,’’ asv; they ‘“‘bring’’ sacrifices, Modern
Language Bible; as for ‘‘my sacrificial gifts,”
NASB, Similarly NIV. KB considers this corrupt,
and would emend both here and in 4:18 to a form
of 'ahab *“‘love.’’ The Rsv considers both pas-
sages unclear, and then follows KB. But the form
habhab is not an unusual reduplication.

P.R.G.

Denomina-
tive verb.

Parent Noun

850a mum (y°hadi) Jew, Jewish.
850b omeam) —(y*hadit) Jewish.
850c ota (y*hida) Judah.

yadhad occurs only once, in Est 8:17, ‘**Many
among the peoples of the land became Jews’’

where it is a Hithpael participle. We here note
Sennacherib’s use Ya-u-di for the land of Judah
and Ha-za-qi-a-u Ya-u-da-ai ‘*Hezekiah the
Jew.””

y*hadi. Jew, Jewish, an adjective used fourteen
times. Its plural y°hadim ‘‘Jews, men of Judah”
is used seventy-one times substantively.

y*hidit. Jewish is the feminine adjective used
six times in the expression ‘‘in the Jewish lan-
guage’ as in Isa 36:11, 13 and Neh 13:24.

yhada. Judah (asv and rsv similar). This
proper noun is used of persons and of a territory.
It occurs over eight hundred times, not including
derivatives. The original meaning of the root is
lost, not being found either in Ugaritic or Assy-
rian. In Gen 29:35 and 49:8 an explanation is
made by using yadda in the Hiphil meaning ‘‘to
give thanks, laud, praise.’’ However, these
names of Jacob's sons should often be considered
a play on words rather than definition or deriva-
tion. In the one case Leah names her fourth son,
saying, “This time I will give thanks to
Yahweh.”’ In the second, Jacob’s blessing on him
makes the pun ‘Judah, your brothers shall praise
you’’ and then continues with the specific prom-
ises.

Judah was the name of the fourth son of the
patriarch Jacob, born of Leah. It is the name of
several individuals in the postexilic period (Ezr
3:9; 10:23; Neh 11:9; 12:8, 36). Judah takes a sec-
ondary position in the patriarchal account.

However, Gen concludes with a significant
promise anticipating the prominence of Judah in
later covenantal history. The episode of Judah
and Tamar (Gen 38) contrasts with the ethical,
indeed, the covenantal standard of behavior of
Joseph (Gen 39:9) who recognized that adultery
with Potiphar’s wife was above all else sin against
aholy God. However, God’s sovereign grace was
operating in Judah's life, both in his becoming a
leader among his brothers (Gen 43:3; 44:14;
46:28) as well as being the foremost in repentance
and confession for his sin against Joseph (Gen
43:8f.; 44:16-34). Jacob's blessing promised
leadership, victory, and kingship (Gen 49:8—12)
anticipating the royal line established by coven-
ant with David and ultimately the Lord Jesus
Christ who was to combine in his person the
suzerain king and the anointed one (Messiah).
See the discussion of v. 10 under shébet.

Throughout the Pentateuch, little prominence
is given to Judah’s descendants, other than lead-
ing the vanguard in the wilderness wanderings
(Num 2:9). Clearly, Judah is now the name of a
tribe which does not figure strongly until David
ben Jesse was anointed king over Judah, then
over all Israel (II Sam 2:4; 5:3). The significant
religious contribution was the establishment of

369

850 *Im* (yahad)

Jerusalem (in the territory of Judah) as ‘the place
where Yahweh your God chooses to put his
name’ (Deut 12:5, 11, 14, 18, 21, 26, etc.; cf.
II Sam 7:5-6, 13).

Following Solomon's apostasy (I Kgs 11:1-13)
God divided Israel (ten tribes) from Judah which
from the days of Joshua included the territory of
Simeon (Josh 19:9). Although the prophets spoke
of the people of Israel and the sons of Judah as
people of God because of a covenantal relation-
ship (cf. ‘ammi ‘‘my people’’) stemming from the
times of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses (e.g.
Amos 2:4, 6; 3:1f.; 9:14; Hos 1:11 [H 2:2]; 12:13);
nevertheless the covenant relationship continued
through Judah alone after the disastrous fall of
Samaria and the northern kingdom. The name
‘Israel’ is used more specifically of the
covenanted people of God, denoting the totality
of the elect who are united to Yahweh, but Micah
and Isaiah and other writers after the fall of
Samaria use the term ‘“‘Israel’’ when speaking of
Judah which essentially is a political name. Cf.
Isa 5:7; 8:18; Mic 2:12; 3:1, 8-9; 4:14; 5:1. But
Judah as a nation was to last a little over one
hundred years more before her overthrow in 586
B.c. The prophets continually were calling the
people of God to return to true covenant relation-
ship (e.g. Jer 4:4). With the Babylonian exile,
Judah continues its basic identification, though a
people no longer in their own land. During this
period the people of God are called y* hud? nota-
bly in Zech 8:23 and Dan 3:8, 12. A small per-
centage returned to their homeland during the
Persian period, yet both groups ultimately par-
ticipated in God's providential workings. The
remnant restored to the land became the channel
through which the promised Messiah came, born
in David's natal city Bethlehem. The people of
the dispersion provided a bridge for the apostolic
proclamation and the reception of the Gospel. In
this connection special reference should be made
to Est 8:17, ‘‘many among the peoples [in each
and every province] became Jews,’ with the
several nT references to proselytes, i.e. Acts
2:10; 10:1f., and synagogues, i.e. Acts 13:14ff;
13:43; 14:1.

Many believe that Judah and Israel will be re-
stored to covenanta!l favor by the sovereign
steadfast faithfulness of Yahweh. Explicit state-
ments by Hosea (1:9, 10 [H 2:1]; 3:5; 14:4), Amos
(9:8-12), Jeremiah (33:3-26), and Ezekiel
(37:16-28) should be compared to Paul’s teaching
(Rom 9-11) and John’s revelation (Rev 7:4-8).

Bibliography: TDOT, III, pp. 359-65.

P.R.G.
msm (y hada). See no. 850c.
sm (yhudi). See no. 850a.
mesims (yhadit). See no. 850b.
maym) (yhwh). See no. 484a.

851 7° (yhr)

851 <m° (yhr). Assumed root of the following.
8Sla "9 (yahir) proud, haughty; (asv;
Rsv adds *“‘arrogant’’).

LXx translates with alazon. Used only twice tn
the oT, Prov 21:24 and Hab 2:5. Both the Hebrew
parallels and the Greek translation clarify the
meaning. In Prov the parallel words are zéd
‘‘presumptuous, haughty’ and /és ‘‘scoffer™
(q.v.) which are further described as ‘‘one who
acts with insolent pride” (z@ddén). In Hab ‘the
haughty, arrogant man” is one who, betrayed by
wine, is motivated by greed. In short, his confi-
dence is not in the Lord who is in control of the
destinies of all men.

In Wisdom 5:8 alazoneia (‘what has our arro-
gance profited us?"*) is set in contrast to the ways
of the Lord and thus separates from God.

The nT usage of alazoneia focuses more
clearly the meanings involved. In Rom 1:30 and
I] Tim 3:2 the word appears in lists of characteris-
tics which describe the unregenerate who de-
serve to die for these sinful practices. I John 2:16
declares that the ‘‘pride of life’’ does not origi-
nate from the Father. Rather, tt comes from the
sinful heart which arrogantly and defiantly re-
places the sovereign God. Contrawise, he who
truly loves the Father and exalts him as sover-
eign, exhibits his faith commitment by doing his
will. James puts it clearly in perspective when he
speaks of the arrogant man who makes his deci-
sions as if he could dispose of the future without
taking into account that God is sovereign in all
the affairs of life in the final analysis. ‘*Instead
you ought to say, ‘If the Lord will we shall live
and we shall do this or that.” As it is, you boast in
your arrogance. All such boasting is evil’ (4:15—
16). Ribbeck is quoted as defining the aluzdn as
one who “*makes more of himself” than the real-
ity justifies, ‘‘ascribing to himself either more and
better things than he has, or even what he does
not possess at all." and who ‘‘promises what he
cannot perform” (in TDNT. I, p. 226).

In short, vahir reflects an egocentric, arrogant
person.

P.R.G.

sm’ (yahir). See no. 85la.
pom (yahalom). See no. 502b.
699° (yubal). See no. 835b.
»Si° (ydbél). See no. 835e.

852 pit (yom) day, time, year.
Derivative
852a ters (vomam) by day.

The asv and Rsv translate vom similarly with
the latter frequently representing the sense more
accurately (exception: Gen 2:17; 3:5 attest the

370

same Hebrew construction, yet the rsv confuses
the reader by rendering them differently).

Our word is the “most important concept of
time in the ot by which a point of time as well as a
sphere of time can be expressed.”’ The word is
also common in Ugaritic. It can denote: 1. the
period of light (as contrasted with the period of
darkness), 2. the period of twenty-four hours, 3. a
general vague ‘‘time,'’ 4. a point of time, S. a year
(in the plural; I Sam 27:7: Ex 13:10, etc.). Espe-
cially note the following special meanings:
b*yom (frequently ‘“‘when’’: 6° can be replaced
by min or ‘ad), hayyom (frequently “‘today,”” or
some particular day), bimé ‘‘in the time of.”
y“mé ‘as long as*’ (Deut 11:21; Gen 8:22). Akka-
dian umu ‘‘day,” is often combined with ina
‘in,’ inthe form inuima, enima to mean ‘“‘when”’
(e.g. enuma elish), exactly as Hebrew b*yém.
There is no real synonym to our word although
compare ‘ét (“‘time’’) and ‘d/adm (‘‘eternity’’) in
some contexts (Ezk 21:25 [H 30]: Num 13:20,
etc.). Other Hebrew words sometimes translated
‘day’ are: ‘6r “‘light,’’ bdger (the usual Hebrew
word for “‘morning”’ the period of light before
noon; Jud 19:26), shahar (the Northwest Semitic
word for “‘morning-goddess,'* see shahar, halal,
UT 19: no. 2399; Gen 32:25). Finally, yém used
adverbially (kdl-hayyém, Job 1:5; Gen 6:5) paral-
lels tamid (‘‘continually’’) in meaning g)num
4:7). Antonyms of our word are: lay“lad (Gen
8:22), and ‘ereb (Gen 1:5; cf. Dan 8:14). Our
word, a common Semitic root (UT 19: no. 1100),
and the concept of time surrounding it do not
present a unique Hebrew understanding of time
(Jenni, THAT I, yom, ‘‘tag’’). The root occurs
2355 times.

It is important to note that the daytime was not
divided into regular hourly divisions, but accord-
ing to natural phenomena (Ex 18:13; Gen 43:16:
15:12; 18:1, etc.). The night. however, was di-
vided into three watches (perhaps Lam 2:18: Jud
7:19; Ex 14:24). Furthermore, there is apparently
a certain duality in the determination of the be-
ginning and ending of the day with the former
being sometimes evening (Est 4:16; Dan 8:14),
and sometimes morning (Deut 28:66-67; AI, I,
pp. I8O0ff.).

‘‘Day*’ is surrounded by many theological
themes related to God's sovereignty. God, being
eternal, antedates (Isa 43:13; Dan 7: 9) and tran-
scends time (Ps 90:4). Time (‘*days’’) was created
by God (Gen 1) and is under his control (Ps
74:16). Especially, note Joshua’s miraculous
“day” (SOTI, p. 259 ff.). Man is called to recog-
nize this sovereignty by conforming life to the
time divisions established by God (Ex 20:11;
31:17, etc.). God assured the regularity of time
(Gen 8:22), but this does not mean that regularity
is a law to which God is subject. Indeed, it will
someday be divinely suspended (Zech 14:7). Like

cosmological and terrestrial time man’s lifespan
is ordered (Ps 90:10), determined (Ps 139:16), and
controlled (Deut 30:20: Ps 55:23 [H 24]); 91:16;
Isa 38:5) by God. The Bible gives repeated indi-
cations of God's interest in and concern for time
and its events (Gen 26:33; 24:55). Moreover, a
unique (to the ancient world) and ever-present
philosophy of history is exhibited therein.

[The myth makers of the Ancient Near East did
not conceive of time in terms of a horizontal,
linear ordering of events reaching from a histori-
cal beginning to a final consummation of. all
things. Rather, they regarded time as cyclical, the
annual reordering and revitalizing of the uni-
verse. Their creation myths were recited at an-
nual New Year’s festivals as magical words to
accompany a magical ritual in order to reac-
tualize the original cosmology. the passage from
chaos to cosmos. In mythopoeic thought time has
no significance and history no meaning.

But Genesis | betrays a totally different notion
about time. Here time is conceived as linear and
events occur successively within it. Moreover,
from the biblical viewpoint man’s behavior in the
present determines his state in the future. Time is
the defined arena in which it will be demonstrated
that righteousness is rewarded with life and evil is
punished with death. Such a viewpoint invests
man’s time with the greatest moral value and his-
tory serves aS an instrument whereby God's
character can be displayed B.k.w.]

Special notice should also be given to the
theological significance of several constructions
and phrases. yom 'Gsher *‘the day when”’ is used
preponderantly to introduce events with farticu-
lar importance in the history of salvation (Deut
4:32; Num 15:23, etc.; see also the use with sha).
The period ‘‘forty days and forty nights’’ fre-
quently signifies a time of reformation (Gen 7:4;
Ex 16:35; 24:18) and/or trial (Jon 3:4). The word
hayyom sometimes signifies a redemptive time (if
not moment) when repentance is divinely sum-
moned (Ps 95:7), salvation divinely bestowed (Ps
118:24), or adoption divinely effected (Ps 2:7).
For the meaning of the phrase ‘‘days of old,” see
qddam. One of the most debated occurrences of
y6m is its use in reference to creation. The diffi-
culties in exegesis there are complicated by many
factors (see E. J. Young, Studies in Genesis One,
Presbyterian and Reformed, 1964, pp. 43ff.).
Like Young, this writer believes the days of Gen
1 to be intentionally patterned, chronological, of
indeterminable length, initiated with 1:1, in-
tended to show step-by-step how God “changed
the uninhabitable and unformed earth of verse
two into the well-ordered world of verse thirty-
two, and “‘straight-forward, trustworthy his-
tory” (ibid., p. 103ff.). Another much debated
phrase is the “day of the Lord.” It can be used
eschatalogically or noneschatalogically. It is a

371

853 39) (ywn)

854 339 (ywn)

day of judgment and/or blessing (Isa 2). Hence,
the eschatalogica! meaning embraced by this idea
entails all of prophetic eschatology (George A.
Gay, *““Day’’, Baker Dictionary of Theology, p.
156; Jenni, op. cit., loc. cit.; K. D. Schunck,
‘‘Der Tag Jahwehs,’’ VT 14: 319-30). Similar ex-
pressions are bayyém haha’ ‘‘in that day”* which
can refer to ordinary expected events (Isa 21:6)
or can be eschatological and ‘ahdrit hayyamim
which can refer to events in the general future
(Deut 31:29) or to: the eschaton (Harris, R. L.,
‘*The Last Days tn the Bible and Qumran,” in
Jesus of Nazareth Savior and Lord, C. F. H.
Henry, ed., Eerdmans (1966)).

yomam. By day. This adverb modifies the
verbal activity by specifying that it occurred
while it was yet light. Its antonyms are layla (Ex
13:21) and ba‘ ereb (Ezk 12:3-4). Our word oc-
curs fifty-one times.
Bibliography: YDNT, II, pp. 943-48. THAT,
I, pp. 707-26.
L.J.C.

pos’ (yémam). See no. 852a.

I. Assumed root of the following.

853a oT) (yawén) mire (Ps 40:3; 69:3).

854 3° (ywn) Il. Assumed root of the following.

854a tmz (yond) dove, pigeon used
thirty-two times, exclusive of the
personal name or psalm title (56:1).

Translated in Lxx by peristera, the field or rock
dove which in Lev its translated ‘*young pigeon.”
From ancient times this was domesticated for
food and as a carrier pigeon. This should be dis-
tinguished from fér ‘‘turtledove,”’ Lxx frugon.
The term yond, however, may be used generi-
cally for all the different species.

The yénd is used in the Levitical code as a
sacrifice by the poor instead of the more costly
bull or sheep in the burnt offering (Lev 1:14) or in
the case of the sin offering, “‘if he cannot afford a
lamb, then he shall bring to the Lord his guilt
offering for that which he has sinned, two
turtledoves (ft6r) or two young pigeons (ydnda),
one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt
offering’’ (Lev 5:7). Furthermore, in the rites of
purification, a woman who had given birth was to
bring a lamb and a young pigeon or a turtledove
for the dual sacrifice, but ‘if she cannot afford
the lamb, then she shall take two... young pi-
geons’’ (Lev 12:6, 8). Cf. Lk 2:24 where Mary
fulfills her obligation after the manner of the
poor. The doves still represented a valuable per-
sonal possession.

The dove was so familiar to an Israelite house-
hold that its habits were an excellent source of

855 339 (yawan)

similies or metaphors. Its cooing was used in
similies for mourning or lamenting, e.g.
Hezekiah’s ‘‘I moan like a dove”’ (Isa 38:14). Cf.
Isa 59:11; Nah 2:7 [H 8]. In Ps 55:7 David wishes
he had ‘*wings like a dove,” to fly away from the
troubles prevailing upon him. Cf. Jer 48:28. The
meaningless flights back and forth serve as simile
for Ephraim’s vacillation between Assyria and
Egypt, i.e. ‘like a silly dove’’ (Hos 7:11). Hosea
also uses the figure of the returning migration of
doves as a figure depicting the return of exiles
from Assyria.

P.R.G.

855 3° (yaGwan) Greece, Ionia, Ionians. ‘Trans-
literated Javan. Appears eleven times in the
OT, plus once in a disputed passage, Ezk
27:19. A loan word.

In the geneologies of Gen 10 and I Chr Javan is
listed as one of the sons of Japheth along with
Gomer, Magog, Tubal, Meshech, and others.
Gomer’s sons are listed, followed by the sons of
Javan, including Tarshish and Kittim among oth-
ers. The names mentioned above are recognized
immediateiy as significant place names appearing
elsewhere in Scripture. Furthermore Gen 10:5,
20, 30-31 explicitly mentions that these gene-
alogies are by nations. Finally, the Lxx by trans-
lating with J6uan would clearly identify this
name with Ionia, one of the republics of Greece.

When Isaiah speaks of ‘‘Javan’’ among a group
of nations, he refers to them as distant coastlands
that have not known of the Lord’s glory (Isa
66:19). We note in passing that in the prophets,
Lxx translates with Hellas or Hellénes. Ezekiel
refers to Javan as one of the nations which traded
with Tyre (27:13). Further, Daniel has several
references to Greece. Although not specifically
named in chapters 2 and 7, it seems to be in-
cluded as one of the four empires. However, it is
explicitly mentioned in 8:21, ‘‘the shaggy goat
represents the kingdom (lit. king) of Greece, and
the large horn that is between his eyes is the first
king.”

That here we have a reference to Alexander the
Great is clear from the following verse which re-
fers to the ‘‘four kingdoms which will arise from
his nation.”’

In 10:20 Daniel refers to the guardian angel of
Greece with whom the angelic being struggled as
he came to assist Daniel. Daniel also refers to
Greece in a tremendous battle confrontation with
the army of the Persian empire (11:2). Hencefor-
ward, there follows a series of identifiable histor-
ical episodes down to the time of the Seleucid
Antiochus Epiphanes who apparently stands as a
type of the eschatological Antichrist.

Zechariah refers once to Greece in 9:13, ‘‘And
I will stir up your sons, O Zion, against your

372

856 *I8 (yazan).

857 pry (yz‘).

858 “sm (yahad) be united, be joined.

sons, O Greece.”’ It is not quite clear if this is a
historical reference within the fifth century or to
the Seleucid wars in the second century, or pos-
sibly to a future eschatological occasion.

P.R.G.

mai (y6nd). See no. 854a.
P23° (yénéqg). See no. 874a.
nea’ (ydneqet). See no. 874b.
mDie «(ydésép). See no. 876a.
mai (yoreh). See no. 910a.
amv (ydéter). See no. 936d.

Occurs only in the Pual, in
Jer 5:8, possibly meaning ‘furnished with
weights,’’ i.e. testicles, as if from ’dzan II,
but dubious. GB derive from zn, Syriac
‘‘feed,’’ therefore *‘well-fed.”’

Assumed root of the following.

857a = yt* (yeza‘) sweat. This masculine
noun occurs only in Ezk 44:18,
‘they must not wear anything that
makes them perspire’’ (NIV).

85S7b = MYT. (zé‘a) = sweat. A feminine noun
occurring only in Gen 3:19, “‘by the
sweat of your brow, you will eat
your food.”’

oxar (yizre’el). See no. 582e.

(ASV, RSV
similar.) Occurs three times in the Qal,
once in the Piel.

Derivatives

858a tm (ydhid) only, only begotten son.
858b TIM (yahad) unitedness.
858c 3M «(yahddw) together.

yahid. Only, only begotten son, beloved, soli-
tary. Appears eleven times (KJv twice uses
‘‘darling,’’ Rsv renders ‘‘my life’’ following the
poetic parallel with napshi or Ps 22:20, (H 21);
35:17 (NIV ‘‘my precious life’’) and ‘‘desolate’’ in
Ps 68:6 [H 7] (asv follows kiv). Lxx translates it
seven times with agapétos ‘‘beloved’’ and four
times with monogenés ‘‘only begotten.’’ The
Ugaritic cognate is yhd.

Theologically, ydadhid is important as it im-
pinges on nT Christology. The word basically re-
fers to an only child (cf. Ug yhd ‘either ‘a person
without kith or kin’ or ‘an only son’ subject to
military service only under extenuating circum-
stances,’’ UT 19: no. 410). Jephthah’s daughter is
described accordingly, ‘‘now she was his one and
only child, besides her he had neither son nor
daughter’ (Jud 11:34). Consider the pathos elic-
ited in Amos 8:10 where the judgment of God is
described as ‘‘a time of mourning for an only

son’’ (cf. Jer 6:26; Zech 12:10). However, in Gen
22 Abraham is told, ‘‘take now your son, your
only son (yadhid), whom you love (’Ghab), Isaac,
and go to the land of Moriah.’’ Here the Lxx uses
agapétos ‘‘beloved’’ rather than monogenés
‘only begotten’’ as in Jud 11:34. monogenés may
be more specific. If so, it could not apply to Isaac
who had Ishmael as a half brother. It must be
pointed out, however, that even monogenés may
‘‘be used more generally without reference to its
etymological derivation in the sense of ‘unique’,
‘unparalleled,’ ‘incomparable,’’’ (TDNT, IV, p.
738; see especially nn. 5-6).

In what sense is Isaac a yahid = agapétos?
Obviously, an only child 1s especially dear to par-
ents. It is tempting to see here the idea of *‘in-
comparable’ and ‘without parallel’’ anticipating
the Messiah in his ‘‘unique’’ relationship to the
Father who claims him as ho huios mou ho
agapétos *‘my beloved Son’”’ (Mt 3:17; 17:5 and
parallels). This expression finds its equivalence
in John’s ho monogenés huios ‘‘the only begot-
ten son’’ i.e. ‘‘the unique son’’ (Jn 1:14, 18; 3:16,
18; 1 Jn 4:9). The supreme act of God is evidence
of his love for the world. This was prophetically
typified by Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice
Isaac. In Ps 22:20 and 35:17 yahid = monogenés
is variously translated ‘‘my darling,’’ ‘*‘my only
life,’’ referring to the uniqueness of the soul.

[There is thus warrant for the idea that the term
monogenés in John does not refer to derivation of
the Son from the Father as in human families, but
to the uniqueness and love of the Trinitarian rela-
tionship. The doctrine of eternal generation of the
son never meant such derivation. Indeed it was
adopted against the Arian theology that the son
had a ‘‘beginning’’ and was ‘‘made.”’ R.L.H.]

Another use of ydhid is ‘‘solitary,’’ ‘‘iso-
lated,’’ ‘‘lonely.’’ It is used of men, as when
David cries out ‘“‘turn to me and be gracious to
me, for I am lonely and afflicted”’ (Ps 25:16). God
expresses his concern for such in Ps 68:5-6
(H 6-7], ‘‘A father of the fatherless and a judge
for the widows... God makes a home for the
lonely; he leads out the prisoners into pros-
perity.”’ Dahood, by vocalizing mT yahéd as
yahid in Ps 86:11, translates, ‘‘ Yahweh, teach me
your way, that I may walk faithfully to you alone;
teach my heart to revere your name.”’ (Cf. Ps
88:17 [H 18] ‘‘they close in on me alone”’ as in
contrast to ‘‘encompassed me altogether.’’) He
then comments, ‘‘The king pledges fidelity to
Yahweh alone since he alone is God, as affirmed
in the preceeding verse’ (AB, Psalms, II, p.
295). Generally, yahad describes the community
in action, doing things together. In Ps 34:3 (H 4];
Isa 52:9, the community extols the praise of God
together. This unanimity especially for the people
of God is beautifully underscored by the Lxx’s
use of homothumadon (‘‘with the same emo-

373

859 9m (yahal)

tion,” i.e. ‘‘with the same mind’’) “‘unani-
mously.’’ Demosthenes urges the people to set
aside personal feelings replacing it by homo-
thumadon to resist Philip. Hence, personal feel-
ings are not to be considered in ‘‘unity.’’ The NT
stresses the inner unanimity of the church, as in
Rom 15:4—5, *‘May God... grant you to be of the
same mind with one another according to Christ
Jesus, that with one accord you may with one
voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord
Jesus Christ.’’ See also Acts 1:14; 2:1, 46; 4:24;
$2123.15:23;

yahad. Unitedness, as adverb when accusative
in union, together, altogether, also adverb
yahdaw together, alike, both appearing alto-
gether 134 times. Lxx primarily translates with
homothumadon ‘‘with one mind, unanimously.”’

P.R.G.

yam’) (yahdaw). See no. 858c.
sm (yahid). See no. 858a.
osm (yahil). See no. 859a.

859 9m’ (yahal) wait, hope.

Derivatives
859a 8M (yahil) waiting, used only in
Lam 3:26.

859b fmomin (téhelet) hope.

_yahal occurs eighteen times in the Piel, fifteen
times in the Hiphil and three in the Niphal with
the idea of ‘‘tarrying’’ and ‘‘confident expecta-
tion, trust.’’ The Lxx translates it nineteen times
with elpizé and epelpiz6 ‘*to hope.’’ asv and RSv
translate similarly.

In the three instances where ydhal is used in
Niphal it has the simple concept of waiting for a
short period of time, e.g. Noah ‘‘waited yet
another seven days’’ before sending the dove
(Gen 8:12). Cf. Ezk 19:5. This notion also is ex-
pressed in the Piel (Job 14:14) and the Hiphil (I
Sam 13:8). However, ydhal is used of *‘expecta-
tion, hope’’ which for the believer is closely
linked with ‘‘faith, trust’’ and results in ‘patient
waiting.’’ The sense of expectation may be posi-
tive, i.e. hoping for good in the future. Ezekiel
13:6 1s a case in point, where people rely on the
declarations of the false prophets *‘yet they hope
for the fulfillment of their word.’’ Cf. Ps 71:14,
‘**But as for me, I will hope continually.’’ Since
ydhal is primarily translated by e/pizd in the Lxx
with the good in view, the opposite notion (Heb
z°wa‘a ‘‘fear’’ or ‘‘dread’’ in Isa 28:19) is trans-
lated elpis ponéra, lit. ‘‘hope of evil.’’ This ydhal
‘*hope’’ is not a pacifying wish of the imagination
which drowns out troubles, nor is it uncertain (as
in the Greek concept), but rather yadhal ‘‘hope”’
is the solid ground of expectation for the righte-
ous. As such it is directed towards God. The

860 *am> (yaham)

Psalmist twice commands: *‘O Israel, hope in the
Lord, for with the Lord there is lovingkindness
(Heb hesed), and with him is abundant redemp-
tion’’ (Ps 130:7: cf. 131:3).

In times of despair, the Psalmist encourages
himself by saying, ‘Hope in God, for I shall yet
praise him, the help of his presence’ (Ps 42:5
(H 6]; also 42:11 (H 12]; 43:5).

However, no greater testimony to such confi-
dent expectation is given than when Job cries
out, ‘“Though he slay me, I will hope in him.
Nevertheless, I will argue my ways before him”
(Job 13:15). However asv and rsv render the
verse, ‘‘Behold, he will slay me; I have no hope”’
following mt Kethib reading instead of the Qere
which is supported by the Lxx and other versions,
in which case, Job’s impatience demonstrates his
refusal to ‘‘patiently wait’’ for the Lord (cf. Job
6:11). Nevertheless, ydhal, “‘hope’’ is a close
synonym to bdatah ‘‘trust’’ and gawd “wait for,
hope for,’ as in Mic 7:7, ‘‘But as for me, I will
wait for the God of my salvation. My God will
hear me.”’ The last phrase clearly demonstrates
the confidence of the righteous in God's future
action at a time when sin is being judged. But
further, the verse reflects not only the ground of
faith, the Lord himself, but the saving activity of
his God. In short, that which is hoped for is not
some desideratum arising from one’s imagina-
tion, but in God himself and whatever he should
propose to accomplish. One is reminded of the
Christian’s confidence as expressed in Rom
8:28-29. Hence the godly may confidently rest on
God's word, e.g. ‘‘Those who fear thee shall see
me rejoice, because I have hoped in thy word”
(Ps 119:74, NasB weakens this ‘*because I wait for
thy word’’). Cf. also 119:43, 81, 114, 147; 130:5.
He may also be confident about God's faithful
convenant love, e.g. ‘“‘Behold, the eye of the
Lord is on those who fear him, on those who
hope for his loving kindness (hesed, Ps 33:18).
Cf. also Lam 3:21, 24.

Not only does ‘‘hope’’ bring relief from present
problems, but also in the eschatological sense
‘*hope’’ in God’s help and ultimate salvation will
bring to an end all distress. One needs to look at
Isa 51:5 where God promises his omnipotent
help, ““My righteousness is near, my salvation
has gone forth, and my arms will judge the
people; the coastland will wait for me, and for my
arm they will wait expectantly.’’ Cf. also Jer
29:11; 31:17; Mic 7:7.

téhelet. Hope. [This word may refer in two
verses of Prov to a confidence in a future life. In
Prov 10:28 the joyful téhelet of the nghteous is
contrasted with the no hope (tiqgwd) of the
wicked. The previous verse concerns long life
and sudden death so the questions of eternity are
in view. Proverbs 11:7 seems to support this idea;

374

860 *am’ (yaham) be hot;

at death the hope of the wicked is gone. The
words ‘ahdrit and tiqgw4a (q.v.) are open to similar
interpretations in Prov 23:18; 24:14, 20. There,
the righteous man is said to have an ‘ahdrit (NIV
‘‘future hope’’) in contrast to the wicked who has
none and whose lamp will be snuffed out. Sol-
omon, like Job, found the resolution of the anti-
momies of this existence in the judgments of a
future life. R.L.H.]
Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 583-85; VI, pp.
193-202. THAT, I, pp. 727-29.
P.R.G.

Piel, conceive.

Derivative

860a mem (héma) heat, hot displeasure,
indignation, anger, wrath, poison, bot-
tles (ASV and RSV use various
synonyms).

The noun hémd, according to BDB, is derived
from the verb ydham ‘‘be hot,’” which is used
only in Piel and means ‘‘to be tn heat” or “‘to
conceive.’ That the noun hémd is derived from
the verb hdmam ‘‘be or become warm,” **be-
come hot,’’ is also entirely possible, for its vari-
ous derivatives (hom, ham, hamma) all mean
heat as from the sun or a fire. Ugaritic uses the
word hm ‘heat,’ but does not use either verb
(UT 19: no. 870). Actually, the two verbs may be
by-forms; their meanings are similar. However,
since hémd is used in the ot of heat within a
person, i.e. his heart, mind, etc., the word could
well be related to the root yadham which refers
primanily to conception.

The ot has a number of synonyms for héma
and each has its specific emphasis (see gasap for
a discussion).

The term héma is used a few times to indicate
physical heat in the sense of a fever or of poison
causing fever (Deut 32:24, 33). However, the
term is used, as a rule, to convey the concept of
an inner, emotional heat which rises and is
fanned to varying degrees. The context usually
gives a clue as to which translation should be
preferred, whether anger, hot displeasure, indig-
nation, wrath, rage or fury. Thus, in Ps 37:8, ina
progressive parallelism, the Psalmist says,
‘*Cease from anger (’ap), yes from intense, hot
anger (hémda). (Cf. also Jer 20.)

The oT speaks of man's hémd. Esau’s reaction
to his brother’s deception was one of intense heat
(Gen 27:44), so also could a king’s reaction be to
the death of his warriors (II Sam 11:20). Naaman
went away in a rage (II Kgs 5:12). Ahasuerus was
furious with Haman (Est 7:7, 10). A man’s
jealousy is the source of his ‘‘rage’’ (Prov 6:34).
The prophets spoke of the fury of the oppressors
(Isa 51:13) and Ezekiel of his own hot anger or

fury (Ezk 3:14). These examples indicate a va-
riety of reasons for this “‘heat in men,’ and show
that rage and fury could be considered the legiti-
mate translation in many instances.

In various places where hém4 appears it refers
to God’s reaction to his unfaithful covenant
people (Deut 9:19; Jer 42:18). God is aroused to
great heat because he, as a jealous God, sees the
people he loves disobey him and appeal to, or
consort with, sinners or “‘no gods.’” He then ex-
presses his rage or pours out his fury (Ezk 36:6).
Other nations who violate his intentions and
Word, also experience God's displeasure by the
pouring out of God's fury (Jer 10:25; Nah 1:2, 6).
God's indignations and fury are abated and ap-
peased when he has poured them out in judgment
(Jer 42:18). Remorse and repentance would not
avert it (II Kgs 22:13-17). However, Phinehas,
jealous with God's jealousy, having killed the
lawbreaker, did turn God's heat away from Israel
(Num 25:11). The point seems clear, once God is
provoked to hémd, satisfaction of some kind
must be made by the execution of judgment upon
the cause of it.

G.V.G.
“vam (yahmur). See no. 685b.
861 SM’ (yhp). Assumed root of the following.
86la AM (yahép) barefoot.

862 *wm> (yahas) enroll or be enrolled. De-
nominative verb used in the Hithpael.

Parent Noun

862a =wM «(yahas) genealogy.

863 38° (ydtab) be good, be well, be glad, be
pleasing.

Derivative
863a 93% (metab) the best.

yatab is used forty-two times in the Qal imper-
fect and sixty-three times in the Hiphil. The
Hiphil infinitive is used adverbially, ‘‘diligently,
thoroughly.’’ For Qal perfect the ot uses 6b
(q.v.).

When David prays in Ps 51:18 {H 20], “‘Do
good in thy good pleasure unto Zion,” he ac-
knowledges that the covenant Lord is the source
of all that is good and pleasing to mankind. This
‘doing good”’ is not capricious, but based on the
covenant relationship revealed to the patriarchs
(which was in turn based on God’s free mercy
and choice), e.g. when Jacob prepares to face
Esau, he prays, “‘O God of my father Ab-
raham...O Lord, who said to me, ‘Return to
your country and to your relatives, and I will
prosper you (lit. will do good with you). I am

375

864 19° (yayin)

unworthy of all the lovingkindness (hesed *‘‘co-
venant love’; q.v.) and of all the faithfulness
which thou hast shown to thy servant™’ (Gen 32:9
[H 10]). The prosperity in view (see also v. 12 [H
13]) is in the context of covenantal relation as
evidenced by the name Lord (yhwh), lovingkind-
ness (hesed), faithfulness (‘emet ‘‘truth’’) and
servant (‘ebed). This helps to understand God's
dealing well with the midwives (Ex 1:20), and
Solomon (I Kgs 1:47). God's ‘*doing good”’ to his
people pervades the book of Deut in the fre-
quently repeated formula “‘that it may go well
with you’ (4:40; 5:16, 29 (H 26]; 6:3, 18; 12:25,
28; 22:7) and often in Jer (7:23; 38:20: 40:9; 42:6).

Conversely, the covenanted servant's re-
sponse is ever to be well pleasing to his Lord.
Hence, Solomon's prayer is commended as
‘‘pleasing in the sight of the Lord” (lit. ‘‘be good
in the eyes of’). Cf. Ps 69:31 [H 32]. Jeremiah
laments over the decadent Jews in 4:22, *‘They
are stupid children,... they are shrewd to do
evil, but to do good they do not know,” and
Isaiah (1:17) calls them to a radical decision of
repentance, *‘Learn to do good, seek justice, re-
prove the ruthless, defend the orphan,” etc. Cf.
Gen 4:7, Jer 13:23 and the various calls of the
prophets to ‘‘amend your ways and your doings’’
(e.g. Jer 7:3; 26:13).

This vertical relationship its the theological
basis for the horizontal relationship between
men, as in Gen 34:18, ‘“‘their words pleased
Hamor.”’ See Neh 2:5-6. This pleasing interper-
sonal relationship makes a joyful or glad heart.
Cf. Eccl 7:3; Prov 15:13; 17:22.

All of these notions converge on the Lord
Jesus Christ who as the God-Man epitomizes
them, for ‘*he went about doing good”’ (i.e. heal-
ing, etc.) ever pleasing the Father who had sent
him.

[Aside from the usages in which yatab refers to
God’s beneficent attitude and dealings with his
people, the verb seems to refer to beneficence in
general whether or not it is associated with fidel-
ity and righteousness of character. E.g. it is used
in connection with the trickery of Jacob’s sons at
Shechem [Gen 34:18], of Pharaoh's pleasure at
Jacob's coming to Egypt (Gen 45:16), of the
idolatrous priest's pleasure, at joining the Danites
(Jud 18:20), of David’s agreement with Joab to
stay away from the battle (I] Sam 18:4 [H 5]). The
word is also used in the sense of doing something
well or diligently. It is even used of going to ex-
cess in sin (Mic 7:3)! R.L.H.]

P.R.G.

864 3° (yayin) wine.

Probably a loan word. It has cognates in
Indo-European: Greek oinos, Latin vinum,
German Wein. It also appears in the Semitic lan-

865 *n3) (yakah)

guages, Akkadian inu, Arabic wayn (meaning
‘‘black grapes’’), and Ugaritic yn (UT 19: no.
1093). The word is used 140 times, 12 of these in
combination with shékar (kJv ‘“‘wine and strong
drink’’: NIV sometimes ‘‘wine and beer’’). Its in-
toxicating properties are mentioned at least
twenty times. It is mentioned as a common drink,
an element in banquets and as the material used
in libation offerings. These are called ‘‘drink of-
ferings’’ in KJV, RSV, NIV, etc., but they were not
drunk. The related Hebrew verb (ndsak) means
‘‘to pour out.’ These offerings were poured out
on the sacrifices on the brazen altar (Ex 29:40 and
30:9), but in sarcasm the heathen gods are spoken
of as eating the food and drinking the drink offer-
ings given them (Deut 32:38).

Wine was forbidden to priests while minister-
ing (Lev 10:9—there is a hint that Nadab and
Abihu in Lev 10:1—7 desecrated the sanctuary in
drunkenness). Nazirites also and Samson's
mother-to-be were to drink no wine or shékar
(NIV ‘“‘fermented drink’’; Jud 13:4; Num 6:3). The
Israelites ‘‘ate no bread and drank no wine” dur-
ing the forty years in the wilderness, (Deut 29:6).
Kings were to avoid it so as to govern with a clear
head (Prov 31:4-5). Solomon warns against the
use of wine because of its final tragic conse-
quences (Prov 23:30-31).

Abundance of wine, however, is taken as a
symbol of affluence (Gen 49:11-12; I Chr 12:40;
Ezk 27:18). There are places that speak of the lift
to the feelings that wine brings (Zech 10:7; II Sam
13:28; Est 1:10; Ps 104:15; Eccl 9:7-10; 10:19; Isa
55:1). It may be questioned whether in these
verses wine is commended because of this lift or
if the verses use the freedom from inhibition of
incipient drunkenness as a symbol of plenty and
blessing—cf. Nathan’s reference to David’s po-
lygamy as a symbol of God’s giving him great
riches (II Sam 12:8).

Wine is also used in symbolic ways of the drink
that wisdom mingles (Prov 9:2), of the Lord’s
wrath (Jer 25:15, etc.) of disaster (Ps 60:3 [H 5])
of Babylon’s judgment (Jer 51:7) of violence
(Prov 4:17) and of desire (Song 1:2; 4:10).

Wine was the most intoxicating drink known in
ancient times. All the wine was light wine, 1.e.
not fortified with extra alcohol. Concentrated al-
cohol was only known in the Middle Ages when
the Arabs invented distillation (‘‘alcohol”’ is an
Arabic word) so what is now called liquor or
strong drink (i.e. whiskey, gin, etc.) and the
twenty per cent fortified wines were unknown in
Bible times. Beer was brewed by various
methods, but its alcoholic content was light. The
strength of natural wines is limited by two fac-
tors. The percentage of alcohol will be half of the
percentage of the sugar in the juice. And if the
alcoholic content is much above 10 or 11 percent,
the yeast cells are killed and fermentation ceases.

376

Probably ancient wines were 7-10 per cent.
Drunkenness therefore was of course an ancient
curse, but alcoholism was not as common or as
severe as it is today. And in an agricultural age,
its effects were less deadly than now. Still, even
then it had its dangers and Prov 20:1 and 23:29-35
are emphatic in their warnings. To avoid the sin
of drunkenness, mingling of wine with water was
practiced. This dilution was specified by the
Rabbis in nT times for the wine then customary at
Passover. The original Passover did not include
wine (Deut 20:6).

Related words are shékar, probably beer, ‘asis
perhaps wine from other fruit juices (Song 8:2),
tirosh (q.v.) apparently the fresh juice from the
vineyard, never by itself associated with intoxi-
cation.

R.L.H.

865 *M>° (ydkah) decide, judge, prove, rebuke,

reprove, correct. (ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

865a tamsin (tékéhd) reproof, rebuke.
865b TAMSIN (tdkahat) argument, reproof.

yakah does not occur in the Qal. It is used
fifty-four times in the Hiphil, and three times in
the Niphal.

The juridical notion of ydkah is clearly estab-
lished by one of its early uses: Laban, having
caught up with Jacob and having searched in vain
through all Jacob’s belongings for his valuable
amulets, is scolded by Jacob, ‘‘What is my sin,
that you have set in hot pursuit after me? Though
you have felt through all my goods, what have
you found? Set it here before my relatives and
yours, that they may decide (i.e. judge) between
us two’’ (Gen 31:36f.). Then referring to Laban’s
dream the night before, he claims, **God has seen
my affliction... and rebuked you last night.”’
NASB translates, “‘So He rendered judgment last
night’’; Niv ‘‘rebuked”™’ (v. 42). See also I Chr
12:18; Job 9:33 where *‘daysman”’ is used, but
ASV and RSV “‘umpire.’’ Yet other usages are also
witnessed, e.g. Gen 24:14, 44, ‘‘appointed.”’

The forensic use 1s clearest in the covenant
lawsuit context. See Huffmon, JBL 78: 286—95S.
Psalm 50:8, 21, Hos 4:4, and Mic 6:2 are consid-
ered cases where Yahweh in his covenant rela-
tion with a people who have repeatedly broken
the covenant, now brings a lawsuit against them
after the pattern of Deut 32. Dahood translates Ps
50:21c, ‘‘] will accuse you and draw up a case
before your eyes’’ (AB, 16, p. 304, but asv ‘‘re-
prove,’ Niv, ‘‘I will rebuke you and accuse you
to your face’’). He refers to Job 40:2 where the
nuance of the participle mdkiah ‘“‘he who ac-
cuses’’ God (rsv ‘the who argues’’) is clearly
present as understood by the ancient versions.

However, the most familiar passage where yakah
occurs is in Isa 1:18 which is within a covenant
lawsuit. Following a record of rebellion where
Yahweh, the plaintiff, condemns Judah for their
self-designed religious festivals (1:10—15), Isaiah
issues a call to repentance (1:16—20). Within this
context then we should understand the expres-
sion ‘‘let us reason together’’ (KJv, NIV aS mean-
ing ‘‘let us debate our case in court.’’ Micah 6:2
supports this notion, speaking of **the indictment
of Yahweh,”’ then of Yahweh's case against his
people”’ (rib ‘‘lawsuit, case’’) in parallel with the
phrase ‘‘with Israel he will dispute’ (Rsv and asv
‘will contend,’’ Nrv ‘“‘is lodging a charge,’’ BDB
‘‘will argue’’). This judicial element, which is the
primary meaning of ydkah, has a clear theologi-
cal basis as seen in Isa 11:3, where the activities
of ‘‘the Stem of Jesse, the Branch’’ is spoken of
as one who “‘will not judge (shaphat) by what his
eyes see, nor make a decision by what his ears
hear.’’ The parallelism underscores our thesis. In
addition, v. 4 uses the same two words, “But
with righteousness he will judge the poor, and
decide with fairness for the afflicted of the earth’’
in connection with the ever loving concern for the
innocent party, the poor, the widow, the orphan,
who are oppressed by the greedy and ruthless (cf.
Isa 1:17, 23; Mic 6:8). But it is precisely because
of the covenant that Yahweh acts in such a man-
ner, that he requires his people to exhibit in their
lives this element of the imago dei.

It is not without significance that Lev 19:17
enjoins the people of God to confront their
neighbors when they sin, ‘‘thou shalt surely re-
buke your neighbor’’ (Asv), “‘you may surely re-
prove’’ (NASB). RSV weakens it considerably with
‘‘you shall reason with.’’ This in view of the
command “‘you shall be holy, for I the Lord your
God am holy’”’ (v. 2). But this confrontation has
two reasons attached: to avoid developing a
hatred for the neighbor, and to avoid complicity
in his sin. Verse 18 further amplifies the action
with the second great commandment, ‘* You shall
love your neighbor as yourself.’’ Confrontation,
rebuke, correction is to be considered, therefore,
as an integral part of brotherly love.

To rebuke, to correct, to convince or convict
would not only imply exposure of one’s sin but
also to call a person to repentance. It has a
theofugal motion which points away from sin and
to repentance toward God. Hence the tremen-
dous implication for discipline in the church—not
only to purnify.the Body of Christ, but also to
restore the wayward to holy living and covenan-
tal service (cf. Mt 18:15; Eph 5:11; I Tim 5:20;
II Tim 4:2, etc.).

Furthermore, when one examines the many
passages that speak of God’s loving correction
(e.g. Prov 3:12, *“‘For whom Yahweh loves he
reproves’’; Job 5:17), one finds the parallel term

377

866 %>° (ydkol) be able, prevail,

866 95° (yakol)

ydasar ‘‘to instruct, discipline’’ or musar ‘*disci-
pline, instruction’ (Ps 6:1 [H 2]; Job 5:17; Prov
3:11 [H 12]; 10:17; 12:1; 13:18; 15:5, etc.). It is
evident that there is a pedagogic force to yakah
and ydsar. But whereas ydsar has the notion of
paternal chastisement (as evidenced by the Lxx’s
translating paideud), yadkah denotes education
and discipline as a result of God’s judicial ac-
tions. ‘‘This embraces all aspects of education
from the conviction of the sinner to chastisement
and punishment, from the instruction of the
righteous by severe tests to his direction by teach-
ing and admonition’’ (Buchsel, in TDNT, II, p.
473). [For a somewhat varying view of the cov-
enant lawsuit motif, see the articles on mishpat
and rib. R.L.H.]

tékeha. Reproof, rebuke, correction (only four
occurrences). Translated in Lxx as elegchos ‘‘re-
futation, correction’’ (ASV and Rsv “rebuke,
punishment’’).

toékahat. Argument, reproof, correction. Often
used in parallel with muasar (q.v.) ‘‘discipline, in-
struction, discipline.’’
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 730-31.
P.R.G.

overcome
(ASV and RSv similar.)

yakol is translated in the Lxx mostly by
dunamai ‘‘\ can, am able’ which is used in a
rather weak sense as in contrast to ischuod ‘‘be
strong, powerful.’ yakol is used of ability or
capacity in a physical, ethical, or religious sense.
The negative particle is used in about 85 percent
of the 199 times it occurs in the ot. Whereas the
Hebrew word expresses only a weak ability, the
Aramaic y°kil seems to express greater power.

The basic meaning ‘‘to be able”’ is used primar-
ily of man. It refers (with the negative) to lack of
self control, as Joseph not being able to restrain
himself (Gen 45:1; cf. v. 3); or to inability to con-
trol circumstances as Moses’ mother no longer
being able to hide him (Ex 2:3; see also Gen 13:6;
Ex 7:21). It is also used of capacity in virtue of
ability, again, negatively of the magicians not
having the ability to replicate the miracles of
Moses (Ex 9:11) and of the tribes of Israel *‘not
being able to drive out’’ the enemy out of their
newly inherited territory (e.g. Josh 15:63; 17:12;
Jud 2:14; cf. also Deut 31:2; Isa 36:14; Lam 1:14).

In the moral or religious sense, there is the
limitation of prohibition, often translated **you
may not’’ such as tn Deut 17:15, *“*You may not
put a foreigner [as king] over yourselves”’ (cf.
also Deut 7:22; 12:17; 16:5; 21:16, etc., all in Qal
imperfect). Perhaps the most impressive example
of God’s command as delimiting the power of
man is Balaam’s statement, *“Though Balak were

867 32% (yalad)

to give me his house full of silver and gold, I
could not do anything... contrary to the com-
mand of Yahweh" (Num 22:18; cf. 24:13, asv “‘I
cannot go beyond the word of Jehovah my
God’).

However, yakol is correctly translated ‘*pre-
vail, overcome’’ when used of men in wrestling
or battling. A prominent example would be
Jacob's wrestling with the Angel of Yahweh (Gen
32:25ff.). The Angel does not overcome Jacob,
and then Jacob’s name is changed to ‘‘Israel, for
you have striven with God and with me and have
prevailed.’’ In I Sam 17:9, Goliath puts alterna-
tives before Saul’s army. “‘If he is able to fight
with me and kill me, then we will become your
servants, but if I prevail against him and kill him,
then you shall become our servants and serve
us.’
yakol is also used of the gods. In II Chr 32:13-
15, Sennacherib sardonically gloats over the in-
ability of the various gods of the nations to pro-
tect them from his mighty army. But his equating
the God of Israel with the national deities proves
to be his downfall (cf. v. 19), for Yahweh of
hosts, the sovereign God of the universe, is in-
deed able to deliver his covenant people from
Sennacherib. He is the God of history, creating
and sustaining the world, and his power and will
affect the destinies of nations and of individual
lives. This power of God is assumed by Moses
when he intercedes for the Israelites who deserve
to be destroyed. But what would the heathen na-
tions say, that ““Yahweh could not bring this
people into the land he promised by oath, there-
fore he slaughtered them in the wilderness”
(Num 14:16; Deut 9:28). But it is precisely ‘‘by
thy great power (b*kohadkad haggddol) and thine
outstretched arm’’ (Deut 9:29) that Yahweh ex-
hibits his mighty power to deliver and to redeem
his people.

God's sovereign power is in clear focus in
Daniel’s Aramaic cognate y° kil. In Dan 3:17f. the
three friends of Daniel make an eloquent confes-
sion of faith, ‘“‘Our God, whom we serve is able to
deliver us from the furnace of blazing fire’’ (cf.
3:29, Nebuchadnezzar’s statement contrasting
God’s power against that of heathen gods).
Nebuchadnezzar, from his personal experience,
affirms God's sovereign power to control the des-
tinies of proud and powerful individuals (4:37,
(Aram 34]; cf. Dan 6:20 [Aram 6:21)).

With reference to the concept of power,
Strength, and omnipotence of God, several
synonymous nouns or adjectives should be
noted: hayil ‘‘ability, power, competence,
strength’’ as in Ps 84:7 [H 8], ‘“‘They go from
strength to strength.’’ A stronger synonym is
kéah ‘‘strength, power’’ which is used of God's
power in creation (Jer 10:12; 51:15; Ps 65:7) and
governance of the universe (Ps 29:4). As noted

378

above, in Deut 9:26—29, the Israelites were re-
deemed by the great kéah of Yahweh, a much
stronger term than the root yadkd/ would imply,
for here it expresses the great deployment of
God's power. Finally when referring to a person
‘‘who can do something’ (seeking to express
power, might, or dominion) such as a ruler, the
Hebrew uses gibbér ‘“‘strong, mighty, valiant
man’’ (Jud 6:12); hadzdq “strong, stout, mighty
(one) (Isa 28:2: Amos 2:14); Sar ‘‘chief, ruler,
captain, prince’ (Dan 11:5).
Bibliography: Grundmann, in TDNT, II, pp.
284ff.
P.R.G.

867 329 (ydlad) bear, beget, bring forth, gender,

travail. The Ugaritic y/d is simular.

Derivatives
867a 793 (waldd) child (Gen 11:30).

867b thos (yeled), mI9° (yaldad) child,
son, youth.
867c =o masos) (yaldit) youth, childhood.

This noun, which occurs only three
times, may indicate the time when
One is young, or the quality of being
young.

867d tie? (yilldd) born. An _ adjective
equivalent to the passive participle
of yalad.

867e 9° (yalid) born.
construct state.

867f tms2i% (mdledet) kindred, relatives.
Sometimes wrongly translated as
‘*nativity’’ or “*birth.”’

867g tmisoimn (r16lédét) descendants, _ re-
sults, proceedings. Always used in
the plural and in the construct state
or with a pronominal suffix.

The root wid (yld in Northwest Semitic) is a
common Semitic root (cf. Arabic walada, Akka-
dian (w)aladu, Ugaritic yld and Phoenician in-
scriptions yld.

In its narrowest sense ydlad describes the act
of a woman in giving birth to a child (e.g. Ex 1:19;
I Kgs 3:17-18), but it is sometimes used of the
father’s part in becoming a parent (e.g. Gen 4:18;
10:8, 24, 26; 22:23, 25:3; 1 Chr 1:10-20, Prov
23:22). It may be used with reference to the
whole procedure involved in producing a child
(e.g. Gen 38:27-28) or it may even be specifically
applied to the pains of a woman prior to the ac-
tual birth (e.g. Gen 35:16; Mic 5:33). Although
predominantly used of human beings it is occa-
sionally used of animals (e.g. Gen 30:39; 31:8;
Job 39:1-2, Jer 14:5; Ezk 31:6). A man’s part in
the production of a child is generally represented
by the Hiphil, but sometimes the Qal is used.
[Critics sometimes explain this usage as due to

Used only in the

documentary division. It is claimed that the
Hiphil usage as in Gen 1!1 is characteristic of P
and the Qal as in Gen 10 betokens J. It is more
likely that the different forms mean different
things. In most every instance actual paternity is
represented by the Hiphil and a more general re-
lationship like relationship of peoples (the Table
of Nations, Gen 10) uses the Qal. Thus Ps 2:7 is
not causative, but refers to a relation of love. The
Qal is used. R.L.H.] In the Piel the verb means ‘‘to
do the office of midwife.’ Except for Ex 1:16 this
usage is confined to the Piel participle. Both Nip-
hal and Pual are commonly used for the passive
of the Qal. Hophal is used occasionally with the
same meaning (Gen 40:20, Ezk 16:4—5). Hithpael
is used once to mean “‘declare their pedigrees’ or
‘register by ancestry’’ (Num 1:18).

The word is often used in a figurative sense.
Thus it may refer to a city or nation as having
given birth to its inhabitants (e.g. Isa 23:4; 51:18;
Ezk 16:20). It may refer to the wicked as having
brought forth evil, lies or stubble (e.g. Job 15:35;
Ps 7:15; Isa 33:11). ** Bringing forth wind” is used
as a vivid figure of frusration (Isa 26:18). Often
ydlad is used as a simile for distress (e.g. Isa
42:14; Jer 30:6; Mic 4:10). Once it speaks of the
day as bringing forth the events that will occur in
it (Prov 27:1). God is spoken of as having given
birth to Israel (Deut 32:18). The word may be
followed by an accusative, but ts often used
without an object. When used in the passive the
effective agent is generally introduced by lamed.

The word does not necessarily point to the
generation immediately following. In Hebrew
thought, an individual by the act of giving birth to
a child becomes a parent or ancestor of all who
will be descended from this child. Just as Chnist is
called a son of David and a son of Abraham,
yalad may show the beginning of an individual's
relationship to any descendant.

The various derivatives indicate special as-
pects or relationships that are in some way con-
nected with birth, though sometimes this relation
is rather distant.

The word is used in several important theologi-
cal connections.

A constant threat to the Lord’s promise that
the patriarchs’ seed would be innumerable and a
blessing to all the families of the earth was the
barrenness of their wives (Gen 16:1; 17:17; 18:13;
25:21). But God fulfilled his promise by causing
their barren wombs to bear. Then too, during
such times of crisis in the life of his people, the
Lord demonstrated his sovereign saving control
of their destiny by promising that elect women
would give birth to sons who would save their
people (Jud 13:3, 5, 7; 1 Sam 1:2-10). This theme
finds its consummation in the birth of Jesus
Christ (Isa 7:14; 9:5; Mt 1).

Great joy accompanied the birth of a son. But

379

867 35° (yalad)

some found the trials of life so severe that they
wished they had never been born (Job 3:3; Jer
15:10; 20:14). More tragic, however, is the case
of Judas Iscariot who, because of his betrayal of
Jesus, would have been better off had he never
been born (Lk 16:24).

The apostasy of Israel becomes more painful
and tragic in the light of the reality that the Lord
‘*begot’’ them, a metaphor denoting that he gave
them life and cared for them during their tender
years (Deut 32:18; cf. Ezk 17:20; 23:4, 37). See
‘ab ‘father’ and ben ‘‘son’’.

ydlad in Ps 2:7 (note that it is not Hiphil) refers
to the relationship of love between the Father and
the Son. The nT interprets it of Christ's resurrec-
tion and session at the Father’s nght hand (Acts
13:33; Heb 1:3-5; 5:5) (cf. Buswell, J. O., Sys-
tematic Theology of the Christian Religion [Zon-
dervan, 1962] pp. I, 107-112; II, 18).

yeled. Child, young man, son, boy, fruit (RSV
similar; adds youths). yalda. Girl, damsel
(RSV ‘‘girl,’’ “*maiden’’).

These words are generally used for very young
children but may refer to adolescents and some-
times even young adults (e.g. I Kgs 12:8-14;
II Kgs 2:24; I] Chr 10:8-14). Once yeled refers to
a fetus (Ex 21:22). In Job 38:41; 39:3 and Isa 11:7
the plural is used for the young of animals. In one
instance the word is used to mean descendants
(Isa 29:23). It is used in a figurative sense to rep-
resent the Israelites as either ‘‘children of trans-
gression’ (Isa 57:4) or *‘a child of delights’’ (Jer
31:20).

yilléd. Born. An adjective equivalent to the
passive participle of ydalad.

yalid. Born, children, sons (Rsv ‘‘born,’’ ‘‘de-
scendants’’). This noun found only in the con-
struct state, has the same meaning as a passive
participle of ydlad. It is generally used to desig-
nate the children born to slaves already pos-
sessed by an Israelite (seven occurrences). It is
also used three times of the children of Anak and
twice of sons (or children) of ‘‘the giant(s)’’ (or
Rephaim). Willesen tries to prove that the word
must always refer to slaves, since he feels that it
would be too much spread of meaning for the one
word to be used for men of distinction and also
for slaves. With such meager evidence, the ar-
gument ts not well founded. Note the breadth of
meaning in such words as p* gudda and mipqad.

moledet. Kindred, nativity, issue, born, begotten,
native (RSV translates similarly, but adds
‘*birth’’). This noun should properly be inter-
preted as ‘‘relatives’’ or ‘*kindred”’ (occasionally
referring to one individual, but generally used as
a collective). All its occurrences can be inter-
preted in line with this meaning, although in a few
cases explanation may be necessary (see below).

868 *559 (yalal)

It has been suggested that mdéledet must mean
‘“birthplace’’ since the prefix m- is sometimes
used to form nouns indicating place. However,
this prefix also forms nouns of other types, hav-
ing nothing to do with place. Frequently médledet
has a general meaning (six times following the
construct of ‘‘land’’ and five times being parallel
to ‘‘land’’ or ‘‘country.’’) Often ‘‘kindred’’ or
‘‘birthplace’’ would fit equally well. But there are
a few contexts where mdéledet could not possibly
mean “‘birthplace.’’ In Gen 48:6, where it points
to Joseph's posterity, ‘‘relatives’’ would fit, but
‘birth’ or ‘‘birthplace’’ would be quite meaning-
less. In Est 8:6, and probably also in Est 2:10 and
2:20, ‘“kindred’’ fits the context and ‘‘birth’’ or
‘‘birthplace’’ does not. In Ezk 16:3-4 it seems to
refer more to people than to place. In Ezk 16:4
the translation “‘birth’’ or ‘‘nativity’’ would
merely repeat the idea expressed in the following
words, while **kindred’’ would point to the indif-
ference of the relatives. In Gen 43:7 *‘kindred”™’
fits much better than ‘‘birth’’ or ‘‘birthplace.”’

If taken as ‘‘birthplace”’ in Gen 24:4, it would
contradict the statement in Gen 11:28-31 that
Abram came originally from Ur of the Chaldees.
To assume such a contradiction is quite unneces-
sary since the meaning ‘‘kindred’’ would fit just
as well in all cases, and many of Abram’s kindred
had moved to Haran.

A difficulty might be assumed in Lev 18:9, 11.
Yet in these two verses it would seem that rela-
tionship rather than actual birth is of primary im-
portance.

toledot. Generations, birth (Rsv similar). The
precise meaning of this derivative of ydalad ‘‘to
bring forth,”’ will be discussed below. It occurs
only in the plural, and only in the construct state
or with a pronominal suffix. In the k1v it is always
translated “‘generations’’ except for one case
(two in the rsv) where it is rendered ‘“‘birth.’’ rsv
generally translates it ‘‘generations’’ but occa-
sionally uses ‘‘genealogy.’’ In six occurrences it
renders it as *“‘descendants’’ and once as ‘‘his-
tory.’

The common translation as ‘‘generations”’
does not convey the meaning of the word to
modern readers. The English word ‘‘generation”’
is now limited almost entirely to two meanings:
(1) the act of producing something or the way it is
produced; (2) an entire group of people living at
the same period of time, or the average length of
time that such a group of people live. Neither of
these meanings fits the usage of r6/éd6t.

As used in the oT, tdlédét refers to what is
produced or brought into being by someone, or
follows therefrom. In no case in Gen does the
word include the birth of the individual whose
tolédot it introduces (except in Gen 25:19, where
the story of Isaac’s life is introduced by reference

380

to the fact that he was the son of Abraham). After
the conclusion of the account in which Jacob was
the principal actor, Gen 37:2 says, ‘These are the
tolédét of Jacob’’ and proceeds to tell about his
children and the events with which they were
connected.

In line with these usages it is reasonable to
interpret Gen 2:4, ‘‘These are the tdléd6ét of
heaven and earth,’’ as meaning, not the coming
of heaven and earth into existence, but the events
that followed the establishment of heaven and
earth. Thus the verse is correctly placed as intro-
ducing the detailed account of the creation and
fall of man. It is not a summary of the events
preceding Gen 2:4.

The often repeated statement that the book of
Gen is divided into natural sections by the word
t6lédét does not work out on close examination.
Sometimes, as in Gen 36:9, it merely introduces a
genealogical table.

In Gen 10:32, 25:13, Ex 6:16, 19 and in eight of
the nine occurrences in I Chr the word is intro-
duced by the preposition / and in Ex 28:10 it is
introduced by k. The significance of the preposi-
tions is not clear, particularly since we have no
other evidence relating to the history of the sons
of Ishmael (Gen 25:13) or the arrangement of the
stones on the breastplate (Ex 28:10). Therefore
we do not know in accordance with what princi-
ple the arrangement was made. In both cases the
word ‘‘birth’’ must be considered to be only a
guess.

Bibliography: Willeson, Folker, ‘‘The Yalid
in Hebrew Society,’ Studia Theologica 12:
192-210. TDNT, I, pp. 665-675; V, pp. 636-54.
THAT, I, pp. 733-35.

miso" (yaldat). See no. 867c.
sio> (yilldd). See no. 867d.
395° (yalid). See no. 867e.

868 *99° (yalal) howl, wail.

Derivatives
868a 9998 (y°lél)
32:10.
868b m99° (y*lala) howling, wailing.
868c = 544m (10lal) tormentor. Occurs only
in Ps 137:3. Derivation uncertain.

howling, only in Deut

yalal is used twenty-nine times, only in the
Hiphil. asv sometimes uses ‘‘wail,’” but RSv uses
**wail’’ consistently. Occurs only in the prophets.

The parallel of the verb with zd‘ag ‘‘cry out,
call’ (q.v.) points to a relationship with anxiety,
sorrow, and distress. But the parallel with sdpad
‘wail, lament’’ (q.v.) makes it clear that mourn-
ing for death and destruction is in view. The Lxx
uses threneo *‘mourn, lament.’’ The emphasis 1s
not on singing a dirge, although that is sometimes

in view (cf. Amos 8:3), but rather on violent
lamentation. Joel (1:5, 8, 11, 13) calls on priests
and drunkards, city and land, farmers and minis-
ters to ‘‘wail’’ because of the disaster which
would come on the day of the Lord. Micah the
prophet experiences this bewailing (1:8). How-
ever, not only the people of God are called to wail
(which in essence is a call to repentance from
sin), but the gentile nations are also called by a
sovereign God to wail for the destruction await-
ing them (e.g. Babylon, Isa 13:6; Moab, Isa 15:2;
etc.).

For content of mourning and lamentation, see
Lam, Jer 9:18-20, Amos 5, Isa 14. Also see arti-
cle on gind ‘elegy, dirge.’’ (An interesting article
on the customs of mourning in the ancient near
east is TDNT, III, Stahlin, in pp. 148ff).

P.R.G.
yoo (yala‘). See yi, no. 1098.
869 mS (ylp). Assumed root of the following.
869a mp’ (yallepet) scab, scales, an
eruptive disease. Occurs only in

Lev 21:20; 22:22.

870 5° (ylq). Assumed root of the following.
870a tp’ (yeleqg) young locust.

Perhaps from the verb /dqagq ‘‘to lick, to lap.”’
The word occurs nine times. It is translated by
the Kv as ‘‘caterpillar’’ or ‘‘cankerworm,”’ Le. a
destructive caterpillar. The Lxx renders the word
as brouchos ‘‘unwinged locust.”’

In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 the yeleg may represent
the young larval] stage of the locust; the NEB and
JB Suggest ‘“‘hopper.’’ But in Jer 51:27 the yelegq is
described as ‘‘rough,’’ alluding to the hornlike
sheath which covers the rudimentary wings of the
nymph stage. In Nah 3:16 the last nymph stage 1s
indicated, when the locust molts and then unfurls
its wings.

See also ’arbeh.

E.Y.

wip. = (yalgut). See no. 1125b.
m° (yam). See no. 87la.

ora®’ = (yémim). See no. 871b.
18 (yamin). See no. 872a.
‘¥a° (y®mini). See no. 872b.

871 2° (ymm). Assumed root of the following.

87la B’ (yam) sea, west, westward, (ASV
and rsv similar, although Rsv some-
times uses adjective “‘western’’).

871b B® (yémim). Meaning dubious.
Occurs only in Gen 36:24.

yam is used over three hundred times referring
to ‘‘sea,’’ and over seventy times referring to
‘‘west’’ or ‘‘westward.’’ Once (Ps 107:3) it is

381

871 B° (ymm)

translated ‘‘from the south’’ but this must be a
manuscript error, although in Isa 49:12 also yam
is Opposite to north.

Specific seas are mentioned, namely, (1) the
Mediterranean, called ‘‘the great sea’’ (Num
34:6), ‘‘the hinder sea,” i.e. the western sea
(Deut 11:24), ‘‘the sea of the Philistines’’ (Ex
23:31) and in Ezr 3:7 ‘‘the sea of Joppa’’; (2) the
Dead Sea, named ‘'the salt sea’? (Num 34:3),
‘‘the east sea’”’ (Ezk 47:18) and ‘“‘the sea of the
Arabah’’ (Deut 3:17); (3) the Red Sea, yam sup,
lit. “‘sea of weeds’? (Ex 10:19), “the sea of
Egypt’ (Isa 11:15), and in the NT ‘‘the red sea’”’
(Acts 7:36); (4) the Sea of Galilee, known as kin-
neret (Num 34:11) with sometimes a slight
modification in orthography, then in I Macc 11:67
‘‘the water of Gennesar,’’ and then in NT times
known as the Sea of Gennesaret (Lk 5:1) or
Galilee (Mt 4:18) or Tiberias (Jn 21:1). Also, yam
is used of the Nile river (Nah 3:8) undoubtedly
because of its vastness, as also the Euphrates (Jer
51:36; cf. Isa 21:1 where it may refer to the Per-
sian Gulf). Often it is used in general, as con-
trasted to earth or sky. According to I Kgs
7:23ff., Solomon’s temple court had an immense
laver called ‘‘the bronze sea.'’ Any symbolism to
be connected with yam, however, would be
purely conjectural. It was doubtless so called be-
cause of its size.

The location of the Mediterranean may well
have given rise to the use of ‘*west’’ in Hebrew
particularly and semitic thought generally. Ugari-
tic has the same cognate for ‘’sea.’’ Israel was
never noted for its maritime enterprises. Sol-
omon indeed had a merchant fleet, but he may
have hired Phoenician sailors to man it.

The oT speaks of the Lord as the creator of the
sea (Gen 1:10), who also imposed a limit on its
waters (Ps 104:6—9; Prov 8:29). The mighty power
of God who controlled the Red Sea at the time of
the Exodus, becomes the cause for celebration
then (Ex 15) and later (Ps 78:13; 136:13). This in
turn becomes a symbol for expected victory by
the same omnipotent God, so that prayer and
promises are made with full confidence (Isa
§1:10; cf. Ps 107:23-32). Heathen nations are
likened to the roaring sea (Isa 17:12) but they will
be rebuked by the Lord and will flee away
(17:13).

In Daniel, the satanic world powers take on the
figure of beasts that rise up from the sea (7:3), but
in keeping with the sovereign power of the
creator, the most high overthrows these as he
establishes his everlasting kingdom.

To the people of ancient Israel, the sea must
generally have been perceived as a place of
dread, fraught with dangers. Jonah 2:2f. gives
expression to the close relation between Sheol
and the seas from which Jonah was delivered. It
may well be that this fear of the seas 1s what gives

872 399 (ymn)

rise to John’s eschatological vision ‘‘the sea shall
be no more” (Rev 21:1).
Bibliography: TDNT, IX, pp. 585-91.
P.R.G.

872 2° (ymn). Assumed root of the following.

872a TI) «(yamin) right hand, right side.

8726 -93%%) (y“mini) on the right.

872c Ye (yaman) go to or choose the
right, use the right hand. De-
nominative verb.

872d = S38) (y“mani) right hand, right.

872e TWA (téman) TI, south, southward.

872f fan (téman) HH, Teman.

yamin. Right hand, right side. The word yaémin
is used literally of a man’s right hand as opposed
to s“m’ol “the left’’ (which is also used for the
‘*north’’). An excellent illustration of this is in
Gen 48:13—14 where Jacob blesses the two sons
of Joseph stretching out “‘his nght hand and laid
it on the head of Ephraim, who was younger, and
his left hand on Manasseh’s head, crossing his
hands, although Manasseh was the first born.”
Joseph was displeased and tried to exchange
Jacob’s hands, for there was already a signifi-
cance attached to the right hand. As Jacob re-
fuses to remove his nght hand from the head of
Ephraim, he explains, ‘He [i.e. Manasseh] also
shall become a people and he also shall be great.
However, his younger brother shall be greater
than he, and his descendants shall become a mul-
titude of nations’’ (v. 19). The idea of favor and
strength being transmitted through the nght hand
of blessing begins to emerge. It should be noted
that Benjamin ‘‘son of (my) nght hand” clearly is
a name showing special favor and position as the
youngest son of Jacob. The name was also used
earlier in the Mari tablets of a tribe of Semites. In
that case it probably had the other meaning’’Sons
of the South.’* One other literal usage should be
mentioned. Jonah 4:11 concludes with the Lord’s
expression of covenantal love and concern for
those in Nineveh “‘who cannot distinguish be-
tween his right hand and his left hand.”’

The more important usage for theological con-
sideration 1s the figurative expression “‘the nght
hand of the Lord’’ which exhibits the omnipo-
tence of God especially on behalf of his people
Israel. One of the earliest and most explicit
statements is found in Moses’ song of triumph
after they had crossed the Red Sea and the Egyp-
tian army had been destroyed. In Ex 15:6 he
claims, ‘‘Thy right hand, O Lord, is majestic in
power; Thy mght hand, O Lord, shatters the
enemy.’ The last phrase is even more explicit
when coupled with 15:15, ‘*‘The horse and its
rider he has hurled into the sea,’* and further on,
‘*Thou didst stretch out Thy right hand, the earth
swallowed them™ (v. 12). Hence, the almighty

382

power of God is pictured by his nght hand as an
instrument for delivering his people from their
enemies. This in turn becomes the theme of many
a psalm of praise, e.g. Ps 98:1, ““His night hand
and his holy arm have gained the victory for
him.”’ Cf. also Ps 20:7; 21:9. Furthermore, it 1s
the Lord’s right hand that becomes the hope and
confidence of God's people in time of need.
Isaiah 41:105 explicitly conjoins strength and
help to the instrumental usage of right hand, *'I
will strengthen you, surely | will help you, surely,
I will uphold you with my righteous right hand.”
See also Isa 41:13; Ps 18:35 [H 36]. In Isa 45:1
Cyrus of Persia is said to be ‘taken by the right
hand.** We understand this to mean that Cyrus's
right hand was strengthened by the Lord.

The scriptures also acknowledge that the
power of God's right hand strengthened the
people to conquer Canaan and more specifically
the holy hill of Zion (Ps 78:54). The location ‘‘at
the right hand*’ of God 1s specifically noted in Ps
16:11 as a place where godly people taste eternal
pleasures and delights. Also, it is used es-
chatologically of Messiah's throne *‘The Lord
says to my Lord, ‘Sit at my right hand until |
make thine enemies a footstool for thy feet’ *’ (Ps
110:1). This begins to be fulfilled at the ascension
of Christ as noted by Peter in Acts 2:33-35,
‘Therefore having been exalted to the right hand
of God.*’ With reference to the second coming of
Chnist, it is said that he will separate the sheep
from the goats, “‘and he will put the sheep on his
right, and the goats on the left,’ declaring to
those on the right, ““Come, you blessed of my
Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you
from the foundation of the world.’’ This gives
added significance to Ps 16:11, noted above. In
response to the high priest on the night of his
betrayal, Jesus said, ‘‘Hereafter you shall see
‘the Son of Man sitting at the mght hand of
power’ "’ (Mt 26:64). Quoting from Ps 110:1, he
clearly demonstrates the divine omnipotence by
the addition tés dunameds “‘of power” (cf.
Stephen's vision of the exalted Christ in Acts
7:55).

yamin locative is used as a ‘‘wall on the nght
hand and on their left hand”’ in Ex 14:22, 29; or
directional, as in Deut 2:27, ‘‘Let me pass
through your land... I will not turn to the night
or to the left.’’ This directional usage may also
express figuratively the potential for moral and
spiritual deviation from the law of God (Deut
17:11,20; Josh 1:7; 23:6, etc.). y@min is also used
of other parts of the body, e.g. shoulder, thigh.

Finally yamin is translated ‘“‘south,”’ since
when facing east, the right hand is on the south.
Note especially Ps 89:12 [H 13] sd@pén w*yamin
‘‘the north and the south, thou hast created
them."’ The kingdom of Yemen in southern
Arabia still shows this meaning ‘*‘South.”’

It is interesting to note that Ugaritic vmn isa
precise cognate, the only exception being the es-
chatological notion regarding Messiah. It should
be noted that Egyptian orientation “‘called for
facing upstream (thus ‘right = west’’’; UT 19:
no. 411).

téman J. South, southward, south wind (lit.
‘*what is on the nght [hand, as one faces south]).

It is used most frequently (over one hundred
times) with reference to the Negev, which is the
most common word. témdn is often used poeti-
cally, as BDB observes. Job 39:26 speaks of the
soaring hawk ‘‘stretching his wings toward the
south.”’ Job 9:9 refers to ‘‘Orion, and the
Pleiades, and the chambers of the south.”
Zechariah 9:14 speaks of the ‘“‘whirlwinds (or
stormwinds) of the south.’ In this connection,
Asaph refers to the sovereign control of God over
the ‘‘east wind’ and adds, “‘by his power he di-
rected the south wind”’ as he brought the quail
and manna to the Israelites who had been re-
cently redeemed from Egypt (Ps 78:26). Cf. Song
4:16.

teman JI. Teman. The name of Esau’s
grandson, the son of Eliphaz, who was an Edom-
ite chief (Gen 36:11, 15). Seven times it is used of
a district northeast of Edom (Jer 49:20; Ezk
25:13) upon which fire will come as predicted by
Amos (1:12), and which was known for its mighty
wise men (Ob 8f.; Jer 49:7). Seemingly incongru-
ous 1s Habakkuk’s vision wherein he sees the
holy God coming from Teman. The parallel
perhaps explains.it: God is viewed as coming
from that general direction as in the exodus and
wilderness experience. Nelson Glueck identifies
Teman with Tawilan, in The Other Side of Jor-
dan, pp. 25f.

P.R.G.

s% (y mani). See no. 872d.

873 3° (vanad) oppress, vex, do wrong.

Of its twenty usages, only six are in the Qal;
the others are in the Hiphil. However, in Ezk
46:18 it is translated ‘‘to thrust them out of their
inheritance.’’ ASV and Rsv are similar. The Lxx
uses thlibo or thlipsis for ydnd as also for several
Hebrew synonyms, the most common of which is
sdrar ‘to treat someone with hostility,’’ Hiphil
‘*to constrict someone.’ These words in Hebrew
express a whole range of afflictions. yand seems
to be used in the sense of ‘‘doing wrong’ to
someone as in the Mosaic legislation which pro-
tects the rights of the gér ‘‘resident alien.”
Exodus 22:21 (H 20], **And you shall not wrong a
Stranger or oppress him” (/dhas ‘press, crush,
oppress’’) appending the rationale, ““For you
were gérim in the land of Egypt.’’ See further

383

874 (33° (yanaq)

Lev 19:33 where the opposite of ydnd is to ‘love
him as yourself.’* Similarly Deut 23:16 [H 17] ex-
presses the great king’s concern for the refugee
slave, seeking asylum from a foreign land, that he
not be maltreated. The Levitical legislation fur-
ther protects the economic rights of people who
could easily be bilked by the abuse of the year of
Jubilee (Lev 25:14, 17). In sum, covenantal stipu-
lations forbad the maltreatment of the poor and
infirm, particularly the alien, by the mch and
powerful.

The prophets of the Babylonian crisis use the
participle of ydna in referring to Jerusalem the
‘‘oppressing city,’ because her civil rulers have
turned from the Lord, behave as ‘roaring lions,”’
profaning the sacred and doing violence to the
law. Jeremiah 46:16 speaks of the oppressing
sword (cf. 50:16).

The prophets considered these oppressive ac-
tivities to be nothing less than sin against God.
Hence political oppression and private affliction
of slaves or aliens were denounced as contrary to
God's will for the covenantal people of the Lord.

P.R.G.
mo.’ (y°niqad). See no. 874c.
874 3° (ydnaq) suck, nurse.
Derivatives

874a t921° (ydnéq) suckling, sapling.

874b tmp (yéneqet) young shoot.

874c =0omp’’ (y*nigad) young shoot, twig,
found only in Ezk 17:4.

Compare Ugaritic yng ‘‘to suck, Akkadian
eniqu “to suck,’ muSeniqtu ‘wet nurse,’ Egyp-
tian sng “to suckle.“’ The word appears approx-
imately sixty-two times in the oT.

Properly, the verb belongs to the action of an
infant suckling at its mother's breast (Job 3:12;
Song 8:1: Joel 2:16). Often it occurs as a substan-
tive, a suckling or a babe (Num 11:12; Deut
32:25).

It then broadens to become a metaphor of
abundance and honor. In Deut 33:19, Issachar
and Zebulun will suckle *‘the abundance of the
seas and the treasures hid in the sands."’ Isaiah
60:16 uses the same figure to predict the great
wealth and power that will come to Jerusalem
from the converted gentiles, for they will give of
their life energies just as a mother gives milk to an
infant. Indeed she will ‘“‘suck the breast of
kings.’ This is similar to a subject frequently de-
picted in the art of he ancient near east. A young
prince is portrayed as being suckled by the god-
dess who conferred royalty to the next ruler of
the pagan nations. In Isa 66:11-12, it is a picture
of satisfaction and comfort.

The Hiphil stem means “‘to give suck to,

875 SB° (yasad)

nurse.’’ It is used in the participial form of a nurs-
ing woman (Ex 2:7; Gen 24:59). This stem also is
used of animals (Gen 32:15 [H 16}; Lam 4:3) and
in a figurative expression, of causing one to suck
honey (Deut 32:13). Another such metaphorical
expression has both kings and queens of the gen-
tile nations being Israel’s foster fathers and nurs-
ing mothers.

yonéq. Suckling, sapling, young plant (Rsv).
This form appears only once, in a messianic ref-
erence (Isa 53:2). It is parallel to shéresh ‘‘root.”’
To men, the servant appeared as a shoot growing
from the main stalk, to be pruned off since it
sapped or sucked strength from the main plant.

yoneget. Young shoot, twig. Appears only six
times. It refers in Job 14:7 to the *‘shoots’’ which
come up around the stump of a felled tree. Job
uses this as an argument for his hope of im-
mortality, for just as trees sprout again, after they
have been cut down, so a man must wait until his
‘‘change’’ or ‘“‘release’’ or ‘‘second growth’’
comes (v. 14) (see hdlap). Already, Bildad had
referred to shoots spreading over the garden
(8:16). Then Eliphaz echoed Bildad’s type of ar-
gument (15:30). These two men both applied our
word to the wicked.

In Ps 80:11 [H 12], the (cf. Ps 44:2 (H 3})
classic picture of Israel as a vine occurs. There it
speaks of the vine’s shoots going down to the
river. But in Hos 14:6 [H 7] it is a shoot from a
poplar tree, if lib® neh ‘‘poplar’’ is read for the MT
l[€banon as it is in Hos 4:13.

The most significant passage, which is similar
to the abbreviated form in Isa 53:2, is Ezk 17:22.
There the Lord will take a ‘‘sprig’’ (sammeret)
which by interpretation is a descendant of
David’s house, from the top of the cedar tree.
Then he will break off from the topmost of its
young twigs, ‘‘a tender one’’ (rak), i.e. the Mes-
siah himself. Note the corporate solidarity of the
whole line of David, yet its final and ultimate
representative in Jesus Christ.

W.C.K

Miwa (yanshap). See no. 1434b.

875 “O° (yasad) establish, found, lay foundation.
(ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

875a “0° (y*sad) foundation,
only in Ezra 7:9.

8756 tiB® «(y*sdd) foundation, base.

875c 06omse’ «(y’suda) foundation, mean-
ing city founded. Occurs only in Ps
87:1.

875d 709 (musdd) foundation
foundation.

beginning,

laying,

384

875e tMIH% «(misdda) foundation.
875f Hi ~(mdsad) foundation.
875g bi (massad) foundation.

The primary meaning of ydsad is ‘‘to found, to
fix firmly,’’ from which the major nominal mean-
ings derive, i.e. ‘‘foundation’’ especially of a
building. Hence the verb is translated ‘‘to estab-
lish’’ a city, etc. It is used in a literal sense just a
few times, as in Ezr 3:12 ‘‘the old men... wept
with a loud voice when the foundation of this
house (i.e. the second temple) was laid before
their eyes.’ The Piel and Pual are used more
often in this sense (i.e. with reference to the tem-
ple, I Kgs 5:31; Ezr 3:6,10; Zech 4:9, etc.), but
also of the foundation of a city. Both Josh 6:26
and I Kgs 16:34 both refer to the curse of rebuild-
ing Jericho upon the pain of laying such founda-
tion with the death of a son. Note also the foun-
dation of Zion, Isa 14:32. y*séd is evidently used
of the ‘‘foundation’’ for a city wall. Solomon’s
temple had large blocks of stone (12' x 15’) upon
which it was built. See I Kgs 5:17; 6:37. The nt
uses themelios for this literal sense of foun-
dations of houses, towers, and cities (cf. Lk
6:48f.; 14:29; Acts 16:26; Heb 11:10; Rev
21:14,19).

The metaphorical usage would signify some-
thing which cannot be moved. The nt katabolé
‘‘a casting or laying down’’ is often used of ‘‘the
foundation of the world’’ (e.g. Mt 13:35; Eph
1:4). This cosmological usage reflects many pas-
sages from the oT, e.g. Ps 24:2, ‘‘For he has
founded it [the world] upon the seas.”’ See also
Ps 78:69; 89:11 [H 12]; 104:5.

Several passages refer to the foundation of the
earth and the heavens together, as Prov 3:19
‘‘The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; by
understanding He established (Heb kénén) the
heavens’’ (see also Ps 102:26; Isa 48:13; 51:13,
16). Some other cosmological references are to
the foundations of mountains and lands as well as
the heavens and the earth. And yet in a signifi-
cant verse Job says that God ‘*suspends the earth
over nothing” (Job 26:7, Niv).

Isaiah 54:11 speaks of the future of Israel,
‘**Behold, I will set your stones in antimony, and
your foundations I will lay in sapphires.’’ This
eschatological note anticipates the New
Jerusalem described with precious stones and
metals in Rev 21-22.

Two verses in the Psalms have an unusual use
of asad in the Niphal, “The kings of the earth set
themselves (yityass’ bu), and the rulers take
counsel together (nés‘di) against the Lord and
his anointed’’ (Ps-2:2; cf. Ps 31:13 [H 14]). As
BDB puts it, the meaning here is ‘‘fix or seat
themselves close together, sit in conclave’’ which
is closely parallel to the first verb, yasab (q.v.) in
the Hithpael. The notion is of people firmly set-

ting themselves against someone, here specif-
cally against the Messiah.

This leads us to a further usage in messianic
prophecy, namely that of Isa 28:16. The Lord
speaks, ‘‘Behold I am laying in Zion for a founda-
tion a stone, a tested stone, a precious cor-
nerstone, of a sure foundation. He who believes
will not be in haste’’ (Rsv). The context is a mes-
sage of judgment to ‘‘the drunkards of Ephraim’’
(28:1) and more specifically ‘‘the scoffers who
rule this people who are in Jerusalem’”’ (28:14)
who now boast of having made ‘‘a covenant with
death and with Sheol’”’ and ‘‘made a lie our refuge
and falsehood (or false gods) our hiding place’’
(NIV). They thus entertain the false hope that *‘the
overwhelming scourge [i.e. Assyria} will not
reach us.”” Isaiah, as often before, maintains that
the only basis for real hope is faith in the coven-
ant Lord. The apostle Peter gives the inspired
interpretation of our passage when he refers to
Jesus Christ as ‘‘the precious cornerstone,” in-
deed ‘‘as to a living stone’’ upon whom believers,
‘you also, as living stones, are being built up as a
spiritual house’’ (I Pet 2:4—8). Paul also confirms
this in Rom 9:32f. where, however, he conflates
Isa 28:16 with Isa 8:14 which speaks of a
‘*stumbling stone’’ which Isaiah uses to refer to
Immanuel who will be to both houses of Israel *‘a
stone to strike and a rock to stumble over”’ (Isa
8:13~-15). It is important to note that the nt refer-
ences agreeing with some Lxx manuscripts add
ep’ auto ‘‘in him’’ following the ‘‘he who be-
lieves.’’ The MT does not make this explicit. The
yissad b® siyyén ‘I lay for a foundation in Zion”
has reference to the holy city as the city of God,
but extending the meaning to include the people
of God, the church, and its foundations. It is this
conception of a solid and firm foundation which
is the backdrop for understanding the statement
‘‘upon this rock I aill build my church’’ (Mt
16:18). Also in Eph 2:20, the apostle speaks of the
‘household of God, having been built upon the
foundation (themelios) of the apostles and
prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cor-
nerstone.’’ See also Rev 21:14, 19f. where there
may well be a christological and ecclesiological
significance.

y°sod. Foundation, base. Seven of its eighteen
usages refer to the ‘‘bottom’”’ of the altar, (so KJv,
but Asv and rsv translate ‘‘base’’). Once it is used
of *‘repairing’’ the temple (II Chr 24:27).

musadaé. Foundation. Used only twice, once
in Isa 30:32 of a rod of *‘punishment”’ (KJv ‘‘ap-
pointment’’)
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 736-37.
P.R.G.

See no. 875b.
See no. 87Sc.

TID’ (y*sdd).
MmIIDY (yy suda).

876 "O° (yasap)

"3B" (yissér). See no. 877a.
30° (ydsak). See 33D, no. 1474.
876 "OG (ydsap) add, increase, doagain (asv,

385

RSV similar.)

Derivative
876a TAD

ydsap occurs almost two hundred times,
mostly in the Qal and Hiphil (six times in the
Niphal). The Lxx translates usually with pros-
tithemi. No cognate is found in Ugaritic.

A very common usage of ydsap is ‘‘to do
again,’’ as in Gen 4:2, *‘And again, she gave birth
to his brother Abel’’ (cf. 38:5). In the case of
Abraham taking Keturah as wife, Gen 25:]
states, ‘‘Now Abraham had taken another ([lit.
added or took again a] wife.’’ Sometimes, espe-
cially with a negative particle, it is translated ‘‘no
more’’ as in the moving scene where Judah
quotes Joseph, ‘‘Unless your youngest brother
comes down with you, you shall see my face no
more’’ (lit. you shall not add to; see Gen 44:23).

The literal idea ‘‘to add”’ is clearly evident in
Lev 27:13, 15, 19, 27 where repeatedly Moses
writes about the person who makes a vow that
‘*he shall add a fifth of the value’’ if he should
wish to redeem an object or property. The case of
Hezekiah also is to the point, where in response
to his prayer, the Lord promises, *‘I will add fif-
teen years to your life’’ (Isa 38:5). Rachel, in
naming her firstborn Joseph, prays, ‘‘May the
Lord give me [lit. add to me] another son.’’ Both
Isaiah and Rachel acknowledge that longevity
and progeny are at the sovereign discretion of
God. In this connection observe Prov 10:27,
‘‘The fear of the Lord prolongeth days.’’ See also
Prov 9:11.

There is a negative note in connection with
yasap. This is the human ethical problem of sin.
It is first encountered with Pharoah, ‘*But when
Pharoah saw that the rain and the hail and thun-
der had ceased, he sinned again (lit. he added to
sin) and hardened his heart’’ (Ex 9:34). But this is
the case even with the people of God, as the re-
curring phrase in Judges ‘‘and the children of Is-
rael did evil again (lit. added to do evil) in the
sight of the Lord’’ (3:12; 10:6, etc.). This heaping
up of something need not be totally negative.
Psalm 71:14 quotes the psalmist as saying, *‘I will
increase thy praise’ or as kJv ‘‘and will yet praise
thee more and more.”’

Nevertheless, there are instances where a posi-
tive note is struck. The incorporation of men into
a society occurs several times. A striking episode
is the concern expressed by the Egyptians over
the growth of the Israelite population: ‘*Come, let
us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply and
in the event of war, they also join themselves to

(yésép) Joseph.

877 0° (yasar)

those who hate us and fight against us’’ ( Ex
1:10). The Psalmist prays, *“*May the Lord give
you increase, you and your children’’ (Ps 115:14).
Cf. Is 14:1. One should note the similar NT usage
in Acts 2:41,47; 5:14; 11:24, where ‘‘believers
were continually added to the Lord,” i.e. the
Lord was adding them to the church (passive
rather than middle, ‘‘they joined themselves’’).
There is in this connection, an eschatological
hope in the oT related to the doctrine of the rem-
nant, i.e. ‘“‘and the surviving remnant of the
house of Judah shall again take root downward
and bear fruit upward, for out of Jerusalem shall
go forth a remnant, and out of Mount Zion sur-
vivors’’ (II Kgs 19:30, 31). Admittedly this
prophecy may have been fulfilled in part either
after Sennacherib’s army was decimated or fol-
lowing the Babylonian exile, nevertheless if the
writer understands Rom 11 aright, the apostle
Paul confidently hoped for an even greater and
more glorious fulfillment. (Cf. Nah 1:15 [H 2:1].)
In a similar vein, Jeremiah speaking of the re-
gathered people of Israel, says, ‘‘And their life
shall be like a watered garden, and they shall
never languish again’ (31:12). Note also Isa 52:1
where Jerusalem is called to awake, ‘*For the un-
circumcised and the unclean will no more come
into you”’ (cf. Rev 22:14-15).

yasap is frequently used as part of an oath, as
for example, when Ruth entreats Naomi not to
force her to leave, *‘For where you go I will go,
and where you lodge I will lodge; your people
shall be my people and your God my
God.... May the Lord do so to me and more also
(lit. so may he add) if even death parts me from
you’’ (Ruth 1:17). Cf. also I Sam 3:17; II Sam 3:9,
19:13 (H 14].

The phrase ‘‘to do so to me and more also”’
seems to involve an ellipsis, which may be under-
stood when the literal expression is completed,
such as *‘so may he add curses upon me if."’ This
is plausible when one reads in the treaties of
nearby kings the list of blessings for obedience
but a longer list of curses for disobedience or
rebellion.

yosép, ychésep. Joseph. y‘hésép is found
once, in Ps 81:5 {H 6]. The name appears over
200 times in the oT, referring primarily to the
older son of Jacob and Rachel. It is used for the
tribe, t.e. Ephraim and Manasseh (Deut 33:13;
Josh 14:4; 17:1f.), for the northern kingdom
(Amos 5:6, 15, Zech 10:6), and for the whole na-
tion of Israel (Ps 80:1 [H 2], 81:5 [H 6]). Four
other men in the oT have this name: 1) Num 13:7,
a man from Issachar; 2) I Chr 25:2, 9 a son of
Asaph; 3) Ezr 10:42 one who took a foreign wife;
and 4) Neh 12:14 a priest.

The name is denved from ydsap *‘to add, in-
crease, do again’ (q.v.). Rachel specifically

386

names her son Joseph, saying, “‘May the Lord
give me (lit. add to me) another son™’ (Gen 30:24).
Hence at the very beginning of Joseph's life.
there is an acknowledgment of the sovereign
grace of God which magnificently anticipates
God’s providence for his people as developed in
the story of Joseph (Gen 37-50). Note that in v.
23 there is a play on the word. ‘dsap “take away,
remove’ which is in assonance with Joseph. In
Gen Joseph must be considered a historical
character. His name is not used in the patriarchal
appellative for God, as in ‘the God of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob,’ doubtless because there were
twelve brothers in his generation. However, he
becomes the important link from the creation and
patriarchal revelation with the great revelation at
the exodus from Egypt.

Joseph is not to be taken merely as an example
for ethical conduct (Gen 39). His dealings with
his brothers as a young man might betray him
(Gen 37). However, Gen 39:9 clearly points to the
theological basis for his ethics. **How then could
I do this great evil, and sin against God?”’ Indeed,
throughout the narrative, God's activity in the
history of his people is the focus of attention.
This is most clear in Joseph's insistence that
‘*God sent me before you to preserve life’* (45:5
is repeated in order that the message might not be
lost, 45:6-9). After Jacob’s death, he again em-
phasizes this “‘good’’ providence of God even
when ‘‘evil’’ had been intended (50:20f.). Fur-
thermore, on his deathbed he anchors his faith to
the oath-bound covenantal promises made by
God to his forefathers. Based on this assurance
he demands that his remains be interred in the
promised land (50:24f.; cf. Heb 11:22).

Joseph’s explanation of Pharaoh’s dreams that
**God has shown Pharoah what he is about to do”’
(41:25, 27, 32, 39) must also apply to Joseph's
own dreams (ch. 37). See also 40:8. Finally, his
life bore clear testimony to a close walk with the
Lord (39:3). Even in naming his two sons, he was
conscious of God’s gracious activity (41:5If.).

P.R.G.

877 “9° (ydasar) discipline, chasten, instruct.

Derivatives

877a “40° (yissér) one who reproves. Only
in Job 40:2.
877b t5B%> (miasadr) discipline.

The Lxx translates primarily as paideuo, which
emphasizes the notion of education. The Ugaritic
cognate ysr meaning ‘‘to chasten, instruct’’ (UT
19: no. 1120).

From the usage and parallels in the oT, one
must conclude that ya@sar and miasar denote cor-
rection which results in education. The theologi-
cal basis for discipline is grounded in the coven-

ant relationship which Yahweh establishes with
his people. The words are found almost ninety
times, nine times in the Pentateuch, twenty-six
times in the prophets, and fifty times in the
Hagiographa, (thirty-six of these in Prov). In Lev
26:18, 28 yvdsar is used in the formula “‘] will
chastise (NASB punish) you seven times for your
sins,’ with a clear parallel in v. 24, ‘I will punish
you seven times” (naka ‘‘to beat. strike, hit’’).
God's corrective discipline seeks the reformation
of the people (v. 23). The other six uses in the
Pentateuch are found in Deut, the all important
covenant renewal document. Key to an under-
standing of misdar is Deut 11:2ff., ‘Consider the
discipline of the Lord your God, his great-
ness,... his signs and his deeds which he did in
Egypt to Pharaoh.... and what he did to the
army of Egypt. .., and what he did for you in the
wilderness.’ In short, the misdar of Yahweh is
his mighty activity in covenant history by which
he reveals himself (cf. v. 7 with 4:35f.).

The discipline of Yahweh is not to be taken
negatively, for the hardships in the wilderness
were balanced by his miraculous provisions both
designed to test “‘what was in your heart,
whether you would keep his commandments or
not’ (Deut 8:2). Hence, by their hunger, as well
as by the manna which he provided, they were to
‘“‘understand that man does not live by bread
alone, but... by everything that proceeds from
the mouth of Yahweh” (8:3). Thus, they were to
know in their hearts that Yahweh was disciplin-
ing them (8:5). This discipline then might be con-
sidered education that is theocentric, indeed,
theofugal. That Deut 8:5 uses the comparative
expression ‘‘as a man disciplines his son’’ is not
without covenantal and theological significance.
The ancient treaties often refer to the suzerain
king as a father and to the vassal as his son (cf.
McCarthy, CBQ 27: 144-47). In Moses’ covenant
hymn we read that Yahweh is referred to as
Father (Deut 32:6; cf. 1:31; Isa 1:2) of the coven-
ant people (although Ex 4:22; Deut 1:31 teach the
same concept). Hence, the theological basis for
an earthly father’s discipline over his son is in the
covenant. He bears the image of his covenant
Lord, and as such stands in parallel relationship
over his children—chastening, correcting, in-
structing, providing—which are expressions of
an interpersonal relationship of love. So also the
thirty usages in Prov and elsewhere, e.g. Prov
3:11-12 where mésar and toékahat *‘reproof, cor-
rection’’ are said to come from Yahweh “for
whom the Lord loves (’dhab) he reproves
(ydkah), even as a father the son in whom he
delights."" Hence, discipline gives assurance of
sonship, for muésdr primarily points to a God-
centered way of life, and only secondarily to
ethical behavior. Proverbs 1:7 couples it with the
‘fear of Yahweh,” and 1:8 with tord “instruc-

387

878 TP (yd'ad)

tion, teaching."’ Hence, also the pricelessness of
muasar (8:10) and the reason why fools despise it
(15:5, 32). Proverbs and other wisdom literature
speak of discipline with emphasis on instruction.
It is tempting to see that the seemingly disparate
notions of correction and instruction converge
beautifully only in the covenant.

How was discipline administered? Proverbs
22:15 speaks of the ‘‘rod of correction.’’ But
most often, musdr is oral instruction, hence the
close association with the térd. In Job 5:17 ff.,
when he urges Job not to ‘despise the discipline
of the Almighty,’* Eliphaz shows insight concern-
ing the means which God may use to discipline
his children: pain and wounds, famine and war.
Amos would add drought, mildew, locusts,
epidemics, and earthquakes (4:6—11).

The prophets develop the theme of mas@r as in
Deut 11:2, revealing God's discipline through his
mighty acts in the-history of the people of Israel
and Judah in particular and the nations tn general.
God deals with his people from the standpoint of
warning and correction. The severity of the exile
must be thus understood (cf. Hos 5:2; 7:12; Isa
8:11). But all such discipline becomes futile
through the resistance and stubbornness of those
to whom it is given (cf. Jer 2:30; 5:3; 7:28; 17:23;
32:33). Isaiah 53:5 adds “‘the chastisement of our
peace was upon him” (rsv ‘‘the chastisement that
made us whole’’). This is clearly a context of
substitutionary atonement. Here the Servant of
the Lord is seen as taking ‘“‘the severe punish-
ment’’ vicariously, more clearly revealing God's
merciful ways of dealing with his rebellious
(pesha') people through redemptive judgment
and suffering.

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 738-41.

P.R.G.

ys (ya'‘). See no. 879a.

878 “ys (yd'ad) appoint, betrothe, assemble, meet,

set.
Derivatives

878a imp (‘éda) congregation.

878b mya (méd‘éd) appointed place.

878c = tyita. «(md‘ad) place of assembly,
only in Isa 14:31.

878d Mays «= (mia'ada). Occurs only in
phrase ‘dré hammu'‘dda ‘‘cities ap-
pointed’* (Josh 20:9).

The basic meaning of this root is ‘*to appoint,”
in which sense it occurs in the Qumran War
Scroll, the Thanksgiving Psalms, and the Mes-
sianic Rule. asv and rsv similar, except asv uses
‘* espoused’’ and rsv, ‘‘designate’” (Ex 21:8) and
ASV, ‘agreed’ (Amos 3:3).

The root is used in the Qal for the betrothal of a

878 “Ys (ya‘ad)

woman (Ex 21:8), to designate a time (IJ Sam
20:5) and place of meeting, and to appoint a rod
(RSV ‘‘tribe’’; Mic 6:9).

The Niphal form is used for God’s meeting Is-
rael at the sanctuary (Ex 25:22; 29:43f.; 30:6, 36)
and for the assembling of the congregation for
worship in the sense of appearing (Num 10:3;
I Kgs 8:5; II Chr 5:6) or for other purposes. It is
of interest that God’s meeting with Israel's repre-
sentative at the “‘mercy seat’’ (Kapporet, q.v.) is
an appointed meeting (Ex 25:22). So also were
the other times when God met with the people
before the tabernacle. The people were expected
to come and God promised to meet them there.
God keeps his appointments.

The Niphal form may also be used with the
preposition against (‘al) for an assembling against
the Lord (Num 14:35; 16:11; 27:3) in rebellion. It
is used for kings joining their forces (Josh 11:5).

It may also designate making an appointment
(Amos 3:3; Job 2:11; Ps 48:4 [H 5]). The Hiphil
signifies to appoint (Jer 49:19) or in some cases to
summons (Jer 50:44; Job 9:19).

The Hophal participle, mi‘ddim, signifies that
which is ordered or set (Jer 24:1; Ezk 21:16
[H 21)).

‘eda. Assembly, congregation, multitude, people,
swarm (ASV and RSv similar except ASv tends to
render ‘éddé uniformly by ‘‘congregation.’’). ‘édda
occurs frequently, in Qumran materials as a
self-designation of the community.

‘éda is a feminine noun from yd@'‘ad ‘‘to ap-
point,’’ hence is an assembly by appointment and
is rendered in the KJv most frequently as *‘con-
gregation.’’ First appearing in Ex 12:3, the noun
occurs 145 times in the oT and is rendered
synagogé 127 times in the Lxx. However the
noun itself does not imply the purpose of the
gathering; hence we have a swarm of bees (Jud
14:8) and a multitude of bulls (Ps 68:30 [H 31]). It
may be a gathering of the righteous (Ps 1:5), but
there is also the assembly of the wicked (Ps 22:16
[H 17}), violent men (Ps 86:14), and the godless
(Job 15:34). The followers of Korah (Num 16:5)
and Abiram (Ps 106:17-18) are frequently termed
a company. Assembly is sometimes used in the
KJV for ‘édad for variety when it occurs in prox-
imity to some of the other terms rendered con-
gregation (Num 16:2; 20:8; Prov 5:14). ‘édd des-
ignates the assembly of people gathered before
the Lord in judgment (Ps 7:7 [H 8]). Similar is the
designation of an assembly of the officers of God
(Ps 82:1) which is nearly identical with a Ugaritic
expression for an assembly of the subordinate
gods of the pantheon (Text 128:II, 7, 11).

Despite the fact that we have ‘congregation
and assembly” (qahal w® ‘éda, Prov 5:14), qahal
and ‘édd seem to be synonymous for all practical
purposes. ‘éd4d is also used for groups of animals,

388

but gdhal is not. ‘édé occurs most frequently in
Ex, Lev, and Num, and occurs only three times
in the prophets (Jer 6:18; 30:20; Hos 7:12). gahal,
on the other hand, is infrequent in those portions
of the Pentateuch, but is frequent in Deut. The
book of Chr uses gahal frequently, but ‘édda only
once (II Chr 5:6= I Kgs 8:5). A man may be
excluded from the ‘édd (Ex 12:19), but the same
is true of the ga@hal (Num 19:20). Bastards, Am-
monites, and Moabites are excluded to the tenth
generation; but Edomites and Egyptians are bar-
red only to the third.

Most characteristic of the oT is the use of ‘éda
for the congregation of Israel. ‘*The congrega-
tion’’ (ha'édd) occurs seventy-seven times in Ex,
Lev, Num, and Josh. We also have *“‘the congre-
gation of the Lord” (Num 27:17; 31:16; Josh
22:16—17); ‘‘the congregation of Israel’? (Ex 12:3;
Josh 22:20); and ‘‘all the congregation.’’ There is
the ‘‘assembly of the congregation of Israel’’
(q°hal ‘ddat yifra’él, Ex 12:6) and the *‘assembly
of the congregation of the children of Israel’
(q°hal ‘ddat b’né yisrd’él, Num 14:5).

Moses headed the ‘éda@ when it was in the wil-
derness, but there were other designated offi-
cials: princes (Ex 16:22; 34:31; Num 4:34, etc.),
elders (Lev 4:15; Jud 21:16), heads of the fathers
(Num 31:26), and renowned persons (Num 1:16;
26:9). The men of fighting age were *‘those num-
bered of the congregation’ (Ex 38:25).

The ‘édda was signalled to assemble when two
silver trumpets were blown (Num 10:2). It
gathered for war (Jud 20:1), to deal with breach of
the covenant with the Lord, for tribal affairs, for
worship (1 Kgs 8:5; Ps 111:1), and at times of
national calamity. It gathered to crown a king
(I Kgs 12:20) and for other political affairs. It
acted as a unit in sending men to war (Jud 21:10,
13). The term ‘éda appears last in the historical
literature (at I Kgs 12:20) at the division of the
kingdom. Its absence in Chronicles and Ezra-
Nehemiah would militate against the view that it
was coined by the postexilic community.

m6‘éd. Appointed sign, appointed time, appointed
season, place of assembly, set feast. (ASV and RSV
similar.)

This masculine noun occurs 223 times. It fre-
quently designates a determined time or place
without regard to the purpose of the designation.
It may be the time for the birth of a child (Gen
17:21; 18:14; 21:2), the coming of a plague (Ex
9:5), the season of a bird’s migration (Jer 8:7), an
appointed time (I Sam 13:8; 20:35), the time for
which a vision is intended (Hab 2:3), the times of
the end (Dan 8:19), or the time for the festivals
(Lev 23:2) and solemnities (Deut 31:10).

The heavenly bodies are for determining the
seasons (Gen 1:14; Ps 104:19). Each festival 1s a
mé‘éd, but collectively they are the ‘‘feasts of the

Lord”’ (md‘addé YHWH, Lev 23:2, etc.). Appear-
ing at times (Hos 9:5) with hag (which designates
the three great annual festivals), mdé‘éd must be
thought of in a wide usage for all religious as-
semblies. Jerusalem became the city of as-
semblies (Isa 33:20; cf. Ezk 36:38) which were
characterized by great rejoicing and were deeply
missed during times of exile (Zeph 3:18; Lam
1:4).

Once m6‘éd is an appointed sign (Jud 20:38) by
which men should act.

The Lord met with Moses at the ‘‘tent of meet-
ing’ (’6hel mo‘éd). He appeared in the cloud at
the door of the tent and spoke to him as ‘‘a man
speaks to his fnend’’ (Ex 33:7, 11; Num 12:8).
The purpose of Yahweh’s meeting Moses and Is-
rael is revelation (Ex 29:42; 33:11; Num 7:89).
The Lxx translates ’dhel mé‘éd over one hundred
times as skéné marturiou (tent of witness) which
probably connects (incorrectly) md'‘éd with ‘éd
or ‘ad. But the general idea conveyed of the
place of revelation is sound. According to some
passages, the tent was outside the camp (Ex
33:7-11; Num 11:24-30), but according to others
it was located in the middle of the camp (Ex
25:8). Literary critics have traditionally ex-
plained these passages as coming from two
sources, E and P, with P not reflecting a histori-
cal situation. It is, however, entirely possible that
there were two successive tents called ‘dhel
mo‘éd. The first was Moses’ tent, which was
used before the completion of the tabernacle,
which was also called ’dhel md‘éd, as well as
mishkan.

mo‘éd also designates an ‘‘assembly’’ insucha
phrase as ‘‘picked men of the assembly’? (Num
16:2). This usage has been paralleled by Wilson in
the Wen Amun story (JNES 4: 245) for the city
council of ZakarBa‘al of Gebal. The King of
Babylon dreams of a seat in the ‘‘mount of as-
sembly’’ (har m6é‘éd) in the north (Isa 14:13), a
term similar to the Ugaritic expression for the
council of the gods (see above). Scholars have
seen a parallel between these terms and the
words for the court surrounding the Lord or the
gathering of the officers of God, which is de-
scribed as the ‘‘assembly of El’’ (‘ddat 'él; Ps
82:1) in which he stands and and judges.

m6é‘éd is also the worshiping assembly of
God’s people, hence Yahweh's foes roar in the
midst of his assemblies (Ps 74:4). It may possibly
be an early designation for the synagogue (‘‘ap-
pointed places of God mé‘ddé ’él; Ps 74:8).
However that this phrase actually refers to early
synagogues is disputed.

Bibliography: Haran, Menahem, ‘‘The Na-
ture of the ‘'Ohel Mo‘edh in Pentateuchal
Sources,’’ JSS 5: 50-55. Pope, M. H., ‘*Congre-
gation,’’ in IDB, pp. 669-70. Scott, John A.,
“The Pattern of the Tabernacle,’’ Unpublished

389

879 mys (ya‘'ad) sweep together.

880 “ty? (yd‘az).

881 Bye (yda‘at) cover.

882 *op» (ya‘al) I, profit, gain, benefit.

882 *5ys (ya‘al)

Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania,
1965. Weinfeld, Moshe, ‘‘Congregation,’’ in En-
cyclopedia Judaica, III, pp. 893-96. THAT, I,
pp. 742-45.

JPL:

Occurs only in
Isa 28:17.

Derivative
879a =e (ya‘) = shovel.

“iyo (yd‘ér). See “ys, no. 888a.

Occurs only as a Niphal par-

ticiple, in Isa 33:19, ‘am n6é‘az *‘a barbar-
ous (?) people.”

Occurs only in Isa
61:10, m° ‘il s°¢daqa y°‘atani *‘he has covered
me with a robe of righteousness.”’

Hiphil
only, used twenty-three times. Lxx trans-
lates nineteen times with dpheld, etc., mean-
ing ‘‘to help, aid, benefit, be of use to.”

There is a predominantly negative connotation
in the use of yd‘al as it appears in the oT. It seems
not to be used in Ugaritic. Even the NT dphelé
has a negative note. Religiously, heathen idols
are unprofitable, e.g. in Isaiah’s famous satire on
the manufacture of idols: ‘‘All who make idols
are nothing, and the things they delight in can do
nothing (lit. ‘‘are of no profit’’). Who fashions a
god has cast an image that is profitable for noth-
ing’’ (Isa 44: 10, as rendered by C. Westermann).
In Jer 2:8, 11, Israel is scathingly rebuked for
exchanging the Lord for what were not gods,
‘*But my people have changed their glory for that
which does not profit.’’ See also Jer 16:19; Hab
2:18; 1 Sam 12:21.

Politically, the prophets warn against the futil-
ity of trusting in foreign alliances, as Isa 30:5
speaking of an alliance with Egypt, ‘*Everyone
will be ashamed because of a people who cannot
profit them, who are not for help or profit, but for
shame and also for reproach.”’

Wealth carries no weight in terms of eternal
destiny. Proverbs 11:4, *‘Riches do not profit in
the day of wrath, but righteousness delivers from
death,’ should be compared with Chnist’s words,
‘‘What shall it profit a man if he should gain the
whole world and lose his own soul?’’ (Mt 16:26).

Even where there is a positive denotation to
ya‘al (only three times) there is a negative conno-
tation as in Job 30:13 (of those who would profit
from Job’s destruction) and Isa 47:12 (of Babylon
who might profit from her sorceries). Isaiah 48:17
is the only positive use, which magnifies the Lord

883 29 (yl)

as the one who brings benefits to his people: *‘I
am the Lord your God, who teaches you to
profit, who leads you in the way you should go.”’
This clearly reflects the biblical concept of stew-
ardship, that all that one has and possesses be-
longs to him only because of God's gracious pro-
vision (cf. II Cor 8:9; 9:8).
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 746-87.
P.R.G.

883 Sys (y‘l) TI. Assumed root of the following.
883a %y» (ya‘él) mountain goat.
883b mY’ (ya'ala) female mountain goat.

3Y° (ya‘an). See no. 1650e.

884 I (y‘'n). Assumed root of the following.
884a IPs (ya'én) ostrich (only in Lam
4:3).
884b =may’ (ya‘dnd) only in combination
bat ya‘anad. Ostrich BDB, GB.
KJV, NIV. owl,

885 mys (yda'ép) I, be weary, faint.
Derivatives

885a AY’ (ya'ép) weary, faint.
885b YY (y*'dp) weariness, faintness.

886 AY’ (y'p) II. Assumed root of the following.
886a 8=MbPIM (16'dpad) eminence.

887 PY (ya‘as) advise, counsel, purpose, devise,
plan. (ASV, RSv similar.)

Derivatives

887a tNZy (‘ésa) counsel, purpose.
887b =n¥yi =6(md‘esa) counsel, plan.

This verb is translated in Lxx by bouleuod ora
compound over seventy times, ‘‘to give counsel,
deliberate, purpose, determine.’ The first occur-
rence of yd‘as is in Ex 18:19. Jethro, seeing the
tremendous burden of Moses, says, *'I shall give
you ‘counsel,’ and God be with you.’ He then
gives him an organizational plan and advises him
how to carry out the administrative respon-
sibilities for ruling and judging his people. Jethro
gives counsel from wisdom attained by age
and/or experience. One may remember Re-
hoboam’s rejection of the counsel (‘ésd) of the
old men (I Kgs 12:8, 13). Moses, as chief adminis-
trator of the people of God, is not obligated to
accept such counsel. A case in point is Ab-
solom’s rejection of Ahithophel’s good counsel
which was countered by Hushai’s evil counsel
(II Sam 17). Jethro, as counsellor, presents a
carefully thought out plan together with a proce-
dure for its implementation. In II Kgs 18:20 Rab-
Sshakeh's taunt of Hezekiah’s claim, “I have

390

counsel and strength for the war’’ reflects the
usual careful deliberation that goes into planning
for battle, in this case for defense.

Psalm 33:10 speaks of nations and peoples de-
vising counsels and plans (Heb mahdshaba
‘thought, device, plan, purpose’’) albeit not in
accordance with God’s ‘‘counsels (‘ésdé) and
plans”’ (cf. Isa 8:10; 30:1).

In contrast to the counsels of men and nations,
the oT speaks of the ‘counsel of the Lord.”’
Psalm 33:10f. presents this thought most clearly.
‘The Lord nullifies the counsel of the nations; he
frustrates the plans of the peoples. The ‘counsel’
of the Lord stands forever, the plans of his heart
from generation to generation.”’ Noteworthy
here is the overruling power of God as he nullifies
and frustrates the plans of men. The case of
Ahithophel’s counsel is apropos. In II Sam 15:31
David prays to the Lord to ‘‘make the counsel of
Ahithophel foolishness.’’ He thereby acknowl-
edges that God sovereignly disposes what man
proposes. Further, in II Sam 17:14 after Absalom
chooses the advice of Hushai over that of
Ahithophel, the inspired author makes the
theological comment, ‘“‘For the Lord had or-
dained to thwart the good counsel of Ahithophel,
in order that the Lord might bring calamity on
Absalom.’’ Cf. Neh 4:15 [H 9].

The counsel of the Lord is eternal, *‘It stands
forever.’’ The enduring character of God’s coun-
sel and plan is grounded in the unchangeableness
of God himself. The ‘*plans of his heart’’ may be
equated with ‘‘the secret things’’ which belong to
the Lord our God. It 1s God who guarantees the
accomplishment of his eternal decrees. Isaiah
beautifully integrates these thoughts, ‘‘Re-
member the former things long past, for I am
God, and there is no other; declaring the end
from the beginning and from ancient times things
which have not been done, saying, “My purpose
will be established, and I will accomplish all my
good pleasure’; Calling... the man of my pur-
pose (lit. the man who executes my purpose, lL.e.
Cyrus) from a far country. Truly I have spoken;
truly, I will bring it to pass. I have planned it,
surely I will do it’ (46:9-11). It is well to re-
member that ‘és@ is translated in the Lxx by
boulé, a word replete with theological signifi-
cance in the nT (see Acts 2:23; 4:28; 5:38-39;
20:27; Eph 1:11 where ‘‘the counsel of his will”’
expresses the immutable foreordination of God's
will); cf. Heb 6:17, *‘the unchangeableness of his
purpose’’).

Arising from the theological conceptualization
are anthropological and ethical conclusions.
Moses anticipates the waywardness of Israel as a
‘nation void of counsel,’’ 1.e. not following the
plans and purposes of God (Deut 32:28). Job ac-
knowledges that through lack of knowledge, he
has darkened counsel (42:3: cf. 38:2). In Prov,

counsel is rejected and spurned to one's own det-
riment (1:25, 30) but ‘‘he who listens to counsel’’
is a wise man (12:15). From Prov 19:20-21 we
understand that the counsel the godly man is
urged to listen to is the ‘‘counsel of the Lord”’
which will stand, in contrast to the many “‘plans
in a man’s heart.’’ The blessed man of Ps 1:1 is
one ‘‘who walks not in the counsel of the un-
godly.’’ Further, in Ps 32:8 the psalmist is en-
couraged by the Lord's instruction and teaching,
together with the assurance “‘I ‘will counsel’
(yd‘as) you with my eye upon you” (cf. 73:24).
Two christological passages need to be studied
in this connection. The only hope of Judah,
Isaiah claims, is to be found in the person of the
Messiah, who is characterized by four compound
names, the first being *‘Wonderful Counsellor’
(9:6). The child who is to come, on whose shoul-
ders the government of the world shall rest, is
one whose plans, purposes, designs and decrees
for his people are marvellous. We further learn
from 11:2 that ‘‘counsel”’ is a gift of God’s own
Holy Spirit. Consequently, Jesus Christ is re-

vealed as the counsellor par excellance.

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 748-52.
P.R.G.

888 “y’ (y'r) I. Assumed root of the following.

888a TVs (ya‘ar) I, forest, woods,
thicket. xx translates drumos. The
Ugaritic cognate y'r is quite com-
mon, uSed as a personal name, place
name, and as gentilic. asv and Rsv
use similar words.

Specific forests are identified in the oT, e.g. the
forest of Lebanon (I Kgs 7:2), Ephraim (II Sam
18:6), Hareth (I Sam 22:5), the Negev (Ezk 20:47
[H 21:3]), Carmel (though this may be better
translated *‘its choice cypresses,’’ II Kgs 19:23;
Isa 37:24 as in RSV and Nass). Joshua designates
the forested area in the hill country of Ephraim as
the possession of the sons of Joseph, encouraging
them by saying, “If you are a numerous people,
go up to the forest and clear a place for yourself’
(Josh 17:15; cf. v. 18).

The forests apparently were dense enough in
oT days that wild animals roamed at will, e.g.
bears (II Kgs 2:24), a roaring lion (Amos 3:4; Mic
5:8 [H 7]; Jer 5:6; 12:8), boars (Ps 80:13 [H 14)]),
and beasts generally (Isa 56:9; Ezk 34:25).

Psalm 29:9 ascribes glory to God by claiming
that ‘‘the voice of the Lord makes the deer to
calve (or “twists the oaks"’ Niv) and strips the
forests bare."’ Other metaphors or similes appear
referring to the Lord's judgments, as for exam-
ple, judgment on Assyna in Isa 10:18, *‘And he
will destroy the glory of his forest and of his fruit-
ful garden.’’ Cf. Ps 83:14 [H 15]; Jer 21:14. Some-
times, the figure of judgment 1s turned around so

391

890 MBS (yapa)

that rather than being cut down, it is pictured as
allowed to grow into a wilderness forest, as in
Mic 3:12, ‘Zion will be plowed as a field,
Jerusalem will become a heap of ruins, and the
mountain of the temple will become high places
of a forest,’’ i.e. thick and overgrown.

The symbolism of a forest 1s not altogether
negative, however. The Lord’s mighty act of sal-
vation and forgiveness calls for shouts of joy, as
in Isa 44:23, ‘‘Break forth into a shout of joy, you
mountains, O forest, and every tree in it, for the
Lord has redeemed Jacob.” In a slightly different
context, the maiden in the canticle speaks of her
lover ‘‘like an apple tree among the trees of the
forest, so1is my beloved among the young men. In
his shade I took delight and sat down and his fruit
was sweet to my taste’’ (Song 2:3).

P.R.G.

889 “ys (y'r) II. Assumed root of the following.

889a “Y* (ya‘ar) MH, honeycomb.
889b =maYS «(ya'ra) honeycomb.

890 mp° (yapa) be fair, beautiful, handsome.

Derivatives

890a fm’ (yapeh) fair, beautiful.

890b = MSB-MBY (y’péh-piya) very beautiful,
reduplication giving the force of di-
minutive, ‘‘pretty.”’

890c SY (y*pi) beauty.

yapdad appears only eight times, including Ps
45:2 [H 3] yopyapita which many try to emend.
But Dahood suggests it may be a genuine dialec-
tical form as in Uganitic d‘ d‘ ‘well known”’ from
yd‘, and ysmsmt *‘beauty”’ (in AB, Psalms, I, p.
271). The consonants may be taken as simply a
reduplication of the adj y° pi which is then made
into a stative verb. KJV, ASV, RSV consistently use
‘‘be fair’’ and “‘be beautiful’’ even of men, as in
II Sam 14:25.

yapeh. Fair, beautiful, excellent. Translated in
Lxx by kalos ‘beautiful, useful, good.’’ Ugaritic
has a word yp (?) probably a cognate (UT 19: no.
412).

Esthetically, vadpeh denotes ‘‘beauty as to
outward appearance,’’ e.g. Gen 12:14 regarding
Sarah, ‘‘When Abraham came to Egypt, the
Egyptians saw that the woman was very ‘beauti-
ful’..’ In the case of Rachel (29:17), ‘‘She was
beautiful and lovely’’ (Heb y“pat t6’ar wipat
mar’eh, literally ‘‘beautiful in form and beautiful
to look upon’’). Cf. Song 7:6 [H 7]; I] Sam 13:1 of
Tamar; 1 Kgs 1:3, 4 of Abishag the Shunammite.
Elsewhere these words describe young men, e.g.
Gen 39:6, ‘‘Now Joseph was handsome and good
looking’ (rsv). Cf. II Sam 14:25 of Absalom; I
Sam 17:42 of David; Song 1:16. Under the figure
of a woman, Jerusalem is called *‘ beautiful in ele-

891 *n5} (yapah)

vation’’ (Ps 48:2 [H 3]). Cf. also Ezk 16:13, 14,
15, 25. Tyre (Ezk 27:3) and Egypt are also called
beautiful, the latter as a metaphor with the redu-
plicated diminutive in Jer 46:20, ‘‘Egypt is a
pretty heifer.’’ However, it is used literally of
cows in Gen 41:2, 4, 18 where ‘‘beautiful and fat”’
Cows are contrasted with ‘‘ugly and gaunt’’ ones
in Pharaoh’s dream, Other objects of beauty
mentioned in Scripture are olive trees and cedars
(Jer 11:16; Ezk 31:3), feet (Song 7:2); eyes (I Sam
16:12). In Ezk 33:32, the prophet’s ministry is
described as being ‘‘like a sensual song by one
who has a beautiful voice and plays well on an
instrument.’ Ecclesiastes 3:11 describes every-
thing in general as God's creation ‘beautiful in its
time.”

Several times these words are used in Ezk 28
to describe the king of Tyre and the wisdom for
which Tyre was known. Her enemies will *‘draw
their swords against the beauty of your wisdom
and defile your splendor’’ (v. 7). The king him-
self is described as ‘‘full of wisdom and perfect
in beauty’’ (v. 12). But this proved his downfall,
as v. 17 declares that ‘‘your heart was lifted up
because of your beauty; you corrupted wisdom
by reason of your splendor.’’ If the king of Tyre
stands for Lucifer, one can appreciate the poten-
tial for the seduction of God’s people. Jeremiah
speaks of craftsmen beautifying their wooden
idols, ‘“They decorate it with silver and gold’’
(10:4).

There are two messianic passages which use
our words. In Ps 45:2 [H 3], in a song celebrating
the marriage of the king, the songwriter says,
‘“You are fairer than the sons of men; grace is
poured upon your lips; therefore God has blessed
you forever.'’ Prophesying the future hope of Is-
rael as being in the person of Messiah, Isaiah
says, ‘‘Your eyes will see the king in his beauty,
they will behold a far distant land’’ (Isa 33:17).
The Lxx translates doxa (rather than kalos),
thinking of his heavenly glory. But this transla-
tion for y‘ pi is unusual.

If these are messianic references, then what 1s
the meaning of Isa 53:2, ‘‘He has no stately form
or majesty that we should look upon him, nor
appearance that we should be attracted to him’’?
There is no mention of ‘‘beauty’’ in Isa 53. Fur-
ther, the servant is depicted as suffering, espe-
cially in the crucifixion scene. In view of 52:14,
‘‘His appearance was marred more than any
man,’’ coupled with the nt description of the
brutal beatings (e.g. the crown of thorns pressed
on his brow), we conclude that Christ in his suf-
fering would not manifest the beauty described
elsewhere. Some theologians have opposed the
idea of an ugly Christ based on the Hellenistic
notion that beauty is intrinsic to deity. If the
church’s interpretation of the Song of Solomon as
being messianic is valid, then the many uses of

392

yapeh, etc. for the beloved, would tend to sup-
port our view of a handsome Christ. That beauty
may be defined in the spiritual sense of inward
beauty should not detract from the outward phys-
ical appearance of our Lord.

One final reference should be noted. Zechanah
9:16f. speaks of the ransomed people of God,
‘‘And the Lord their God will save them in that
day as the flock of his people; for they are as
stones of a crown, sparkling in his land. For what
comeliness and beauty will be theirs!’’ May
God’s people even now reflect the beauty of the
Lord our God (cf. Ps 90:17).

P.R.G.

mD-ADY (ypéh-piyya). See no. 890b.

891 *Mp’ (ydpah) breathe, puff. This by-form

of puah occurs only in the Hithpael stem,
in Jer 4:31, tityappéah ‘*she gasps for
breath.’’

Derivative

89la MBS (ydpéah) breathing or puffing
out. Occurs only in Ps 27:12,
wipeah hamas ‘‘puffing out vio
lence.”’

%? (y°pi). See no. 890c.

892 *YD. (yadpa‘) shine forth, cause to shine.

Used eight times in the Hiphil only. asv
and rsv similar except in Job 10:3 where
‘favor’ is used.

Derivatives

892a MYyE> (yip'd) brightness, splendor.
In Ezk 28:7, 17 of the king of Tyre.

yadpa‘ is used of the Lord shining forth from
Mount Paran (Deut 33:2), Zion (Ps 50:1), among
the cherubim (Ps 80:1 [H 2]). Undoubtedly these
are references to the majestic splendor of his
holiness, as revealed by the theophanic bnilrance
of the Shekinah glory. But further the Lord’s
shining forth is made explicit by Jesus’ claim to
be the light of the world. In Job 37:15 the refer-
ence may be to literal light, possibly lightning,
which God has created.

Job’s plaint in 10:3 alludes to God’s light shin-
ing with favor on the wicked, whereas he himself
feels keenly the darkness of his plight. Similarly,
his cursing the day of his birth is expressed by a
desire that no ‘‘light shine on it,’’ i.e. that it may
not be looked upon with favor, joy, or celebra-
tion. Much later, the derivative yip‘d ‘‘splendor”’
is used to describe the lofty and exalted position
of the king of Tyre, from which he will have fallen
because of pride.

It is interesting to note that Ugaritic yp‘ is the

semantic cognate, appearing both in texts as well
as in many personal names (cf. yp‘b‘/ ‘‘may Baal
shine forth.’’). But the root in Ug does not clearly
refer to a theophany in the oT sense. Aistleitner
(AisWUS No. 1215) translates it ‘‘be sublime’’
(hehr sein).
Bibliography: THAT, I, ppl 753-54.
P.R.G.

893 S¥° (yasa’) go out, come out, go forth.

Derivatives
893a S8°S> (ydsi’) coming forth, — only in
II Chr 32:21.

893b TREN (se'ésa’) offspring, produce.

893c t8¥V2 (mdsa’) act or place of going
out.

893d tMN¥V2 (mdsa’a) origin (Mic 5:1),
places of going out to, i.e. privy
(iI Kgs 10:27). Occurs only in the
plural.

893e fTANEIN (t6sa’a) outgoing, border.

yasa’ appears over a thousand times in Qal and
Hiphil, but only five times in the Hophal. The
Hiphil has the usual causative meaning ‘‘cause to
go out, bring out, lead out.’ asv and Rsv similar.

The basic notion of vasa’ is ‘‘to go out.”’ It is
used literally of going out from a particular local-
ity or from the presence of a person. It is used of
nature, 1.e. water out of a rock, sun rising out of
the east, etc. For our purposes we shall note the
following uses. First, it is used frequently of the
great exodus event which forms the major focus
of theological attention in the ot. The Hiphil with
its causative function is used extensively. Moses
is the human element in bringing the people of
God out of Egypt (e.g. Ex 3:10ff.; 14:11). Aaron
is mentioned with Moses in Ex 6:13, 26f. But far
greater emphasis is given to Yahweh, the Lord
God who is involved in this great act of redemp-
tion from Egypt. Moses himself puts the em-
phasis on God’s work in Ex 13:3 as he addresses
the people of God on that memorable day, *‘Re-
member this day in which you went out from
Egypt, from the house of slavery; for by a power-
ful hand the Lord brought you out from this
place.’’ The historical event was recorded in
12:S50f. Moses reiterates four times the mighty
power of God in the exodus redemption so as to
underline the revelation which this great miracle
proclaimed. (Cf. 13:3,9,14,16.) Both the consec-
ration of the firstborn and the passover feast will
serve aS constant reminders. Further, in the in-
scripturation of the Sinaitic covenant, all that
need be said by way of a historical prologue to
identify the benevolent activity of the great King
is to refer to this saving action: ‘I am the Lord
your God, who brought you out of the land of
Egypt, out of the house of slavery’’ (Ex 20:2).

393

893 NB (yasa’)

The record shows that history is theologically re-
lated, the great “‘going out’? event was to sym-
bolize the mighty redemption of God's people
from the shackles of sin by his sovereign power-
ful grace. In Deut 4:37 a reason is given: ‘‘Be-
cause he loved your fathers, therefore he chose
their descendants. ... And he personally brought
you from Egypt’ (cf. Eph 1:4). Throughout Is-
rael’s history, the covenanted people of God are
called to remember this God-initiated redemption
and to live accordingly. (Cf. Deut 6:12; 26:8: Jud
2:12; I Sam 12:8; I Kgs 8:16; Jer 11:4; Dan 9:15
and numerous references in the psalter, particu-
larly Ps 136:11, but note also 106:6—12.)

A second usage arises from the exodus motif.
In a technical sense ydsa’ is used for the emanci-
pation of a Hebrew slave, probably an indentured
servant. Exodus 21:2 puts the maximum limit of
service at six years, *‘But on the seventh he shall
go out as a free man without payment.’’ U. Cas-
suto points out that these laws aim to protect
certain rights of the Hebrew slave, and in effect
say to the Israelite, *“You have been Hebrew
slaves in Egypt, and, therefore, you must act
with love and compassion towards the people
who are Hebrew slaves, even as you were, irre-
spective of their racial origin.’ It seems signifi-
cant that this section reads so much like the
preamble to the Decalogue, reminding the people
of God that as you went forth from Egyptian
bondage, even so shall your identured servant go
out free.

Somewhat related is a technical usage meaning
‘‘revert.”’ Leviticus 25:8-55 records the regu-
lations for the year of Jubilee. Property or
dwellings which had been sold on account of
poverty, no near of kin being able to redeem it,
‘tat the jubilee [it] shall revert (lit. “go out’’), that
he may return to his property’ (25:28, 30, 31, 33).
It may well be that Isaiah had the above two ideas
in mind when he uttered the evangelical message
“*to proclaim liberty to captives, and freedom to
prisoners; to proclaim the favorable year of the
Lord” (61:2-3).

Another theological usage of ydsa’ is an exten-
sion of the exodus theme. The prophets see the
irremediable corruption of Israel and Judah
which inevitably leads to exile but after that a
return. Ezekiel, himself an innocent victim of
such judgment, quotes the Lord’s promise of a
new exodus-like redemptive activity from the
exile. ‘‘As a soothing aroma I shall accept you,
when I bring you out from the peoples and gather
you from the lands where you are scattered”’
(20:41; cf. v. 34). Its true fulfillment may only
come after the good shepherd ‘‘will bring them
out from the peoples and gather them from the
countries and bring them to their own land”
(34:13). Hence, an eschatological note of hope is
introduced.

894 33° (yasab)

Sometimes ydsa’ is used with a special em-
phasis on source or origin, particularly when that
source is the Lord himself, as of fire (Lev 9:24),
providential guidance (Gen 24:50), or salvation
(Isa 51:5). It is used of words going forth from the
mouth of a speaker, as in Job 8:10; Prov 10:18;
Neh 6:19. In Deut 8:3 Moses utters one of the
cardinal principles of the spiritual life, *“That he
might make you understand that man does not
live by bread alone, but man lives by everything
that proceeds out (mdsa’') of the mouth of the
Lord.’ (Cf. Christ’s use of this in Mt 4:4.) Al-
though both Ezekiel and Daniel use this expres-
sion once, only Isaiah emphasizes the notion of
the word of God going out with effectual force.
Following a universal invitation to be saved, the
Lord guarantees its effectualness by an oath, *‘!
have sworn by myself, the word has gone forth
from my mouth in righteousness and will not turn
back, that to me every knee will bow, every
tongue will swear allegiance”’ (45:23). Similarly,
on acontext of Gospel invitation to seek the Lord
and call upon him, Isaiah uses the analogy of
life-producing rain coming down from heaven to
illustrate the effectual working of his Word, ‘‘So
shall my word be which goes forth from my
mouth; it shall not return to me empty, without
accomplishing what I desire, and without suc-
ceeding in the matter for which I sent it’’ (Isa
55:11). It is tempting to consider that these pas-
sages might have been the genesis of John’s
theology of Jesus as the Word of God. Consider
the relation that Ps 33:6 might have to Jn 1:3. One
should note also the christological interpretation
of 45:23 as given by Paul in Phil 2:10f. If this is
true, one wonders if Isaiah did not have in mind a
person when he spoke of the ‘‘Word™’ going forth
(cf. Jn 16:28), and not returning empty, but ‘*suc-
ceeding in the matter for which I sent him” (cf. Jn
17:4).

se’ésa’. Offspring of men, produce of the
earth. Used eleven times (all plural) in Isaiah
and Job.

mésa’. Act or place of going out; hence, issue,
source, such as a spring of water or mine (for
silver). Used twenty-seven times.

mésa’a. Place from which one comes or to
which one goes. Used only twice in very different
connections. In II Kgs 10:27 it means ‘‘latrine.”’
The meaning in Mic 5:2 [H 1] the plural is de-
bated. The translation ‘‘origin’”’ (Rsv) is unsuita-
ble for the messianic reference. The meaning of
the KJv ‘‘going forth”’ is obscure. The Niv ‘‘whose
origins are from of old, from ancient times’
agrees with the idea that the ancestry of the ex-
pected ruler traces back to David's time as well
as David’s city. The NEB ‘‘roots”’ is similar.

394

t6sa’a. Outgoings, borders. Used twenty-three
times (all plural), mainly in geographical con-
texts.
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 755-60.
P.R.G.

894 33° (yasab) stand, set or station oneself,

present oneself (only in the Hithpael). The
LxXx uses paristémi, histémi, anthistémi
plus other compounds of histémi. The more
common Hebrew words are ‘admad and
nasab which KB calls a byform of ydsab. It
appears forty-five times in MT. asv and Rsv
are similar.

The word appears in Ugaritic only as the name
of the son of Keret.

The simple usage is found in Ex 2:4 where
Miriam, Moses’ sister, “‘stood at a distance to
find out what would happen to him.’ Habakkuk
also uses the word similarly, ‘‘I will stand on my
guard post... and | will keep watch to see what
he will speak to me” (2:1). Cf. TI Sam 18:13
where it is translated *‘stood aloof.’ However,
there is more to the idea than simply standing.

It is used of those who set themselves against
others. Specifically, in the well-known messianic
psalm, ‘‘the kings of the earth take their
stand... against the Lord and against his
anointed”’ (Ps 2:2). Hence, it means “‘to oppose”
or possibly ‘‘to oppress’ as the parallel phrase
might also indicate. In a twist to the metaphor,
Num 22:22 expresses God's anger against
Balaam so that ‘‘the angel of the Lord took his
Stand in the way as an adversary against him.” In
a military sense, it 1s used in I Sam 17:16 where
Goliath stood in defiance of the Lord and the
army of Israel. Cf. Jer 46:4. However, several
times we find the promise of God that the enemy
will not be able to stand before the godly, 1.e. to
oppose him. The most familiar passage is Josh
1:5, ‘"No man will be able to stand before you all
the days of your life’ (cf. Deut 7:24; 11:25).
Sometimes the people of God are told to take
their stand, passively and quietly awaiting the
mighty deliverance of the Lord as in Ex 14:13f.,
‘‘Do not fear! Stand by and see the salvation of
the Lord which He _ will accomplish for
you today ... the Lord will fight for you while
you keep silent’ (cf. I Sam 12:7, 16 and II Chr
20:17).

Furthermore, God calls on the righteous be-
lievers to take their stand against evil: **Who will
stand up (Heb gim) for me against evildoers?
Who will take his stand (vdsab) for me against
those who do wickedness?”’ (Ps 94:16; cf. I] Chr
11:13 where the priests and Levites of the north-
ern ten tribes stood firm with Rehoboam when
Jeroboam divided the kingdom).

In another usage yasab lipné means “‘to pre-

sent oneself before.’’ Moses is commanded,
‘Present yourself before Pharoah’’ (lit. ‘‘station
yourself’’) in Ex 8:20 [H 16]; 9:13. Deuteronomy
31:14 is instructive because God tells Moses and
Joshua to ‘‘present themselves’’ at the tent of
meeting, that he might commission him”’ 1.e. in-
stall him for service. Similarly, in Josh 24:1 the
elders of Israel, heads, judges, and officers are to
present themselves before God as they anticipate
taking the oath of leadership. Cf. I Sam 10:19;
Jud 20:2. This note of service is more clearly re-
vealed in Zech 6:5, ‘These are the four spirits of
heaven, going forth after standing before the
Lord of all the earth."’ They are depicted as em-
missaries of God, accomplishing his work. This
illuminates Job 1:6; 2:1 where *‘the sons of God
came to present themselves before the Lord, and
Satan also.’’ Satan’s malevolent ‘‘roaming about
on the earth’ need not detract from the high ser-
vice which the sons of God rendered. Fur-
thermore, we need not denigrate the service per-
formed as being servile, but rather an honorable
task. It is this idea which indubitably is behind
the proverb, *“‘Do you see a man skilled in his
work? He will stand before kings; he will not
stand before obscure men’’ (Prov 22:29). One
who thus stands before kings implicitly makes
himself available and ready for service. Cf. Mil-
ton’s memorable words in his sonnet on his
blindness, ‘‘They also serve who only stand and
wait.”’

One further idea may be considered. If they
who stand before Kings are servants and couriers
ready to serve, how much more should those who
present themselves to the great king, the Lord of
lords, be submissive to his will and command.
This seems to be the thought in Ex 19:17 where
‘*Moses brought the people out of the camp to
meet God, and they stood at the foot of the
mountain."’ The people gave a response of rev-
erent obedience, *‘All the words which the Lord
has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient”
(24:3, 7).

P.R.G.

895 4¥° (vadsag) set, place, establish.

Used sixteen times, in the Hiphil and Hophal
only. It is a synonym of sam, its primary meaning
being to set or place. The notion of placing some-
one or something in such a position as to be ex-
hibited to all may be seen in Job 17:6, “*But he
has made me a byword of the people, and I am
one at whom men spit.”’ Hosea 2:3 [H 5]
likewise, *‘Lest I strip her naked and expose her
as on the day when she was born” (NAsB).

P.R.G.

"ay? (vishar). See no. 1883c.
1X9) (ydasta’). See no. 896a.

395

897 39 (yasaq)

PMY (yishaq). See no. 1905b.
NS) (yasi’). See no. 893a.
$°S) (yasia’). See no. 896b.

896 *yE° (ydsa‘) lay, spread. Occurs only in

the Hiphil and Hophal.

Derivatives

896a = vss’) «(yasiia‘) couch, bed.

896b PSS.) (ydsia‘) flat surface.

896c Yk (massa‘) couch, bed. Occurs
only in Isa 28:20.

897 Pk (ydasaq) pour, pour out, cast (metal).

(ASV, RSV similar.)

Derivatives

897a =m. (y°suqad) a casting (of metal),
only in I Kgs 7:24.

897b = BE (masaq) a casting, only in 1
Kgs 7:37; Job 38:38.

897c = APEWD «(museget) pipe (Zech 4:2);
a casting (II Chr 4:3).

yasaq is used about fifty times, about one
fourth of them used of casting or pouring molten
metal. asv and rsv similar. The Ugaritic ysq has
the same range of meaning.

The basic meaning is to pour out a liquid, e.g.
Elisha poured water on the hands of Elyah
(IJ. Kgs 3:11), pouring oil, e.g. the widow filling
containers with oil (II Kgs 4:4—-5), or pouring
soup or food from a pot (II Kgs 4:40-41).

Ceremonially, it is used of pouring oil in anoint-
ing, e.g. on the head of the priest (Ex 29:7, Lev
21:10) or the head of a king (II Kgs 9:3, 6; I Sam
10:1). The principle of inauguration or ordination
to office is clearly involved. But perhaps another
more subtle principle is implied, that of repre-
sentation and solidarity. When Ps 133:2 speaks of
the oi] that ran down Aaron's head to the beard
and onto the collars of the priests’ robes, God's
blessing on the people as well as on the priest was
thereby symbolized. Hence, the significance of
the ‘‘oil of gladness.’’ The meal offering in Lev
2:1, 6 was to have oil poured upon it and mixed
with frankincense as a sweet smelling offering
symbolic of one’s complete consecration to the
Lord, to be pleasing before him. Further, in the
sacrificial system, blood was poured out at the
base of the altar, making atonement for Aaron
and his sons (Lev 8:15).

Eschatologically, the Lord promises through
Isaiah (44:3) to ‘‘pour out water on the thirsty
land” (or *‘on him who is thirsty’’) and in the
parallelism he alludes to Joel’s prophecy (2:28),
**T will pour out My Spirit on your offspring, and
my blessing on your descendants.”’ The implica-
tions for the doctrine of the Trinity in the oT are
inescapable, but neither should one lose sight of

898 "¥9 (ydsar)

the greater blessings to be realized following the
fulfillment in Acts 2. The Holy Spirit is not to be
conceived as a liquid poured out, but rather man-
ifesting his activities among the people of God in
‘‘these latter days.”’

Interestingly, the word is never used for cast-
ing idol images. It 1s used frequently for casting
the golden temple furniture and for the great
bronze casting which Solomon accomplished in
the Jordan valley—no small feat of engineering
for his day (I Kgs 7:46).

P.R.G.

898 “¥° (ydsar) fashion, form, frame. (RSV
and aSv generally similar except that Rsv
translates ‘‘planned”’ in II Kgs 19:25; Isa
37:26, and asv has ‘‘ordained’’ in Ps
139: 16.)

Derivatives

898a {7° (yéser) form.

898b Ba’ (y’surim) forms, members,
only in Job 17:7, referring to parts of
the body as having been fashioned.

The basic meaning of this root is ‘‘to form,”
‘‘to fashion.’” While the word occurs in
synonymous parallelism with bard’ *‘create’’ and
‘aS@ *‘make’’ in a number of passages, its pni-
mary emphasis is on the shaping or forming of the
object involved.

As with many Hebrew words of theological
significance, the root yadsar may be used of
human as well as divine agency. When used in its
secular sense it occurs most frequently in the par-
ticipial form meaning ‘‘potter,”’ 1.e. one who
fashions (clay). The word ts used in this form
frequently in the prophets where ‘‘the potter’
provides an apt vehicle for the communication of
the prophetic message (Isa 29:16; Jer 18:2, 4, 6;
Zech 11:13).

The concept of ‘‘fashioning’’ is particularly
clear in Isa 44:9-10, 12 where an idol is pictured
as being shaped (ydsar) by hammers (v. 12). See
also Hab 2:18. The same concept is evident in the
use of the word in Ps 94:20 where wicked rulers
use the law to devise or frame means of wrong-
doing.

When used of divine agency, the root refers
most frequently to God’s creative activity. It de-
scribes the function of the divine Potter forming
man and beasts from the dust of the earth (Gen
2:7-8, 19). It occurs in association with bdra’
‘“create’’ and ‘asda ‘‘make’’ in passages that refer
to the creation of the universe (Isa 45:18), the
earth itself (Jer 33:2), and the natural phenomena
(Amos 4:13; Ps 95:5). See also Ps 33:15; 74:17;
94:9; Jer 10:16; 51:19; Zech 12:1).

The word also occurs in the sense of God’s
framing or devising something in his mind. It is

396

used of his preordained purposes (II Kgs 19:25;
Isa 37:26; 46:11; Ps 139:16) as well as his current
plans (Jer 18:11).

The root is used of God’s forming the nation of
Israel in the sense of bringing it into existence. It
is used in this way only by Isaiah and always
connotes God’s activity in this regard (Isa 43:1, 7,
21; 44:2, 21, 24).

The participial form meaning ‘‘potter’’ is
applied to God in Isa 64:7 where mankind Is the
work of his hand.

When applied to the objects of God’s creative
work, the emphasis of the word is on the forming
or structuring of these phenomena. The word
speaks to the mode of creation of these
phenomena only insofar as the act of shaping or
forming an object may also imply the initiation of
that object. In this way the root ydsar is an ap-
propriate surrogate for bara’ but not an exact
synonym.

yéser. Form. The noun yéser, which con-
notes the concept of ‘‘form,’’ may refer either to
the shape of an object or the object itself, i.e. that
which has been formed. It refers to the external
shape of an idol in Hab 2:18, but to pottery itself
in Isa 29:16. Its most frequent usage in the latter
sense refers to that which is formed in the mind,
e.g. plans and purposes (Gen 6:5; 8:21; Deut
31:21) or even the state of mind (Isa 26:3).
Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 1005-28. THAT,
I, pp. 761-64.
T.E.M.

"¥° (yasar). See no. 1970, sdarar 1.

899 Mk (ydsat) burn, kindle, set on fire.

The most common word for burning is bd‘ar.
yasat is used largely by the prophets to depict the
coming desolation. The word is always used to
express destruction by fire. For ordinary burning
as of wood on the altar bd‘ar or yagad would be
used, although these words too are often destruc-
tive.

yasat is used in Josh 8:8, 19 where the city of
Ai was destroyed by fire. This was done by ex-
press command from the Lord. Cf. Jud 9:49
where the tower of Shechem was set on fire. It is
used of setting fields on fire (II Sam 14:30f.),
forests (Jer 21:14), gates (Neh 1:3; 2:17), thorns
(Isa 33:12), houses (Jer 51:30). Jeremiah uses this
word 15 times, mostly to predict the fiery de-
struction of Jerusalem and Judah. But such de-
struction is not to come upon Jadah exclusively,
but on foreign nations as well, e.g. Egypt (46:19),
Ammon (49:2), Damascus (49:27), Babylon
(50:32; 51:30). Jeremiah laments (Lam 4:11) most
bitterly that Zion has been thoroughly destroyed
by fire, *“‘The Lord has accomplished his wrath,

he has poured out his fierce anger; and he has
kindled a fire in Zion which has consumed its
foundations."’

Jeremiah’s use of ydsat may have been im-
pressed on him by the discovery of the scroll of
the law during Josiah’s reign. Josiah expressed
his concern for what was read to him, by com-
manding Hilkiah the priest and others, ‘‘Go, in-
quire of the Lord for me... for great is the wrath
of the Lord that burns against us, because our
fathers have not listened to the words of this
book, to do according to all that is written con-
cerning us’’ (II Kgs 22:13).

For the metaphoric use of the burning anger of
the Lord, see the article on ydgad.

P.R.G.

900 35° (yqgb). Assumed root of the following.
900a 32° (yeqgeb) wine vat.

901 “3% (yaqad) burn, kindle. (asv, Rsv simi-
lar.)

Derivatives

Mla TH (y°qdéd) aburning only in Isa
10:16.

901b “pv (mdgéd) burning, hearth, used
only twice (Ps 102:4; Isa 33:14).

901c masa (mdq*dad) hearth, used only
once (Lev 6:2).

The more common words for burning are ba‘ar
and ydasat for the literal expression, ga@tar ‘‘burn
incense,’ hard for the figurative of ‘‘anger burn-
ing,’ plus several others of less significance.

ydqad and its derivatives are mostly used in
connection with the brazen altar. It is used sev-
eral times in Lev 6 where instructions are given
for the burnt offerings, e.g. ‘‘the burnt offering
itself shall remain on the hearth (mdq° dd) on the
altar all night until the morning, and the fire on
the altar is to be kept burning (yagad, Hophal) on
It’’ (Lev 6:9 [H 2]; cf. 6:12 [H 5]; 6:13 [H 6]).

By and large these words are used metaphori-
cally for the wrath of God in judgment. Although
hard is more commonly used, nevertheless
yadqad is used in this sense, as in Deut 32:22,
‘*For a fire is kindled (qa@dah) in my anger, and
burns (yaqad) to the lowest part of Sheol, and
consumes the earth with its yield, and sets on fire
(lahat) the foundations of the mountains.’’ Isa
10:16 picks up this figure of fiery judgment.
Jeremiah uses the same metaphor in 15:14, and in
17:4 accuses Judah of kindling the fire of God’s
anger. In a slight twist to the metaphor, Isaiah
reveals God’s frustration with the recalcitrant
people of Judah, declaring of them, ‘‘These are
smoke in my nostrils, a fire that burns all the
day’’ (Isa 65:5).

The Aramaic cognate y° gad is used eight times

397

902 mp* (yqh).

903 Yb (yaqa‘)

in Dan 3 as a participle *‘burning’’ modifying the
fiery furnace. Also, in an eschatological passage,
the fourth beast of Dan 7 is slain ‘‘and its body
was destroyed and given to the burning fire’
(v. 11) which anticipates ‘‘the lake of fire and
brimstone’’ into which the devil, the beast, and
the false prophet are thrown (Rev 20:10).
P.R.G.

Assumed root of the following.
902a TMP’ (yighad) obedience. (asv and
RSV similar.)

It is used only twice, in Gen 49:10 and Prov
30:17. It is presumably from ydqgah (not used in
Hebrew). The Gen passage is the familiar Shiloh
prophecy concluding ‘‘and to him shall be the
obedience of the peoples.’’ However, Lxx ren-
ders our word by prosdokia ‘‘expectation”’ (as
if from qgaw4a) expressing the hope of the peoples
awaiting Shiloh’s coming. Proverbs 30:17 ‘‘de-
spiseth to obey a mother’’ is rendered ‘‘scorns a
mother’s old age” in NEB following Lxx géras
‘told age.’ The parallel with *‘mocking a father,’”’
the Arabic cognate waghat ‘‘obedience”’ and the
usage 1n Gen 49:10 would seem to suggest that
obedience to both father and mother is in view.
Such scorn by the eye (of a son) would be se-
verely judged.

P.R.G.

T1>° (y*qéd). See no. 90la.
Byy (y°qam). See no. 1999f.
wip (yaqésh). See no. 06a.
was (ydqush). See no. 906b.
5°39 (yaqgir). See no. 905c.

903 YD (ydqa') be alienated, dislocate (Qal);

hang (Hiphil).
same.)

(ASV and RSv essentially the

Of the eight usages of this word, half are causa-
tive. Genesis 32:25 [H 26], ‘‘So the socket of
Jacob's thigh was dislocated while he wrestled,”’
clearly establishes the basis for the metaphoric
sense meaning ‘‘be alienated, separated.’’ The
Hiphil clearly brings out the causative, although
it serves euphemistically for the idea of execution
by hanging or, more likely at that time by impal-
ing (as in Num 25:4 as NASB translates ‘‘and exe-
cute them in broad daylight... so that the fierce
anger of the Lord may turn away from Israel’’).
Normally in ancient Israel execution was carried
out by stoning (saga! or rdgam, q.v.). For the
curse associated with hanging, see Deut 21:23,
see the synonym (ald ‘‘hang.’’ The several refer-
ences to hanging bodies may refer not to death by
hanging, but to the exhibition of the corpses of
those killed some other way (cf. II Sam 21:12;
Josh 10:26).

P.R.G.

904 PD* (yaqus)

904 YD (yvdqas) awake. (RSV, ASV similar.)

Derivative (?)

904a *tp%3 (gis) awake. Huphil only.

It is difficult to determine the precise relation
of vagas and gis. BDB treats them in separate
articles. It may be they go back to a common
Semitic biradical root. KB takes ydqgas as a by-
form of gis. A Ugaritic tablet tells of El inviting
gods to a banquet as sh / ys ““he shouts to wake
(them) up’ (UT 19: no. 474).

Most of the uses are of a narrative nature relat-
ing the fact that a person ‘‘awoke” from his
sleep, e.g. Noah (Gen 9:24), Jacob (Gen 28:16),
Pharaoh (Gen 41:4), Samson (Jud 16:14), Sol-
omon (I Kgs 3:15), etc.

Several times in the Psalms, it is associated
with one’s awaking and finding God's sustaining
presence. Ps 139:18 exalts the omnipresence of
God: ‘‘When | awake, I am still with thee’ (Ps
17:15). In a slight metaphorical change, Prov
6:22 speaks of the law as guiding one and “when
you sleep, they will watch over you and when
you awake, they will talk to you.’ The thought is
clear: God reveals himself through the inscriptu-
rated revelation, not through mystical exper-
ence. Ancient mythology expresses the limitation
of the gods as needing to sleep, hence, having to
shout to awaken them. (Cf. the Ugaritic example
noted above and I Kgs 18:27). An allusion to this
is made in several Psalms with reference to the
Lord, e.g. Ps 78:65, **Then the Lord awoke as if
from sleep, like a warrior overcome by wine.”
From the human viewpoint, one may so speak of
the Lord who keeps silent when sin and rebellion
goes on without repentance. However, our
theology is rather built on Ps 121:3-4, *‘He who
keeps you will not slumber. Behold he who keeps
Israel will neither slumber nor sleep.”

Finally, gis is used four times with the meaning
‘to awaken from the dead,” t.e. resurrection.
Before Elisha brought the Shunammite widow's
son to life, Gehazi reported, **The lad has not
awakened” (II Kgs 4:31).

Job, in a pessimistic section, speaks of man
lying down and not rising again, indeed, *‘He will
not awake nor be aroused out of his sleep'’ (Job
14:12; see also v. 14). Job did, however, hope for
the resurrection (19:25; 14:145 (Niv), see halap).
In Isaiah’s apocalypse, the resurrection hope is
explicitly stated with respect to Judah, ‘Their
corpses will rise. You who lie in the dust, awake
and shout for joy” (26:19).

But it is Daniel (12:2) who gives the clearest
expression of the eschatological hope of resurrec-
tion: **And many of those who sleep in the dust of
the ground will awake, these to everlasting life,
but the others to disgrace and everlasting con-
tempt.’’ The nt follows Lxx by using egeiré and

398

exegeiro for the literal and figurative concepts of
yaqas and gis.
P.R.G.

905 “2° (yvdqar) be precious, valuable, costly,

esteem. (aSv and rsv similar; cf. Zech
11:13, ‘the goodly (Rsv “‘lordly’*) price that
I was prized at (rsvV ‘paid off") by them”;
be (much) set by” asv in I Sam 18:30.)

Derivatives

90Sa "2 (yaqgar) precious.

905b oD° (¥"qgar) preciousness,
splendor, pomp.

90Sc “2° (yaggir) very precious, honor.

honor,

The root and its derivatives are employed 65
times. It comes from a Semitic root which con-
veys the idea of ‘heavy,’ “honor,” “‘dignity.”
An object is considered precious or valuable
either because of its intrinsic worth or its rarity.

Some things considered precious are wisdom,
more precious than jewels (Prov 3:15; cf. Job
28:16); the steadfast love of God (Ps 36:7 [H 8]);
the death of the saints in God's sight (Ps 116:15);
the lips of knowledge (Prov 20:15). When one
visits his neighbor infrequently, it has value in
true friendship (Prov 25:17). Another precious
object is God's thoughts, which are inexhaustible
to the believer (Ps 139:17; cf. Jer 15:19). Here
true value exists in quality, not quantity. Con-
versely, the phrase “‘the word of the LorpD was
precious in those days” means it was seldom
heard (I Sam 3:1).

Honor also is associated with this root. One
who performs an outstanding deed receives the
king's honor (Est 6:3, 6). The daughters of a king
are called ‘‘ladies of honor” (Ps 45:9 [H 10}). The
citizens of Israel are also referred to as **the pre-
cious sons of Zion, worth their weight in fine
gold’’ (Lam 4:2).

The root frequently appears with stone or
alone to refer to jewels and other valuable ob-
jects. Solomon in building the temple hewed out
huge, well dressed stones for the foundation of
the temple (I Kgs 5:17 [H 31]: 7:9 f.). The fame
and splendor of that temple are legendary. Also
the objects within the temple were very valuable.
When a foreign king conquered the land, he first
sought out these treasures for his spoil (cf. Jer
20:5). Isaiah foresaw the construction of a new
temple founded on ‘‘a stone, a tested stone, a
precious cornerstone’’ (Isa 28:16). The content of
this prophecy gains significance in the light of
Solomon's temple and indicates the coming of a
new temple for a new order of approach to God.

Life is valued very highly in the ot. David
would not kill Saul even when he had the upper
hand because he valued his life (I Sam 26:8—11,
21; I] Kgs 1:13f.). An adulterous woman is most

damaging because she claims the most precious
aspect of a man, his life (Prov 6:26). God also
protects and delivers his people from oppression
and violence because he values their blood (Ps
72:14). Man’s life exceeds the value of his ability
to redeem himself. He does not have the money,
nor can he offer himself, for he is a sinner (Ps
49:7f. [H 8f.}). Consequently God alone can re-
deem man, and out of love he will provide the
redemption necessary, even at great cost (Isa
43:1-4).

yaqar. Precious, rare, splendid. In Job 31:26 in
reference to the *‘moon moving in splendor”’ (ASV
‘‘brightness’’). Used with ‘‘spirit’’ in Prov 17:27
to indicate a cool or controlled disposition.
J.E.H.

906 WP (ydqgdsh) lay a snare, set a trap, snare.
(ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives
906a wipe (yaqosh) bait-layer, fowler, only
in Hos 9:8.

906b wip (yaqtish) bait-layer, fowler.
906c Twp (mdqgésh) snare.

yaqgosh and its derivatives occur forty times. It
refers to setting a trap to catch some prey, but
more frequently in a metaphorical sense of en-
trapping people.

A snare metaphorically is something that al-
lures one from his real purpose and then destroys
him. In such a light Saul to ruin David gave his
daughter Michal to him in marriage so that she
might become a snare to David (I Sam 18:21).
Pharoah’s servants considered Moses a snare to
Egypt (Ex 10:7). Similarly a godless ruler is a
Snare to the people (Job 34:30). Because of its
inescapable hold, the power of death is referred
to as the ‘snares of death’’ (Ps 18:5 [H 6]). Other
snares include wickedness (Prov 29:6), fear of
man (Prov 29:25), vowing rashly (Prov 20:25) and
being friends with a man given to anger (Prov
22:24f.).

The wicked seek to ensnare the just (Jer 5:26).
He who argues their defense or presents a just
case at the court assembled in the gate also con-
stantly confronts the attempts of the wicked to
trip him up (Isa 29:21). So too does the prophet
who seeks to turn the people to God (Hos 9:8).
Therefore the mghteous turn to God in prayer to
be kept from being thus snared (Ps 141:9).

Those who follow idolatry become ensnared
and can no longer serve Yahweh (Ex 23:33). Gi-
deon made an ephod out of the spoils from battle.
The ephod became a snare to himself and his fam-
ily, for they fell to worshipping it (Jud 8:27). For
this reason God charged the people to destroy
utterly the inhabitants of Canaan, even their ar-
tifacts, so that they would never serve their gods

399

907 S35 (yaré’)

and leave Yahweh (Deut 7:16, 25; Ex 23:32f.; but
cf. Ps 106:34ff.).

God, on the other hand, prepares a trap for his
opponents. They become so self-sufficient in
their opposition to him that they are unaware of
the snare (cf. Jer 50:24). Initially they become
entrapped by their own sin (Prov 29:6). Although
sin is destructive in itself, it remains for
Yahweh's direct intervention to seal the trap and
judge the victim (Ps 9:16 [H 17]). God’s words
and his deeds set the snare. Those who resist and
belittle the proclaimed word are broken and en-
snared (Isa 28:13). Immanuel too will be a stone
of stumbling, a rock of offense, and a trap and a
snare; people will stumble over him, fall and be
snared (Isa 8:14f.). This imagery emphasizes the
climactic finality of Israel's resistance to God's
communication by word and by flesh.

moqgésh. Snare, gin (asv.) G. R. Driver argues
that it is the upper moveable part of a jaw-like
trap (pah), *‘striker’’; then it may stand for the
whole trap, especially in metaphorical language.
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., ‘Reflections on
Recent Articles, II Heber Méqésh ‘Striker, ”’
JBL 73: 131-36. Gilman, Henry S., *“‘Notes on
moéqsh’’ JBL 58: 277-81. Heaton, Eric W., Every-
day Life in Old Testament Times, London: B. T.

Batsford, 1956. TDNT, VII, pp. 340-44.
J.E.H.

907 S7° (yaré’) I, fear, be afraid, revere.

Derivatives

907a NDS (yaré’) fearing, afraid.

907b TASS. (yir'd) fearing, fear.

907c tN8SV3 (méra’) fear.

907d maa (mora) terror (prob.). Oc-
curs only in phrase shitad mora
lahem “appoint terror” i.e. an awe-
inspiring exhibition of power (Ps
9:21).

In this discussion, biblical usages of ydré’ are
divided into five general categories: 1) the emo-
tion of fear, 2) the intellectual anticipation of evil
without emphasis upon the emotional! reaction, 3)
reverence or awe, 4) righteous behaviour or pi-
ety, and 5) formal religious worship. Major oT
synonyms include pdhad, hatat, and hdrad as
well as several words referring to shaking or
quaking as a result of fear.

Typical examples of fearing as an emotional
reaction are the Jews’ fear of the fires on Mount
Sinai (Deut 5:5) and the fear of the Jews at Miz-
pah when they heard of the Philistine mobiliza-
tion (I Sam 7:7). Other examples give more em-
phasis to the anticipation of evil without neces-
sarily pointing to the emotional reaction. David's
recognition while in Achish’s court that his repu-
tation was a danger to him (I Sam 21:13) is an

907 N73 (yare’)

example along with Jacob's anticipation that his
family might be taken from him (Gen 31:31).

These two uSages are in mind in using the nega-
tive command not to fear as a comforting phrase
or a greeting (e.g. Gen 50:19-20). In such cases
yadré’ is often used parallel to one or more
synonyms (e.g. hatat ‘*be demoralized’’; ‘dras
‘‘be terrified’’). A similar motif is the defining of
security as the lack of fear (e.g. Ps 56:4).

There are many examples of the third usage
listed above. Such reverence is due to one’s par-
ents (Lev 19:3), holy places (Lev 26:2), God (Ps
112:1), and God’s name (Ps 86:11). Habakkuk’s
‘‘fearing’’ of God’s work (Hab 3:2) and the fear-
ing of Job's friends at seeing his misery are best
considered as this kind of fear (Job 6:21).

In several passages, ‘‘fearing’’ and proper liv-
ing are so closely related as to be virtually
synonymous ideas (Lev 19:14; 25:17; II Kgs
17:34; Deut 17:19). It is plausible that this usage
of ‘‘to fear’’ as a virtual synonym for righteous
living or piety grew out of viewing ‘‘fear’’—in
any of the senses above—as the motivation
which produced nghteous living. This practical,
active fear is the kind of fear for which God re-
warded the Egyptian midwives (Ex 1:17, 21).
This kind of fear was most appropriately learned
by reading the Law (Deut 31:11-12). One nght-
eous deed repeatedly and emphatically associ-
ated with ‘‘fearing’’ God is kindness to the
stranger or resident alien (e.g. Deut 10:18-20;
25:18).

The clearest example of ‘‘fearing’’ as formal
religious worship occurs in describing the reli-
gious syncretists of the northern kingdom who
‘‘feared’’ the Lord in respect to cultic worship
(II Kgs 17:32-34), while not “‘fearing’’ the Lord
in respect to nghteous obedience to his law. The
formal cultic elements mentioned in Deut 14:22-
23 suggest that this is the kind of fear to be
learned in that context. In light of the above dis-
cussion and of the context of Josh 22, the rsv is
probably correct tn translating *‘fear’’ as ‘‘wor-
ship’’ there (v. 25).

There are a few passages in which ‘‘fearing”’
seems to mean ‘“‘being a devotee or follower.”’
This usage could reflect either usages 4 or 5
above. Related substantival examples will be dis-
cussed below under ydré’, but possible verbal
examples are found in Job 1:9 and II Chr 6:33.

Fear of various sorts may be caused by God’s
great deeds (Ex 14:31; Josh 4:23-24; I Sam 4:7-
9), by judgment (Isa 59:18-19), and God’s law
(Deut 4:10) as well as by various human agencies
(I Sam 7:7; 15:24).

In the Piel, yadré’ means ‘‘to make to fear”’
(II Sam 14:15; Neh 6:9, 14, 19; II Chr 32:18). In
the Niphal, the meaning is passive, ‘“‘to be
feared’’ (Ps 130:4). The Niphal participle is fre-
quently used to describe things as ‘‘terrible,’’

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‘‘awesome,’’ or “‘terrifying.”’ This is a good
example of the gerundive character of the Niphal
participle, *‘to be feared’? (GKC, 116e). It may
describe places (Gen 28:17), God (Ex 15:11),
God’s name (Deut 28:58), God’s deeds (Ex
34:10), people (Isa 18:2), and the Day of the Lord
(Joel 2:31 [H 3:4]).

The discussion of yaré’ is complicated by the
need to distinguish between those examples
which are genuinely substantival—and therefore
discussed in this section—and those examples
which are involved in periphrastic verbal form
and thus discussed above with the verb. This dis-
tinction is not always clearly made in translation;
and often need not be made. The most frequent
usage of the substantive is to refer to the **God-
fearer’’ (different names or expressions for God
may be used). Clearly substantival examples
which show fear as an emotion (1 above) or as an
anticipation of evil (2 above) are found (e.g. Ex
9:20; Deut 20:8; Jud 7:3). More frequently the
emphasis is upon awe or reverence rather than
terror (Ps 112:1; Eccl 8:12).

The ‘‘God-fearer’’ will implement his fear in
practical righteousness or piety. Job, as a God
fearer, avoids evil (Job 1:1). In Ps 128:1 the
‘‘fearer’’ of the Lord walks in his ways. The fear-
ers of the Lord may be those whose particular
piety is evidenced by a response to God’s mes-
sage. The ‘*fearer’’ of God is contrasted with the
wicked (Eccl 8:13). It is desired that office hold-
ers be fearers of God (Neh 7:2). Blessings are
provided for fearers of God: happiness (i.e.
‘‘blessed’’; Ps 112:1), goodness from God (Ps
31:19 [H 20]), provision of needs (Ps 34:9 [H 10)),
protection (Ps 33:18-19 [H 19-20]), overshadow-
ing mercy (i.e. hesed; Ps 103:11), and promise of
fulfilled desires (Ps 145:19).

An interesting usage of this term is found in Ps
22. There the phrase **thou who fear God’’ paral-
lels ‘‘sons of Jacob’’ and ‘‘sons of Israel’’ on the
one hand (v. 23 [H 24]) and *‘the great congrega-
tion’’ on the other hand (v. 25 [H 26]). These
parallels, especially the last, suggest that the term
is used to refer to the worshiping congregation,
gathered for worship. Two other possible exam-
ples of this usage are found (Ps 115:10, 11, 13; Ps
118:3-4).

mora’. Fear, terror, terribleness. (RSV ‘‘terrible
deeds,’’ Deut 34:12.) It may refer to the emo-
tion of fear as in the case of the fear of Noah
placed in the animals (Gen 9:2) or reverence to-
ward God (Mal 1:6). méra’ may refer to external
objects of fear. In the clearest example, méra’
(Isa 8:12: rsv ‘‘fear’’) parallels an external
‘‘dread’’ (lit. ‘‘which makes to fear’’). In other
passages, it parallels God’s great signs and won-
ders and thus can be taken as referring to external
objects of fear (Deut 26:8; 34:12; Jer 32:21). The

variant Hebrew spelling (m6rda) in Ps 9:20 [H 21]
should be noted. It is easier simply to take this as
an acceptable orthographic variant rather than to
enter into textual emendations (e.g. KB).

yare’. Fearing, afraid (often *‘who fear’). An
adjectival form which serves both as a substan-
tive and as a participle for the verb ydre’. It has
almost the same range of meanings as the verb.

yir’a. Fearing, fear, etc. Used both as a noun
and as the infinitive for yaré’. Found in all usages
(above) of yara’, except 5.

The usages of this noun are similar to those of
the verb. It may refer to the emotion of terror or
fear (Ps 55:5 [H 6}; Ezk 30:13). This terror may be
put into men’s hearts by God (Ex 20:20; Deut
2:25). Isaiah 7:25 uses the term for an unemo-
tional anticipation of evil. When God is the object
of fear, the emphasis is again upon awe or rev-
erence. This attitude of reverence is the basis for
real wisdom (Job 28:28; Ps 110:10; Prov 9:10;
15:33). Indeed, the phrase sets the theme for the
book of Proverbs. It is used in 1:7; recurs in 9:10
and twelve other verses. The fear of the Lord is
to hate evil (8:13), 1s a fountain of life (14:27), it
tendeth to life (19:23), and prolongeth days
(10:27). Numerous passages relate this fear of
God to piety and righteous living: it motivates
faithful living (Jer 32:40). Fear of God results in
caring for strangers (Gen 20:11). Just rule is rule
in the fear of God (II Sam 23:3). Fear of the Al-
mighty does not withhold kindness from friends
(Job 6:14). Economic abuses against fellow Jews
were contrary to the fear of God (Neh 5:9). The
fear of the Lord turns men from evil (Prov 16:6).

Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 197-208.
THAT, I, pp. 765-77.

A.B.

908 S32 (yara') HI, shoot, pour. Doubtless a
by-form of M39 (q.v.). The single case of the
Hophal, Prov 11:25, seems to come from
rawd. There are variations among the He-
brew manuscripts.

909 S° (yarad) Qal: go down, descend, de-
cline, march down, sink down (of sun);
Hiphil: bring down, take down, pour out
(down), put off (ornaments).

Derivatives

909a 95 (mdrdd) descent, slope, steep
place, also hanging (work) (I Kgs
7:29, beveled [work], RSV); RSV also
ascent, Josh 10:11.

909b fi5"° (yardén) Jordan.

The hill country of Palestine is flanked on the
west by the Mediterranean Sea and on the east by
the deep nft Arabah, far below sea level. There-

401

909 "939 (yarad)

fore about any place traveled in Israel is either up
or down. Since Jerusalem is the geographical
focal point, a traveler either “‘goes up” (‘ala) or
‘*goes down’™’ (modern Hebrew *‘immigrant”’ and
‘‘emigrant’’). In a few places ydrad is used when
the destination is actually up hill; then it appears
to mean a southward direction or down country,
or else going up and down (cf. Isa 15:3 yv6réd
babbeki, asv **weeping abundantly,” rsv **melts
in tears,’ or possibly ‘‘going up and down while
weeping’). There 1s also the feeling of moving
from a place of prominence to one of lesser im-
portance, 1.e. from the temple or palace to a pri-
vate house (e.g. IJ Sam 11:9f.). Further to come
down 1s to leave one's place of prestige, to hum-
ble oneself (Isa 47:1; Jer 48:18). It often means a
military maneuver to encounter the enemy in bat-
tle. In the defeat of battle, soldiers, cities and
walls all come down (Hag 2:22; Deut 20:20;
28:52), and whoever is brought down is thus de-
feated (cf. Jer 51:40; Hos 7:12). Other uses in-
clude taking apart something, getting down from
an animal or out of a chariot, throne or bed, low-
ering things to the ground, the coming down of
rain or tears, and sailors going down to the sea
(cf. Isa 42:10, Rsv emends the text).

‘*To go down to Egypt’’ has the overtone of
leaving the promised land to dwell among people
outside the covenant. The first time the sons of
Jacob went to Egypt to settle, God had to appear
and instruct Jacob as to his purpose in directing
them to Egypt (Gen 46:2ff.). Then after they
gained control of Palestine, ‘“‘to go down to
Egypt’ was to forsake God and to seek the help
of man which would fail (Isa 30:2; 31:1).

Since Sheol (q.v.) is considered to be in the
earth beneath, whoever dies goes down to Sheol
(e.g. Num 16:30). Sheol’s appetite is large and
will swallow up all that go down (Isa 5:14). Prov
emphasizes that whoever will follow the adulter-
ous woman discovers her house ts *‘the way to
Sheol, going down to the chambers of death’’
(7:27).

A theophany is described as God coming
down. He leaves his abode and comes to com-
municate with man either directly through the
word or indirectly through some instrument. God
descended on Mt. Sinai in fire (Ex 19:18: cf. I
Chr 7:1ff.) and on the tent he appeared in a pillar
of cloud (Ex 40:34f.; Num 12:5). To lighten
Moses’ load God came down among the elders
and distributed some of his Spint from Moses to
the elders (Num 11:17). Further God comes down
to bring salvation to his people; e.g., he appeared
to deliver his people from Egyptian bondage (Ex
3:8). On the other hand, God also descends to
judge. But before God judges, he comes down to
investigate the actuality of man’s wickedness
(e.g. at the tower of Babel, Gen 11:5, and at
Sodom and Gomorrah [Gen 18:20f.]). Convinced

909 “2° (ydarad)

of the sinfulness he descends and treads on the
high places (Mic 1:3); i.e. he begins the judgment
by destroying the centers of idol worship. Then
he proceeds to bring down the rebellious nations
to their defeat (cf. Ob 4).

J.E.H.

yarden. Jordan. Most scholars would derive
the name from the verb ydrad ‘to descend,”
hence ‘‘the descender."” The name occurs in
Egyptian as ya-ar-du-na. Cyrus Gordon com-
pares the name with the Jardanos rivers in Crete
and Greece, and concludes that all of them derive
from an East Mediterranean word for “‘river.”
The fact that almost all of the 183 occurrences of
the word, with the exception of poetical passages
(Job 40:23; Ps 42:6 [H 7]), are with the definite
article, indicates that the word was originally a
common noun. The Lxx transliterates the word as
lordanés.

The Jordan is formed by four sources. The
Nahr Banias arises from Paneas (modern Banias,
NT Caesarea Philippi) at the base of Mount Her-
mon. The Nahr el-Leddan springs from Dan (Jud
18:29), Israel’s northernmost city. The Nahr
Hasbani flows twenty-four miles through a valley
west of Mount Hermon (possibly the *‘ Valley of
Mizpeh,”’ Josh 11:8). The Nahr Bareighit, a small
stream, west of the former, flows from Merj
“Ayun (cf. Ijon, 1 Kgs 15:20).

The Jordan flows seven miles through a once
swampy area into what was a small lake, Lake
Huleh, drained in 1955. Just south, at the Bridge
of Jacob’s Daughters, the ancient international
highway to Damascus may have passed by a ford;
the great site of Hazor lies four miles to the west.
The Jordan then flows: eight miles through a
basalt gorge to the Sea of Galilee (the Sea of
Chinnereth, Num 34:31). The river has de-
scended from 230 feet above sea level N of the
Huleh region to 690 feet below at the Sea of
Galilee.

The river reforms at the south end of the Sea of
Galulee and descends to the Dead Sea, 1290 feet
below sea level, the lowest spot on earth. Thus it
flows through a portion of the Great Rift Valley
which extends from between the Lebanon and
Anti-Lebanon mountains to the great lakes of Af-
rica. The air distance between the two lakes is
but sixty-five miles, but the Jordan in its mean-
dering covers almost two hundred miles. Except
at flood stage the river is only three to twelve feet
deep, and ninety to one hundred feet broad.

The Jordan can be forded at about sixty sites.
Jacob crossed the Jordan to get to Aram and then
recrossed with the household he had acquired
there (Gen 32:10 [H 11]). After Ehud killed Eg-
lon, the king of Moab, the Israelites seized the
fords and killed many of the Moabites who were
trapped on the west side of the Jordan (Jud 3:28-

402

29). After Gideon had defeated the Midianites at
Moreh he called upon the Ephraimites to seize
the fords (Jud 7:24-25).

The Israelites under Joshua were able to cross
the Jordan near Jericho dry-shod as the Lord
dammed up the waters (Ps 114:3, 5; Josh 3:16) at
Adam (sixteen miles north) as far as Zarethan
(Tell es-Sa‘idiyeh, ten miles further upstream).
Landslides have been known to dam up the Jor-
dan: for ten hours in 1267 and for twenty-one
hours inl927. The conquest (Josh 1-11) begins
with the crossing of the Jordan and the capture of
Jericho; the distribution of the land (Josh 13-21)
terminates at this river. This procedure corte-
sponds to Moses’ directive (Num 34:12).

The width of the Jordan Valley broadens from
four miles below the Sea of Galilee to fourteen
miles above the Dead Sea. The Ghor ‘‘Rift’’ or
upper valley can be cultivated north of Gilead. In
the arid southern parts below the Ghor are the
sterile chalk hills called Qattara. The green flood
plain is known as the Zor, the Arabic word for
‘thicket.’

The latter was known as the ga’6n of the Jor-
dan, translated by the KJv ‘“‘swelling,’’ by the Rv
‘‘pride,’’ by the NEB ‘‘dense thickets,’’ by the Niv
‘*thickets,’’ and by the rsv ‘‘jungle.’’ It was
noted as the habitat of wild animals such as lions
(Jer 49:19; Zech 11:3). Jeremiah is asked how, if
he fell down in a safe land, he would do in a
dangerous place like the ‘‘jungle of the Jordan”’
(Jer 12:5).

The uninhabitable nature of the Zor and the
Qattara made the Jordan River an effective re-
gional barrier. Moses was concerned that the
tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh,
who were assigned territories east of the Jordan,
might not assist their brethren who had to con-
quer Cis-Jordan to the west (Num 32). In a rela-
tively short time dialectal differences appeared.
The Ephraimites from the west betrayed them-
selves at the fords by saying *‘Sibboleth’’ instead
of ‘‘Shibboleth”’ like Jephthah’s Gileadites from
the east (Jud 12:6). The word *‘Shibboleth’’ means
‘river’? and was a natural test.

The west side of the Jordan River is fed by the
Nahr Jalud from Beth-shean and by the Wadi
Farah from Tirzah. The key sites were Jericho,
Gilgal, Beth-shean; Egyptian texts reveal Rehob
south and Yenoam north of Beth-shean.

The east side receives ten perennial tributaries.
The Yarmugq, which enters the Jordan five miles
south of the Sea of Galilee, contributes as much
water as the Jordan itself but is not named in the
Bible. The Zerga (biblical Jabbok) rises near
Amman and feeds into the Jordan just above
Adan.

Nelson Glueck identified thirty-five sites which
were populated between the thirteenth and sixth
centuries B.c. The oT mentions only nine sites in

the Jordan Valley. The site of Penuel where
Jacob wrestled with the angel was near the Jab-
bok (Gen 32:22-32). Succoth, where Jacob built
booths for his cattle (Gen 33:17) and a city which
refused aid to Gideon (Jud 8:5-8), was located
by the Jabbok.

When Abraham and Lot came to a parting of
ways, Lot saw that the kikkar of the Jordan (KJv
‘plain’; Rsv ‘‘valley’’; Gen 13:10) was well
watered. In this case the kikkar, literally *‘round
shape.” included the region south of the Dead
Sea. Solomon cast copper works in the kikkar,
perhaps the oval depression of the Jordan be-
tween Succoth and Zarethan (I Kgs 7:46). Cf.
Gen 19:17, 25; Deut 34:3.

The expression yardén yréhé the *‘Jordan of
Jericho”’ which occurs at Num 22:1; 33:50; 34:15;
Josh 13:32; 16:1; 20:8; and I Chr 6:78 [H 63} is
translated by the rsv ‘‘Jordan at Jericho” and
‘‘Jordan by Jericho.”’ As the phrase can indicate
not just the territory east of Jericho (Josh 16:1),
but the entire eastern border of Ephraim and
Manasseh, Elmer Smick has suggested that yar-
dén should be treated as a common noun so that
the phrase would mean the ‘‘river of Jericho,”
i.e. the Jordan River in its entirety.

If the behemoth (Heb b°’hém6r) in Job 40: 1Sff.
is the hippopotamus, the yardén of 40:23 may
simply refer to a ‘‘river,’’ not the Jordan. Hip-
popotamuses were found in the Orontes in Syna
c. 1500 B.c. and in the Lower Nile until the
twelfth century a.pD., but not in the Jordan.

Bibliography: Cohen, S., ‘‘Jordan,’’ in IDB.
Driver, G. R., “*Mistranslations,’’ Palestinian
Exploration Quarterly 79: 1236-26. , ‘lh
‘Went Up Country and yrd ‘Went Down Coun-
try’, ZAW 69: 74-77. Glueck, Nelson, The
River Jordan, Westminster, 1946. Leslau, Wolf,
‘‘An Ethiopian Parallel to Hebrew ‘lh ‘Went Up
Country’ and yrd ‘Went Down Country’,’’ ZAW
74; 322f. Leslau demonstrates in Ethiopic yrd
**down south’’ or ‘‘west’’). Smick, Elmer B., Ar-
chaeology of the Jordan Valley, Baker, 1973.
TDNT, VI, pp. 608-13.

E.Y.

ma = (yardén). See no. 909b.

910 m"° (yard) throw, cast, shoot (Qal); teach
(Hiphil). (Asv, RSv similar.)

Derivatives

910a_ tans (ydreh) early (asv “former,”
RSV ‘‘autumn’’) rain, in contrast to
malqésh ‘“‘latter rain.’ The early
rains fell from the end of October
until the beginning of December.

910b mya (méreh) TI, early rain, only in
Josh 2:23; Ps 84:7.

403

910 5° (yara)

910c oma (méreh) I, teacher.
910d AIR (t6rd) law.

The basic idea of the root yard is ‘‘to throw”’
or ‘‘to cast’’ with the strong sense of control by
the subject. Lots were cast in regards to dividing
the land among the various tribes (Josh 18:6).
God cast the Egyptian army into the Red Sea (Ex
15:4; cf. Job 30:19). With stones it has the idea of
placing them in a certain place; God laid the cor-
nerstone of the world (Job 38:6) and Laban set up
a heap of stones and a pillar as a witness between
Jacob and himself to their covenant of peace
(Gen 31:5If.). The three most frequent uses of
this root deal with shooting arrows, sending rain
and teaching.

A most deadly weapon of the ancients was the
bow and arrow. They could shoot from a distance
and from behind protection. Some missiles were
shot from specially designed engines (II Chr
26:15). Three of Israel’s kings fell on the
battlefield because of the archers’ range, namely
Saul (1 Chr 10:3), Ahab (J Kgs 22:35), and Josiah
(iI Chr 35:23). Metaphorically the wicked from
behind ambush shot suddenly at the blameless
(Ps 64:4 [H 5]; cf. Ps 11:2). On the other hand,
God too is pictured as shooting an arrow at the
wicked and wounding them suddenly to protect
the upright (Ps 64:7 [H 8]). In addition, shooting
of arrows could be used as a sign (I Sam 20:20; cf.
I] Kgs 13:17).

yoreh. Earlyrain. God gives the early rain and
the latter rain to assure abundance of harvest
(Deut 11:14). Joel compares the future blessing to
the coming of the early and latter rains (Joel 2:23;
cf. Hos 6:3; Jas 5:7). God will restore to his
people abundance of produce; this promise en-
compasses both material and spiritual blessings;
e.g. Hos 10:12, ‘It is the time to seek the Lord,
that he may come and rain salvation upon you.”’

tora. Law, teaching. asv always ‘‘law,’’ RSV
sometimes “‘teaching,’* ‘‘instruction’’ and *‘deci-
sions.’ The word is used some 221 times.

Teaching is the special task of the wisdom
school as seen especially through the book of
Prov and of the priesthood. The latter accom-
panies a revealed religion. The priests are to
teach the law given by Moses (Lev 10:11; Deut
33:10); e.g. King Jehoash acted uprightly because
he was instructed by the high priest (II Kgs 12:2
[H 3]). Ezra the priest faithfully taught the Law of
Moses in the fall Feast of Tabernacles in accor-
dance with the Deuteronomic injunction (Deut
31:9-11; Ezr 8:1ff.). Unfortunately the priests
were not always true to God; they taught for
money and became teachers of lies (Isa 9:15
[H 14}; Mic 3:11). Similarly an idol is deemed ‘‘a
teacher of lies’* (Hab 2:18f.).

910 5° (yard)

Teaching is associated with the anointing of the
Holy Spirit. Bezalel and Oholiab were inspired to
teach the skills of the artisan so that the taberna-
cle and its furnishing could be built (Ex 35:34).
God himself is particularly described as a
teacher. He taught Moses both what to do and
say (Ex 4:15). He also teaches sinners the right
way (Ps 25:8) and instructs those who fear him in
the way they should choose (Ps 25:12). Therefore
the Psalmist often beseeches God to teach him so
that he may keep the statutes and walk in the way
of truth (Ps 27:11; 86:11; 119:33: cf. Job 6:24:
34:32). In the last days God promises the people
of Jerusalem a teacher whom they will behold
(Isa 30:20). The nations also will come to
Jerusalem so that God might teach them (Isa 2:3).
No wonder Jesus, as God incarnate, assumed the
title of teacher and performed much of his minis-
try as a teacher.

Scope of the Word

The word térd means basically ‘teaching’
whether it is the wise man instructing his son or
God instructing Israel. The wise give insight into
all aspects of life so that the young may know
how to conduct themselves and to live a long
blessed life (Prov 3:1f.). So too God, motivated
by love, reveals to man basic insight into how to
live with each other and how to approach God.
Through the law God shows his interest in all
aspects of man’s life which is to be lived under
his direction and care. Law of God stands parallel
to word of the Lord to signify that law is the
revelation of God’s will (e.g. Isa 1:10). In this
capacity it becomes the nation’s wisdom and
understanding so that others will marvel at the
quality of Israel's distinctive life style (Deut 4:6).
Thus there is a very similar understanding of the
role of teaching with its results in the wisdom
school, in the priestly instruction, and the role of
the law with its results for all the people of the
covenant.

Specifically law refers to any set of regulations;
e.g., Ex 12 contains the law in regard to observ-
ing the Passover. Some other specific laws in-
clude those for the various offerings (Lev 7:37),
for leprosy (Lev 14:57) and for jealousy (Num
5:29). In this light law is often considered to con-
sist of statutes, ordinances, precepts, command-
ments, and testimonies.

The meaning of the word gains further perspec-
tive in the light of Deut. According to Deut 1:5
Moses sets about to explain the law; law here
would encompass the moral law, both in its
apodictic and casuistic formulation, and the
ceremonial law. The genius of Deut is that it in-
terprets the external law in the light of its desired
effect on man’s inner attitudes. In addition, the
book of Deut itself shows that the law has a broad

404

meaning to encompass history, regulations and
their interpretation, and exhortations. It is not
merely the listing of casuistic statements as is the
case in Hammurabi's code. Later the word ex-
tended to include the first five books of the Bible
in all their variety.

Law and Covenant

Covenant precedes law; and the law was given
only to the nation which had entered into coven-
ant with God [although in the sense of moral
principle, law is as old as human sin and God's
governance, Gen 3:7; 9:6; 26:5.—R.L.H.]. The law
specifically is the stipulations of the covenant.
But in the broad sense of law, namely God's
teaching, covenant plays the central part. Law
and covenant may parallel one another (e.g. Ps
78:10). Since they are so closely tied together, to
break one is to break both. Their interconnection
is further witnessed to in that the tables of the
testimony were placed in the ark of the covenant
and a copy of the book of the law placed beside it
as a perpetual witness to the covenant between
God and his people (Ex 40:20; Deut 31:26).

The law, as well as the covenant, brings with it
blessings or curses. He who follows its precepts
will be blessed (Deut 29:9 (H 8]), but whoever
breaks them will be cursed (Deut 29:20-21
[H 19-20}). Following the law is the source of
life: it makes life a joy and lengthens its days
(Deut 6:1—-2). On the other hand, as the standard
it tests Israel to determine whether they follow
God completely or not (Deut 8:2; Jud 3:4).

Frequently the oT says Moses wrote the law
and refers to the book of the law (e.g. Deut 30:10;
31:9; Josh 24:26). These references give weight to
the importance placed on a written code from the
beginning of Israel’s history. It became the objec-
tive standard from which interpretation was
made (cf. Deut 17:8-11). In addition, it was to be
read and meditated on so that its precepts should
become an integral part of the lifestyle of the
people (cf. Josh 1:7f.). It was their guidebook;
more than that it was their constitution. Israel
was a religious state; as such, the fundamental
document that determined its character was the
law given through Moses. E.g., the king was to
have his own copy, and he was to read it all the
days of his life so that he would learn to fear
Yahweh by keeping all the words of the law (Deut
17:18-19). Since the written law was superior to
the king in Israel, the king could never become a
god or a religious innovator. His night to rule was
subordinate to the law.

References to the written law or the law of
Moses are numerous in the historical books. The
most significant ones may be collected for con-
venient reference: Deut 17:18; 28:61; 29:21
{H 20]; 30:10; 31:9, 24; Jos 1:7,8; 8:31f.; 23:6; I

912 arowans (y*rishalayim), B2WINY (y*rashalaim)

Kgs 2:3; II Kgs 14:6; 22:8; 23:25; IT Chr 23:18;
30:16; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neb 8:1-2.

The Property of the Priests

The law was the special property of the priests.
They were to teach its precepts and follow its
regulations (Deut 17:8-11; 33:10). They were
known as ‘‘those who handle the law’’ (Jer 2:8).
But unfortunately the priesthood became blind
and arrogant. They forgot God (Hos 4:6). They
no doubt had the law memorized but failed to see
its spiritual dimensions. Instead they turned it
into a means of enhancing their own power and
wealth (Ezk 22:26; cf. Zeph 3:4). Therefore God
sent his prophets to call the people back to true
observance of the law (II Kgs 17:13). The
prophets’ task was to apply the law to their own
situation. Their message was founded on the law;
they struck out at its misapplication.

The Law at the Time of Ezra and Nehemiah

In the postexilic community under the leader-
ship of Ezra and Nehemiah, the law became cen-
tral to the community’s life. Both men struck out
at the lax, selfish lives the people were living and
sought to turn them back to the true worship of
God through having the law taught. Ezra read the
law before the assembly and interpreted it so that
the people were sure to understand its application
(Neh 8:2-8). Upon hearing the law the people
wept (Neh 8:9). But Nehemiah and Ezra com-
forted the people and led them to celebrate the
feast of booths according to the law (Neh 8: 13-
17) as Moses had ordered to be done (Deut
31:10-11). Each day of the feast the law was read
(Neh 8:18). Afterwards they repented of their
sins and made a covenant to follow the entire law
(Neh 9:3; 10:29-31). The activities of these two
men led the people back to God, and their use of
the law became formative for the community's
life with effects lasting even past the destruction
of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.

Praise for the Law

Some psalms render praise to the law. The
chief, of course, is Ps 119. The Psalmist yearns
for understanding in order that he can keep the
law, the object of his delight and love (vv. 1, 61,
92). Psalm 19 speaks about God communicating
his glory through the heavens and through his
spoken word. The latter communicates directly
and specifically God’s will. The law turns (Rsv
‘reviving the soul’’) the whole person to God.
Thereby it enlightens, makes wise and is a cause
of rejoicing (vv. 7-8 [H 8-9]). It also warns
against evil and prevents one from inadvertently
turning from God (v. 11 [H 12]). No wonder its
value is higher than the finest gold and its taste
sweeter than honey (v. 10 (H 11}).

405

911 M99 (yarah).

912 arxoywsne (y*rushdalayim),

The Law in the Coming Age

Because of Israel’s constant disobedience, the
prophets looked for a time when once again the
law, directly from God, would go forth from
Jerusalem (Isa 2:3). Then God himself will both
teach and judge according to the law. Such is a
part of the suffering servant’s task, namely to
render judgment according to truth and to give
forth a new teaching or law (Isa 42:3f.). It will
surpass the Mosaic law because of its source
through a new prophet-leader. It will not disagree
with the old but build on it. Also its scope will be
universal. Jeremiah sees the establishing of a new
covenant in which the law will be wntten on the
heart (Jer 31:33). Man will be able to obey God
from his inner life outwards. Then the true pur-
pose of the law, namely, to lead man into a fruit-
ful, abundant life of fellowship with God, will be
fully realized.

Bibliography: Cole, R. A., ‘*Law in the OT,”’
in ZPEB, III, pp. 883-94. Davies, W. D., Torah
in the Messianic Age and/or the Age to Come,
Society of Biblical Literature, 1952. Jacob, Ed-
mond, Theology of the Old Testament, tr. Arthur
W. Heathcote and Philip J. Allcock, Harper &
Row, 1958. Manley, G. T., The Book of the Law,
Inter-Varsity, 1957. Payne, J. Barton, The
Theology of the Older Testament, Zondervan,
1962. Vriezen, Th. D., An Outline of Old Testa-
ment Theology, Branford, 1966. Zimmerli, W.,
The Law and the Prophets, tr. R. E. Clements,
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965. Zuck, Roy B.,
‘*‘Hebrew Words for ‘Teach’,’’ BS 121: 228-35.

J.E.H.

Used only once (Isa 44:8).
Probably to be read as from yd@ré’ ‘‘be
afraid’’ (so DSS).

PINS §(yaréq). See no. 918c.

pews’ (y*ritsha-

laim) Jerusalem.

An ancient city of southern Canaan, capital of
the Davidic dynasty and religious center of
Judaism until its rejection of Jesus and the resul-
tant destruction by Titus in a.p. 70. It was taken
also as a symbol of the Christian church, pre-
dicted seat of the future messianic kingdom, and
prototype of the ultimate New Jerusalem that
succeeds God’s final judgment. Mentioned by
name 669 times in the oT alone, Jerusalem is the
world’s most significant city (Ps 48:!-2 [H 2-3)).
It was God's earthly dwelling place (I Kgs 8:13),
the scene of Christ’s resurrection (Lk 24:47) and
will be the place of his return in glory (Zech 14:5).

Although Paleolithic tools have been recovered
southeast of modern Jerusalem, urban settlement
seems to have begun with the Early Bronze Age

913 MN (yrh)

Canaanites (3000-2000 B.c.). The choice of site
appears to have been dictated by the presence of
a road junction, the military strength of the hill
Ophel, or Zion, and the perennial water of the
Gihon spring in the Kidron Valley on the city’s
east. Its first mention comes at the close of this
period, when Abraham honors its priest-king
Melchizedek (Gen 14:20), a type of Christ (Ps
110:4; Heb 7) in his double office. On the adjoin-
ing hill of Moriah (II Chr 3:1) Abraham was will-
ing to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice to God
(Gen 22:2, c. 2050 B.c.).

The city is first mentioned in the Ebla tablets
according to preliminary reports (Kitchen, K. A.,
The Bible in its World, Paternoster, 1977, p. 53).
Then it is mentioned in the Middle Bronze Age
(2000-1600) Egyptian Execration Texts of the
Twelfth Dynasty, as Urusalimum? foundation (7?)
of Shalem.’’ This form is probably to be read in
the Amarna letters (fourteenth century B.c.) as
Ursalimmu. In early Hebrew it therefore was
pronounced yerushalem probably meaning
‘‘Foundation of Shalem,’’ shalem being a god
known from a Ugaritic mythological text, but in
Hebrew coming to mean peace or security.

Its initial biblical designation, in Moses’ writ-
ing of Genesis (c. 1450 B.c.), is simply ‘‘Salem’”’
(14:18; cf. Ps 76:2 (H 3]), shalém, meaning com-
plete, prosperous, peaceful. Its form in biblical
Aramaic, y*riash®lem (Dan 5:2) and in the Lxx,
ierousalém, is therefore probably more correct
than the medieval Masoretic Hebrew, y°riisha-
layim, which may be modeled after misrayim, the
dual noun for Egypt.

Although captured by Joshua in the Late
Bronze Age (Josh 10:1) and occupied for a brief
period after his death (Jud 1:8, c. 1390), Jeru-
salem remained in Canaanite (Jebusite) hands
(1:21) until its capture by David in 1003 B.c. (II
Sam 5:6-9). By bringing up the ark of the coven-
ant into a special tent (6:17) David made Zion the
throne of God’s presence (Ps 132:13). In 959 Sol-
omon completed the permanent temple, which,
though destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar in 586, was
rebuilt by Zerubbabel, 520-515, into which Jesus
later entered with God’s true peace (Hag 2:9).
Jerusalem is thus ‘‘the city of the Great King”
(Ps 48:2 (H 3]; Mt 5:35). To be ‘‘born in Zion”’
seems to be equated with participation in divine
salvation (Ps 87:4—5), whatever one’s actual na-
tionality may be (v. 6; ICC, Psalms, II, p. 240; cf.
Gal 4:26). The name of the city comes to desig-
nate heaven itself (Heb 12:22-23).

Bibliography: Kenyon, K., Jerusalem: Ex-
cavating 3000 Years of History, McGraw-Hill,
1967. Payne, J. B., ‘‘Jerusalem,’’ in ZPEB. Si-
mons, J., Jerusalem in the OT, Brill, 1952.
Yadin, Yigael, ed., Jerusalem Revealed, Yale,
1976.

J.B.P.

406

913 mS. (yrh).

Assumed root of the following.
913a tm (yadréah) moon.
913b tma® (yerah) month.

yaréah. Moon. (asv and rsv the same.) The
word occurs 27 times. ‘*‘The moon,”’ frequently
paralleled by ‘‘the sun,’ was created by God to
rule the night and to indicate the seasons, espe-
cially the occasions of feasts (Ps 104:19; 136:9).
The moon gives off enough light in the Near East
by which to perform many tasks, and during full
moon journeys could be made at night. People
with certain mental disorders were considered by
some to be moon struck (Ps 121:6). {In Gr. the
word for ‘‘epileptic’’ is from words meaning
‘‘moonstruck’’ (Mt 4:24 niv). The etymology of
the word need not argue that the concept was
then current that the moon caused such illness.
Cf. our word ‘‘lunatic’’ which in its etymology
reflects much older notions. Obviously, the moon
is harmless, but as Dahood observes (**Psalms,”’
in AB, III, p. 202) many ancients believed oth-
erwise. David asserts that it cannot harm the be-
liever. It is also possible that David had in mind
the pagan deities: the sun god and the moon god
are nonentities.—R.L.H.] The moon was viewed
as having a powerful effect on life.

Sin, the moon god, was the main god worship-
ped at Ur in southern Babylonia and at Haran in
northwestern Mesopotamia. He was associated
with order and wisdom. Both of these cities were
deeply rooted in the life of Abraham before he
left to follow God. The movements of the moon
were carefully observed and various omens were
given by its relationship to the sun, its son. An
eclipse was an ill omen, and special rituals were
performed to avert any disaster. Thus the moon-
god had a profound effect on ancient Near Eastern
life. Such worship, however, was strictly forbid-
den in Israel (Deut 4:19). Any who were so at-
tracted were under the penalty of stoning (Deut
17:3ff.). Job, to proclaim his innocence, asserted
that he had never been allured by any of these
heavenly bodies, including the moon (Job
31:26ff.).

In Israel the moon was constantly affirmed as
Yahweh's creation. It had no external power.
Thus the pilgrim to Jerusalem did not have to fear
being moon struck, for Yahweh would most as-
suredly protect them (Ps 121:6). As his creature,
the moon is to praise Yahweh (Ps 148:3). Because
the moon is subject to Yahweh, Joshua was able
to command it and the sun to stand still while he
completed the battle (Josh 10:12f.).

When the day of the Lord comes, all of the
heavenly bodies will be affected. Joel speaks
about the sun and the moon becoming darkened
(Joel 2:10; 3:15 [H 4:15]) and the moon turning to
blood (2:31 [H 3:4}; cf. Mk 13:24; Lk 21:25; Rev
6:12). Isaiah 13:10 confirms that the moon shall

not give its light during the day of Yahweh. In the
new age Isaiah sees that there will be no need of
the moon’s light or patterns of movement (Isa
60:19f.).

Interestingly the covenant with the house of
David to rule Israel is pictured as firmly estab-
lished like the moon (Ps 89:37 [H 38]). No doubt
the certainty as well as the temporality of this
covenant Is indicated. As long as there is a moon,
so the covenant stands, but in the new age when
there is no longer any need for the moon so there
will be no need for that covenant.

yerah. Month. Aramaic, ‘‘new moon,”’ also in
Ugaritic (ASV and RSV same except former
‘‘moons’’ in Deut 33:14). This noun is used
twelve times. The primary unit of time in the
Semitic world is the month (more often called
hodesh, q.v.), especially for establishing festi-
vals. Months named with yerah include ziw, sec-
ond month (I Kgs 6:37), ’etanim, seventh month
(I Kgs 8:2), and bal, eighth month (I Kgs 6:38).
These three month names with a fourth, ’abib,
are probably the old Canaanite names. Two
of them (ba! and ’étadnim) are also found in
Phoenician. More often the oT gives the month by
number—e.g. seventh month, etc. In exilic and
postexilic books (Est, Neh, Zech), the Babylo-
nian names Nisan, Sivan, Elul, Chislev, Tebeth,
and Shebet (Sebet) are mentioned. The Hebrews
reckoned time by the lunar month, but to keep in
Step with the solar calendar they put in an extra
leap month about every three years. By this
method the spring festival always came in the
spring and the fall festivals in the fall. See also
hédesh, no. 613b.

A month of days means a full month; a girl
taken captive was allowed to mourn the death of
her parents a full month before becoming a wife
(Deut 21:13). The number of months fulfilled may
mean the time it takes an animal to come to birth
(Job 3:6; 39:2). Similarly in regard to harvest it
appears in the blessing given Joseph; namely he
is to be blessed ‘‘with the choicest fruits of the
sun, and the rich yield of the months’’ (Deut
33:14). Certain events are numbered by months.
Moses was hid at home three months by his
mother (Ex 2:2). Shallum reigned one month in
Samaria (II Kgs 15:13; cf. Zech 11:8). Month in
these instances indicates a short period of time,
but when used to measure suffering or one’s long-
ings, it means a long time has passed. Job
lamented, ‘‘So I am allotted months of empti-
ness, and nights of misery are apportioned to
me’ (Job 7:3); and ‘*‘O that I were as in the
months of old, as in the days when God watched
over me’’ (Job 29:2).

Bibliography: Conteneau, George, Everyday
Life in Babylon and Assyria, Norton, 1966.
Hooke, S. H., Babylonian and Assyrian Reli-

407

914 Bn (yarat) be

915 IM (y*rihd), mA

915 Ines (y¢rihd)

gion, London: Hutchinson House, 1953. Lilley,
J., ‘“Calendar,’’ in ZPEB.

J.E.H.
precipitate, _— precipitate
(Num 22:32).

39° (yarib). See no. 2159b.

(yrihdh), ins

(y*réhé) Jericho. (asv, RSv the same.)

The names appear 38 times. Jericho is located
approximately 900 feet below sea level and 10
miles north of the Dead Sea. Its plain is made
green by a plentiful spring, known as the Foun-
tain of Elisha. Its weather is almost always warm
and dry, pleasant in winter, hot in summer. Here
it controlled the less used roads along the Arabah
and a permanent ford of the Jordan River. The
mound known as Tell es-Sultan is ot Jericho, and
is one of the oldest walled cities of man, going
back to at least the eighth millennium B.c.

After the long wilderness journey the Israelites
under Joshua crossed the Jordan and encamped
at Gilgal. To gain a foothold on the west bank
they had to capture Jericho, then a city covering
five to eight acres enclosed by forbidding walls.
The Israelites marched around the city for six
consecutive days. On the seventh day, they
marched around the city seven times; then on the
seventh time, through the miraculous interven-
tion of God amidst the sounding of trumpets and
the shouting of the people, the walls collapsed
causing the utter discomfiture and defeat of the
inhabitants of Jericho (Josh 6). Rahab’s family
only escaped due to her faith and to her siding
with Israel (Josh 6:22f.; Jas 2: 25). Afterward the
city was burned, but the valuable vessels became
a part of the treasury of the Lord’s house (Josh
6:24). The fall of Jericho became a symbol of
God’s power and intent to give the land to the
Israelites and firmly established the leadership of
Joshua as Moses’ successor. The conclusive
manner in which it was taken provided the stan-
dard for future attacks. Ai was to be captured in
the same fashion (Josh 8:2). These mighty deeds
also bore witness to the inhabitants of Canaan
that Israel was a force to be reckoned with, be-
cause God was on their side. The men of Gibeon
realized this, feigned their habitation and entered
into covenant with Joshua (chapter 9). After
Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, learned what had
happened to Jericho and Ai, he summoned a coa-
lition of kings to Jerusalem to plan a concerted
effort against Israel. With God’s help that coali-
tion was soundly defeated and the kings slain
(Josh 10:1-28).

Excavations at Jericho by Garstang and K.
Kenyon have uncovered significant artifacts and

916 35° (yrk)

aroused a tremendous debate over its fall into
Israelite hands. Garstang argues for a late fif-
teenth century date and Kenyon a late fourteenth
century date. Kenyon claims, however, there is
very little evidence left of the city which was
taken by Joshua; therefore the archaeologist will
not be able to shed much light on that city or the
exact date of its fall.

The defeat of Jericho brought Joshua's curse
on anyone who dared to rebuild it (Josh 6:26). In
the days of King Ahab, Hiel of Bethel dared and
it cost the death of his two sons (I Kgs 16:34).
The city is mentioned as the boundary between
Benjamin and Joseph, and as belonging to Ben-
jamin (Josh 16:1, 7; 18:12). In this area there was
a settlement at the time of David, for David's
servants recovered here from their humiliation at
the hand of Hanun the Ammonite (II Sam 10:1-
5). Further, a school of the prophets resided here
during the days of Elijah and Elisha, and Elisha
miraculously healed the spring that had turned
brackish (II Kgs 2:5; 19-22).

Bibliography: Garstang, John, and J. B. D.,
The Story of Jericho, London: Marshall, Morgan
and Scott, 1948. Garstang, John, ‘‘The Walls of
Jericho,’ Palestinian Exploration Quarterly 63:
186-96. Kenyon, Kathleen, M., Digging Up
Jericho, London: Emest Benn, 1957. Smick, E.
B., Archaeology of the Jordan Valley, Baker,
1972, pp. 63-66. Vincent, L. H., *‘The Chronol-
ogy of Jericho,’ Palestinian Exploration Quar-
terly 63: 104f.

J.E.H.

mya (y°ri'a). See no. 917a.

916 35° (yrk). Assumed root of the following.
916a tTH5S (yarék) thigh, loin.
916b tm—ss (yar’ka), MZ3° (y*réka) flank,

side.
yarek. Thigh, loin, side, base. asv and RSV
similar; ‘“‘that comes out of his loins’’ = “‘‘off-

spring”’ RSV (e.g. Gen 46:26), but ‘‘of his body
begotten’ (Jud 8:30 asv). The thigh stands for
man’s foundation (e.g. ‘‘the place of girding on
the sword”’ (cf. Jud 3:16, 21)) and for the source
of life. Thus a hand placed under the thigh af-
firmed the strongest oath, especially during the
patriarchal age (cf. Gen 24:9). And smiting the
thigh was a sign of intense repentance (Ezk 21:12
(H 21}; Jer 31:19). The Hebrews recognized the
beauty of the female thigh (Song 7:1 [H 2]). How-
ever, a woman jealously accused of adultery had
to drink water of bitterness and utter a curse. If
she was guilty, her body swelled and her thigh fell
away (Num 5:21f.); perhaps a miscarriage of an
illegitimate child is hereby indicated. Also the
word refers to the ‘‘side’’ of the tabernacle (Ex

408

917 yo’ (ydra‘)

40:22) and of the altar (Lev 1:11) and the ‘‘base’”’
of the lampstand (Ex 25:31).

No wonder the angel in his wrestling match
with Jacob at Peniel smote Jacob’s thigh. He
showed his superior strength, and he indicated
that the very basis of Jacob’s life was altered,
further signified by the change of his name. A
perpetual reminder was given to Jacob in his con-
stant limping and to the nation in its being forbid-
den to eat the sinew of the thigh (Gen 32:25, 31f.
(H 26, 32f.}).

yarka&. Flank, side, rear, extreme or uttermost
parts, innermost parts, depths, recesses. (RSV
more varied than asv, often using ‘‘far(thest),”’
but for ‘‘rear’’ asv reads ‘‘hinder part.’’) It ap-
pears twenty-eight times. The word refers to the
backside or farthest part of anything. It is em-
ployed to indicate the rear of a building, the ex-
tent of a border (Gen 49:13), the back country
(Jud 19:1), the deepest part of a cave and the
inner parts of a ship (Jon 1:5). *‘The far recesses
of Lebanon’”’ indicates where the great cedars
grew (II Kgs 19:23). Also Sheol is called the
depths of the pit (Isa 14:15; cf. Ezk 32:23).

The remotest parts, particularly the distant
north, are conceived of as those away from God.
All countries, except Egypt, had to approach
Jerusalem from the north, because of desert and
sea. Consequently in those remotest parts the
enemies of God are viewed as assembling and
planning their attack on Jerusalem. Jeremiah saw
the source of the coming destruction against
Jerusalem as ‘‘a great nation... stirring from the
farthest parts of the earth’’ (Jer 6:22; cf. 25:32;
50:41; Ezk 38:6, 15; 39:2). The recesses can ex-
tend even beyond the globe. Babylon, intending
to rule all the world, affirmed, ‘‘I will sit on the
mount of assembly in the far north’’ (Isa 14:13).

Although the recesses are a refuge for God's
opponents, they are never beyond his control.
From the farthest parts of the earth, God will
bring back his people (Jer 31:8). Mount Zion is
placed figuratively in the far north to show that
the city of God rules the entire world (Ps 48:2
[H 3]). [The word is also used with less emphasis
to mean merely ‘‘end’’ of anything (Ex 26:22-23
etc.; 1 Kgs 6:16; Ezk 46:19). It is possible that Ps
48:2 [H 3] only means to say that the temple was
on the north end of Jerusalem, although a com-
mon view is the one expressed that Zion is placed
figuratively in the far north. A variant of this view
is that Zion is figuratively like the northern
mountain, Zaphon, sacred to the Phoenicians.
R.L.H.] |

J.E.H.

quiver, only in phrase nap-
shé yar'a 16 “his soul quivers to him,” 1.e.
is in terror and distress.

Derivative

917a thy (yfri‘ad) curtain. (asv and RSV
the same, except sometimes RSV
*‘*tent.’’)

It occurs fifty-one times. Since tents were
made out of curtains, these two words are paral-
leled frequently in the ot. The color of the tents
was quite dark (Song 1:5), and children helped set
them up (Jer 10:20). In times of war they, along
with all the flocks and goods, were taken as spoils
(Jer 49:29; 4:20). The tabernacle was composed
of ten curtains woven from fine twined linen and
blue, purple and scarlet stuff (Ex 26:1). The cur-
tains were held together by a series of loops. A
covering over the tabernacle consisted of eleven
curtains made from goats’ hair; a half curtain
hung over the back. The ark of the covenant was
viewed as dwelling within curtains (II Sam 7:2;
I Chr 17:1; rsv ‘“‘tent’’). In symbolic language
God is pictured as spreading out the heavens like
a tent (or curtain, Ps 104:2). Little effort on his
part and yet his complete control is thus em-
phasized.

It is of some interest that all the tabernacle
curtains were 4 cubits (6 ft) wide, which was the
standard width of an Egyptian horizontal
loom—all except the court hangings which were
five cubits wide. The extra cubit may have come
from a section woven on the low hand loom,
which was about one cubit wide.

After God’s great saving act through the suffer-
ing servant, the effect is anticipated in the com-
mand to Israel to ‘‘enlarge the place of [his] tent
and (to] let the curtains of [his] habitations be
stretched out’’ (Isa 54:2). This exhortation means
that the number of people reached by God’s reve-
lation becomes increasingly larger.

Bibliography: Dickson, H. R. P., ‘‘The Tent
and Its Furnishings,”’ in People and Cultures of
the Middle East, ed. Ailon Shiloh, Random
House, 1969.

J.E.H.

918 "5° (yrq) I. Assumed root of the following.
918a Pp (yereq) green, greenness.

918b ="% (ydrdq) herbs, herbage.

918c 9=9pin’ (yaréq) green thing (only in

Job 39:8).
918d ps (yérdqén) mildew, paleness,
lividness.
918e pIP9° (y“raqraq) greenish, pale
green.
919 5° (yaraq) IM, spit.
289 (yéradgén). See no. 918d.

papa’ (y*raqraq). See no. 918e.

409

920 ws (yarash)

920 ws (yarash) take possession off, dispos-

sess, inherit, disinherit, occupy, seize, be an
heir, impoverish (Qal); come to poverty,
impoverish, be poor (Niphal); de-
vour (Piel; Deut 28:42, the cricket devours
the trees and the fruit of the ground); in-
herit, drive out, cast out, dispossess, destroy,
make poor (Hiphil).

Derivatives
920a AYN «(y’réshad) a possession, only
in Num 24:18.
920b mwa (y*rushshad) possession, inher-
tance.

920c tmAWs (reshet) net.
920d twa (mérdsh) possession.
920e tmYya> (mordshad) a possession.

It is used with its derivatives (except reshet)
260 times. In civil matters the verb means to be-
come an heir (cf. Jer 32:8). In military matters it
means to gain control over a certain area by con-
quering and expelling the current inhabitants of
that area. In such a light the word came to take on
the meaning of *‘dispossess,’’ ‘‘drive out,’’ ‘‘cast
out,’’ and ‘‘seize.”’

Possession and Covenant

In Israel’s history the root takes on its double
force, to inherit and to dispossess, in relationship
to the covenant. God made a covenant with Israel
that they would become his own special people
(e.g. Ex 19:5f.). A major benefit on Israel’s side
was the promise of an inheritance, namely a land
where they could develop into a holy nation (Gen
15:8; Ex 6:8). Israel, however, became a people
in Egypt before they occupied a land. Therefore
to become a nation they had to gain possession of
aland. They left Egypt, agreed to the covenant at
Sinai and then proceeded to take Palestine as
their possession. However, forty years passed
between Sinai and the first successful attempt at
conquest.

View of Taking Possession of the Land
Found in Deuteronomy

The book of Deut was composed in the light
that the people after the long years in the wilder-
ness were about to begin their conquest. Con-
sequently the highest number of occurrences of
yarash appear in Deut. The program of conquest
described in Deut emphasizes that the people had
to live according to the law given at Sinai in order
to have God’s help in conquest (Deut 6:17ff.).
Above all they had to be sure to live justly (Deut
16:20). Thereby God obligated himself to help
them defeat the nations and to possess the land
(Deut 12:29). However, before God could act it
was imperative that the people come to the land.

920 wa (yarash)

I.e. they had to respond in faith expecting God to
overcome their enemies by placing their lives in
jeopardy on the battlefield. In other words, they
had to present themselves to receive the promise.
As long as they were obedient, God would go
before them to dispel the inhabitants even though
they were greater and mightier than Israel (Deut
7:15 11:23; 31:3; Ps 44:2f. [H 3f.|). Deuteronomy
anticipated that God would drive out the inhabi-
tants in spectacular ways if needed, such as send-
ing ‘“‘hornets’’ among the nations (Deut 7:20).
Here there was the crucial balance between the
act of God and the responsive participation of the
people, both of which were necessary to accom-
plish God's purpose (Deut 9:3). There was no
doubt that it was God who gave them the land
and the victory to possess it; yet they had to re-
spond by actively participating in the taking pos-
session for the plan of God to be realized. Further
God acted through his people, but also through
nature and circumstances so that the outcome
accomplished was the best.

There was a fully moral basis to the conquest.
Gen says Abraham could not possess the land
because the sin of the Amorites was not yet com-
plete (Gen 15:16). Leviticus 18:24~30 teaches that
the morality of a people either allows them to
occupy a land or else causes the land to expel
them. The reason Israel possessed Canaan by
dispossessing the Amorites was that the sin of its
inhabitants abounded to the point that God no
longer allowed them to occupy that land. In such
a light Israel became the means of God’s judg-
ment on these nations (Deut 9: 1-5; 18:12). Just as
later Assyria was God’s rod to punish Judah (Isa
10:5f.) Israel was not allowed to dispel the Amo-
rites because Israel was larger, or more noble
than they, but rather solely under the sovereignty
of God did Israel serve as his instrument of judg-
ment and solely under his love did they become
the recipients of the inheritance (Deut 4:37f.).
There is a definite theological pattern established
here. Covenant results in inheritance, but one
must come to the inheritance to obtain it. And he
must be willing to face all opponents in obtaining
the inheritance. Yet in reality it is God who de-
feats the opponents and allows the inheritance to
be gained.

[An additional justification may be found here
even on the secular plane, in that Canaan in the
1Sth-14th centuries was nominally a part of the
Egyptian empire just then losing its grip. The Is-
raelites had paid in bitter service in Egypt for
every cubit of land the Lord gave them in Ca-
naan! R.L.H.]

After possessing the land by expelling and de-
stroying its inhabitants, the Israelites were to set-
tle in it and establish a way of life based on obedi-
ence to the love of God (Deut 11:31f.). For this
way of life to be realized the law was given to

410

them for a possession (Deut 33:4). As long as this
lifestyle would be maintained the land would be
theirs forever (I Chr 28:8). Their ownership of the
land was eternal, but their right to occupy it de-
pended on their obedience to God. If they turned
from God and followed abominable pagan prac-
tices, they lost the nght to live there. Yet as long
as they were obedient to God, he allowed them to
continue their occupation of the land by helping
them to overcome their enemies (e.g. IJ Chr
20:5-17).

Israel's Response

Under Joshua, Israel drove out many nations
and occupied large portions of the land (Josh 12).
However, there was much land left to be pos-
sessed (Josh 13:1-6; Jud 1). God used the nations
which remained to test Israel in order to deter-
mine how complete was Israel's obedience to the
law (Josh 23:12f.: Jud 2:3, 21ff.). When Israel fell
to false worship, they became weak and encoun-
tered the wrath of God which caused these na-
tions to oppress Israel. But when they turned
back to God, he brought them deliverance. This
pattern continued until Israel fell captive to Baby-
lon (Neh 9:26—31). Prior to that day they suffered
all kinds of misfortune which was intended to
lead them to repentance. But the majority stub-
bornly continued to act disobediently; therefore
God allowed other nations to possess them as
their just punishment (Ezk 7:24; 33:23-24).
Under the Persians a remnant returned to settle
the land, but their continued occupation was de-
pendent upon the same obedient response to
God’s law (cf. Ezr 9:10—15).

The Concept of Possession
Generalized in the Psalms

The Psalms build on this pattern of living in the
land by emphasizing that possession of the land
belongs to those who fear the Lord (25:12f.),
those who wait on the Lord (37:9), the meek
(37:11), those blessed by the Lord (37:22) and the
righteous (37:29). Those who enter into covenant
with God receive an inheritance, but they must
act to take possession of it and must live up-
rightly to maintain their inheritance. This idea is
no doubt the background for the beatitude -
‘‘blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the
earth’’ (Mt 5:5).

Its Eschatological Use

The prophets pick up the themes around
yarash as they foresee God’s establishing his
reign at the end of the age. The people will ex-
perience a ‘‘new Exodus,” and they will again
possess the land (Jer 30:3). Isaiah looks for the
time when their descendants will possess the na-
tions; i.e. instead of defeating them in battle the
nations will also become God's people (Isa 54:3;

cf. Amos 9:12). Since the people will be trans-
formed to follow righteousness, they will always
hold the land (Isa 60:21). The idea carries over to
the New Covenant in that the people of faith have
the promise of an inheritance and yet before it ts
fully enjoyed the final conquest of their greatest
opponent Satan must be accomplished.

morash. A possession. In Job 17:11 mérashé
l* babi (lit. *‘the possessions of my heart’’) is ren-
dered ‘the desires of my heart’’ (RSV; ASV
‘thoughts’; BDB~ gives ‘‘my_ cherished
thoughts’’).

morasha. A possession, inheritance (asv. cf.
Ezk 33:24, Rsv ‘“‘to possess’’), heritage (asv; Ex
6:8).

reshet. Net. (AsSv and rsv the same.) It appears
twenty-two times. Net is an instrument used to
catch game, as birds (Prov 1:17); it was made out
of cords woven together. Sometimes a net was
spread over a pit; the animal became entrapped in
the net as he fell into the hole. It also indicates
the bronze grate placed under the altar which ex-
tended (or set in the middle (?)) halfway to the
ground and had four bronze rings at its corners
(Ex 27:4f.; 38:4f.). It is translated ‘‘network’’
when used with ma‘a@seh **work.”’

This word is employed metaphorically to de-
scribe people being trapped by their enemies.
The wicked spread nets to overcome the ngh-
teous (Ps 140:5 [H 6]), and the arrogant lay a net
by flattery (Prov 29:5). However, they often be-
come trapped in their own deeds (Job 18:8).
Priests and rulers too lay a net for the people by
entangling them in sin (Hos 5:1). On the other
hand, God spreads a net for disobedient Israel
(Hos 7:12; Ezk 12:13; 17:20; cf. 19:8) and for
Pharoah (Ezk 32:3). It means they shall be taken
into captivity. This image draws from real life, for
a picture in ANEP 288 shows a Mesopotamian
king containing his enemies in a net (cf. Lam
1:13). The righteous, however, escape the net of
the wicked by confidently calling on God, their
refuge (Ps 25:15; 31:4 [H 5]).

Bibliography: Miller, Patrick D., *‘The Gift of
God: The Deuteronomic Theology of the Land,”’
Interp 23: 451-65. Richardson, TWB, p. 112.
Weinfeld, Moshe, Deuteronomy and _ the
Deuteronomic School, Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.

J.E.H.

pmws (yishaq). See no. 1905b.

921 we (yésh) existence, there is, are. (RSV and
ASV Similar.)

As a noun only in Prov 8:21 where rsv reads
‘‘wealth’’ and asv ‘‘substance.’’ Elsewhere it ap-
pears as a particle which draws attention to the
existence or presence of an object or a quality,

411

922 sw (yashab)

the opposite of the negative ‘ayin. Generally a
noun follows it; e.g. ‘“‘there was grain in Egypt’’
(Gen 42:1). It is so employed to draw attention to
the dynamic presence of God with his people in
this world (cf. I Sam 17:46; Gen 28:16). Occa-
sionally a noun precedes yésh for additional em-
phasis (e.g. I Sam 21:4 [H 5]}). With a participle it
emphasizes that there is a person who exhibits
the action or quality denoted by the verb, e.g.
‘*One man pretends to be rich, yet has nothing”’
(yésh mit’ashshér, Prov 13:7). It can also take a
pronominal suffix before the verb to indicate that
the action denoted by that verb is actually being
performed by that person (e.g. Gen 24:42, 49).
After questions it may stand alone to indicate an
affirmative answer (cf. I Sam 9:11f.). However,
placed in a question it may express a doubt about
the thing questioned; e.g., ‘‘are there any among
the false gods of the nations that can bring rain?”’
(Jer 14:22).

Often it is accompanied by the preposition / to
indicate possession; e.g. ‘‘I have enough’’ (Gen
33:11). With the infinitive preceded by / it
suggests the possibility of the verb (e.g. IJ Chr
25:9). It appears also with other prepositions and
adverbs of place (e.g. Jon 4:11; Jud 4:20). Used
with ’et or 'im (with) it indicates accompani-
ment. vésh ‘dsher in Num 9:20f. is translated
‘“sometimes.”’ Of interest is yésh 'et-napsh*kem:
‘“(if) it be your mind” (Asv) or **(if) you are will-
ing’’ (Rsv, Gen 23:8).

J.E.H.

922 sy (ydshab) sit, remain, dwell.

Derivatives

922a itnaw (shebet) seat, dwelling.
922b thew (shibd) sojourn, only in Il

Sam 19:33.
922c tay (mdshab) _ seat, assembly.
922d tayin (téshab) sojourner.

This verb is used 1090 times. The root yshb
appears in most Semitic languages, and now in
Ugaritic ytb “‘to sit."" One new development is
that when ytb or Akkadian wasdabu appear with
kussi “‘throne,’’ the verb yields the sense of *‘as-
cending the throne” (e.g. I Kgs 1:46).

Some have argued that this verb ydshab 1s
never used of Yahweh ‘“‘dwelling’’ on the earth or
any appearance of Yahweh to Israel. According
to this view, the verb shdadkan and its derivatives
are reserved for any concepts of the 1mmanence
of God or of his ‘‘tabernacling with the men’’ of
the or. Usually the Lord is said to dwell in
heaven (Ps 2:4; 9:7 [H 8]; 29:10; 55:20; 102:13;
Lam 5:19) or is “‘enthroned with the cherubim”’
(1 Sam 4:4; II Sam 6:2 = I Chr 13:6; II Kgs 19:15;
Ps 99:1). In places where the Lord is said to dwell
in heaven or in Zion, the thought is that he 1s

922 sw? (yashab)

enthroned. He is also ‘‘enthroned on the praises
of Israel’* (Ps 22:4), perhaps as a metonymy for
the sanctuary where the Lord was praised. The
idea of the cherubim must not be associated too
closely with the ark of the tabernacle, since the
verb does not mean ‘indwelling’ and the
cherubim elsewhere in Scripture are used in vari-
ous self-manifestations of Yahweh (e.g. Ps 18:11,
Ezk 1,10). According to M. Woudstra, this ex-
pression ‘served rather to direct the attention of
the worshiper to the heavenly sanctuary with its
heavenly Occupant, of which the earthly coun-
terpart meant to be a faithful tmage’’ (M.
Woudstra, The Ark of the Covenant, 1965, p. 70).
shdkan then would be a temporary indwelling on
the earth, but as Solomon asks, ** Will God indeed
‘dwell’ (yéshéb, permanently) on the earth?”
(I Kgs 8:27). The answer is clear. On the other
hand, it may be argued that some verses refer to
the Lord’s dwelling above the ark on earth, e.g.
Ps 9:11 [H 12] reads: **Sing praises to the Lord
who dwells in Zion.’’ Also the statements about
his being enthroned with the cherubim may refer
to the ark.

The verb ydshab is also used of men. The Qal
stem can be divided into four categories: 1. to sit
on anything: 2. to remain, stay, linger: 3. to dwell
in a house, city, territory; and 4. of a place, city,
or country being inhabited.

The first category includes some special situa-
tions such as the sitting of judges in judgment
(Ps 9:4 [H 5]: Isa 10:13; Ex 18:14) and of kings
on their thrones (I Kgs 1:35,46). The second is
usually followed by an accusative of place, or a
dative of person. Even inanimate objects such as
a bow can “‘remain”™ strong (Gen 49:24). In the
third semantic range, one of the key verses
theologically is Isa 45:18. God formed the earth
for dwelling, i.e. for men to inhabit it. It was not
meant to be a desolation or a chaos. One of the
most frequent forms here ts the Qal active parti-
ciple, dweller, inhabitant (215 times according to
BDB). Therefore when the prophets predict the
desolation and depopulation of an invader’s land
they speak of it as being **without inhabitant”
(Isa 6:11; Jer 4:7; Zeph 2:8). The opposite of this
depopulation is category four, a land, city, or
country “abiding in its place’ (Isa 13:20; Jer
17:6; Ezk 26:20; Zech 2:8).

The verb is used in the Piel stem once (Ezk
25:4), Niphal stem fifteen times, Hiphil stem
about forty times, and three times in the Hophal
stem.

shebet. Seat, dwelling, place. There are only
six instances of this word used as a substantive
(rather than as an infinitive of v@shab) in the or.
Its basic meaning is expressed in its use as the
seat on Solomon's throne (I Kgs 10:19; II Chr
9:18). Literally the text is *‘the place of sitting.”

412

In Amos 6:3, it refers to the ‘‘seat or throne of
violence.’’ This abstract sense uses ‘‘seat’’ as a
technical term for a judicial seat or throne. Cf.
the Ugaritic evidence for this new meaning.

Obadiah 3 uses it to refer to Edom’s dwelling
place. Numbers 21:15 and II Sam 23:7 illustrate
its use as site, location, or spot. The former re-
lates to the ‘‘location (or site) of Ar’ while the
latter says “they are burned on the spot.’’ These
usages are similar to those of mdshab in II Kgs
2:19 and Ezk 8:3 (see below).

shiba. Sojourn (rsv ‘‘stay’’). This form of the
noun is found only in II Sam 19:32 [H 33]. It is
most unusual since there is an anomalous
aphaeresis of the initial yod and the introduction
of a medial yod as if it were influenced by the root
shab “‘to return.” The meaning of the corrected
reading b° shibt6 ‘during his sojourn”’ or ‘‘while
he stayed’ is clear.

moshab. Seat, assembly, dwelling place,
dwellers. This masculine noun appears forty-
five times. Basic to its other meanings is the seat
of David or Saul at the banquet table (I Sam
29:18, 25; cf. Job 29:7) or even the imagined seat
among the gods which the king of Tyre had con-
jured up in his mind (Ezk 28:2). Collectively,
many seats taken together refer to a sitting or
even an assembly of officials (I Kgs 10:5), the
wicked (Ps 1:1), or elders (Ps 107:32).

Then the dwelling place of a city, tribe, or
people was so designated (Gen 10:30; 27:39; Num
15:2: 31:10). Zion is called the dwelling place of
Yahweh (Ps 132:13). Even houses could be called
dwellings (Lev 25:29: Ex 12:20 etc.). Then the
people in them were called inhabitants, or
dwellers (II Sam 9:12).

Several unusual applications appear: the site or
setting for a city (II Kgs 2:19), the location of an
idol (Ezk 8:3) and by metonymy, the time of
dwelling in Egypt (Ex 12:40).

Many commentators wish to change ‘‘their
dwelling places’ in Ezk 37:23 to “‘their apos-
tasies, from meshab. The textual evidence is
limited to Syriac with the Greek reading *‘their
abominations.

toshab. Sojourner. Occurring fourteen times,
seven times in Lev 25, this noun refers to the
temporary, landless wage earner. The term ts
used with gér (permanent resident, alien) to de-
scribe Abraham in Canaan (Gen 23:4), and the
Israelites in God's eyes (Lev 25:23, 35; Ps 39:12
{H 13]; I Chr 29:15). It is also used as a Synonym
for a hired servant (Ex 12:45; Lev 22:10; 25:40).
The téshab could not eat the Passover, and his
children were not exempt from being sold as
slaves (Lev 25:45). But he could seek the protec-
tion of the cities of refuge (Num 35:15).

So his freedom was not as great as that of the
gér even though he shared some of his privileges.

Bibliography: Cross, Frank, ‘“‘The Priestly
Tabernacle,”’ in Biblical Archaeologist Reader,
G. Ermest Wright, David N. Freedman, eds., vol.
I, Doubleday, 1961, pp. 225-27. DeVaux, R.,
Ancient Israel, McGraw-Hill, 1961, pp. 75-76.
Woudstra, Martin, The Ark of the Covenant from
Conquest to Kingship, Presbyterian and Re-
formed, 1965, pp. 68—77.

W.C.K.

923 mw* (yshh). Assumed root of the following.

923a tmswin (tushiya) wisdom, sound
knowledge. Delitzsch (Proverbs, p.
77) suggests ‘‘an advancement of
that which profits,’” particularly true
wisdom. (For synonyms _ see
hokma.)

Among the usages of this technical word is
sound efficient wisdom, i.e. sound judgment,
wisdom that leads to practical success. Thus the
son will find life and honor if he follows his
father’s sound judgment (Prov 3:21f.). Because
personified wisdom gives this quality to kings,
they rule effectively. On the other hand, God
frustrates the shrewd so that their hands cannot
attain success (Job 5:12). Sound judgment is
based on the righteous character of God’s rule.
The upright have sound wisdom hidden in them
(Prov 2:7). But Job questioned whether his wis-
dom, his ability to succeed, was driven from him
in his adversity (Job 6:13).

L.G.

myIws (y*sha'a). See no. 929b.
924 mw’ (yshh). Assumed root of the following.
924a mys (yeshah) emptiness (of hunger).
Meaning conjectured from context.

Occurs only in Mic 6:14.

925 * ows (yashat) extend, hold out. Occurs
only in the Hiphil (Est 4:11; 5:2; 8:4).

926 ‘Ww’ (yishay) Jesse. (asv and Rsv the same.)
Derivation uncertain.

The name appears seventeen times. Jesse, an
inhabitant of Bethlehem in Judah, had eight sons,
including David the king. Jesse was a pious man
and a strong supporter of the state. David is often
called the son of Jesse, and the Messiah is re-
ferred to as the root or stump of Jesse (Isa 11:1,
10), in line with the tendency to use alternative
expressions to indicate the promise to David's
line. Cf. the ‘‘Branch of David’’ (Jer 23:5), the
‘tabernacle of David’’ (Amos 9:11) and, proba-
bly, the city of David, *‘Bethlehem” (Mic 5:2
(H 1)).

Bibliography: Bauer, H., ‘*Die hebraischen
Eigennamen als sprachliche Erkenntnisquelle,”’

413

927 BY’ (ydsham) be

927 Bw (yasham)

ZAW 48: 77. Clines, D. J. A., **X, X Ben Y, Ben
Y: Personal Names,’’ VT 22: 266-87. He argues
persuasively that the references to David as son
of Jesse are not derogatory. Driver, G. R., ‘New
Aramaeo Jewish Names in Egypt,’ JEA 25: 175f.

mew? (y’shima). See no. 927a.
Tews (yfeshimén). See no. 927b.
wows (yashish). See no. 931b.

desolate, ruin. (ASV
‘‘desolate’’; Rsv also ‘‘ruin,’’ ‘‘stnip’’ and
‘“appall.”’

Derivatives

927a tmws (y’shimad) desolation.
927b fmws «(y’shimén) waste, desert.

yasham and its derivatives occur eighteen
times. The root is primarily concerned with the
desolate condition of arid land, most often the
desert land around the Dead Sea, the Negeb, and
the Sinai.

During the years of famine in Egypt at the time
of Joseph, the Egyptians sold their land and
themselves for food and bought seed so that they
could sow the land that it might not become deso-
late (Gen 47:19). Three of the four occurrences of
the verb appear in Ezk to describe the coming
judgment on Judah. Armies were about to march
through, destroying crops, polluting fertile fields,
often burning and devastating fortresses and
cities. As a result the land would become deso-
late (Ezk 12:19; 19:7). Particular destruction was
directed at the high places, the quiet groves
which were lush and refreshing and where altars
to fertility gods were erected (Ezk 6:6). The deso-
lation of these shrines demonstrated to the people
that those gods were false, unable to help in time
of distress.

After the Exodus from Egypt, God led the
people through the desert. He encircled them and
protected them from their enemies (Deut 32:10).
According to Ps 107:4ff., God found Israel wan-
dering in the desert and became their guide and
protection. It was here that God appeared
through many natural phenomena and spoke to
the people directly and through Moses (cf. Ps
68:7f. [H 8f.]). However, before and after Mt.
Sinai the people tested God by complaining about
their condition and by craving food and water (Ps
106:14). Each time God was able to meet their
complaints and supply their needs; however,
some type of judgment against the unbelief gen-
erally accompanied the granting of the request.
Isa in the latter part of his prophecy picks up the
theme of God's new saving events, which will be
a new Exodus. Once again the people in leaving
the land of their captivity and returning to
Jerusalem will have to pass through the desolate

928 Ws (yashén)

wilderness. As in the former Exodus, God will
make a way through the desert and will provide
rivers of water to meet the parched thirst of his
people (Isa 43:19).

y’shima. Desolation (Ps 55:15 [H 6]). asv and
RSV accept Qere (vashshimdwer): *‘Let death
come upon them”; i.e. when they go down to
Sheol. Of course. the Kethib, ‘desolation be
upon them,”’ makes sense, for there is no place
more desolate than Sheol.

y’shimén. Waste, desert, wilderness. Fre-
quently y°shimo6n is paralleled with ~‘wilder-
ness’’ (midbdr) and translated ‘‘desert.’’ RSV
takes it as a toponym in I Sam 23:19, 24; 26:1, 3;
possibly it is a proper name in Num 21:20; 23:28;
it is most likely located in the Arabah, near the
north side of the Dead Sea and to the north and
west of the hill of Hachilah and to the north of
Maon. In this vicinity David hid from Saul.
J.E.H.

928 3° (vadshén) Qal, sleep, be as-
leep; Piel, make (one) go to sleep (Jud
16:19). (asv and rsv_ similar; but = RSv
‘‘dream’” in Ps 90:5; in Hos 7:6 asv ‘‘their
baker sleepeth,’’ while rsv [with different
vocalization] “their anger smolders.°’)

Derivatives
928a IW (ydshén) sleeping.
928b ow (vashan) old.
928 mw (shénd), SIV (shénd’), mW

(sh*nat) sleep.

Sleep is a blessing; it provides rest and re-
freshment. One who works hard, though poor,
has sweet sleep; but the rich in their surfeit are
denied this refreshment (Eccl 5: 12 [H 11]; cf. Ps
3:5 [H 6]; 4:8 [H 9]). One is not to love sleep, for
that will lead to poverty (Prov 6:10f.; 20:13).
Neither is one to rob himself of rest to increase
his wealth (Ps 127:2). Sleep, however, can afford
the opportunity for an opponent to gain the ad-
vantage; e.g. Delilah robbed Samson of his
strength during his sleep (Jud 16:20).

In the new age Yahweh will make a new co-
venant of peace restoring harmony between man
and nature once again. Then man may lie down to
sleep in the woods unafraid of nature (Ezk 34:25).

God may communicate a message during one's
sleep; e.g. God caused Pharoah to dream about
the approaching famine (Gen 41:1-7). While
Adam slept very deeply, the Lord took part of his
side and created Eve (Gen 2:2If.).

Sleep was a quality ascribed to pagan gods,
e.g. Elijah’s taunt concerning Baal’s being asleep
(1 Kgs 18:27). In contrast, the Psalmist says con-
cerning Yahweh, “‘He who keeps Israel will

929

414

neither slumber nor sleep” (Ps 121:4). Amidst a
polytheistic environment this confession pos-
sessed dramatic content. Yet figuratively sleep is
attributed to Yahweh for his apparent inactivity
by one who has heard about but not experienced
his great deeds (Ps 44:23 [H 24]). Similarly
Yahweh’s bursting into action is described as his
awaking from sleep (Ps 78: 65f.).

Sleep may stand as a euphemism for death (Ps
13:3 [H 4}). In the last days Yahweh will raise up
‘‘those who sleep in the dust of the earth’’ (Dan
12:2). Their new life will be one of either everlast-
ing life or everlasting contempt.

J.E.H.

*yws (ydsha‘) be saved, be delivered (Ni-
phal); save, deliver, give victory, help; be
safe; take vengeance, preserve

(Hiphil); asv, ‘‘rescue’’ *‘defend cause’’;
RSV, Substantive “‘savior.”’ (ASV and Rsv
similar, but interchange synonyms.)

Derivatives
929a pws (yésha‘') salvation, deliverance.
929b -myIws «(y°shii'a) salvation.
929c tyiw (shda‘) independent, noble.
929d mywin (mdshad‘a) only as mdsha-
‘Ot, Saving acts (Ps 68:21).
929e myawn (t°shii'd) salvation, deliver-
ance.

yasha‘ and its derivatives are used 353 times.
The root meaning in Arabic is ‘‘make wide’’ or
‘‘make sufficient’’; this root is in contrast to
sarar ‘‘narrow,’’ which means ‘‘be restricted”’ or
‘*cause distress."’ That which is wide connotes
freedom from distress and the ability to pursue
one’s own objectives. To move from distress to
safety requires deliverance. Generally the de-
liverance must come from somewhere outside the
party oppressed. In the otf the kinds of.-distress,
both national and individual, include enemies,
natural catastrophies, such as plague or famine,
and sickness. The one who brings deliverance is
known as the ‘‘savior.”’ The word may be used,
however, in everyday life free of theological
overtones; e.g., at a well Moses saved the
daughters of Reuel from being driven off by the
shepherds (Ex 2:17). But generally in the oT the
word has strong religious meaning, for it was
Yahweh who wrought the deliverance. Thus he is
known as the *‘God of our salvation’’ (Ps 68:19f.
(H 20f.]). Although salvation could come through
a human agent, it was only because God empow-
ered the agent. In the nT the idea of salvation
primarily means forgiveness of sin, deliverance
from its power and defeat of Satan. Although the
oT begins to point in this direction, the majority of
references to salvation speak of Yahweh granting

deliverance from real enemies and out of real
catastrophies.

Kinds of Salvation

At various times Israel, oppressed by other na-
tions, had to go to war to win and to maintain its
freedom. In these battles the nation turned to
God for help. They believed that the outcome of
the battle belonged to Yahweh (I Sam 17:47).
Thus they ventured out in the assurance of a
victorious outcome. The focal point of God’s sav-
ing deeds in the oT was the deliverance of Israel
from Egyptian bondage (Ex 14:30). Thereby they
became known as a people saved by Yahweh
(Deut 33:29). Such deeds of salvation became a
witness of the lordship of Yahweh not only to
future generations, but also to the surrounding
nations (cf. Ps 106:8; I Sam 4:6ff.). Later as the
Israelites anticipated entering the promised land,
Moses said, ‘the Lord your God is he that goes
with you, to fight for you against your enemies,
to give you the victory’ (Deut 20:4). God fulfilled
this promise through Joshua, who led the people
to take possession of Canaan. Afterwards when
Israel was oppressed by one of the surrounding
nations, God delivered them through a judge (Jud
2:16). The general pattern was to endow the judge
with his Spirit in order that he could defeat I[s-
rael’s enemies. Later under the kingdom Israel
defeated their enemies by a righteous king who
was anointed and aided by Yahweh (I Sam 9:16:
Ps 20:6 {H 7]). The truly believing leader ven-
tured forth in the spint of the words of Jonathan,
‘nothing can hinder the Lord from saving by
many or by few” (I Sam 14:6). The salvation
from God was the king’s glory and firmly estab-
lished his authority over the people (Ps 21:5
[H 6]). It became imperative as the nation grew in
power and prestige for the king and the people to
realize that salvation does not come by a mighty
army, but solely from the power of God (Ps
44:1-8 [H 2-9}). Although God generally used
human agents to bring salvation, the obstacles
surmounted were so spectacular that there un-
questionably had to be special help from God
himself (cf. Prov 21:31). Here is the creative ten-
sion between divine action and human response
which establishes God's purpose on earth and yet
builds the character of his people. Sometimes
God may do the work totally, and all man has to
do ts wait and see the mighty deeds of the Lord
(II Chr 20:17; cf. Hos 1:7). Building on this histor-
ical pattern of God's saving deeds through a char-
ismatic leader arose the concept of a future savior
who would fulfill the role of a king anointed with
God's Spirit (cf. Jer 23:5f.).

Salvation may be not only offensive, but also
defensive. When opposition comes, one may re-
treat to a refuge for safety. God is frequently
viewed as this refuge for his people; *‘On God

415

929 *yw (yasha’)

rests my deliverance and my honor: my mighty
rock, my refuge is God” (Ps 62:7 {H 8]}). One who
experiences Salvation does not need to be tor-
mented by internal anxiety. It is true that he will
have to endure opposition, but God will ensure
that his opponents do not destroy him. The pro-
tective nature of salvation is seen in other con-
cepts, namely “the shield of salvation” (Ps 18:35
[H 36]), *‘a helmet of salvation” (Isa 59:17; Eph
6:17), “the garments of salvation’’ (Isa 61:10).
Thus salvation is not merely a momentary victory
on the battlefield; it is also the safety and security
necessary to maintain life unafraid of numerous
dangers. As the oT looks for the city of God at the
end of the age, it sees that its walls will be called
‘Salvation’ (Isa 60:18). This city is only for the
righteous, and it provides all the security attend-
ing salvation (Isa 26:1).

Spiritual Meaning

The word “‘save’ developed a _ theological
meaning in that God saves by forgiving sin and by
changing the character of an individual: e.g. *"]
will save them from all the backslidings in which
they have sinned” (Ezk 37:23). David realized
this and prayed, “Deliver me from bloodguilti-
ness, O God, thou God of my salvation’ (Ps
51:14 [H 16]; cf. Ps 79:9). In Jer 17:14 ‘*save™
parallels ‘‘heal’*: i.e. salvation becomes a
dynamic force bringing emotional and physical
well-being.

Salvation and Righteousness

All of Yahweh's saving deeds are built on
righteousness, reflected by the fact that ‘‘righ-
teousness’’ and ‘‘salvation”’ are often found in
parallelism (e.g. Isa 51:8). Although every act of
deliverance contains judgment, those who are
judged are guilty and therefore deserve this jus-
tice (cf. Ps 76:8f. [H 9f.]). On the other side, God
is true to the covenant and to the creation of man
in his own image by acting to provide man a
means of deliverance from his original disobedi-
ence. In this regard God fulfills his responsibility
as Redeemer through being a Savior. Yahweh is
thus known as ‘‘a righteous God and a Savior”
(Isa 45:21).

Character of God Revealed

The salvation which God accomplishes reveals
his universal reign (cf. Isa 33:22). His kingdom
over the entire world allows him to work salva-
tion for whomever he wills. Further deeds of sal-
vation destroy the purposes of the forces of evil,
often personified as the sea and the sea monster
(Ps 74:12ff.). Thus every victory moves toward
the final salvation for all of his people. God's
ability to give salvation provides the basis for
man to worship him; i.e. only a god who can save
is worthy of worship. Therefore a frequent

929.1 MBws (yashpeh)

polemic against idolatry is to challenge the other
gods to bring deliverance to their oppressed fol-
lowers (Isa 46:7; Jud 6:31). Their failure to re-
spond demonstrates that those gods are vain and
leads to the confession that besides Yahweh
there is no savior (Isa 43:11; Hos 13:4). To ensure
that the deeds of salvation are not viewed as a
mere accident of history, Yahweh reveals what
he is going to do before he does it (Isa 43:12).
Then he ts faithful to his word by performing it.
Afterwards the act is interpreted and proclaimed.
The saving deed then is determinative for the na-
ture of each generation's relationship with
Yahweh, and its proclamation inspires the faith
to establish and to maintain the relationship (cf.
Isa 52:7).

Further salvation witnesses to the fact that
God cares about his people. Salvation flows from
his love (cf. Deut 7:7f.). Because the faithful
comprehend God's steadfast love, they turn to
him for deliverance in times of distress (Ps 6:4
[H 5); 109:26). Salvation is thus God’s love in
action.

Salvation also witnesses to the active presence
of God among his people and with his leaders.
Many commissioned with a task were promised
his presence in a special way. God promised
Jeremiah, **I am with you to deliver you’ (Jer
1:8, 19; cf. Mt 28:20). Jeremiah was later impris-
oned, and at various times his life was en-
dangered, but his opponents were never able to
destroy him. Moses too succeeded by this prom-
ise (Ex 3:12). Thus the presence of God among
his people accomplishes their deliverance from
adversaries and out of troubles.

Preparation and Response of the People

A. Repentance and Trust. Man must prepare
himself to receive God’s salvation. When in dis-
tress, he must seek God in prayer (e.g., Jud 3:9;
Ps 69:1 [H 2]). I. e., he must recognize his need
and humble himself before God with a contrite
heart (cf. Job 22:29; Ps 34:18 [H 19]). Turning to
God involves forsaking sin, for sin hinders God
from helping those in distress (Isa 59:1f.).

Once man has sincerely turned to God, he must
express his confidence in God by waiting for sal-
vation (Isa 30:15). God chooses the time to act;
man must wait in hope. God expects his people to
endure difficult circumstances in faith as he
chooses the most opportune time to bring salva-
tion. While one awaits salvation, he is actively
involved in pursuing mghteousness and in ex-
pressing love (Isa 56:1; Hos 10:12; 12:6).

B. Hymns of Praise. Man’s immediate re-
sponse to God’s saving deeds, actual or antici-
pated, is in hymns of praise. The Song of the Sea
was composed and sung immediately following
the deliverance at the Red Sea (Ex 15:]-18).

416

Isaiah’s description of salvation through the com-
ing Messiah is followed by song in chapter 12,
and three of the servant songs end with singing:
42:10ff.; 49:13; 54:1ff. Singing gives expression to
the joy attending God's salvation. Joy is fre-
quently mentioned as man’s inner response to
God’s victory (e.g., Ps 13:5 [H 6]). Further those
who have received Yahweh's help feel compelled
to share it with others; ‘‘I have not hid thy saving
help within my heart, I have spoken of thy faith-
fulness and thy salvation’’ (Ps 40:10 [H 11]). Thus
God's salvation fills life with meaning and joy.

Future Salvation

The return of Israel from captivity is antici-
pated in the language of salvation. Yahweh says,
‘*T will save you from afar’’ (Jer 30:10; Zech 8:7).
Since God considers the people his flock, he de-
clares, “‘I will save my flock, they shall no longer
be a prey’’ (Ezk 34:22).

Since there is no salvation outside of Yahweh,
he extends the invitation, ‘‘Turn to me and be
saved, all the ends of the earth! For I am God,
and there is no other’ (Isa 45:22; cf. Ps 67:2 [H
3]). The prophets look to the time when salvation
will affect all nations and be everlasting. Isaiah
foresees this salvation coming through the suffer-
ing servant. Because of the servant's obedient
endurance of suffering, God promises,‘'! will
give you as a light to the nations, that my salva-
tion may reach to the end of the earth’’ (Isa 49:6).
In other words, the acts of salvation in the oT
build toward the final act of salvation which will
include all people under its possible blessing (Isa
52:10).

sho‘a. Noble, honorable, rich (Rsv and asv),
bountiful (asv). Whether its root is y-sh-‘ (BDB)
or sh-w-' (KB) is debated. In Isa 32:5 it parallels
‘‘the noble’ (nddib) and in Job 34:19 it stands in
contrast to ‘“‘the poor’ (dal). It probably indi-
cates those who receive recognition due to their
wealth in property. But God does not grant spe-
cial favor to the noble over the poor, for both are
his work. And during the reign of the nghteous
king, the world’s false values will be altered in
that the knave will no longer be considered noble.
Bibliography: Foerster and Fohrer, ‘'S0zo,”’
in TDNT, VII, pp. 965-1024. Pedersen, Johs, Js-
rael, Its Life and Culture, vols. 1-2, London:
Geoffrey Cumberlege, 1964. Barr, James, “An
Aspect of Salvation in the OT,” Man and His
Salvation, ed. E. J. Sharp and J. R. Hinnels,
Manchester Univ Press, 1973, pp. 39-52.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 219-20. TDNT, VII, pp.
970-89; 1012-15; II], pp. 284-93. THAT, 1, pp.

785-89.
J.E.H.

929.1 Mw) (yashpeh) jasper.

930 saws (yashar) be level, straight, (up) right,
just, lawful. (ASV, RSV, NEB Similar except
that they vary translations with ‘*honest,™
‘righteous. ’’)

Derivatives
930a iW (yashdr) (up-) right.

930b “Ww (ydsher) uprightness, straight-
ness.
930c omaws (y*shdrad) uprightness.

930d Ay (y°shdriin) upright, law keep-
ing, Jeshurun.

930e tay (méshar) uprightness, straight-
ness.

930f tw (mishdr)
ness.

level place, upright-

The root y-sh-r is employed in at least three
ways.

1. Literally. **To go straight or direct in the
way’ (I Sam 6:12), but more frequently in the
intensive (Piel) “‘to make (a way) straight,’” 1.e.
direct and level and free from obstacles, as when
preparing to receive a royal visitor. This is the
work of God for man (Prov 3:6 kjv ‘‘direct’’), but
also of man for God (Isa 40:3). It is “‘to look
straight ahead of you”’ (Prov 4:25), to do some-
thing evenly (I Kgs 6:35, kjv) as Solomon’s over-
laying the cherubs with gold or Hezekiah's de-
signing the aqueduct bringing it straight (I1 Chr
32:30, KJv) to the west of Jerusalem.

2. Ethically. Uprightness as the manner of life
is a characteristic of the blameless (Prov 11:5)
and of the man of discernment (Ps 119:128, ‘‘I
have lived uprightly’’). Thus the fact that God
has made man upright (Eccl 7:29) is probably to
be interpreted as granting him the ability to rec-
ognize the divine law, rather than some inborn
character as honest or straightforward (so NEB). It
is satd of the reckless that his soul is not upright
within him (Hab 2:4) and this leads to pride and
failure.

yashar. Upright. The attributive adjective is
used to emphasize an attribute of: a. God, de-
scribing his reign over his people (Deut 32:4), his
ways (Hos 14:10), words (Ps 111:8), and judg-
ments (Ps 119:137); b. especially qualified per-
sons, as a parallel to the nghteous (Ps 33:1) or the
perfect (Job 1:1, 8). It is a quality of heart and
mind (Ps 7:11; {1:2, et al.) which enables the up-
right man to keep loyally to any legally binding
agreement (II Kgs 10:15). It is not always possi-
ble to be sure whether the “‘level’* path (Jer 31:9)
or ‘straight’’ foot is to be understood as an ethi-
cal appraisal of the way of life or literally. Cer-
tainly the nouns meaning “‘uprightness*” are used
of a moral quality of heart (ydsher, Deut 9:5;
I Kgs 9:4), as often in Prov (2:13; 4:11) which
results in “right paths,” i.e. right both morally
and practically (Job 33:23). This was a charac-

417

930 3ws (yashar)

teristic of David's life (I Kgs 3:6, y° shard, only
here). It is used both of words spoken (Job 6:25)
and written (Eccl 12:10).

3. As an idiomatic expression with “eyes.”
“To be right tn the eyes (of a person)’ is to have
his approval by keeping his commands. It is used
of God (Num 23:27; Jer 27:5) perhaps also under
the figure of the Potter (Jer 18:4). When marriage
was so considered by Samson (Jud 14:3, 7), Saul,
and David (I Sam 18:26), it can be rendered ‘‘law-
ful’” as in Uganitic (ysr; Van Zijl, Alter Orient
und Altes Testament 10:83). Similarly when a
treaty (I] Sam 17:4) or religious action (II Chr
30:4) was ratified by an assembly.

A fuller phrase ‘‘to do what is mght (hay-
yashar, the nght) in the eyes of the Lord” ts
linked with obedience to his commands (Ex
15:26; Deut 6:17-18) and covenant (Deut 12:28;
13:19). It is commonly used by the so-called
Deuteronomist historian in his summary evalua-
tion of the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah.
Thus David ts said to have followed the Lord’s
commands (I Kgs [5:5-7) and the laws of Moses
(I Kgs 14:8) as did Solomon when he followed his
father’s statutes, which were the same as those of
the Lord (I Kgs 3:3, 14). Asa (I Kgs 15:11; If Chr
14:1) and Josiah (II Kgs 22:2) were similarly de-
scribed as having done the right. So Jehoshaphat
did the same as had Asa (II Chr 10:32), Azariah
as did Amaziah (II Kgs 15:3; cf. I] Chr 25:2) and
Amaziah as did Joash (II Kgs 14:3). Hezekiah did
the right in that he kept the commandments
which the Lord had commanded Moses (II Kgs
18:6). Note that this phrase implies the existence
and knowledge of the law of God, and that indi-
vidual kings were thought to have kept it. This
was shown by the king taking action (the so-
called reforms) to ensure that the people also
kept the Law. Such action was marked by public
decrees which might include remission of dues,
deliverance from oppressive legislation (Josh
9:23ff.), and the observance of religious festivals
(Passover). Even when a king was said to have
done the right, any major omission in his en-
dorsement of the whole law is carefully noted
(“‘except in the case of'’) Hezekiah’s public act
was initiated in the first full regnal year. It has
been pointed out that there ts a somewhat similar
practice among Mesopotamian kings who ef-
fected the continuity of law and order by issuing
mésharum, decrees (Wiseman, D.J., ‘‘The Laws
of Hammurabi Again,’ JSS 7: 167-68). In this
phrase the oT uses yshr with the force of law-
keeping, doing justice according to the law,
which was the norm (as the Akkadian ‘Sartu is
used of what is normal in writing).

mishér. Level place, uprightness. méshar.
Uprightness, straightness (in government), justice.
mésharim and mishoér could well be translated

931 ww (yshsh)

‘justly’ (with justice) or “‘lawfully’’ (as in Ug
‘Anat 3.3) and describe the way judgment is
given (Ps 58:1 {H 2]; 75:2 [H 3], Rsv “with
equity’’). With the verb *‘to judge™’ it means **de-
cide in favour’’ (kB). It is the way a people should
be judged (Ps 67:4 [H 5]; ksv righteously; Rsv with
equity; NEB with justice). To do this 1s holding to
the covenant (Mal 2:6). It is the Lord who de-
clares ‘‘justice’’ (Isa 4 :19) and this sense of the
word persists (Dan 11:6, la‘dsét mésharim *‘to
make an equitable arrangement’’). Occasionally
these nouns are clearly used in a legal context
(Prov 2:9; cf. Ps 17:2). They are not really
synonymous with righteousness (sedeq) although
often used in parallel with it, with good (#66) and
with judgment (mishpdat). Cf. also Ugaritic sdq.
In Akkadian documents “‘justice’’ also appears
as a deity (4Misarum; Ugaritica 5: 220, line 166),
namely the son of the sun-god Shamash, who was
in Mesopotamia the primary god of justice.

ysharan. Jeshurun. Jeshurun is a_ proper
name used only of Israel, in four passages. The
parallelism of Jacob and Israel with Jacob and
Jeshurun (Deut 32:15; Isa 44:2, Jeshurun) makes
it clear that the reference must be to Jacob under
his name Israel (so Deut 33:5). The Lord is ‘‘God
of Jeshurun™ (Deut 33:26).

While it might designate Israel as an ideal, up-
right one (so Gr, Vulg rectissimus, dilectus) it 1s
more probable that the sense of law-keeping or
upholding justice is appropnate here; they are a
Rechtsfolk who possess the law. The old etymol-
ogy as a diminutive of ydshur ‘‘good little
people’’ cannot be supported since there is no
evidence of such a diminutive formation in He-
brew; nor would the title be apposite. Personal
names in -an do occur (possibly as hypoconstica)
and the possibly contemporary name of Jesher,
the son of Caleb (I Chr 2:18) the Ras Shamra
name of Misara (Ugaritica 5, RS 17.325), and
Ugaritic bn mSrm **son of uprightness’’ (UT 19:
no. 1566) may be compared, even though they
lack the termination.

The ‘‘book of Jashar’™’ (Josh 10:13) is given as a
source or record of Israel's defeat of the Amo-
rites. It also recorded the defeat and death of Saul
and Jonathan at the hands of the Philistines and
David's lament for them (II Sam 1:18). It con-
tained information which could be quoted or
taught. While most scholars consider it a collec-
tion of ancient national poetry, it may well have
been part of the pre-monarchy state records
which would have included written agreements
or other publicly issued statements similar to the
mérm decrees.

The noun mishor, derived from yashar, means
primarily “‘a level place,’’ and is used for geo-
graphical descriptions as well as to connote **jus-
tice’’ discussed above in connection with mé-
sharim.

418

932 IN (yrd).

Thus it marks the “‘plain’’ in contrast to the
hills (I Kgs 20:23-25; it is so rendered by KJv, RSV,
JB, NEB, or aS opposed to the valleys (Isa 40:11).
In Isa 42:16 it may be translated ‘‘level tracks"
(9B) or ‘‘(straighten) twisted roads’’ (NEB). As
used in David's prayers (Ps 26:12; 27:11; 143:10),
the word could mean a level place or be figurative
for a place of safety, comfort, and prosperity
(BDB). It may denote justice or the blessing
which follows from lawkeeping in view of the in-
vocation of the Lord as judge (Ps 26:1f.). In Jer
21:13, “the rock of the plain” seems to refer to a
precise topographical location in Jerusalem (KB),
perhaps the palace on Ophel (JB).

In a number of verses mishér marks a specific
region of Jordan, north of the Ammon River, which
was captured by the Hebrews. It lay in the desert
wilderness (Deut 4:43) where there was grazing
(I Chr 26:10). Within the area were villages
(Deut 3:10) as well as one of the cities of refuge
(Josh 20:8).

Bibliography: Finkelstein, J. J., ““Some new
misharum material with its implications,’ in
Studies in Honor of B. Landsberger, ed. Hans G.
Giitterbock and Thorkild Jacobsen, Chicago:
University Press, 1965. Richardson, TWB, p.
273. THAT, I, pp. 790-93.

D.J.W.

Baws (y°shuran). See no. 930d.

931 ww (yshsh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

93la ww (yashésh) aged, decrepit. Oc-
curs only in II Chr 36:17.

931b wwe (yashish) aged. Occurs ex-
clusively in Job (12:12; 15:10; 29:8;
32:6).

Assumed root of the following.

932a no (yatéd) peg, stake, pin. (ASV
prefers ‘‘pin’’ and ‘‘nail’’; Rsv
“peg. ’)

It appears twenty-four times. Pegs were used
to secure tents and bronze pegs held the taberna-
cle together (Ex 27:19). They were also fastened
into the wall to hang utensils on and used in con-
junction with a loom (Jud 16:14). In his parable
Ezekiel points out that when a vine ceases to bear
fruit, its only value, it can not be used even fora
peg (Ezk 15:3). One was to carry a peg (ASV
‘*paddle,’’ Rsv ‘‘stick’’) with him in order to dig a
hole in case of an emergency (Deut 23:13 [H 14]).
Jael, while entertaining Sisera in her tent, per-
formed a heroic deed by hammering a peg
through his skull (Jud 4:21f.; 5:26).

Interestingly peg is used in a positive manner in
regard to the blessing of God. Ezra speaks about
the blessing God has bestowed in terms of giving
a nail (Rsv ‘“‘secure hold’’) within his holy place

(Ezr 9:8). To emphasize the extending impor-
tance of the servant's ministry Isaiah exhorts to
enlarge the tent, to lengthen the cords and to
strengthen the stakes (Isa 54:2). Similarly
Jerusalem will become ‘‘an immovable tent,
whose stakes will never be plucked up” (lsa
33:20). The certainty and stability of David's
throne is pictured as a nail fastened in a sure
place (Isa 22:23, cf. Zech 10:4). However, before
God establishes the true kingdom, the false ruler-
ship, as a securely fastened peg, and all that relies
on it will give way (Isa 22:25).

J.E.H.

See no. 934a.

pin’ §(yarom). =
See no. 936, passive participle.

oF a a yatur).

933 mA® (yth). Assumed root of the following.
933a omnin (t6taGh) name of a_ weapon,
perhaps a club or mace (Job 41:21).

934 Bm’ (ytm). Assumed root of the following.
934a toin’ (yatom) orphan, fatherless.
(ASV and Rsv similar.)

It occurs forty-one times. The orphan, gener-
ally associated with the sojourner and the widow,
is the object of special concern. The quality of
one’s devotion is measured by how one treats the
widow and the orphan. Justice is especially due
them (Deut 24:17); if not, the curse of God comes
on the congregation (Deut 24:19). Although they
have occasion to mourn, they are not excluded
from the pilgrim festivals. They are invited to join
and rejoice as are all the sons of Israel (Deut
16:11-14). A corrupt society extorts the
sojourner, wrongs the orphan and the widow, and
expresses contempt for father and mother (Ezk
22:7; cf. Isa 10:2). E.g., they drive away the or-
phan’s donkey and take the widow's ox in pledge
(Job 24:3). Those who mistreat the orphan and
the widow are paralleled with adulterers, sorcer-
ers and perjurers in Mal 3:5. But God himself
provides for the basic needs of these unfortunates
(Deut 10:18) and is known as the Father of the
fatherless’’ (Ps 68:5 (H 6]). This fact is reflected
in the laws that forbid picking up fallen sheaves,
or regleaning the vine or the olive tree (Deut
24:19ff.). Also they along with the Levites re-
ceive a portion of the tithes of the produce given
every third year (Deut 14:28f.). The word occurs
also in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1168) where the chief
god El also is said to be beneficent to the orphan
and the widow. This common consciousness of
mercy is not surprising. The specific laws of
Ugaritic on such matters have not been pre-
served.

J.E.H.

935 IM* (ytn). Assumed root of the following.
935a tins (‘étan) I, perennial, everflowing.

419

935 IM* (ytn)

935b ADR (étdn)

*étan, J. Perennial, everflowing, permanent, en-
during. (asv and rsv differ frequently, asv pre-
fers words related to “‘strong.’’)

It is used thirteen times. It refers to the con-
tinual existence of a phenomenon of nature as the
perennial running water in a stream (Deut 21:4);
such a stream is especially valuable in Palestine,
where the majority of the wadies are dry much of
the year. The seventh month bears the name
Ethanim, ‘‘the month of steady flow,” perhaps in
relationship to the time when these are the only
streams with water (I Kgs 8:2). It means also the
eternal movement of the sea which God stopped
only long enough to allow Israel to pass through
safely (Ex 14:27, **wonted flow”’ rsv; **strength”’
ASV). Psalm 74:15 describes this feat as the drying
up of everflowing streams (‘‘mighty’’ asv). Thus
Amos 5:24 bears a powerful image, **But let jus-
tice roll down like.waters, and righteousness like
an ever-flowing stream.”’ Justice is truly the per-
manent, enduring quality that every believer
seeks and which will become the foundation of
the kingdom of God. The mountains are consid-
ered the enduring foundations of the earth.
Therefore, because of their continual presence,
they are in a position to witness in favor of the
Lord and against Israel at the great judgment
(Mic 6:2).

This word is applied also to the human sphere.
For instance, man is faced with the continual
problem of strife in his body (Job 33:19); this re-
flects the enduring nature of the curse on man for
his original sin. In Job 12:19, translated ‘‘the
mighty,’ it probably indicates the nobles whose
status is continuous by heredity, yet who can be
overthrown by God. Further, some nations are
considered enduring (‘‘mighty’’ asv, Jer 5:15; cf.
Num 24:21). The nation intended here is Baby-
lon, which was a nemesis to Israel throughout her
history. Although the dwelling place of man may
appear ever enduring (ASv and Rsv ‘‘strong’’) like
the sheepfolds near the Jordan, God is able to
destroy them, even by a ravaging lion (Jer 49:19;
50:44. KB understands the phrase as “‘pasture-
ground on the everflowing river’’). The concept
here is not so much of strength, but the fact that
they have been around so long they appear per-
manent.

Jacob’s blessing describes Joseph as amidst in-
tense battle, holding his bow steady and dis-
charging arrows in rapid succession (Gen 49:23f.,
Skinner). Another difficult text 1s Prov 13:15,
‘‘the way of the faithless is enduring’ (‘hard”’
ASV; “‘ruin’’ RSV emends text). The MT makes
good sense, for lack of faith forms its own rut
from which there is no escape.

’étan, UI. Ethan (asv and rsvthe same.) The
name occurs eight times. At least three different
men bore this name.

HI, Ethan.

936 IHS (yatar)

1. Ethan was known as a wise man and heads
the list consisting of himself, Heman, Calcol and
Darda. Solomon's wisdom is compared to
Ethan's as surpassing it (1 Kgs 4:31 [H 5:11)).
Ethan must have been a legendary man, indeed.
He is listed as one of the sons of Zerah (I Chr
2:6), who was of the tribe of Judah, and his son
was Azaniah (I Chr 2:8). He is called the Ezrahite
(the son of Zerah). Psalm 89 bears the inscription
‘‘A Maskil of Ethan the Ezrahite.’* Maskil (q.v.)
might mean a wisdom song composed for instruc-
tion. This Psalm concerns the eternal covenant
with David to rule Israel.

2. Another Ethan, son of Kushaiah of the
Levitical family Merari, is listed as a Levitical
singer, along with Heman and Asaph (I Chr
15:17, 19; 6:29). They shared a large part of the
responsibility of the temple music and sounded
the cymbals as they sang. Perhaps he also bore
the name Jeduthun, which occurs in the same
capacity along with Asaph and Heman in I Chr
25:1, 6; If Chr 5:12; 35:15.

3. A third Ethan is mentioned as the son of
Zimmah, of the Levitical family Gershom (I Chr
6:42 [H 27).

Bibliography: Driver, S. R., Deuteronomy, in
ICC, V, pp. 241f. Pope, Marvin H., Job, in AB,
XV. Skinner, John, Genesis, in ICC, I. Smend,
Rudolf, Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin:
Georg Reime, 1906, pp. 373f.

J.E.H.

936 "N° (yatar) remain over, leave; Hiphil,
leave in excess, preserve, let escape (Ezk
12:16, Rsv), have preeminence. (ASV, RSV
translate similarly.)

Derivatives

936a “N* (yeter) I, rest, remnant.

936b imn® (verter) HH, cord, bowstring.

936c man’ (vitra) abundance, riches.

936d “mY (ydtér), IN (ydtér) more,
better, advantage.

936e man’ (voteret) appendage.

936f wn (yitrén) advantage, excellency.

936g <n (motdr) profit, abundance.

936h tm (métar) cord, string.

yatar and its derivatives are used some 227
times. It refers to one portion of a quantity which
has been divided. Generally it 1s the smaller part
and sometimes it 1s the part of less quality. It may
refer to the portion less in quality but more in
quantity (Jud 7:6); e.g., in Neh it includes the
people besides the priest, nobles and officials
(Neh 2:16; 4:14 [H 8], 19, (H 13]). It may also be
used in the sense of ‘‘advantage"™’ or ‘‘more than.”’

The concept of remain occurs in a wide variety
of contexts with many connotations. Food left
over tS an indication that one’s need has been

420

abundantly met (Ruth 2:14; II Chr 31:10). The
people gave liberally for the building of the taber-
nacle so that items.were left over (Ex 36:7). Most
of the sacrifices were to be eaten on the day of-
fered; any leftovers were to be consumed (Ex
12:10; Lev 8:32). But a votive or freewill offering
was allowed to remain three days before being
consumed (Lev 7: 16f.).

The future of a person’s life is referred to as the
remaining years (Isa 38:10). The unrecorded
events of a king's reign are called ‘‘the rest of
[his] acts.”” In Gen 49:3f. the word carries the
idea of pre-eminence; there Jacob declared to
Reuben, ‘‘you are... pre-eminent in pride and
preminent in power; unstable as water you shall
not have pre-eminence.”’ In Prov 17:7 S*pat
yeter ‘‘a lip of excess’’ is taken as ‘‘arrogant
speech’’ by BDB, ‘‘fine speech’’ by rsv and *‘ex-
cellent speech”’ by asv.

The wisdom school, especially Eccl, often em-
ploys this root in search of the real advantage or
the true excellence in life. Prov emphasizes that
abundance can be gained by toil and diligent ef-
fort (Prov 14:23; 21:5). But abundance must not
become the goal of life, for after necessities have
been met that which is left then becomes the in-
heritance of one’s family (Ps 17:14).

Kohelet uses this word family to get across
many of his ideas. One Is not to be too wise or too
righteous; 1.e. one cannot authenticate himself by
putting his wisdom and nghteousness on display
so that they appear greater than they really are
(Eccl 7:16). Truly the best advantage belongs to
one with wisdom (Eccl 7:11). He uses yitrén in
the manner of ‘advantage,’ “‘gain’’ or ‘“‘profit.”’
There is advantage for an agricultural community
to have a king, no doubt so that its production
can be fully realized (Eccl 5:9 [H 8]). He also
finds advantage or benefit in wisdom over folly
(Eccl 2:13). Wisdom shows man how to over-
come a difficult problem and knowledge allows
wisdom to preserve the life of its owner (Eccl
7:12; 10:10). Prov points out there 1s advantage in
toil over laziness (Prov 14:23). But Eccl probes
deeper by continually asking what profit does one
gain from his toil (Eccl 1:3; 3:9). The answer ts
nothing, especially if it is to accumulate goods
which cannot be taken at death (Eccl 2:11; 5:15).
Eccl here feels the full force of the curse on
man’s work which makes it toil and he clearly
sees that ultimate value can not reside in man’s
labor or its results.

In military contexts this root frequently indi-
cates the survivors of the people who have been
defeated (Josh 12:4; 23:12). Also it may refer to
those who have survived a conspiracy (e.g. Jud
9:5). A truly devastating event is when no one Is
left (Josh 11:11, 22). Sometimes one is left and
feels quite alone; e.g. Elijah complained, “‘!,
even I only, am left a prophet of the Lord”’ (I Kgs

18:22). In regard to Israel it refers to those who
escaped the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon
(Ezk 6:8; 12:16; cf. Isa 1:9; but most often the
idea of ‘‘remnant’’ comes from the root sh’r).
The survivors will become God’s weapon of
punishment against other nations (Zeph 2:9). But
at the end of time the survivors in Jerusalem will
never be wiped out again (Zeh 14:2).

yeter. Cord, bowstring, tentcord. (asv and RSV
similar; but in Jud asv ‘‘withes.’’) It is used six
times. In the series of attempts by Delilah to dis-
cover the source of Samson's strength, Samson
told her to bind him with seven new, not even
dried, bowstrings; certainly they would tighten
intensely as they dried. While he was asleep, they
so tied him; but on awaking he was able to snap
the bowstrings (Jud 16:7ff.). The attempt of the
wicked to destroy the righteous is pictured as
their fitting an ‘‘arrow to the string to shoot in the

421

936 "H° (yatar)

dark at the upright in heart’’ (Ps 11:2). In regard
to life the cord being loosed means that one’s
health has been broken so that one is near death
(Job 4:21; 30:11).

métar. Cord, string, tentcords. (asv and RSV
similar.) This word occurs nine times. Most
frequently it appears in conjunction with the pegs
and bases of the tabernacle (Ex 35:18). The cords
of the new tent will have to be lengthened (Isa
54:2). Conversely broken cords indicate a people
about to succumb to their enemies (Jer 10:20). In
Ps 21:12 [H 13] the word stands for the bow as the
instrument the righteous use to overcome the ag-

gressive, deceitful plans of their enemies.

Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 196-208.
J.E.H.

Wan’ (yitrén). See no. 936f.
man’ (ydteret). See no. 936e.

937 3 (k*) as, like, the like of.

Basically a substantive, it is often used as a
preposition of comparison attached to its noun.
Quantitatively, especially with numbers and time
it can mean ‘“‘about.’” Qualitatively, it can mean
“according to’’ (Gen 1:26). In a correlative ex-
pression the preposition appears twice ‘‘my
people are like your people’ (like my people so
your people, I Kgs 22:4). Before an infinitive it
expresses the time at which action occurs, there-
fore “‘when, as, or while.’’ It may express
contemporaneity ‘‘while’’ more than b* with an
infinitive which is more conveniently rendered
‘*when.”’

938 95 (k*md) like, as, when.

The word k° stands by itself fifty-six times and
when it does it always uses the expanded form
k®*mo. This is the form used in combination with
the light suffixes, e.g. kadméni ‘“‘like me,”’
kamoéka “‘like you,’ and it is sometimes used
with the heavy suffixes, e.g. either k°méhem or
kahém ‘‘like them.’’ The usage in Ugaritic is simi-
lar. The prepositions 6° and /* also use the form
with the enclitic mem, but less commonly than
does k°.

939 “WSS (ka’dsher) as, when, according as.

Combined with ‘dsher, k* still means ‘‘as,
when, according as,’ perhaps with some em-
phasis, but in addition may show causal force,
‘‘since, because.”’

940 383 (ka’ab) be sore, have pain, be sorrow-
ful. asv, RSV similar.

Derivatives

940a T3832 (k°’éb) sorrow.
940b +t3583% (mak'db) sorrow.

ka’ab occurs with its derivatives thirty times,
all but four of which are found in poetry. Al-
though the root does not appear in Ugaritic, it is
found in Aramaic, Akkadian, and Arabic. The
former two emphasize the pain aspect while the
Arabic usage stresses sadness and sorrow. AI-
though the root can be used to express physical
suffering, it much more commonly has to do with
mental anguish.

Only four usages of ka@’ab refer to physical
pain. Genesis 34:25 refers to the pain of circumci-
sion; Job 14:22 and 33:19 to the bodily pain which
is said to be the lot of humanity; and Ezk 28:24 to

425

thorns which cause pain (although used figura-
tively of Israel's enemies).

For the most part, however, it is impossible to
separate the mental and physical anguish as far as
this word is concerned. A case in point would be
Ex 3:7 where God’s compassion for his people’s
affliction is expressed. Surely they were suffering
physical pain, but their total situation was cause
for anguish, as well.

Because of Israel’s inability to serve God faith-
fully she was plunged back into such anguish dur-
ing the Exile (Lam 1:12, 18). But the word of
hope is that Jesus has borne all of this suffering,
this ‘‘heartbreak”’ (Isa 65:14) that we might be
healed (Isa 53:3-4)

k*’éb. Sorrow, grief, pain. (ASV similar. RSV uses
‘*pain’’ in place of *‘sorrow.’’) Six occurrences.

mak’6b. Sorrow, grief, affliction, pain. (ASV simi-
lar. RSV almost always translates with ‘*pain,”’
where KJv has ‘“‘sorrow.’’) Sixteen occurrences,
of which at least eleven have to do with mental
suffering.

J.N.O.

941 *M8D (ka’a) be disheartened, cowed. Oc-

curs only in the Niphal and Hiphil stems
(e.g. Dan 11:30; Ezk 13:22).

Derivative
941a M832 (kd’eh) cowed (Ps 10:10).

942 333 (kbb). Assumed root of the following.

942a t335d (kékab) - star.
the same.)

(ASV and RSV

The nations around Israel worshiped the stars,
both individually and in constellations. Astrolo-
gers and wise men carefully studied their
movements to determine the will and the mes-
sages of these gods but to no avail (Isa 47:13).
Such was their lot from Yahweh (Deut 4:19; cf.
Amos 5:26), but Israel] was strictly forbidden to
worship them. In Israel’s thought the stars influ-
enced life, but only as agents of Yahweh. God
made the stars to give light and to rule the night
(Gen 1:16 f.; Ps 136:9). He ‘‘determines the
number of the stars, he gives to all of them their
names’’ (Ps 147:4). No star exists outside of
Yahweh and their destiny is determined by him.
Also the vast number of stars was a symbol for
God's promise of abundant descendants to Ab-
raham (Gen 22:17; 26:4).

The stars are sometimes personalized. They
may be identified with the sons of God, who sang

943 393 (kabéd)

forth praise at the creation (Job 38:7; cf. Ps
148:3). God, however, is unquestionably superior
even to the highest stars (Job 22:12). God used
the stars to fight on Israel's side to defeat Sisera
(Jud 5:20). In climax, the individual who will
bring salvation to Israel is foreseen as ‘‘a star
[which] shall come forth out of Jacob’ (Num
24:17). Jesus, in Rev, says, “‘l am... the bright
morning star’’ (Rev 22:16; cf. I] Pet 1:19). Then
too the faithful who diligently labor to turn people
to God shall shine like the stars forever (Dan
12:3; cf. I Cor 15:41f.).

J.E.H.

943 533 (kabéd) be heavy, grievous, hard, rich,
honorable, glorious. (ASV. RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

943a 3D (kabéd) I, great.

943b 99D (kabéd) I, liver.

943c 333 (kdbed) great.

943d 33 (kabéd) I, glorious, occurs
only as the feminine — singular
k* bidda (Ezk 23:41: Ps 45:14).

943e t33 (kabéd) IH, glory.

943f tamaa (k°buaddad) abundance,
riches. Only in Jud 18:21.

943g msa> (k*bédit) heaviness,
Ex 14:25.

This root with its derivatives occurs 376 times
in the Hebrew Bible. It is especially prominent in
Ps (sixty-four occurrences) and Isa (sixty-three),
as well as Ex (thirty-three), Ezk (twenty-five) and
Prov (twenty-four). Of the total number of occur-
rences, 114 are verbal. The root is a common
Semitic one, occurring in all except Aramaic
where yadgar seems to take its place. The basic
meaning ts “‘to be heavy, weighty,’ a meaning
which is only rarely used literally, the figurative
(e.g. “heavy with sin’’) being more common.
From this figurative usage it is an eaSy step to the
concept of a ‘‘weighty’’ person in society, some-
one who is honorable, impressive, worthy of re-
spect. This latter usage is prevalent in more than
half the occurrences.

The literal use of the term occurs only in I Sam
4:18, ‘Eli was heavy”’ (kabéd, adjective), and II
Sam 14:26 ‘‘Absalom’s hair was heavy”’ (kabéd,
noun).

kadbéd usually carnes a negative connotation.
The Qal and Hiphil stems comprise the most of
these occurrences in the verbal form, while
kabéed and kdbed are the nouns whose meanings
fit the category. Generally speaking, there are
three groupings of figurative uses. The first
would relate to parts of the body, expressing
slowness, dullness or implacability. The second
relates to events or experiences, describing their

only in

426

severity in terms of heaviness. The third would
express size or number in such terms.

The first usage is found most often in relation
to Pharaoh, in seven places (Ex 7:14; 8:15 [H 11],
28 [H 32}; 9:7, 34; 10:1: I Sam 6:6). Pharaoh's
refusal to be sensitive to the situation or to the
pleas of the Hebrew people is spoken of as a
heaviness or hardening of the heart (cf. the dis-
cussion by Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 66-67.) Simi-
larly the ears (Isa 6:10; 59:1; Zech 7:11), the
tongue (Ex 4:10), and the eyes (Gen 48:10) may
become dull and insensitive, while the hands may
grow weary (Ex 17:12). In the latter three cases
physical infirmity is involved, but the former ex-
press spiritual problems.

Heaviness as a figure for severity relates to
work (Ex 5:9, etc.), servitude (I Kgs 12:10 etc.),
warfare (Jud 20:34, etc.) and pestilence (Gen
41:31 etc.). Three times the severity of such mis-
fortunes is expressed as the hand of the Lord
being heavy upon them (cf. I Sam 5:6, 11; Ps
32:4). In the same way a person’s hand can be
heavy on someone else (Jud 1:35, Job 33:7). Also,
a person, without necessarily intending to, can
become burdensome to another (II Sam 13:25,
I] Chr 10:10, 14; 25:19; Neh 5:15). The fact that
the severity of bondage is often expressed by
means of the figure *‘a heavy yoke”’ (I Kgs 12:4;
I] Chr 10:4, 11) makes Jesus’ declaration, *“‘My
yoke is easy (Mt 11:28), all the more significant.

From severity to magnitude is a simple step
and in several cases it is not easy to be perfectly
clear which connotation is in view. For instance,
the statement that the sin of Sodom and Gomor-
rah was very heavy (Gen 18:20). Is this to say
that the sin was great or that it was severe? So
also Isa 24:20; Ps 38:4 [H 5]; Job 6:3, etc. At any
rate it is plain that sin is a burden which weighs
down the one who carries it, making the person
himself heavy and dull (Isa 1:4; Prov 27:3). Other
usages are quite clear however. Cf. e.g. Num
20:20 ‘Edom came out with a heavy people,”” or
II Kgs 6:14 ‘ta heavy host.’’ Similar references
would be Ex 12:38; II Chr 9:1; Isa 36:2. Hab-
akkuk 2:6 uses the word in this way when it at-
tacks those who increase pledges (cf. Nah 3:15).
In one case, Abraham is said to be very heavy
(Gen 13:2), and the context makes it plain that the
magnitude of his wealth is being spoken of. This
has significance for the succeeding usages.

The second major group of connotations is a
further extension of the figurative use of the
term. In this case the idea is of that which is
weighty in the sense of being noteworthy or im-
pressive. Common translations are ‘‘honorable,
honored, glorious, glorified." The Niphal and
Piel stems normally have these connotations.

The reputation of an individual is of central
importance in these usages. Thus the person of
high social position and accompanying wealth

was automatically an honored, or weighty, per-
son in the society (Num 22:15, etc.). Such a posi-
tion, its riches, and long life were commonly as-
sumed to be the just rewards of a righteous life
(I Chr 29:28, etc.). While one would be honored
automatically if one attatned this stature, it is also
clear that one was expected to merit the honor
and the glory. The book of Prov makes it clear
that the trappings of glory without an accompany-
ing weightiness of character was an offense to life
(21:21; 22:4: 26:1; etc.).

Likewise persons in positions of responsibility
and authority were deserving of honor (Ex 20:12;
Mal 1:6). It is significant to remind oneself that
giving honor or glory is to say that someone is
deserving of respect, attention and obedience. A
life which does not back up one’s honorable
words is hypocrisy of a high form. Israel was
again and again guilty of honoring God with her
lips, while by her actions making him appear
worthless (Isa 29:13).

One could also become honored as a result of
heroic feats of courage, fidelity, etc. David's
mighty men are spoken of in this way (I Kgs 11:21
etc.) These were people who had made a name
for themselves. In this vein God is also to be
honored. God's name is glorious in righteous-
ness, faithfulness, judgment, and _ salvation
(Ps 66:2; 79:9; Isa 40:5). He is the king of glory
(Ps 24:7~10), who has done gloriously. So he ts
not only to be honored because of his position as
sovereign head of the universe, but because of his
surpassing character in all realms.

The accoutrements of glory were commonly
impressive in their beauty. Thus the garments of
the priests were expressly designed to be unusu-
ally beautiful, in order to convey some of the
great dignity and importance of the office
(Ex 28:2, 40). The glory of the great kingdoms is
commonly compared to the splendors and
beauties of the great forest of Lebanon (Isa 8:7;
10:18). It appears that the particular beauty of
man is his capacity for rational and moral re-
sponse (Gen 49:6; Ps 108:1 [H 2]; Jer 2:11).

Yet it is at the point of these beauties that the
Bible speaks most devastatingly of the transience
of all glory except God's. Isaiah is especially
pointed. How quickly beauty fades. How sud-
denly a great cedar forest can be reduced to a
sickening field of stumps (Isa 10:18). How easily
man can exchange his true glories for that which
really cheapens and destroys him (Ps 106:20).
Any impressiveness or noteworthiness which
man has created for himself in his own pride and
arrogance is doomed to destruction (Isa 16:14;
17:4; 21:16).

[A few references to ‘‘glory’’ (kabéd) may bet-
ter be taken as misvocalized references to the
‘‘liver’’ (kabéd II) spoken of as we do the heart.
Thus Ps 16:9 *‘my glory rejoices’’ may mean ‘‘my

427

943 "39 (kabéd)

liver rejoices.’’ Note the mention of bodily parts
in the context. Of course, it is not the liver liter-
ally, but the person that rejoices. Properly, there-
fore, the Lxx and NT translate ‘‘my tongue re-
joices.”” R.L.H.]

Over against the transience of human and
earthly glory stands the unchanging beauty of the
manifest God (Ps 145:5). In this sense the noun
kabdd takes on its most unusual and distinctive
meaning. Forty-five times this form of the root
relates to a visible manifestation of God and
whenever “‘the glory of God’’ is mentioned this
usage must be taken account of. Its force ts so
compelling that it remolds the meaning of doxa
from an opinion of men in the Greek classics to
something absolutely objective in the Lxx and nT.

The bulk of occurrences where God's glory is a
visible manifestation have to do with the taberna-
cle (Ex 16:10; 40:34; etc.) and with the temple in
Ezekiel’s vision of the exile and restoration (9:3,
etc.). These manifestations are directly related to
God’s self-disclosure and his intent to dwell
among men. As such they are commonly as-
sociated with his holiness. God wishes to dwell
with men, to have his reality and his splendor
known to them. But this is only possible when
they take account of the stunning quality of his
holiness and set out in faith and obedience to let
that character be manifested in them (Num 14:10;
Isa 6:3; Ezr 10, 11).

The several references which speak of God's
glory filling the earth and/or becoming evident
are instructive. On the one hand they quite
legitimately refer to that reputation for greatness
which God alone deserves, not only because of
his natural position as king, but because of his
unsurpassed activity as deliverer and saviour.
However, as the preceding discussion indicates,
something more is intended here. It is not merely
God's reputation which fills the earth, but it is the
very reality of his presence. And his desire is that
all persons may gladly recognize and own this.
His first step toward the achievement of these
goals was to fill the tabernacle with his presence
and then the temple.

But nowhere is the reality and the splendor of
his presence and his character seen as in his son
(Isa 4:2). Here the nearblinding quality of his
glory is fully portrayed, ‘‘We beheld his glory,
the glory as of the only son of the Father, full of
grace and truth’ (Jn 1:14; cf. 17:1-5). Through
him and through his presence in the church,
God's glory is indeed filling the earth.

kabed /. Great, grievous, hard, heavy. An ad-
jective, this word does not occur with the mean-
ing ‘“honored,’* or ‘“‘honorable.’’ Moreover, it
and the following are distinct from other forms of
the root in the fact that they sometimes carry the
connotation of number or volume (eleven out of

944 m39 (haba)

forty for kabéd, one out of four for kdbed),
whereas other forms rarely do so.

kabéd JI. Liver. The heavy organ. Fourteen
occurrences, of which nine are found in Lev 3-9.

kabéd. Glory, glorious, honor, honorable. A
noun, often in construct with a preceding word,
thus taking on an adjectival aspect (“King of
Glory’’ equals “‘Glorious King”). Occurs two
hundred times, never with the idea of weight or
heaviness directly in view.

k°badda. An adjective only used in the feminine,
glorious, stately, carriage. In Ps 45:13 [H 14]
where KJV reads *‘glorious,’’ Rsv reads *‘ wealth."
In Jud 18:21 kv translates ‘‘carriage,'* evidently

meaning ‘‘things to be carried”’ (Rsv **good’’).
Bibliography: Caspari, Wilhelm, Die Be-
deutung der Wortsippe 133 in Hebrdischen,
Leipzig, 1908. Caird, G. B., ‘‘The Glory of God
in the Fourth Gospel,’’ New Testament Studies
15:265-77. Forster, A. H., “‘The Meaning of
d50Ea in the Greek Bible,” The Angelican Theo-
logical Review 12:311-16. Kittel, Gerhard, ‘*50Ea
in the LXX and Hellenistic Apocrypha,’’ tn
TDNT, II, pp. 242-45. Morgenstern, Julian,
‘Biblical Theophanies,”’ Zeitschrift fur As-
syriologie, 25:139-193, 28:15-60. Richardson,
TWB, p. 175. Von Rad, Gerhard, ‘*!33 in the
Old Testament,” tn TDNT, II, pp. 238-42.

TDNT, II, pp. 238-47. THAT, I, pp. 794-811.
J.N.O.

miss (kK bédit). See no. 943g.

944 3D
be put out.

(kabad) quench, put out, be quenched,
(ASV and RSV similar.)

kaba occurs twenty-four times, thirteen in the
prophets. The root also appears in Arabic with the
same meaning. It always relates to fire and to the
act of putting a fire out. It is to be distinguished
from dd‘ak (q.v.), which has a similar meaning,
by the fact that da‘ak commonly refers to a lamp
which has gone out while kaba in more than half
of its occurrences refers to a fire which cannot be
quenched by anyone other than God (the fire re-
ferring to his wrath).

Out of the six references to literal fire, five are
fires which do not go out. Of these. four refer to
lamps and fires in the temple (Lev 6:12—13 [H 5-
6]; I Sam 3:3; I] Chr 29:7). This concern that
something not be quenched is reflected also in the
figurative usages where life (1I Sam 14:7; 21:17)
and love (Song 8:7) are figured as fire.

The majority of the figurative usages relate to
God’s anger which no one but he can quench. In
particular, the prophets speak in this way calling
for repentance, lest this **fire’’ break out (Jer 4:4,
etc.). Similar language is picked up by Jesus con-

428

945 93> (kdl).

cerning hell in Mark 9:48. But, at the same time,
when the Messiah comes his gentleness will be
such that he will not even quench smoking flax
(Isa 42:3), i.e. he will not extinguish the weak and
poor—even dull—of society; rather he will save
them.

J.N.O.

3132 (kabéd). See nos. 943d,e.

m3 (k*bidda). See no. 943f.
“32 (kabbir). See no. 947a.
"932 (Aabir). See no. 948a.

Assumed root of the following.
945a 93D (kebel) fetters (Ps 105:18;

149:8).

946 bap (kabas) wash, be washed, perform the

work of a fuller. (aSv and Rsv similar.)

This root occurs fifty-one times, all in verbal
forms. Of these, all but nine appear itn the Pen-
tateuch, thirty-one in Lev alone, and twenty-one
in Lev 13-15. It also appears tn Arabic (‘‘to knead,
stamp’’) and Akkadian (‘‘tread down’’). In He-
brew it means ‘‘to full,’ that is ‘‘to make stuffs
clean and soft by treading, kneading and beating
them incold water’ (KB, p. 422). Thus itis always
used of clothing, ‘‘to launder’’ and never of
‘*washing’’ the body, where rahas (rahas which
see) is used or of ‘‘rinsing’’ which is denoted by
shatap.

In all but one case (II Sam 19:24), washing is
associated with ceremonial cleanness. Both the
priests and the people were to be in clean clothes
when they appeared before God (Ex 19:10, 14;
Num 8:7; 19:7). Involvement in the ntuals which
dealt specifically with atonement and death re-
sulted in ceremonial uncleanness and necessitated
washing the clothes (Lev 16:26, 28: Num 19:7, 8,
10, 19, 21).

The bulk of the references have to do with wash-
ing of clothes which have become contaminated in
one way or another (28 times). Particularly impor-
tant contaminants would be leprosy and related
maladies for, aside from the hygienic factor, these
were evidently types of sin. This imagery is picked
up in Ps Sf (2 [H 4], 7 [H 9)) and Jer 2:22 and 4:14.
That David depicts his sin as a contagious leprosy
in need of cleansing is further validated by his
petition that God use hyssop, the instrument em-
ployed tn cleansing a leper (Lev 14:6—7). Jeremiah
2:22 and 4:14 are significant because while speak-
ing of the impossibility of washing out the stain,
they proclaim the necessity of such cleansing. The
answer to this dilemma is found in Mal 3:2 in the
one who would appear as refiner’s fire and fuller’s
soap to deal with the sins of his people.

J.N.O.

947 *9539 (kabar) I, multiply, be in abundance.
(ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

947a 93D (kabbir) many, mighty.

947b THN3D (kibra) distance.

947¢ 133 (k*bar) I, already. Occurs
nine times, only in Eccl.

947d $535 (k° bar) H,Chebar.

This root and its derivatives occur twenty-four
times, only two of which are verbal. Both of
these verbal uses occur in the Hiphil in Job
(35:16; 36:31). It seems likely that they are de-
nominative. The root meaning is ‘‘to be much.”’
It is perhaps to be distinguished from rab (q.v.)
on the basis of its stress upon volume (‘‘mighty
waters,’ Isa 17:12; 28:2) rather than number, but
this should not be overdrawn. The meanings are
imilar in Akkadian, Aramaic, and Arabic; cf. the
Arabic expression Allah akbar, ‘* Allah is great.’’

The word ts used in both negative and positive
ways. From the negative point of view its usages
stress the vanity of greatness apart from God.
Job’s comforters feel that Job’s abundance of
words is vain (8:2; 35:16). Similarly the mighty
men who stand up against God will be broken
(Job 34:24) until they see their smallness (Isa
16:14).

Only God is the source of true might (Job 36:5).
In his hand is abundance of power (Isa 17:12),
justice (Job 34:17), and provision (Job 36:31).

kabbir. Many, mighty, much, strong, most. Nine
occurrences, six of which are in Job. Commonly
used adjectivally stressing the greatness of the
noun modified.

kibra. A little way. This meaning is that de-
rived from the construction kibrat-'eres, lit.
‘*much of land,’ which is the way this word is
found in its three occurrences. The rendering ‘‘a
great way’? which one would expect from the
etymology seems contradicted by the contexts as
well as the Lxx.

k* bar. Chebar. (asv and rsv similar; Niv ‘‘Ke-
bar.’’) A channel of the Euphrates which leaves it
near Babylon and returns near Warka (60 miles
south). The group of Judean captives among
whom was Ezekiel were settled along the Chebar
(Ezk 1:1; 3:15). It was here that Ezekiel had the
vision which shaped the rest of his ministry (1:1,
3; cf. 3:23; 43:3, etc.).

J.N.O.

948 9355 (kbr) II. Assumed root of the following.

948a 1°39 (Kabir) something netted, either
a quilt or a fly net spread over the face
of a sleeping person (i Sam 19:13,
16).

429

950 mwa (kibsd), M3WD (kisba)

948b 53D (k° bara) sieve (a net-like in-
Strument), only in Amos 9:9.

948c 335% (makbér) netted cloth or cov-
erlet, only in II Kgs 8:15.

948d t535% (mikbar) grate. asv, RSV
“grating.”

The root of this noun does not occur in verbal
form, but evidently it meant something like ‘to
intertwine.’ mikbdr appears six times, all in Ex,
and all with reference to a grating, or grillwork,
which extended around the altar of burnt offering
at its midpoint. Its function is unknown. On its
four corners were rings through which poles were
inserted for carrying the portable altar of the
tabernacle.

J.N.O.

949 wad (kebes), 3¥2 (keseb) lamb, sheep.

(ASV and RSV similar.)

This root and its derivatives occur 128 times in
the Old Testament. Of these, only 17 do not
occur in the context of sacrifice. kebes itself oc-
curs 106 times with only 6 of these being non-
sacrificial. As might be expected, 105 of the total
occurrences are in the Pentateuch, but Num has a
high proportion of these: 60, with 26 in chap. 7,
14 in chap. 28 and 23 in chap. 29.

This root is attested in AkKadian, where it also
means ‘‘lamb,”* and in Arabic (kabsun) where it
means ‘‘young ram."’ It is interesting to note that
kbs is not attested in Ugaritic and that the com-
mon Ugaritic term for sacrificial lamb, ’imr, if it
appears at all in Hebrew, only does so in a few
priestly names. This may reflect a conscious re-
pudiation on the part of the Hebrews of certain
Canaanite technical religious terms.

950 mys> (kibsa), mBvD (kisba) ewe lamb,

lamb. Feminine form of kebes. In the sin
offering a female kid or lamb was required
(Lev 4:32; 5:6; 14:10; Num 6:14).

keSeb seems to be a metathesized form of kebes
(cf. Ges 19n). However, it appears to be used
slightly differently in that it normally occurs in
circumstances where a distinction is being drawn
between the two kinds of animals of the flock:
sheep and goats. In only two cases (out of a total
of thirteen) is this not the case.

Although the initial instructions for the sac-
rifice (Lev 1-8) do not, for the most part, specify
that lambs must be offered as opposed to full-
grown sheep, it is clear from both preceding and
following materials that lambs (sheep less than
one year old) were important elements in the sac-
rificial system.

In four circumstances lambs were required: the
Passover observance (Ex 12:5; Lev 23:12); the
sin offering (Lev 4:32, etc.); certain purification

951 waa (kabash)

ceremonies (childbirth, Lev 12:6; leprosy, 14:10,
Nazirites, Num 6:12) and the morning and eve-
ning sacrifice. The number of lambs offered in the
daily sacrifice was increased at the new moon
(Num 28:11) and during the great festivals (Num
28, 29). It was perhaps because the daily offering
was a burnt offering that lambs came to be in-
cluded along with rams and bulls as the burnt
offering on special occasions. Whatever the rea-
son, this was in practice as early as the dedication
of the tabernacle in Num 7 and continued in force
as late as Ezra’s return (Ezr 8:35).

As with all the sacrificial animals, the elements
of perfection, costliness and substitution were
primary elements in the sacrifice of every lamb.

It was undoubtedly the association of lambs
with Passover, the sin offering and the daily sac-
rifice which led John the Baptist to proclaim that
Jesus Christ was *‘the Lamb of God, which takes
away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29,36: cf. also
Rev 5:9). Then too, Isaiah had already used this
imagery for the Suffering Servant who would
passively accept God's judgment for the sin of
the people as a lamb (Heb Se/1) is led to slaughter
(Isa 53:7).

J.N.O.
951 wad (kabash) subdue, bring into bondage,
keep under, force. (ASV, RSV similar.)
Derivative
951a waa (kebesh) footstool. Refers to

the footrest of Solomon's throne
(I] Chr 9:18: cf. haddém).

This verb and its derivative occur fifteen times
in the or. It is evidently related to Akkadian
kabdsu ‘to tread down,’ and Arabic Aabasa “‘to
knead, stamp, press” (cf. also Arabic kabaSsa “to
seize with the hand’’). In the oT it means “‘‘to
make to serve, by force if necessary.”

Despite recent interpretations of Gen 1:28
which have tned to make “‘subdue’’ mean a re-
sponsibility for building up, it is obvious from an
overall study of the word's usage that this ts not
so. kdbash assumes that the party being subdued
is hostile to the subduer, necessitating some sort
of coercion if the subduing is to take place. Thus
the word connotes ‘‘rape’’ in Est 7:8, or the con-
quest of the Canaanites in Num 32:22, 29; Josh
18:1; [ Chr 22:18. In I] Chr 28:10; Neh 5:5; Jer
34:11, 16 it refers to forced servitude.

Therefore ‘*‘subdue™ in Gen 1:28 implies that
creation will not do man’s bidding gladly or easily
and that man must now bring creation into sub-
mission by main strength. It is not to rule man.
However, there is a twistedness in humanity
which causes us to perform such a task with
fierce and destructive delight. Try as we might,
we cannot subdue this. But it can be subdued and

this is the promise of Mic 7:10, ‘He will subdue
our iniquities.”’

J.N.O.
952 wWs> (kibshan) kiln, for lime or pot-
tery (e.g. Gen 19:28; Ex 19:18). Derivation
uncertain.
"D> (kad). See no. 953a.
953 "355 (Add). Assumed root of the following.
953a “3D (kad) jar (e.g. I Kgs 17:12;
Eccl 12:6).
953b «0 M899D.) sO (kiddd) ~=sspark §=(Job 41:11).
953c IBID (kadkdd) a_ precious stone,
perhaps a ruby (Ezk 27:16; Isa
§4:12).
"39D (kaddir). See no. 954b.
S252 (kadkéd). See no. 953c.

954 "353 (kdr). Assumed root of the following.

954a 39°9D (kidér) onset, attack (Job
15:24).
954b os9D (kaddir) ball (Isa 22:18).

955 =D (koh) thus, here. Demonstrative ad-
verb of manner, place, or time.

956 M32 (kaka) thus, perhaps a more emphatic
form than koh. Probably derived from
955.

957 map (kaha) I, be dim, darkened, restrained,
faint, fail. (asv and Rsv similar, except that
RSV reads ‘*blinded”’ instead of ‘‘darkened.’’)

Derivatives

957a tama (kéheh) be dark.
957b tmmD (keha) healing.

The root and its derivatives occur seventeen
times with the general idea of being weak, inef-
fective, or colorless. The idea of the eyes becom-
ing weak in old age is prominent. The cognate in
Akkadian means ‘‘to be weak”’ and in Arabic “‘to
grow disheartened.”

kéheh. Be dark, wax dim, smoke, heavy. An ad-
jective occurring chiefly in Lev 13 (‘‘if the plague
be somewhat dark,’ six times). Cognate evi-
dence seems to suggest ‘colorless’ as a better
translation (Rsv *‘dim,'’ NEB **faded’’).

keha. Healing (asv and RSv ‘‘assuaging.’’) Ac-
cording to Nahum 3:19, Nineveh's destruction
cannot be done away with.
J.N.O.
958 *mm> (kaha) H, rebuke. Occurs only in
the Piel, in I Sam 3:13, “he did not rebuke
them.”

430

959 385 (kdhan) minister in a priest’s office,
act as priest. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

959a t1M> (kdhen) principal officer or chief
ruler, priest.
959b = MgmD (ke hunna) priesthood.

The verb kadhan occurs twenty-three times,
only in the Piel. It is translated ‘‘minister in a
priest’s office,”’ **be priest,’’ or “‘serve as priest”
(RSV).

kohen. Chief ruler, priest. The underlying ver-
bal root of kKOhén does not appear in the oT and is
of unknown etymology (KB, p. 424). In light of
its early secular usage, the idea of khn might be
of ‘‘serving as a minister’ (cf. S. R. Driver,
Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of
Samuel, pp. 284-85). Four summaries, pertain-
ing to the time of the United Kingdom, mention
both Levitical high priests and, simultaneously,
others who occupy a similarly designated office
of kohén (1 Kgs 4:5; I! Sam 8:18: 20:26: I Chr
18:16, 17). Zabud son of Nathan was “‘principal
officer’’ under Solomon (1 Kgs 4:5, kv). During
the lapse between the earlier and later lists under
David, the occupancy of this second type of
kéhén office shifts from David's own sons (II Sam
8:18) to Ira the Jairite (20:26). This is doubly sig-
nificant, for the former were necessarily non-
levitical, and their replacement by the latter sug-
gests responsibilities adversely affected by the
intervening failures of the king’s sons. kdhén
seems therefore to connote ‘‘confidential ad-
visor’ (KD, Samuel p. 369); cf. the further de-
scription of Zabud as ‘‘king’s friend’’ and of
David's sons as, literally, “the first ones at the
king’s hand”’ in the parallel passage (I Chr 18:17;
n.b., liberal criticism here dismisses Chr as a
later attempt to disguise an originally non-levitical
priesthood, ICC, Samuel, p. 310).

Another possibility may be considered in view
of the overwhelming usage and the fact that in
Ugaritic also khn means ‘‘priest.’’ All of these
four verses may be differently interpreted.

Not only does I Chr 18:17 lack the designation
kéhén for David’s sons, the Lxx of the parallel
passage II Sam 8:18 itself lacks it. The Hebrew of
II Sam 8:18 may be inerror. As it stands it has the
impossible reading, ‘‘And Benaiah son of
Jehoiada and the Cherethites and the Pelethites
and the sons of David were priests.”

Ira the Jairite (II Sam 20:26) who is mentioned
nowhere else may indeed have been a priest who
served David especially and personally as
Abiathar had done (cf. I Sam 30:7).

Finally, Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5) is also not men-
tioned elsewhere. He may have been a priest
who served Solomon personally. Or the word
‘‘priest’ here could even refer to Nathan,

431

959 35D (kahan)

Zabud's father. Actually most mss of the Lxx omit
the word ‘‘priest’’ here and they could be cor-
rect. At least it is of interest that only these four
verses suggest that kdhén may refer to a different
kind of office.

Elsewhere in the oT, kdhén reflects the more
restricted concept of a minister for sacred things,
especially sacrifice; cf. the functioning of Mel-
chizedek and of Jethro, the first priests named
in Scripture (Gen 14:18; Ex 18:12; negative criti-
cism, by contrast, usually associates priestly
origins with the delivery of oracles, TDNT, Ill,
p. 260). In the beginning men served at sacrifice
as their own priests (Gen 4:3; Job 1:5), but already
in Noah’s time priestly ministration had become
the responsibility of the patriarchal family head
(Gen 8:20; cf. Gen 12:8; Job 1:5; Ex 19:22, 24 in
subsequent periods).

In a sense, all Israel were the Lord's priests
(Ex 19:6; cf. Hos 4,6 on their rejection from
kihén ‘being a priest’’ to God). But at Sinai he
restricted legitimate priesthood to the family of
Moses’ brother Aaron, of the tribe of Levi (Ex
28:1; 40:12-15; Num 16:17; 17:8; Cf. the evolu-
tionary views of supposedly Canaanitish
serpent-worshiping Levites and bull-worshiping
Aaronites, T. J. Meek, Hebrew Origins, pp.
119-47). Indeed, efficacious priesthood can exist
only when it is established by the Lord (Num
18:7, k* hanna), for according to Scripture only
God or his official representative can accomplish
the atonement by which satisfaction is made for
sin (Ps 65:3 (H 4]; Ex 29:36: A. B. Davidson, The
Theology of the OT, p. 321). Aaron wore the
names of the twelve tribes inscribed on his vest-
ments (Ex 28:12, 21, 29) so as to bring them be-
fore God when he appeared to minister divine
propitiation and reconciliation (v. 38). He con-
tinued to occupy his post, despite failure at the
incident of the golden calf (32:4, 21).

Shortly after the completion of the tabernacle
(Ex 35-38, 40), including the elaborate priestly
regalia (Ex 39; cf. Isa 61:10, as a bridegroom
‘“*decketh himself,” kihén, marg., ‘“‘deck as a
priest’’) and the revelation of God's laws of sac-
rifice (Lev 1-7), Aaron was consecrated as Is-
rael’s high priest and his four sons as priests (Lev
8—9). Their primary function was to officiate at
the new sanctuary (Deut 18:5) and pray on behalf
of the people (Joel 2:17). They were also to set a
personal example of holiness (Deut 33:9), to ‘‘en-
quire of God" for oracles (see ‘drim), and to
teach the law (Lev 10:11; Mic 3:11; Mal 2:7: even
traveling, II Chr 17:9). The latter two respon-
sibilities made it appropriate for the priests to
serve also as judges (Deut 17:9). Soon after their
appointment, Aaron's two older sons were slain
by God for violating their office (Lev 10:2). But
descent from Eleazar and Ithamar, who re-
mained, continued to be the basis upon which

960 ysis (kéba‘) helmet.

960 y3i> (kéba‘)

Israel henceforth distinguished their divinely
authorized priests (Ezr 2:62; I Chr 24).

The oT priests were types of Christ (Heb 8:1),
who accomplished the ultimate propitiation for
the sins of the people (2:17). Prophecy suggests a
future reappearance of Levites (Jer 33:18; Zech
12:13; Ezk 41:46ff); but the Nt church exhibits a
universal priesthood of believers (I Pet 2:5; Rev
5:10; Jer 31:34).

Bibliography:
Theology of the Older Testament, Zondervan,
1971, pp. 372-80. Richardson, TWB, pp. 210-11.
TDNT, Ill, pp. 260-63.

J.B.P.

(ASV and RSV simi-
lar.)

Although T. H. Gaster has suggested that this
is a loan word from Hittite (kupahi), (JAOS, 57,
73ff., followed by KB?); more recently J. L.
Palache (Semantic Notes on the Hebrew Lexi-
con, pp. 17, 40) has claimed that it is part of a
bi-consonantal family, kb, qb, gb which denotes
an upward or downward convexity. If this claim
were correct it would help to explain the alternate
spelling of this word: géba‘ (q.v.) which appears
in I Sam 17:38 (note kéba‘ in 17:5) and Ezk 23:24
(kéba‘ in 27:10 and 38:5; cf. also Ugaritic gb‘r
‘*goblets.’’)

kéba‘ appears six times in the Old Testament
(qdba‘ twice); two of these are in historical litera-
ture, the others in the prophets. In II Chr 26:14
Uzziah is said to have gathered a considerable
armory, including helmets, while I Sam 17:5, in
describing Goliath’s armor, mentions his bronze
helmet.

In the prophets, shields and helmets are men-
tioned with respect to the great armies (often of
mercenaries, Ezk 27:10) which surged across the
near east in the Iron Age. The prophets en-
visioned such armies on the move again in the
end times (Ezk 38:5). Against the mighty of the
earth, and eaten away by sin inside, it would
seem that God’s people would be helpless. Yet
God himself has entered the battle against op-
pression and sin and stands forth victorious (Isa
59:17).

J.N.O.

961 *M39 (kdwa) burn, scorch, brand. Occurs
only in the Niphal (Isa 43:2; Prov 6:28).

Derivatives

96la 3D (ki) burning, branding. Occurs
only in Isa 3:24.

961b mp (k*wiyd)
(Ex 21:25).

961c M33 (mikwa) burned spot; burn
scar (Lev 13:24, 25, 28).

burning, branding

432

AI, pp. 345-405. Payne, J. B.,

963 B33 (kwm),.

mia (kéah). See no. 973a.
m3 (k*wiya). See no. 961b.
3555 (kdkab). See no. 942a.

962 39> (kal) contain, hold, abide, bear, nourish,

provide. (ASV, RSV Similar, except that Rsv
translates ‘‘endure’’ instead of ‘‘abide’’ or
‘“bear.’’)

The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘to ce.*7‘n
as does a vessel.’’ It occurs thirty-eight time...
The Qal stem occurs but once, with the remain-
der in either the Hiphil or the intensive. In six
cases, it is not possible to distinguish the mean-
ings of the Pilpel from the Hiphil. The other nine-
teen occurrences, however, show the par-
ticularized meaning ‘‘to provide with food.”’ Evi-
dently this reflects the causative function of the
Pilpel stem: *‘to cause to contain, supply.”’

Examples of the primary meaning are found in
passages such as I Kgs 7:26, 38; 8:64; II Chr 4:5;
7:7 where the sizes of the molten sea and the
bronze lavers in Solomon’s temple are described
in terms of the number of baths of water they
contain.

Jeremiah then uses the word in a figurative
sense when hé expresses the impossibility of con-
taining within himself the Lord’s fury which is
like a burning fire (Jer 6:11; 20:9). In a somewhat
similar vein. Solomon remarks in his prayer at
the dedication of the temple that it is silly to think
of that house as containing God since the heaven
of heavens cannot contain him (I Kgs 8:27; II Chr
2:6 {H 5]; 6:18).

As a logical extension of the above meanings
are those which express the possibility or impos-
sibility of enduring (or containing) something
(Prov 18:14; Joel 2:11; Amos 7:10; Mal 3:2). Two
of these (Joel and Mal) express the impossibility
of enduring God’s wrath when he comes and are
reminiscent of Rev (6:15, 16, etc.).

J.N.O.

Assumed root of the following.
963a tme°D (kimad) Pleiades. (aAsv and
RSV similar.)

Group of seven stars in the constellation
Taurus. The word appears in Amos 5:8 and Job
9:9 and 38:31. In each of these places it is used in
connection with the creative power of God. In
view of his capacity to put the stars in place, both
ungodly living (Amos), and the questioning of
God's wisdom (Job) are inappropriate. (See also
mazzal(rjot, ‘dyish, and k° sil, which are used in
the same contexts to refer to stars or constella-
tions).

J.N.O.

8D (kuimaz). See no. 990a.

964 *> (kun) established, prepared, made ready,
fixed, certain, right. (ASv, RSV similar.)

Derivatives

964a hd (kén) I, right, true.
9646 Hd (kén) UI, thus, so.
964c f15% (makén) place.
964d imgint = (m°kdnd) base.
964e tas (tkind) fashion.
964f ID (kawwan) cake.

This root occurs with its derivatives more than
288 times. Two hundred seventeen of these oc-
currences are verbal, appearing in all stems but
the Qal. The Niphal and the Hiphil occur most
often. The root meaning is to bring something
into being with the consequence that its existence
is a certainty. This latter is not so much in view in
the cognate languages which seem to stress exis-
tence, or the bringing into existence, of a thing.
With this meaning the root appears in Ugaritic,
Akkadian, and Arabic.

Five somewhat different connotations can be
discovered in the usages of this root, all having
basic theological significance. These connota-
tions move from provision through preparation
and establishment to fixity and rightness.

1) As noted above, the word as used in He-
brew, rarely means simply to bring into being. So
rare is it, in fact, that BDB and KB suggest that
the root meaning is ‘‘to be firm’’ (KB also adding
‘‘straight’’). However, evidence of the original
etymology may be found in those occurrences
where something is said simply to have been
formed or fashioned (brought into existence) (Jud
12:6; Job 31:15; Ps 119:73; Ezk 16:7). In none of
these is the idea of fixity or firmness in view, but
rather of basic formation. Particularly in the sec-
ond and third of these, God’s role in forming the
human body is significant.

Probably this same basic idea is involved
where the word is translated *‘to provide for”’ (cf.
II Chr 1:4; Job 38:41; Ps 65:9 (H 10]; 78:20; Prov
6:8). Especially in question here is God’s ability
to provide food for his people and creation. At
numerous points it is difficult to know whether
certain usages should be translated ‘*provide’’ or
‘‘prepare.’’ It seems likely that the several refer-
ences in Chr to David’s ‘‘preparing’’ materials
for the temple could just as appropriately be
understood as referring to his *‘providing’’ such
materials.

2) At any rate, however, it is clear that a very
significant group of occurrences must be trans-
lated with ‘‘prepare.’’ In view of something in the
future, certain things are set in order. Meal prep-
aration (Gen 43:16; Josh 1:11; Neh 8:10) and mili-
tary preparation (Josh 8:4; Ezk 7:14; 38:7; Amos
4:12) are two circumstances in which the word ts
used in this way. In the latter case many of the

433

964 *395 (kin)

references indicate it is God who will war on the
ungodly and they should prepare themselves as
best they can (cf. Job 15:23; Jer 46:14; 51:12,
etc.). On the other hand, God has made prepa-
rations as well. These would include his creative
functions (Ps 147:8; Job 28:27; Prov 8:27) as well
as his judicial ones (Ps 7:11, 13 (H 12,14); 9:7
[H 8]; Prov 19:29; Zeph 1:7).

The meaning of a group of references which
speak of persons ‘‘preparing’’ their hearts to seek
the Lord (cf. I Chr 29:18; II Chr 12:14, etc.) is
somewhat unclear. It seems likely that the Rsv
rendering ‘‘set,’’ in keeping with the several
passages in Ps (cf. 57:7 [H 8} ‘‘my heart is fixed
[Rsv ‘‘steadfast’’], O God’’) is more appropriate.

3) As with the previous connotation, there is
some ambiguity at the border between ‘“‘prepare’’
and ‘‘establish.’’ This is especially true in God’s
creative acts. While Prov 8:27 says that God
‘‘prepared’’ the heavens, Prov 3:19 has him
‘‘establishing”’ the heavens. Here come the spe-
cial overtones of certitude. They are implicit in
the very character of the biblical deity, a God
who does not change (Ps 119:90). Because God
has brought heaven and earth into existence they
are fixed forever (Jer 33:2). So the use of ‘‘estab-
lish’’ is especially appropriate. The references
where this translation is appropriate may be di-
vided into three groups. All three of these have
royal overtones. God, as the divine king has es-
tablished the heavens as his throne (Ps 103:19)
and the earth as his dominion (I Chr 16:30; Ps
93:1; Isa 45:18). As the divine king, his work is
accomplished through wisdom and understanding
(Prov 3:19; Jer 10:12; 51:15). This in itself leads to
the fixity of what he has done.

4) It is the divine king who then guarantees or
refuses to guarantee human kingship. Some
twenty-five times the word is used with reference
to the establishment of a dynasty. It is made plain
that, in and of itself, no human line can be estab-
lished. Only by relation to the One in whom
kingship abides is this possible (Ps 89:37 [H 38],
etc.). The culmination of this thought is found in
Isa 9:6 (H 7} where the kingdom of the Messiah is
established by God.

On a somewhat more human level, the book of
Prov shows that establishment, on the throne or
elsewhere, is not possible apart from adherence
to the divine standards of righteousness (16:12,
etc.).

But the great test of God’s kingship is the prob-
lem of sin. This problem is dealt with through the
establishment of a people (Deut 32:6). The par-
ticular creation language of this verse is signifi-
cant. Redemption is a part of the total work of
creation. Furthermore, God overcomes sin by es-
tablishing his sanctuary in the midst of his people
(Ex 15:17; Isa 2:2).

5) The sense of well-being which results from

965 Did (kos)

being under God's hand is best expressed in the
final connotation. If our heart is fixed on God (Ps
112:7, etc.) then we may be sure that he will es-
tablish (also direct, order) our ways (Ps 37:23;
90:17; Prov 16:9). Apart from this kind of confi-
dence, a person’s ways are temporary and shaky.
But with it there comes a certainty, a rightness
(Jer 23:10, etc.), which imparts some of the glory
of the infinite to the finite.

ken JI. Right, true. An adjective, occurring at
least twelve times, perhaps more often since its
usage is often difficult to distinguish from the fol-
lowing. Used in modern Hebrew for ‘‘yes.”’

kén JI. Thus, so. A widely used adverb ex-
pressing the realization of something previously
spoken. Often coupled with prepositions such as
‘ahadré, ‘ad, ‘al and [°.

makon. Place. Occurs seventeen times, all but
one (Ps 104:5) referring to God's dwelling place,
either in heaven or the temple.

m‘kona. Base. Occurs almost entirely inI Kgs
7, and always with reference to the ornate bases
designed to support the ten brass lavers in the
Solomonic temple.

kind. Fashion, store, seat. Occurs. three
times, each translated differently: the ‘‘fashion”’
of the temple (Ezk 43:11); the ‘store’ of Nine-
veh’s pleasant furniture (Nah 2:9 (H 10]); the
‘*seat’’ of God (Job 23:3).

kawwan. Cakes. Occurs twice, both referring
to an element used in the worship of the Queen of
Heaven (Jer 7:18; 44:19).
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 812-16.
J.N.O.

965 Bid (kés) I, cup. (asv and Rsv similar.)

Of the four words usually translated ‘*cup’’
(gabia‘, ’aggdan, sap), kés is the most common,
occurring thirty-three times. ga@bia‘' occurs next
most frequently with thirteen occurrences. kés
seems to denote a drinking goblet, whereas
gabia‘ may (Jer 35:5) or may not (Ex 25:31) be
associated with drinking. An ’aggdan is more of a
bowl, a larger vessel; a sap also is larger, like a
bowl, but it was used for drinking (Zech 12:2).
Both Ugaritic and Arabic have cognate nouns for
drinking cup from this root.

Of the thirty-one occurrences, about ten speak
of literal cups. Of these, five occur in Gen 40
where Joseph interprets the dream of Pharaoh’s
cupbearer. It is interesting to note that Joseph’s
cup discussed in Gen 44 is gabia’‘.

Sixteen of the figurative usages present the cup
in a negative light. Primarily these relate to God’s
judgment upon sinful nations (Jer 25:15). They
now drink to the bitter dregs (Isa 51:17, 22) the

966 o3> (kés) I, a kind of owl

folly which they have chosen. The result is as
drunkenness; staggering (Isa 51:22) and shame
(Hab 2:16). It is the cup of the Lord’s fury (Jer
25:15). It was this cup which stood before
Christ's eyes in Gethsemane (Mt 26:39).
Because of God’s forgiveness through Chnst
the cup offered to us may be one filled with bless-
ing and not curse (Ps 16:5; Ps 23:5). Human be-
ings must choose the cup they will drink: fury or
salvation (Ps 116:13).
J.N.O.

(Lev 11:17:
Deut 14:16; Ps 102:7).

967 “35 (kwr) I. Assumed root of the following.

434

.967a “3B (kar) basket-saddle, only in Gen
31:34, b*kar-haggdmal ‘‘in the
camel-basket,'” a sort of palankeen
bound on the saddle itself.

967b 39D (kar) furnace.

967c t™°D (kir) range (for cooking).
967d t5935 (Kiyor) laver, pan.
kar. Furnace. (asv and rsv similar.) A smelt-

er’s furnace for the refining of metal. It is only
used figuratively in the Old Testament, appearing
nine times. Three times it is used of Egypt, from
which Israel was delivered (Deut 4:20; I Kgs
8:51; Jer 11:4). In these references there seems to
be no stress upon refinement, but merely on the
heat symbolizing affliction. On the other hand,
the furnace of the exile is definitely depicted as
one of refinement (Ezk 22:18, 20, 22) from which
Israel] will once more emerge as God’s chosen
(Isa 48:10).

kir. Range (for pots). (ASV. similar; RSV
‘*stove.’’) Evidently a platform which held pots
over the cooking fire. Occurs in Lev 11:35 where
it is said to be unclean if an unclean animal dies
on it.

kiyor. Laver, pan, hearth, scaffold. (asv and
RSV similar.) Apparently a pan-like construction,
having low sides (thus II Chr 6:13, Solomon
stood on a bronze scaffold [rsv *‘platform’’]).
Apart from the preceding, all other references
have to do with a pan as such. The word appears
twenty-three times, of which twenty have to do
with the laver of the tabernacle or those of the
temple. Whereas that in the tabernacle was for
the washing of the priests’ hands and feet (Ex
30:18), the ten lavers in the temple were for the
washing of sacrifices (II Chr 4:6). The molten sea
(II Chr 4:2, 6) filled the function of the earlier
laver. {It is probable that the great sea also served
as a reservoir from which the basins were filled.
The basins were on wheeled stands so they could
be moved to the sea for filling then taken to vari-
ous places for use. The priests doubtless did not

wash in the sea which was a high structure. They
washed their hands and feet with the water of the
sea (cf. Ex 30:18—21). R.L.H.]

J.N.O.
968 "95 (Aur) HI, bore, dig, hew (meaning
dubious). Occurs only in Ps 22:16 (H 17],

and there with a medial aleph, kd’dra in
some few mss. The Lxx also has a verb
orusso dig, for the MT ka’dri. The verb in
Ps 22:10 [H 17} may be an hapax ka@’ar. The
meaning ‘‘dig, wound, pierce’’ would de-
rive from the context and Lxx.

Derivatives
968a M3% (mekora), MIDI (m°kura)
origin (place of digging out?) (e.g.
Ezk 29:14; 21:35).
968b M52% (m*kérad) the name of a weapon
(Gen 49:5).
R.L.H.
969 ws> (Akush) Ethiopia, Cush, Ethiopians.
(ASV, RSV similar.)
Derivative
969a twa (kushi) Ethiopian.

kush refers to the region immediately south
and east of Egypt, including modern Nubia, the
Sudan, and the Ethiopia of classical writers (not
modern Abyssinia). It would begin at about the
First cataract, where the Aswan dam now stands.
A Satellite, and sometimes ruler, of Egypt. The
name derives from Egyptian ksh. Along with its
gentilic (see below) it appears fifty-seven times in
the Old Testament.

As indicated in the table of nations (Gen 10:6—
8), Cush was associated with the southernmost
parts of the known world, falling in Egypt’s
sphere of influence. Other indications of this
view of Cush’s extremity are found in the state-
ment of extent of the Persian empire (from India
to Ethiopia, Est 1:1; 8:9) and in the promise that
exiles would return from beyond Cush (Isa 11:1;
Zeph 3:10; cf. Isa 18:1). To the Israelites who in
pride saw themselves located at the center of the
world and also at the center of God’s favor, the
Lord (Amos 9:7) said that the distant Ethiopians
were just as much his children.

The conjunction of Cush with Sheba (in south-
erm Arabia, Isa 43:3; 45:14, etc.), statements of
her mercantile wealth (Job 28:19; Isa 45:14) and
the fact that Moses’ wife is called a Cushite (Num
12:1; but cf. Ex 2:21 where Zipporah is clearly
Midianite) have all combined to lead some stu-
dents to believe that there was a Cush in Arabia.
However, a glance at a map will show that south-
ern Arabia is only separated from Ethiopia by a

970 313 (kazab)

small expanse of water. Furthermore the fact that
the Ethiopian language is Semitic is a further in-
dication of the connection. A number of other
possible solutions make it unnecessary to identify
Zipporah and the Cushite woman.

Although a number of suggestions as to the lo-
cation of Cush in Gen 2:13 have been put for-
ward, none has yet proven conclusive. The view
of Speiser may be mentioned, however, that kush
sometimes equals Akkadian kashshu Cassites,
and refers to the mountain country east of
Mesopotamia. In this view, the river Gihon of
Gen 2:13 ran into the Tigris-Euphrates valley
from the east (Speiser, E. A., “‘The Rivers of
Paradise’ in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Univ.
of Penna., 1967, 23~30. Also Harris, R. L., ‘‘The
Mist, The Canopy, and the Rivers of Eden,”
JETS 11: 177-79).

In several cases, especially in the prophets,
Ethiopia is used in parallel construction as a
synonym of Egypt (Isa 20:3-5: Ezk 30:4; Nah
3:9). This probably represents the dominance of
Ethiopia (or, more precisely, Nubia) over Egypt
between 750 and 663 B.c. Terhakah was a notable
Nubian pharaoh who tried, unsuccessfully, to
block Sennacherib’s westward expansion (II Kgs
19:9; Isa 37:9). After 663 B.c. Egypt was indepen-
dent of Nubia (Jer 46:9; Ezk 25:4, S, 9). The
Ethiopian army of Zerah referred to in I] Chr 14:9
(H 8} ff. is somewhat puzzling in that no extra-
Biblical evidence as yet supports the idea of this
large an Ethiopian force (one million) operating
that far north in the time of Asa (c. 900 B.c.).

kishi. Ethiopian, Ethiopians, Cushi. Usually a
gentilic of the above (Cushite), it also appears
three times as a Hebrew proper name: 1) I] Sam
18:21-32, a soldier appointed to run to David with
news of Absalom’s death. rsv translates **Cush-
ite.’ His apparent ignorance of the nuances of
the situation may indicate that he was a foreigner
and that Rsv is correct; 2) Jer 36:14 great
grandfather of Jehudi, a Judean prince; 3) Zeph
1:1, father of Zephaniah.

J.N.O.
See no. 1052a.

mawia (késhara).

970 313 (kazab) lie, be found a liar, be in vain,

435

fail. (asv, RSV similar.)

Derivatives

970a t3tp (kazab) lie.
970b = 3t98 «(('akzab) lie, a noun occur-

ring twice (Jer 15:18; Mic 1:14).

This root and its derivatives occur forty-nine
times in the Old Testament. The basic meaning is
to speak that which is untrue and therefore false
to reality. It is often used in connection with
shaw’ ‘‘vanity, emptiness.’’ In distinction from

971 "95 (kar).

971 333 (kzr)

words translated ‘‘deceive, lie,’ etc., kdzab
stresses the actual act of lying. The cognate is
found in Aramaic, Arabic, and Akkadian.

Fundamental to the concepts of truth and
falsehood in the Old Testament is the understand-
ing that the God of Israel does not lie (Num 23:19;
Ps 89:35 [H 36]). He is faithful to all that he has
said and expects his followers to do the same.
This is why false witness was such a serious of-
fense (Prov 6:19; 19:5, etc.). Not only was a per-
son denying the truth, but he was calling the God
of Truth to be a witness to his crime.

An equally serious offense was false prophecy
in God's name (Ezk 13:6-9, 19; Mic 2:11, etc.).
Such prophecy was vanity because it was empty
of any reality.

Because of man’s alienation from God the
Truth, lying has become endemic to us (Ps 4:2
{H 3]). Having lied to ourselves about the true
nature of our relation to God and thus lost the
security of trusting him, we are forced into
greater lies about life (Isa 57:11). The essence of
wickedness then is a denial of faithfulness and
commitment, either to people or to facts (Ps 62:4
fH 5]). Indeed, it becomes a commitment to lies
(Isa 28:17). By contrast, a faithful person will not
lie (Prov 14:5).

But trust in anything or anyone other than God
is vain—a lie (Job 41:9 [H 1); Prov 30:6). Indeed
kazab ‘‘a lie’’ is probably used in Isa as a de-
rogatory substitute for ‘‘idol’’ (Isa 28:15, 17, cf.
also Am 2:4; Ps 40:4 [H 5]). Lies can only de-
ceive and fail one (Prov 23:3). It is this which God
was trying to demonstrate to Israel through the
prophets. Israel’s hope that she could get her
temporal needs supplied without commitment to
God was a lie (Amos 2:4) and the longer she
followed that road the more barren she became
(Hos 12:2). Her only hope was to accept God’s
redemption and return to reality (Isa 28:17; Hos
7:13). Then she would discover freedom (Zeph
3:13) and fruitfulness (Isa 58:11) in life as it was
meant to be (Ps 40:4 [H 5]; 25:10-13).

kazab. Lie, deceitful, false, lying, leasing. (ASV
and rsv similar, but use one of the other words
instead of ‘‘leasing.”’) A noun occurring thirty-
one times, all but two (Jud 16:10, 13) in Ps, Prov,
and the prophets.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 817-22.
J.N.O.

Assumed root of the following.
97la TDN (Cakzar) cruel, fierce.

971b P98 Cakzari) cruel.
971c TAIN (Cakz°riyat)

’akzar. Cruel, fierce. (asv and rsv_ similar.)
Occurs four times, all in poetic passages. Con-
notes insensitivity and lack of compassion.

cruel.

436

973, mma (khh).

’akzari. Cruel. (asv and Rsv similar.) Occurs
eight times in Prov, Isa, and Jer. Twice in Jer
(6:23; 50:42) cruelty is defined as being merciless
and in Prov 12:10 even the mercies of the wicked
are said to be cruel. The Day of the Lord, for the
wicked, will be one of cruelty (Isa 13:9).

’akz‘riyat. Cruel. Occurs in Prov 27:4 where
wrath is said to be cruel.
J.N.O.

971.1 m>D (kdah) a small reptile, lizard(?) Oc-

curs only in Lev 11:30.

972 *sm> (kahad) kick, conceal, cut off, cut

down, make desolate. (asv and RSV similar.)

This verb, which appears in the Nilhal, Piel,
and Hiphil, occurs thirty-two imes in the Old Tes-
tament. It means to keep something back, to re-
fuse to make it known. Since something which is
unknown has no independent existence, the verb
also denotes non-existence or effacement. There
are no known cognates in the other Semitic lan-
guages.

In distinction from the other Hebrew words
rendered ‘“‘hide’’ or “conceal” (haba’, taman,
satar, and ‘dlam, which see), kadhad has to do
with refusing to declare something. When some-
one was asked to report something, he was
charged ‘‘not to hide anything’ (Gen 47:18; Josh
7:19; I Sam 3:17; II Sam 14:18, etc.). Similarly, if
a person was possessed of some special knowl-
edge, he ought not to keep it to himself (Job
15:18). Particularly was this so about the faithful
character of God (Job 6:10; 27:11; Ps 40:10
[H 11]; 78:4).

The Hebrews were convinced that in the last
analysis nothing could be hidden, or kept from
God’s knowledge: neither one’s nature (Ps
139:15), nor one’s character (Ps 69:5 [H 6}; Hos
§:3).

The word in the sense of cutting off or an-
nihilating is used by Israel’s enemies (Ps 83:4
{H 5}) by the Lord against those enemies (Ex
9:15; Ex 23:23; II Chr 32:21; Zech 11:8) and
against sinful Israel (I Kgs 13:34; Zech 11:9).

J.N.O.

Assumed root of the following.

973a tmid (kéah) strength, power, ability,
might, force, substance. (ASV and
RSV Similar.)

Capacity to act, understood both in physical
and figurative terms. The word, a noun, appears
126 times in the oT. It is relatively evenly distnib-
uted in its occurrences, the most in any one book
being twenty in Job. It also occurs twelve times
in Isa and Dan, and eleven times in Ps. The only
cognate language in which this root appears 1s

Arabic where it has the verbal idea ‘‘to batter
down.”’

In a static sense kéah suggests the capacity to
endure, as of a stone (Job 6:12), but more com-
monly it expresses potency, capacity to produce.
This may be expressed in sexual terms (Job
40:16; Gen 49:3), or it may express the product of
the earth's potency (Gen 4:12; Job 31:39; etc.),
but usually physical strength is intended, as in the
references to Samson (Jud 16:5; etc.). By exten-
sion the word comes to connote general ability to
cope with situations (Deut 8:17—18; I Chr 29:14;
Ezr 10:13; etc.).

When applied to God, this term suggests that
he is indeed omnipotent. His power is seen in
creation (Jer 10:12; 32:17; etc.), in the Exodus
events (Ex 9:16; 15:6; etc.), in his capacity to
subdue his enemies (Job 36:19) and deliver his
people (Isa 63:1). As compared to his power,
human strength is nothing (II Chr 20:6; Job 37:23;
Ps 33:16; Amos 2:14; etc.). The folly of relying
upon human strength alone is seen both in Job
and in the story of Samson. He is strongest who
has discovered the finite limitations of his own
capacities in the light of the limitless resources of
God through his Spirit (Job 36:22; Isa 40:31; Mic
3:8; Zech 4:6).

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 823-24.

J.N.O.

974 9Mp (kahal) paint (eyes).
Ezk 23:40.

Occurs only in

975 wna (kahash) fail, be found liars, belie,
deceive, deny, dissemble, deal falsely,
lie. (ASV, RSV similar, except that Rsv has
‘‘come fawning,’ or ‘“‘come cringing”’ in
place of ‘*submit to.’’)

Derivatives
975a twm>a (kahash) leanness.
975b twmD (kehash) lying.

The word kdhash which, with its derivatives,
occurs twenty-nine times in the Old Testament,
has an unusually large range of meanings. This
might suggest two, or even three separate, but
homophonous roots. However both KB and BDB
see only one root involved. BDB suggests the
unifying idea to be ‘‘to disappoint’’ and thus, “‘to
deceive, fail, grow lean.’’ KB has no overarching
meaning to suggest. The Hebrew usage seems to
stress the relational aspect of the word, em-
phasizing the undependable nature of a person or
thing in a given relationship. The root is not at-
tested in any other Semitic language unless Al-
bright’s suggestion (BASOR 83:40, n. 7) is cor-
rect that Ugaritic tkh (Gordon UT “‘shine’’) is a
metathesized form of khsh.

In thirteen other places the prominent idea is

437

976 t3 (ki)

that of dealing falsely with someone to that per-
son's detriment. In such cases it is associated
with treachery and robbery. In Lev 6:2 [(H 5:21]
deceiving a person in a matter of deposit or secu-
rity is a trespass, as is lying about something one
has found (6:3 [H 5:22]). The prophets (especially
Hos (4:2; 7:3; 10:13; 12:1]) forecast a grim har-
vest from the climate of deception and unfaith-
fulness in which Judah and Israel lived.

It may be the idea of deception which lies be-
hind those usages which k)Jv translates ‘*submit’’
and rsv ‘“‘cringe’’ (Deut 33:29; IT Sam 22:45= Ps
18:44 (H 5]; 66:3; 81:15 [H 16]). Both BDB and
KB suggest that feigned obedience or fawning are
involved here. The remainder of the occurrences
are translated by “deny.” Here the idea is to fly in
the face of the facts (Gen 18:15; Job 8:18). Five of
these references have to do with denying God. To
deny God is to live a lie. One may deny him by
forgetting what he has done (Josh 24:27), by
despairing of his goodness, or forgetting one’s
own need and living without dependence on him
(Prov 30:9). One may deny him without ever in-
tending to do so by leading a crooked and corrupt
life (Job 31:28; Isa 59:13). And if one doubts his
ultimate justice as applied to oneself, God is denied
(Jer 5:12).

kahash. Leanness, lies, lying. (asv and RSV
similar.) A noun translated ‘“‘lies’’ or ‘‘lying”’ five
times, ‘‘leanness’’ once.

In four cases the idea of failing is involved. In
Ps 109:24 the Psalmist complains that his body
‘fails from fatness’’ (Rsv has ‘‘become gaunt’).
In Job 16:8, Job sees his leanness as a sign of
God’s judgment, and in Hab 3:17 the wnter says
he will trust God even if the olive crop fails (cf.
also Hos 4:2). One may not depend on either
body or crops in place of God.

kehash. Lying. Occurs once in Isa 30:9 where
Israel, because of her refusal to trust God, is said
to be a ‘rebellious people, lying (or false) sons.”’
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 825-27.
J.N.O.

976 %D (ki) as though, as, because that, but, cer-

tainly, except, for, surely, since, that, then,
when, etc. (ASV and RSV similar.)

A particle expressing a temporal, causal, or ob-
jective relationship among clauses expressed or
unexpressed. It is perhaps related to the insepa-
rable preposition k* ‘‘like, as."’ The same parti-
cle used in similar ways is found in Ugaritic (k),
Phoenician, Moabite, Akkadian (47), and Arabic.
It occurs about 4250 times in the Old Testament.

In Hebrew Ki is used in four ways: to introduce
an objective clause especially after verbs of see-
ing, saying, etc. and translated ‘‘that’’; to intro-
duce a temporal clause and translated ‘‘when’”’

977 393 (kyd)

(some of these are almost conditional clauses,
thus making ‘‘if’’ appropriate); to introduce a
causal clause, ‘“‘because, for, since’’; and with
‘im to express the reason why some case might
not occur ‘‘except, but rather.”’ In all four usages
ki? introduces a given which is the result of some
other fact or action or will influence some other
fact or action. Some would add an asseverative
usage giving emphasis to what follows.
Examples are as follows: (objective) ‘‘believe
that the Lord... has appeared to you” (Ex 4:5);
(temporal) ‘“‘when you buy a Hebrew ser-
vant...’ (Ex 21:2); (causal) “‘The earth is the
Lord’s... for he has founded it...’ (Ps 24:1, 2);
(with ‘i77) ‘I will not let you go, except you bless
me’’ (Gen 32:27).
J.N.O.
‘> (ki). See no. 96la.
977 5°35 (kyd). Assumed root of the following.
977a 33D (kid) destruction. Derivation
and meaning uncertain. Used only in
Job 21:20.
977b 3=o19D_) (kidén) dart,
Josh 8:18; Jer 50:42).

javelin (e.g.

sim (kidéd). See no. 953b.
WD (kidén). See no. 977b.
337°5 (kidér). See no. 954a.

978 39D (kiyin) kiyyun. (ASV similar, RSV

‘*kaiwan.’’)

This word occurs once in the Old Testament, in
Amos 5:26, along with sikkut (q.v.). It is evi-
dently an Assyrian loan word, being the name of
one of the Mesopotamian star gods. skt and kyn
both seem to denote the star god Saturn in the
mythic literature of that region.

Both sikkut and kiyyun have apparently been
revocalized with the vowels from shigqus
‘‘abomination.’’ This was one of several means
by which Biblical wnters expressed their con-
tempt for paganism (replacing Baal in names with
boshet ‘‘shame’’ [II Sam 9:6], calling Bethel
‘house of God,’’ Bethaven ‘‘house of iniquity,”
after the golden calves had been established there
[Hos 5:8], speaking of the ‘‘dung’’ of the pagans
instead of the ‘‘idols’’ of the pagans [Ezk 20:7,
etc., gillulim, q.v.]), etc.

As noted in the article on skt, becoming sub-
ject to the Assyrians involved worship of their
gods. Amos here says that such action will result
in the destruction of Israel.

J.N.O.
5393 (kiyér). See no. 967d.
5 (kilay). See no. 1366b.
mea’> (kima). See no. 963a.

438

978.1 mises (kilappot) axe.

979 oD (kis) bag, purse (e.g. Deut 25:13; Mic

6:11).

=> (kir). See no. 967c.

“wes (kishér). See no. 1052c.
Mee (kaka). See no. 956.

&> (kdl). See no. 985a.

980 s9> (kala’) withhold, shut up, keep back,

refrain, forbid.
Derivatives

980a t89D (kele’) imprisonment.

980b sib (klw’) Kethib, 89> (k‘li)
Qere, imprisonment (Jer 37:4;
52:31). See kele’.

980c m2s% (miklad) enclosure, fold.

980d oN?> (kil’ayim) two kinds.

The basic meaning of this root is to restrict the
flow or movement of a thing or person. The root
appears in Uganitic, Akkadian, Aramaic, and
Ethiopic with similar meanings. In Arabic it
means ‘‘to protect.’’ It is somewhat similar to
kala (q.v.) but distinct in meaning and apparently
unrelated:

kala’ seems to indicate the interruption of what
is in progress or would naturally be in progress.
Thus, the windows of heaven were stopped up
after pouring out the Flood (Gen 8:2). Similarly,
the calves of the cattle pulling the cart with the
ark were shut up from following them (I Sam
6:10). The only thing which can prevent the great
natural processes is disobedience (Hag 1:10).
Given the fallen nature of humanity, such dis-
obedience itself must be restrained (I Sam 25:33;
Ps 119:101).

The speaking of truth and praise to God ought
not to be stopped (Num 11:28, Ps 40:9 (H 10)). If
they are not, then neither will God’s mercies be
stopped (Ps 40:11 {H 12]). If such intercourse
with men and God is stopped, a nearly intolerable
pressure will build up (Ps 88:8 [H 9]).

kele’. Imprisonment. Always used in construct
with another word, chiefly bayit ‘‘house,”’ in
which case the construct is translated ‘‘prison’’
(I Kgs 22:27, etc.). It is one of several words
translated by ‘‘prison”’ (e.g. mattarad, masgar,
'ésur [all of which see]). While there may be
slight differences in the connotations of these ac-
cording to the different root meanings, they seem
to be used interchangeably.

It is of interest that imprisonment is not a pen-
alty under the Mosaic code. But it was well-
known in Egypt, as Joseph found out, and it was
used by the Kings of Israel.

(ASV, RSV Similar.)

J.N.O.

ass (kil'ayim). See no. 980d.

981 355 (klb). Assumed root of the following.

98la t32D (keleb) dog.

981b 3395 (k*lib) basket,
5:27; Amos 8:1).

keleb. Dog. The thirty-two occurrences of
keleb are divided among four emphases, none of
them positive. In eleven instances outnght con-
tempt is involved. To treat someone like a dog
was to treat them as worthless (I Sam 17:43,
etc.). Furthermore dogs were to be feared be-
cause they were rapacious (Jer 15:3). As an ex-
tension of these nuances, for one’s body to be
eaten by dogs was the ultimate in tragic ends toa
life. Finally, the barking of a dog is compared to
the sniping of an enemy (Ps 59:6 [H 7]).

The expression, ‘the hire of a dog’’ (Deut
23:18 [H 19]) is commonly interpreted to refer
figuratively to wages from male prostitution; but
some think that k/b designates a type of Canaan-
ite cultic personnel, and not a dog (See J. Gray,
The KRT Text in the Literature of Ras Shamra,
Brill, 1964, p. 64).

cage (Jer

J.N.O.

982 m9 (kala) 1, accomplish, cease, consume,
determine, end, fail, finish.

Derivatives

982a toD (kala) full end.

982b 2D (kaleh) failing with desire,
longing. Occurs only in Deut 28:32,
w°‘éneka rod’ot wkalét ‘aléhem
‘‘while your eyes look and fail long-
ingly for them.”’

982c 1°9D (killayén) failing, pining (of
eyes, Deut 28:65); annihilation (Isa
10:22).

982d tos (mikla) completeness,
perfection, only in II Chr 4:21 inthe
phrase miklét zahab ‘‘perfections of
gold,”’ i.e. purest gold.

982e impom (tikla) perfection.

982f tn95n (taklit) end, perfection.

982g 9D (Kl?) vessel, utensil.

The basic idea of this root is ‘‘to bring a pro-
cess to completion.”’ The root occurs in all its
forms 237 times. Of these 206 are verbal. As a
verb it occurs with an intransitive meaning in the
Qal stem 64 times. Transitively it appears in the
Piel 140 times. The two remaining occurrences as
a verb are in the Pual. The root also appears in
Ugaritic and Akkadian. The fact that the Akka-
dian root is kala which would reflect an original
Kl’ and that kala@ has both the meanings ‘‘cease,
end, finish’’ and ‘‘delay, hold back’ has
suggested to some that kala ‘‘cease”’ is a deriva-
tive of kala’ ‘‘hold back’’ (q.v.). While this is

439

982 M29 (kala)

possible the usages of the two roots in the He-
brew Bible show little connection.

The processes which are brought to an end
may be either positive or negative. That is, some-
thing may be continually added to until it is full or
complete, or something may be taken away from
until there is nothing left. The English word
‘‘finish’’ coincides very nicely with kala in that it
too can have either positive or negative conno-
tations.

Processes which are brought to completion in-
clude the building of the temple (II Chr 8:16,
etc.), speaking (Gen 17:22, etc.), eating (I Kgs
1:41, etc.), dmnking (Gen 24:19, etc.), offering
(I Sam 13:10, etc.), harvesting (Ruth 2:21, etc.)
and numerous others. There seems to be an em-
phasis upon totality in these references. It is not
that a person simply came to a certain point in the
process and stopped, but that he or she carried it
out in full. An example is found in Ruth 3:18
where Naomi tells Ruth that Boaz will not rest
‘‘until he has finished the thing.’’ The noun kala
demonstrates the same point in that it must often
be translated ‘‘full end** to differentiate it from
some other end which may be merely a stopping
place. On the other hand, to say that kala means
‘‘to bring to perfection’’ is somewhat misleading
in modern English idiom. ‘*Perfect™ implies
‘without flaw’” whereas ‘‘complete’’ does not
address the question of flaws.

On the negative side something which is ‘‘used
up, vanished, spent, consumed”’ is also finished.
The first three connotations occur chiefly in the
Qal, while the fourth occurs often in the Piel. So
one’s days can be spent (Job 7:6) as can one’s
strength (Isa 49:4). Grass can dry up and fail (Isa
15:6; 32:10) and, through weeping, the eyes can
also (Jer 14:6; Ps 69:3 [H 4]; 119:82, etc.). The
spirit and the soul, because of separation from
God, can pine away to the point of fainting (Ps
84:2 [H 3] 119:81; 143:7). Finally, the body itself
must be consumed (Job 33:21; Prov 5:11).

The idea of being consumed is most commonly
applied to violent destruction, often by war (Deut
7:22; I Sam 15:18; Jer 16:4). In the biblical con-
text such destruction is directly connected to
one's relation with God. Those who forsake the
Lord will be consumed (Isa 1:28) as will the terri-
ble ones and the scorners (Isa 29:20), the wicked
(Ps 37:20), and all his enemies (Ps 18:37 [H 38}).
In such destruction God's wrath is accomplished
(RSV ‘completed,’ Ezk 5:13; 7:8, etc.). So Israel
was commanded to consume the Canaanites
(Deut 7:22), Amalekites (1 Sam 15:18), and Sy-
rians (II Kgs 13:17). As a corrective to any temp-
tation to say that such commands are merely
projections upon God of the Israelite lust for bat-
tle, are the many more numerous references to
God's consuming an apostate Israel (Josh 24:20;
Jer 5:3; Ezk 22:31, etc., etc.). God’s holiness

983 m5 (klh)

could no more be at peace with pagan Israelites
than with pagan Canaanites.

However, the consuming fire of God’s anger is
not the last word. The truly faithful Israelites
were conscious of the fact that God would have
been totally justified in destroying Israel long be-
fore he did, and that utterly (Ex 32:10; 33143;
Num 16:21; Lam 3:22). That they were not con-
sumed was only because of his mercy (Lev 26:44;
Num 25:11; Ezk 20:17). Even in the exile, when
destruction did come, a merciful God would not
make a ‘‘full end’’ of his own (Neh 9:31; Jer 4:27;
5:10; 5:18; 30:11, 46:28). If Boaz could not rest
until he had finished the task of redeeming Ruth,
neither will God rest until he has accomplished
his purpose of redeeming all who will let him (Job
36:11; Dan 12:7; Jn 19:28).

kala. Altogether, consume, consumption. This
noun form must be translated as an English verb
in several instances in order to make the sense
plain. It expresses the limits of a thing or an idea.
Occurs twenty-two times.

mikl4. Perfect (rsv ‘‘pure’’). Occurs in II Chr
4:21 with reference to gold. Here the meaning
evidently is ‘‘unblemished.’’

tikla4. Perfection. Occurs once in Ps 119:96
where the author makes a- pun saying that he has
seen the end (gés) of all completeness (tik/d).

taklit. End, perfection, perfect. The sense here
is of totality rather- than of being unblemished. A
noun occurring five times, three of which are in
Job.

k‘li. Armor, bag, carriage, furniture, instrument,
Jewels, sacks, stuff, thing, tools, vessel, weapons.
(asv and rsv similar.) A noun denoting the
equipment, containers, tools, etc., appropriate to
a given Service or occupation. KB takes k°/i to
be from the otherwise unattested root kala III,
‘‘to contain.’’ The word occurs 319 times.

As is evident from the variety of words used to
translate k°l?, the translators have used English
words appropniate for the situations involved.
Thus a soldier's equipment will be armor or
weapons (Jud 18:16) or even baggage (I Sam
17:22). A musician’s equipment will be an in-
strument (I Chr 15:16), whereas a builder’s will
be a tool (I Kgs 6:7). Finely worked items of gold
and silver are called jewels (Gen 24:53; Num
31:50-51) or vessels (IJ Kgs 12:13 [H 14]), de-
pending on the context.

One hundred seven of the occurrences have to
do with the equipment of the tabernacle and the
temple. The kJv conmonly uses ‘‘vessels’’ or
‘‘furniture’’ as the translation in these instances
(as does aSv) while rsv uses ‘‘utensils.’’ The term
does not refer to the main items in the sanctuary
such as altar or lampstand, but to the equipment

440

used in serving these. Nebuchadnezzar, finding
no idol in the temple to take into captivity, could
only take off this equipment as symbolic of its
owner (II Chr 36:7). However, God was not con-
trolled by the equipment, as Belshazzar was to
discover (Dan 5:2).

Bibliography: TDNT, VII,
THAT, I, pp. 831-32.

pp. 359-62.
J.N.O.

983 m%> (klh) II. Assumed root of the following.

983a tm%> (kilyd) kidneys, reins. (ASV
similar. RSv translates with ‘‘heart,’’
‘‘mind,’’ or ‘‘soul’’ whenever KJv
and ASV uSe ‘‘reins’’ as a figurative
term.)

Occurs thirty-one times in Hebrew as well as in
Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Ugari-
tic. In all of these languages, the term refers to
the twin organs located in the lower back, the
function of which is to filter impurities from the
blood. With the fat they were of special signifi-
cance in certain Hebrew sacrifices. When used
figuratively, the term refers to the innermost as-
pects of personality.

Sixteen of the occurrences relate to sacrificial
practices: twelve occurring in God's instructions
and four in statements of the fulfillment of the
commands. Animals given for the peace, sin, and
trespass offerings, as well as those offered for
consecration of the priests, were to have the
internal fat, the kidneys, and the caul above the
liver removed and burned on the altar (Ex 29:13,
22; Lev 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; 8:16, 25; 9:10, 19).

No clear reason for the removal is specified in
the Scripture, nor has any been forthcoming as
yet from cognate studies. Suggestions have in-
cluded: fat was a special delicacy reserved for
God and since the kidneys are usually encased in
fat they belonged to him (ISBE, II, p. 1797);
perhaps because of their density and color they
were associated with the blood (IDB, III, p. 9f.).
Furthermore it might be suggested that there was
an understanding of the vital connection of the
kidneys with the purity of the blood. On the
whole, the first suggestion probably has the
fewest difficulties. The idea of the special deli-
cacy of the fat and kidneys is apparently born out
by Deut 32:14 where the choicest wheat is called
‘the fat of the kidneys of wheat’’ (Rsv ‘‘with the
finest of the wheat’’). (Cf. also Isa 34j;6.)

Twice (Job 16:13; Lam 3:13) death and destruc-
tion are spoken of as arrows slashing into the
kidneys. If a near eastern warrior could be fired
on from the rear, he was very vulnerable. Here
both writers are claiming that God has sur-
rounded them and overcome them with his
superior strength.

In two other places the kidneys are used as a

figure for the entire body. The psalmist (139: 13)
says that God has possessed his **body’’ from the
beginning, having clothed it in the womb. On the
other hand, Job (19:27) testifies that when his
‘‘body’’ is no more, he will still have eyes to see
God. (NEB contests this rendering, rather con-
necting the phrase to the next line and reading,
‘**My ‘heart’ failed me when you said.’’)

The remaining nine references all use kidneys
as a symbol of the innermost being. This is prob-
ably so since in dismembering an animal the kid-
neys are the last organ to be reached. In this
usage it is frequently paralleled with heart (as it is
at least once in Ugaritic). Jeremiah seems to be
emphasizing this innermost idea when he says
that the religion of the wicked is superficial, on
their lips, but far from their kidneys (12:2). The
idea that the wicked would prosper grieves the
heart and kidneys of the psalmist (73:21), but
they rejoice in the writer of Proverbs when his
son speaks right (23:16). Five times in Jer and Ps
the importance of inner religion is stressed when
it is said that God tries the heart and the kidneys
(Jer 11:20, etc.).

J.N.O.
mp (Kalla). See no. 986a.
s39D (k°ld’). See no. 980b.
319 (Alb). See no. 981b.

mo19D (k*lala). See no. 986b.

984 mos (klh). Assumed root of the following.
984a m?D (kelah) firm or rugged
strength (Job 5:26; 30:2).

9D (Kili), %93 (kélay).
1366b.

mm (kilya). See no. 983a.

1°82 (killaydn). See no. 982e.

993 (kK‘lil). See no. 985b.

See nos. 982g,

985 >%92 (kalal) I, perfect, make perfect. (asv,
RSV similar.)

Derivatives

985a t5> (kdl) all.

985b T5999 (Kalil) perfect.

985c t9195% (miklél) most gorgeously.
985d t595% (maklal) all sorts of things.
985e +9951 (miklal) perfection.

Except for the particle Ad/ ‘‘all,’’ which occurs
upwards of 5000 times, this verb and its deriva-
tives occur 21 times, 8 of which are in Ezekiel.
The root meaning is ‘‘to be complete, whole.”
The verb is perhaps denominative since it ap-
pears but twice, both in Ezk 27 (v. 4, 11). Both of
these verbal usages are associated with

441

985 999 (kalal)

‘beauty.’ The translation ‘‘perfect’’ only ap-
pears when the root is so associated (St. in
Ezekiel [4t. with ref. to Tyre], once in Lam 2:15
and Ps 50:2, both of which refer to Jerusalem as
the ‘‘perfection of beauty.”’

kol. All, every, any, whole, none. A very com-
mon particle, occurring about 5400 times. Of
these all but about 800 are in a genitive relation
with the following word, signifying thus, ‘‘the
whole of something.’’ It is commonly translated
‘all’ if the following word is plural, and “‘every”’
if the word is singular and without the article. It
can also have a suffix attached to it: ‘‘the whole
of it, all of it.’ This particular formation may
then follow a given noun, stressing the aspect of
totality (II Sam 2:9). It can also be used in this
way with the noun understood, as does Isaiah
when he expressed the corruption of the entire
people by saying, *‘All of it loves a bribe”’ (1:23;
cf. also 9:17 (H 16]). In some contexts it denotes
‘‘all kinds of,’’ ‘‘of all sorts."’ Thus Eliezer took
with him ‘‘all of the good thing of his master’”’ i.e.
‘‘a great variety of good things’’ (Gen 24:10; cf.
Lev 19:23).

kol can also stand by itself, or absolutely, to
express ‘‘everything.’’ The sense in which ‘‘all’’
is to be taken must be gathered from the context
(cf. Jer 9:3). When used with the article it refers
to something just mentioned (Lev 1:9; etc.), or, in
a wider sense, to the whole of creation. Such
passages as Ps 103:19; 145:9 and Jer 51:19 use
this construction when expressing the idea of
God’s lordship over all things.

kalil. Perfect, whole, wholly, all. A noun used
both adjectivally and verbally. It occurs fifteen
times expressing totality, both of accomplish-
ment and of destruction.

kalil the substantive is used in three ways, all
closely related and having to do with wholeness,
or completeness. Four occurrences relate to
beauty, and, as noticed above, are translated
with *‘perfect.’’ That which is wholly beautiful is
said to be perfectly beautiful. Israel is spoken of
in this sense (Ezk 16:14). Her beauty is that of the
chosen bride of the Lord, but she has prostituted
that beauty with other lovers so that the final
result is destruction and the mocking question
recorded in Lam 2:15 ‘‘is this the city men call
the perfection of beauty?’’ So also the term is
used of Tyre and her king (Ezk 27:3 and 28:12; cf.
also verbal usages in 27:4, 11). All of these usages
remind the reader that perfection of beauty apart
from submission to the Lord may finally be more
of a curse than a blessing.

Three occurrences have to do with making an
entire object of one color, namely blue. Two
times one of the high priest’s garments, the robe
of the ephod, is referred to (Ex 28:31; 39:22), and
the third reference (Num 4:6) is to the cloth

986 ”©5 (K/l)

which was to cover the ark when it was being
moved.

The remaining occurrences of kalil (eight) refer
to total consumption. Of these, six refer to the
whole burnt offering, while of the remaining two,
one (Isa 2:18) speaks of God's utter destruction
of idols, and the other (Jud 20:40), of a whole city
going up in smoke (ASv and Rsv: Ksv “‘the flame of
the city ascended’’).

The usual word for the burnt offering (Lev 1) is
‘6la (q.v.). This offering was the chief sacrifice,
being offered both daily and at every great festi-
val. It dealt not so much with specific sins as it
did with the general alienation of man from God
and the need for continual sacrificial atonement if
holy God and fallen man were to live together in
fellowship. From the Gospels (Jn 1:29) to the Re-
velation (21:9, 14, 22, 27) Christ is seen to be the
fulfillment of this sacrifice, in particular, and all
the sacrifices in general.

When kaiil is joined with ‘6/a@ (I Sam 7:9; Ps
51:19 [H 21]) it is emphasized that unlike the
other offerings, where certain portions belonged
to the offerer or to the priest, the burnt offering
belonged wholly to God. At least once (Deut
33:10; 13:16 [H 17], rsv) Kalil is used by itself as
‘‘whole burnt offering.** This emphasis upon to-
tality seems to indicate that atonement can be
achieved by God alone and that only through a
total surrender and consumption of the sacrifice
as seen finally tn Chnist.

mikl6l. Most gorgeously, all sorts of ar-
mor. There is little agreement over the correct
translation of this word. The fact that it occurs
but twice (Ezk 23:12; 38:4), does not ease the
problem. In both cases it 1s used in contexts de-
scribing the splendid appearance of military men.
A literal translation would seem to be “‘clothed
fully.’ But clothed in what? rsv has ‘“‘in full ar-
mor’ in both cases, while NEB gives “in full
dress” for 23:12 and ‘‘all fully equipped’ for
38:4. asv duplicates the kJv.

maklal. All sorts of things. Occurs once in Ezk
27:24 describing the wares of Tyre's clients. ASv
translates ‘‘choice wares, RSV “choice gar-
ments,’ NEB ‘*gorgeous stuffs.’ BDB suggests
‘thing made perfect.”

miklal. Perfection. Occurs once in Ps 50:2
‘*Zion, the perfection of beauty” (cf. Lam 2:15).

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 828-30.
J.N.O.

986 S55 (All) II. Assumed root of the following.
986a thd (Kalla) daughter-in-law.
986b tm9%> (A lala) espousal.

kalla. Daughter-in-law, spouse, bride. (asv and
RSV similar, except that rsv does not use

442

‘*spouse.’’) Denotes the circumscribed relation-
ship of a woman who is sworn to one’s self or
one’s son. It may refer to a bride or to a woman
long married, like Tamar (Gen 38:11) or Ruth
(Ruth 1:6). The root is presumed to be Kil, but
this is not certain. In Akkadian kallatu is a ‘‘re-
served one’’ and in Uganitic Alt refers to goddess-
es (51:1.16; 4.54) or human beings (1175.2) who
are reserved to the gods. Joel 2:16 refers to the
fact that the bride was ‘‘closeted.”’

In this sense nine of the references have to do
with sexual irregularity involving the daughter-
in-law or bride. Anything which breaks the sanc-
tity of the created order of relationships is sternly
forbidden (Lev 18:15, etc.). Though Judah and
Tamar out of deception on the part of both en-
tered into an incestuous relationship, a cnme
worthy of death according to the Law of Moses
(Lev 20:12), God's grace overruled their sin so
that Perez, the offspring of that union, became
part of Israel's royal lineage (Gen 38).

Seven occurrences are in Ruth where the stress
seems to be upon the fact that the relationship
can become something much more than simply
official as God's providence works through it
(e.g. 4:15).

The Song of Solomon six times in ten verses
(4:8-5:1) refers to the beloved as the bride (and
sister). In the context the point seems to be that
she is a lovely enclosed garden reserved for her
husband alone.

The joy of the consummation of the marriage
agreement is dwelt on in Jer and Isa. Jeremiah
says three times that because of judgment such
festal scenes as marriages will be stopped (7:34;
16:9; 25:10). But that is not the final word. The
prophet foretells the day when such joys will be
restored (33:11).

Isaiah sees redeemed Israel as God's chosen
bride, responsive to him alone, decking herself
with jewels and a robe of righteousness in prepa-
ration for his coming (49:18; 61:10). In that day,
says Isaiah, God will delight over her as a bride-
groom over a bride (62:5). It is evident that this
imagery provides the prototype for the figure of
the Church as the Bride of Christ in the New
Testament (Rev 21:2).

k‘lala. Espousal. Occurs once in Jer 2:2 where
God remembers the love which Israel professed
to him in the early days of the covenant in the
wilderness. Israel's agreement to serve God only
is compared to a young girl's oath to know no
other man as her husband (cf. Aallad **daughter-
in-law, bride’’).

J.N.O.

987 BD (kalam) be ashamed, confounded, re-

proached, hurt, be put to shame, be put to
confusion, blush.

Derivatives

987a m9D (k*limma) confusion, dis-
honor, reproach, shame.

987b ona?> (k‘limmit) shame.
only in Jer 23:40.

kalam denotes the sense of disgrace which at-
tends public humiliation. In thirty cases the root
is used in parallel with bdésh ‘‘to be ashamed”
(q.v.). Any distinction between the meanings of
the two roots is therefore small. However, when
kalam appears by itself it does not often have the
idea of disgrace which comes through a failed
trust (a prominent element in bdésh). Rather it is a
more general disgrace resulting from any kind of
humiliation. The fact that the Arabic cognate
means ‘“‘to wound’ suggests the idea of a
‘*wounded’’ pride.

kalam seems to refer to 1) wounding of the
body, 2) wounding of the spirit through public
humiliation, and 3) wounding of the spirit be-
cause of defeat and captivity.

The first usage is supported by two references,
both in I Sam 25 (7, 15) where Nabal’s men are
said not to have been ‘“‘hurt”’ by David.

An example of the second kind of usage is
found in 1 Sam 20:34 where Saul is said to have
done shame (or hurt) to David by maligning his
character to Jonathan. Other examples of such
undeserved humiliation are: “I hid not my face
from shame and spitting” (Isa 50:6; cf. also Num
12:14; I] Sam 10:5). To be charged with wrongdo-
ing brought its own shame (Jud 18:7), whether the
charge was correct or not. So Boaz told his.
workers not to shame (or reproach) Ruth for
gleaning among them (Ruth 2:15), and Job's
‘‘comforters”’ felt it necessary to shame Job for
mocking God (Job 11:3; 19:3).

There were some kinds of activity by which a
person ought to be humiliated even without being
reproached for them. Prostitution was one of
these and the prophets charged the Hebrew
people with religious prostitution. (Even the
Philistines were embarrassed by the Hebrews’
actions according to Ezk 16:27.) However, the
people had not even the grace to blush (Jer 3:3;
6:15; 8:12). Therefore, the prophets promised
that shame would come from another quarter: de-
feat and captivity. If they would not be embarras-
sed and ashamed because of their sins, they
would be so because of their helplessness (Isa
30:3; Ezk 32:30).

However, Israel will not finally be ashamed
through God's punishment, but rather through
his goodness. According to Ezekiel (16:54, 61,
63; 43:10-11) it is when God, in undeserved
grace, restores Israel and defends her (cf. Isa
54:4) that Israel will become truly ashamed of the
way she has treated him.

Occurs

J.N.O.

443

989 wid (k*mdsh) Chemosh.

990 5) (kmz).

990 1795 (kmz)

See no. 1046c.
See no. 987b.

p> (Aikkar).
nva9> (kK limmiat).

988 Ma> (kamah) faint (Ps 62:3).

9D (k*md). See no. 938.
(ASV and RSV
similar.)

God of Moab, referred to eight times in the Old
Testament and known from contemporary Assy-
rian inscriptions, as well as the Moabite Mesha
Inscription. [Chemosh in the form kamishu is
now reported to be attested in the Ebla tablets
(R. Youngblood)].

Little is known about the character or worship
of Chemosh. It is striking that the Moabite king,
Mesha, in his inscription on the famous Moabite
stone thanking Chemosh for deliverance from Is-
rael, uses language which Is very reminiscent of
that used in the Bible to praise Yahweh (cf. also
Jud 11:24). It is possible that Moab, long under
the domination of Israel, had appropriated some
of her conceptions about God or that such hon-
onfic expressions were common in the ancient
near east.

It is clear from the Bible that the influence of
the worship of Chemosh also went in the other
direction. Along with Ashtoreth (Astarte) of
Sidon and Milcom of Ammon, Chemosh had
been given a worship center on the outskirts of
Jerusalem by Solomon (I Kgs 11:7, 33). These
were probably part of Solomon’s system of al-
liances with these countries. The worship centers
remained influential for some 300 years until de-
filed by Josiah (II Kgs 23:13).

In two aspects, the separation between Yah-
weh and Chemosh is clear. One is the idolatry of
Chemosh. So long as he was represented by an
image he was subject to this world. He could go
into captivity (Jer 48:7) and Yahweh could not.
As an embodiment of this world he could only fail
Moab as Israel's bulls had failed her (Jer 48:13).

Furthermore, Yahweh, as the giver of life, for-
bad human sacrifice. It is clear that Chemosh,
like the other ancient near eastern deities, ac-
cepted, and may have demanded, such sacrifice.
Milcom (or Molech) with whom Chemosh seems
to be identified in Jud 11:24 was clearly such a
blood-thirsty deity and is condemned as such by
the writers of Scripture.

Bibliography. Cross, F., and Freedman, D.,
Early Hebrew Orthography, American Oriental
Society, 1952, p. 39, n. 13.

J.N.O.

Assumed root of the following.
990a t39> (Admaz) tablets. (ASV ‘‘arm-
lets,’ marg. ‘‘necklaces’’; RSV

991 3733 (kmn)

‘‘armlets,” ‘“‘beads,’’ NEB ‘‘pen-
dants.)

It is clear from the context in which this word
occurs that it is some kind of ornament (Ex 35:22;
Num 31:50). Further precision is not possible. In
both cases they are part of freewill offerings to
God.

J.N.O.

991 33 (kmn). Assumed root of the following.

991a Wat (mikman) hidden stores (Dan
11:43).
991b 8D (kammon) cumin.

992 Bla (kadmas) store up (Deut 32:34).

993 *995 (kamar) I, yearn, be kindled, be black
(ASV similar, RSV instead of ‘‘be black’’ has
‘*be hot.’’)

The root meaning is to be warm, hot. Three of
the four occurrences (Gen 43:30; I Kgs 3:26; Hos
11:8) all of which are Niphal express the emo-
tions of filial attachments, in the latter case those
of God for his people.

J.N.O.

994 "25 (kmr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
994a S99 (kimrir) darkness,
ness (Job 3:5).

gloomi-

995 "> (kmr)_ III. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
995a “Waa (mikmar) net, snare (Isa
51:20).
99Sb “25% (makmor) net, snare (Ps
141:10, 11).
995Sc AMD (mikmeret) net, fishing

net (Hab 1:15).
995d marca (mikmoret) net, fishing
net (Isa 19:8).
996 33 (komer) priest, idolatrous priest. (Asv
and rSv similar. Rsv always translates
‘‘idolatrous priests.’’)

This word occurs three times in the Old Testa-
ment: II Kgs 23:5; Hos 10:5; Zeph 1:4. All of these
refer to priests who had led Israel in idolatrous
worship. The references cover the broad spec-
trum of pagan influences in Hebrew religion: bull
worship in North Israel, Baalism in Judah and
fertility rites on the ‘*high places.”’

The root meaning of the word is not known.
Mowinckel, in an article which appeared in ZAW
38:238f. suggested that it was drawn from the root
kmr 1 ‘‘to be warm, hot.”’ If this were so kémer
would mean ‘‘the excited one’ and would refer to
the dervish aspect of pagan worship. However,

444

the word may be related to an Egyptian root (cf.
KB p. 442). This would be very appropriate in
view of the interrelations between Canaanite and
Egyptian religions. The word is used in old
Aramaic but does not appear in Ugaritic which
uses the root khn. Albright argues that the word
refers to eunuch priests—which, of course, were
forbidden in Israel (Deut 23:1 (H 2]; Albnight,
FSAC, p. 234).

J.N.O.

"993 (kimrir). See no. 994a.
12 (kén). See nos. 998a, 999a, 964a,b.

997 *MID (kana) give flattering titles to, surname,

be surnamed (aSv and RSV similar.)

Occurs four times, only in Piel and Pual (Job
32:21-22; Isa 44:5; 45:4). Twice Eliphaz says he
does not know how to give false titles. In Isa God
promises that in the Restoration, Israel's title will
be a truth, not a misnomer.

M3> (kannd). See no. 999b.
3333 (kinnér). See no. 1004a.

998 335 (knn) I. Assumed root of the following.

998a 1d (kén) foot, base, place, office,
estate. (aSV and RSV similar.)

A noun from a theoretical root knn ‘‘to be firm,
substantial.’* It denotes the physical base or foun-
dation of something (especially the bronze laver).
The remainder of the occurrences refer to a per-
son's position or office.

J.N.O.

999 335 (knn)_ II. Assumed root of the following.

999a 1D (kén), O32 (kinnim), 833
(kinnadm) gnat, gnats, gnat swarm.
Meaning dubious.

999b 999 (kannd) support (of tree), i.e.
root, stock (Ps 80:16).

1000 53> (kanas) gather, collect, wrap (in a

cover, Hithpael).
Derivative

1000a fD25% (miknas) always plural mik-
nasayim, trousers.

kdnas occurs eleven times in the oT, seven
times in the Qal, three in the Piel, and once in the
Hithpael.

One usage of kdnas refers to David's gathering
people in order to prepare for Solomon's con-
struction of the temple (I Chr 22:2). In a similar
vein Esther sent word to Mordecai to gather to-
gether all the Jews who were in Shushan (Est
4:16). The power of God is extolled (Ps 33:7) in
gathering the waters of the sea as though ina heap.

Nehemiah 12:44 records the appointment of men
to collect offerings, tithes, and portions of the
harvest for priests and Levites. Israel is warned
that God intends to gather them to undergo the fire
of his anger (Ezk 22:21). Isaiah likens Israel’s
untenable international position to a man whose
bed covering is so narrow that he cannot wrap
himself in it (Isa 28:20).

miknas. Trousers or drawers (for priests) (kKJv,
ASV, RSV render similarly, breeches). This noun
occurs only in the dual (mikndsayim). It is found
five times in Ex and Lev and once in Ezk 44:18.
Trousers were ordered by God in the interests of
decorum, and were made of linen to absorb pers-
piration.

C.L.F.

1001 y3p (kdna‘) be humbled, subdued, brought
down, low, under, brought into subjection.
(ASV, RSV similar.)

Derivative

100la Med (kin'd) bundle, pack. Oc-
curs only in Jer 10:17, ‘‘pack your
bundle (and take it) out of the land.”’

This verb occurs thirty-six times. It denotes
bringing a proud and recalcitrant people or spirit
into subjection. The only cognate is found in
Arabic where the root means ‘‘to fold (the wings of
a bird).”’

No thoroughgoing distinction is possible be-
tween kdna‘ and the two other words ‘dnd and
shdpél which are most commonly translated ‘‘be
humble.’’ However, slight distinctions may be
drawn: ‘dnd seems tostress the aspects of forcible
humiliation (including rape), whereas shdpél con-
trasts height and lowness. kana‘ compares domin-
ion and subjection (Ps 106:42).

Eighteen of the occurrences refer to military
subjection, most of these being nations which had
oppressed Israel or at least threatened to do so.
But Israel’s God has made them subject to her
(Neh 9:24, etc.).

Of the eighteen references to a spiritual submis-
sion, fifteen relate the actions of a king in submit-
ting himself and his nation to God (I Kgs 21:29,
etc.). The emphasis is upon a proud and indepen-
dent spirit abasing itself.

Two key references are Lev 26:41 and II Chr
7:14 which indicate that so long as a person, or
nation, is arrogant and self-sufficient, God can do
nothing for them.

J.N.O.

1002 Yd (kena‘dn) I, Canaan.

Derivatives

1002a t3p32D (k*na‘dni) Canaanite.
1002b t3¥2>) «(k’na‘an) HI, merchant.

445

1002 3233 (k®na‘an)

k®na‘an is the name of either a person or a
territory. Most of its ninety occurrences are in
the Pentatuech (thirty-nine in Gen). The expres-
sion ‘‘land of Canaan’’ occurs sixty-two times.

Canaan, one of the sons of Ham, is first men-
tioned in Gen 9:18. He is listed as the father of
Sidon, Heth, and nine other peoples including
Jebusites and Amorites (I Chr 1:13). The curse
upon Canaan which destined him to be a servant
to his brothers (Gen 9:25, 27) likely pointed for-
ward to the later subjugation of the inhabitants of
Canaan at the hands of the Israelites in the times
of Joshua and the Davidic monarchy. The name
of the land may derive from this forbear, or there
may be in Gen 10:15-18 a play on the word **Ca-
naan’ which is identical in sound with the name
of Noah’s grandson. Speiser derived the word
‘‘Canaan’’ from a word for purple dye found in
Nuzi. (The Greek word for Phoenicia, phoinix,
means purple.) Later study makes this unlikely.
Maisler and Albright argued for an original mean-
ing ‘‘purple merchant.’’ Millard, following
Landsberger, claims that derivation from a pur-
ple color is impossible, but is not able to offer a
fully defensible origin. See the bibliography for
references.

In such expressions as “‘inhabitants of Ca-
naan’’ (Ex 15:15) or ‘kings of Canaan”’ (Jud 5:19)
the population of a territory is in view. The “‘lan-
guage of Canaan’”’ in Isa 19:18 is the Hebrew lan-
guage though there were also other dialects.

Canaan, as an Egyptian administrative district
in the second millennium, comprised Palestine
and southern Syria. Biblically, Canaan consists
of the land west of the Jordan and is distinguished
from the area east of Jordan (Num 32:29-33;
35:14; Josh 22:32). Though its extent is variously
described in the Bible, the land of Canaan
broadly includes the area from the wilderness of
Zin in the south to Rehob at Lebo-hamath in the
north, a distance of approximately three hundred
miles, yet as the excavations at Ras Shamra have
shown, Canaanite culture actually extended
along the Syrian coastline as far north as Hamath
itself. Its western border was the Mediterranean
Sea and its eastern border the Jordan river (Num
13:2; 17-33; 34:2-12; cf. Gen 10:19). More nar-
rowly considered, Canaan referred to the coastal
strip, especially the northern section which was
known also as Phoenicia (Num 13:29; Josh 5:1).
In Israel’s early history, the Canaanites inhabited
the coastlands and plains, and the Amorites the
hills (Num 13:19; Josh 5:1; 11:3; Jud 1:27ff.).

Canaan was an inhabited land (Ex 16:35; cf.
Josh 5:12). The patnarchs lived there (Gen 31:18;
37:1). The territory when referred to as the *‘land
of the Canaanites’’ is descnbed as a *‘land flow-
ing with milk and honey’’ (Ex 3:8; 13:5), an ex-
pression which signifies the fertility and abun-
dance of the land. Located in Canaan were the

1003 433 (knp)

cities of Hebron (Gen 23:2, 19), Shechem (Gen
33:18), Luz (or Bethel, Gen 35:6), Mamre (Gen
49:30), and Shiloh (Josh 21:2). Once Canaan is
referred to as the “‘land of the Philistines’* (Zeph
2:5).

A few Scriptures give a negative evaluation to
Canaan. Isaac admonished Jacob not to take a
wife from the daughters of Canaan (Gen 28:1, 6;
cf. 36:15). Israel was also instructed, ‘* You shall
not do what is done in the land of Canaan’’ (Lev
18:3). A later author complained, however, that
Israel disobeyed and ‘‘sacrificed to the idols of
Canaan” (Ps 106:38).

The land of Canaan takes on a theological
character not only as ‘‘the Jand in which they (the
patriarchs) dwelt as sojourners’’ but as the land
which is God's gift (Ex 6:4). Canaan is the land
which the Lord gives to Israel (Num 13:2). God
said to Abraham, *“‘I will give to you and to your
descendents after you... all the land of Canaan
for an everlasting possession’ (Gen 17:8). This
covenant with Abraham is referred to in Ex
5:22-6:8, a significant passage which summarizes
God's intentions with Israel in response to
Moses’ inquiry. It 1s part of God’s intention that
Israel dwell in Canaan, the place of abundance,
and to this place she returns following the Exile.
God desires good for his people. Canaan 1s given
Israel for a possession (Lev 14:34; Deut 32:49)
and for an inheritance (I Chr 16:18=Ps 105:11).
Many interpret Isa 11:!0—12 to say that all the

dispersed Jewish remnant is to be regathered to.

their ancestral land under the lordship of the
messianic Root of Jesse.

k*na‘ani. Canaanite(s) refers either to the
descendants of Canaan or to the inhabitants of
Canaan and sometimes to merchants (see
k©na‘an Il).

One of Simeon’s descendants had a Canaanite
mother (cf. Gen 46:10=Ex 6:15)}—an example of
intermarriage that kept Israel from remaining an
ethnically ‘*pure’’ race.

Those who inhabited Palestine before the con-
quest were known as Canaanites (Gen 12:6).
Their destruction had been ordered by God and
they were listed as dispossessed by Israel (Josh
5:1; 11:3; 13:4). Israel’s failure to obey fully
meant that Canaanites continued to live among
the Israelites (Josh 16:10; Jud 1:27-33). The
Canaanites were immoral in their practices, as is
clear both from Scripture (Ex 23:23-24) and from
literature found since 1929 at ancient Ugarit.
Negative evaluations of them were already ex-
pressed in the time of the patnarchs (Gen 24:3;
28:8). Israel was therefore directed to demolish
their idols, refrain from covenant with them (Ex
34:11-16) and destroy them lest they pervert Is-
rael’s pure religion (Deut 7:1—Sff.; 20:17-18). Ac-
tually the Israelites did not destroy the Canaan-

446

ites through weakness or misplaced mercy or
some other reason. They reaped a bitter harvest
in the sacrificing of their own innocent children
(Ps 106:35—38). Albright says that archaeological
evidence fully supports the claim of the moral
degradation of the Canaanites before the Hebrew
conquest (FSAC, pp. 231-5, 281). The Canaan-
ites who lived on the plain are to be distinguished
from the Amorites who were hill people (Num
13:29; Josh $:1). One view holds that Canaanites
were urbanized Amorites (Kenyon).

The term k‘na‘dni is generally used collec-
tively but may occasionally refer to an individual
(cf. king of Arad, Num 21:1). The term can also
mean ‘‘merchant’’ (q.v. Canaan, II). In Zech
14:21 asv renders ‘‘Canaanite’’ and rsv “‘trader,’’
in a context where the ancient versions favor the
meaning ‘‘trader’’ since the sanctity of bowls and
pots in the coming age will make exchange at the
temple unnecessary.

k*na‘an JI. Trader, merchant. (asv_ renders
‘‘traffic’’; Rsv ‘“‘trading,”’ *‘trade.’’) Since the
Canaanites were known for their trading exper-
tise, it is not always clear whether the term refers
to a race or to the trading profession (cf. various
translations of Zeph 1:11; Ezk 16:29; 17:4 where
considerations of poetic parallelism make ‘‘trade’”’
the preferable reading). The trade, originally in
red-purple wool, led to the use of ‘*trader’’ as
a general term, quite without stigma (cf. Prov
31:24).

A stele of Amenophis II (c. 1440 B.c.) demon-
strates the antiquity of this usage. From this
Maisler concludes that the term denoted the
‘*merchant plutocracy’’ of the coastal and trading
centers of Syria and Palestine (see bibliography).

Bibliography: Albnght, W. F., ‘‘The Role of
the Canaanites in the History of Civilization,”’ in
The Bible and the Ancient Near East, ed. G. E.
Wright, Doubleday, 1965, pp. 427-28. Kenyon,
Kathleen, Amorites and Canaanites, London:
Oxford University, 1966. Maisler, B., ‘“‘Canaan
and the Canaanites,’’ BASOR 102:7—12. Millard,
A. R., ‘‘The Canaanites,’’ in Peoples of Old Tes-
tament Times, ed. D. J. Wiseman, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 29-52.

yD (k¢na‘ani). See no. 1002a.

1003 25 (knp). Assumed root of the following.

1003a HID (kadndp) wing, winged, border,
corner, shirt. (ASV, RSV similar.)

Occurs 107 times: Ezk 26; Ps, 12; I Kgs, 10;
II Chr, 10. Appendage of a bird with which it flies,
denoting speed as well as protection. The word
occurs in Arabic, Akkadian, Aramaic, and Ugari-
tic with the same meaning. No verbal] prototype
for the noun is known; the verbal usage which
exists (only once, yikkdnép, Isa 30:20) has de-

nominative meanings (hide, enclose, assemble)
based on the uses of the noun.

Only ten of the occurrences of this noun liter-
ally refer to a bird. Of these ten references, in at
least eight ‘‘wing™’ is used to qualify ‘‘bird’’ (cf.
Gen 1:21 *‘every fowl of a wing’).

Many more references use the term figura-
tively, most of these referring to God and most
having a positive connotation. The deliverance
from Egypt is twice described in terms of God
bearing his people upon eagle's wings (Ex 19:4;
Deut 32:11). But mostly he is seen as sheltering
his own beneath his wings as a hen does her
chicks (Ps 17:8; Ruth 2:12). Commonly some
statement of God’s proven trustworthiness is re-
lated to the statement of an intent to seek shelter
under his wings (Ps 36:7 [H 8], ‘‘How excellent is
thy loving-kindness, O God, therefore the chil-
dren of men put their trust under the shelter of
thy wings’’). Malachi 3:20 speaks of the Sun of
righteousness rising with healing in his wings.
Evidently this is an appropriation of the winged
sun disc symbol which is used throughout the
ancient near east as a manifestation of the deity’s
protection. The appropriation of this ancient
theme in a prediction of Christ is very significant.
He alone is the true manifestation of God's be-
nevolence and he comes to heal (not merely pro-
tect) those who cast away their pride through fear
of God.

However those wings which offer deliverance
and security to those who fear him, can bring
terror to those who defy him. Jer 48:40; 49:22 tell
that God will spread his eagle's wings over Moab
and destroy them, just as an eagle may swoop
upon a hapless rabbit. In Isa 8:8 Assymnia is the
eagle overshadowing Judah (cf. also Ezk 17:3, 7).

The remaining figurative usages speak of the
speed of wings. The wind is said to have wings
(11 Sam 22:11, etc.). Three of the six occurrences
deal with God’s riding on the wind. Money Is said
to have wings (Prov 23:5), as does gossip (Eccl
10:20). The lovely passage in Ps 139:9 speaks of
the wings of the morning being unable to outstrip
God's care.

The exact origin of a separate set of figurative
usages is difficult to determine. Here the word
either means the flowing hem of a robe or the
ends of the earth. Perhaps the similarity of the
robe to wings, and then the ‘*‘end”’ of the robe to
the ends of the earth accurately describes the
transference.

The remainder of the references to kanap have
to do with either the cherubim over the ark, or
Ezekiel’s visions. It 1s tempting to see in these
numerous occurrences some theological state-
ments concerning Yahweh, especially in the light
of the winged seraphim in Isa 6:2. It may be that
the wings of his messengers speak of his ability to
transcend his creation and yet be at any moment

447

1004 935 (knr)

immanent in it. The fact that he is elsewhere said
to ride on the wings of the wind may support such
conjectures. However, apart from more explicit
biblical statements they must remain in the realm
of conjecture.
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 833-35.
J.N.O.

1004 535 (knr). Assumed root of the following.

1004a T5935) (kinnér) harp.

ming>—(kindrét)

Chinneret.

kinnoér. Harp. (asv and rsv similar.) A musical
instrument having strings and a wooden frame.
Commonly associated with joy and gladness. The
word seems to be of Indian derivation, there
being an Indian stringed instrument called a kin-
nara. The word itself, if not the entire instru-
ment, seems to have come into the Hebrew vo-
cabulary via Hittite (cf. KB, in loc). Probably the
kinnor was a lyre rather than a true harp. Lyres
are pictured in a number of ancient paintings and
sculptures.

Although most of the references to harps de-
pict them in a cultic context, about six references
indicate that it was a general accompaniment for
recreation and relaxation. Its accompaniment
was common in feasts (Gen 31:27), presumably
played by dancing girls (Isa 23:16).The kinnGr is
the first musical instrument mentioned in the
Bible.

Both Job (21:12) and Isa (5:12) declare that it is
the wicked who have times of rejoicing and glad-
ness, and both contemplate the injustice of this.

Most of the references show the harp in a rell-
gious setting. It and other instruments charac-
terized the sons of the prophets (1 Sam 10:5: Ps
49:4 [H 5]; cf. I Sam 16:23). After the prevalence
of the harp and other instruments in the rejoicing
over the ark’s return (II Sam 6:5; I Chr 13:8),
instrumental music seems to have come into its
own in Israel’s worship (I Chr 25:1, 3, 6). Study
of the joyous psalms associated with harps shows
that the steadfast love, faithfulness and justice of
the Creator-Redeemer were central to Israel's re-

joicing.
Bibliography: Best, H. M., Huttar, D.,
‘‘Music, Musical Instruments,’ in ZPBD.

Sellers, O. R., ‘Musical Instruments of Israel,’
BA 3:33-48.

kinneret, kinarot. Chinnereth, Chinneroth.
Lake in northern Palestine significant as a bound-
ary point for the land of Israel. The Niv spells
it with a ‘*k”’ to avoid a common mispronuncia-
tion. It is known as the Sea of Galilee or Gen-
nesaret in the New Testament. Occurs four times
with the ending—erh and three times with—oth.
The name appears in Egyptian topographical
lists. No Semitic etymology has been agreed

1005 mad (kfnat)

upon. Albright suggests a connection with the
goddess of the lyre, Kinnar in Ugaritic (YGC,
p. 144).

In Num 34:11 Chinnereth is given as one ele-
ment in the eastern border of the land of Canaan.
In Josh 12:3 the westernmost border of Sihon’s
territory was designated as the Jordan Valley
from the Salt Sea to Chinneroth. In Deut 3:17 this
same designation is given for the western side of
the territory which was given to the half tribe of
Mannaseh, and the tribes of Gad and Reuben (cf.
also Josh 13:27).

As in New Testament times the region just
west and north of the lake (roughly the same as
the territory of Naphtali) was called by the same
name as the lake. So Ben-Hadad of Syria is said
at one time to have captured all Chinneroth
(I Kgs 15:20). There was also a city in Naphtali of
the same name, provisionally identified with tell
el-‘oreimeh (Josh 19:35).

J.N.O.

See no. 1004b.

1005 mgd (k*nat) associate,
4:7).

colleague (Ezr

1006 SPD (kese’) full moon (Prov 7:20; Ps
81:4).

1007 88> (kissé’) seat, stool, throne.
similar.)

(ASV, RSV

Occurs 136 times, of which 34 are in I Kings, 17
in Jeremiah and 15 in Chronicles. Of these occur-
rences, all but 7 refer to royal or divine thrones.
In all cases it is a seat of honor. The identical root
appears in Ugaritic (ks’) and Akkadian (kussa <
Sumenan GU. ZA), while both Aramaic and
Arabic show an additional r: karsa’ (Aramaic),
kursiyu (Arabic). Perhaps a loan word.

As mentioned above, the basic idea of the root
seems to be ‘‘seat of honor’’ (Ehud, Jud 3:20; Eli,
I Sam 1:9; 4:13; 18, etc.). The one possible excep-
tion to this is found in the description of the
prophet’s chamber (I] Kgs 4:10) where kJv sim-
ply translates “‘table and stool”’ (RSv “‘chair’’).

In the usages translated by ‘‘throne’’ the
minority have to do with literal thrones. These
are either descriptions of thrones (I Kgs 10:18;
Ezk 1:26, etc.) or statements concerning kings
sitting on specific thrones for matters of judgment
(Est 5:1; Jer 1:15; etc.), affairs of state (I Kgs
22:10), or royal honor (II Kgs 25:28).

The great bulk of the references to throne take
the term figuratively. Thus to sit on the throne of
the kingdom was to rule the kingdom, or in some
cases, to begin to rule the kingdom (cf. I Kgs
16:11, etc.). Of the eighty-seven figurative us-
ages, at least forty-seven indicate that it was God

448

who either placed a person on, or removed him
from, the throne. Many of these are related to the
establishment of the Davidic line, and of these
the vast majority relate to Solomon’s accession
(I Kgs 1-2). The frequent statement that God has
‘‘established’’ (kan, q.v.) someone’s throne fur-
ther indicates that royal stability, wherever it is
found, is a function of God’s sovereignty.

The book of Prov on several occasions em-
phasizes that no throne is established by force,
but rather through mercy, justice, and righteous-
ness (Prov 16:12; 20:8, 28; 25:5; 29:14). But, of
course, the immediate question is: according to
whose standard? For the Hebrew this was not a
difficult question. It is plain that the true King by
whom all humans, even kings, are judged is the
Heavenly One. Study of kissé’ as it relates to
God bears this out. His throne is established
forever (Ps 93:2; 103:19; Lam 5:19). It is fixed in
the heavens (Isa 66:1; Jer 3:17) as well as in his
chosen place, Jerusalem. The pronouncements
from his throne of judgment are altogether true
and right (Ps 74:8 [H 9]; 89:14 [H 15]). Nowhere
is the dichotomy between the fallible human king
and the infallible divine king more clearly brought
out than in I Kings 22. Here Jehoshaphat and
Ahab sit on their splendid royal thrones to re-
ceive Micaiah’s prophecy (v. 10). But Micaiah
reports that he has seen God sitting on his throne
and that he has given a word of doom concerning
their royal enterprises against Syria (v. 10). God
is the king of Israel and Judah (cf. also Isa 6:1). .

This dichotomy is forever resolved in the Mes-
siah. As the Israelites looked at the long string of
sorry kings visited on them, and as they com-
pared these with God’s perfect standard they
came to long for that Son of David who would
rule them, and the world, out of love and not
selfishness, with equity and not partiality (Isa 9:7
[H 6]; 16:5; Jer 22:11-23:6; Zech 6:13). The tes-
timony of the nT is that he has come and that all
creation waits breathlessly for his coronation day
when he will assume his throne forevermore.

J.N.O.

1008 ep (kasd) I, cover, conceal, hide. Ina

few places used in the sense of ‘‘forgive.”’
(RSV, NASB and NIV similar.)

Derivatives

1008a = 3B. (kasity) outer covering of the
tabernacle. Used only in Num
4:6, 14.
1008b fmIDD> (k*sat) covering.
1008c tRDs%2 (mikseh) a covering.
1008d Be! «(mekasseh). In form, this
word is a Piel participle and in its
four usages can be handled as an
active noun, ‘“‘that which covers.”’

The usual usage of the verb kasd | is the literal
meaning ‘‘to cover.’’ Frogs covered Egypt (Ex
8:6 [H 2}). The pillar of cloud covered the taber-
nacle (Num 9:16).

It is also used more generally to mean ‘‘con-
ceal’’ (Gen 37:26; Prov 10:18, ksv ‘‘hide’’) or
‘‘overwhelm’’ (Prov 10:6, 11, Niv ‘‘overwhelm’’).
In Gen 7:19-20 the hills were ‘‘covered;’’ the
Hebrew does not specify with what. The niv
specification of water goes beyond the Hebrew.
The Hebrew may merely mean that the moun-
tains were hidden from view by the storm.

It is probably the meaning “‘hide’’ that leads to
the sense, forgive. In the well-known verse, Ps
32:1, ‘‘cover,’’ kdsa (Qal) is paralleled by ‘‘for-
give’’ (nasda’). The word is used in v. 5 in the
sense of ‘‘hide.”’ Psalm 85:2 [H 3] is very similar
and has the same parallel (na@sd’). This sense also
occurs in Neh 4:5 [H 3:37] where the parallel is
‘blot out’? (maha). In Prov 17:9 and 28:13 the
meaning is likely *‘conceal’’ (so Niv in the latter
verse). The contrast is to confess or to make
known. It is probably too much to found an oT
theology of forgiveness on these verses in Ps and
Nehemiah. It has been argued, more on the basis
of kdpar ‘‘atone’’ (q.v.), which some translate
‘‘cover,’’ that the oT sacrifices merely covered
sin until it was dealt with de facto on the cross.
This view of course has the truth that the blood of
bulls and goats could not pay the price of sin in
the or. But it seems that we should say that the
OT sin was indeed forgiven by God on the basis of
the final sacrifice to come. The oT sacrifices were
symbolic and typical but the forgiveness was
real. At least, the other words nasa’ (take away),
maha (blot out), salah (forgive), etc. imply a real
forgiveness so that sins were removed to an im-
measurable distance (Ps 103:3, 11-12).

k‘sat. Covering. Used only eight times, most of
these referring to clothing. But note Gen 20:16
where ‘‘covering of the eyes’’ (‘énayim) is taken
by the NIv as ‘‘to cover the offense’’ (probably
reading ‘éwonim).

mikseh. A covering. This noun refers mostly to

the leather (ksv badgers’ skins, NASB porpoise

skins, NIV hides of sea cows) covering of the taber-

nacle. Once it refers to the covering of Noah’s

ark. Does this mean that the ark had a protective

roof of animal hides?

Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 135-38.

R.L.H.

1009 mp> (ksh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1009a = ADD (keset) band, fillet.

1010 MOD (kdsah) cut off or away, a plant (Ps
80:17; Isa 33:12).

449

1011 9D (kasal)

“DD (k®sil).
maosp> (ke silat).

See no. 101 1c,e.
See no. 101 1d.

1011 MD (kasal) be foolish.
Derivatives
10lla too> (kesel) confidence, hope.
1011b tm9D> (kisla) confidence, folly.
10lic f5°%DD (k¢sil) I, fool, dullard.
1011d tnso*pp (k¢silat) stupidity.
101le f9°DD (k*sil) II, constellations, Orion.

kdsal the verb occurs once, in Jer 10:8, where
idol worshipers are called foolish. The Arabic
cognate seems to have an original meaning ‘‘to be
sluggish,’ referring to that which is thick, plump,
or fat (BDB). From kdsal come a number of
derivatives.

k‘sil J. Fool, dullard. This noun, except for
three occurrences in Ps, is found only in Prov and
Eccl. In Prov three words are rendered fool, k° sil
referring to the dull or obstinate one, referring
not to mental deficiency, but to a propensity to
make wrong choices. ’ewil refers to moral in-
solence, and nabal to the boorsh man of mean
disposition.

Folly and fool are opposite to wisdom and
wise. k¢ sil refers to a way of life that is enticing
to the immature, but can lead to destruction and
ruin. Qohelet sums up the argumentation for
either wisdom or folly by stating that wisdom ex-
cels folly as light excels darkness(Eccl 2:1-13).
Involved in this conclusion is that wisdom leads a
person on the right path to the brightness of the
full day while folly entices one to the way that
leads into darkness (Prov 4:18—19).

We note the kind of choices which the k¢sil
makes. His eyes are unable to see any proper
way or conduct. He may roam the earth seeking
it, but miss it completely. Apparently he does not
concentrate on what is right (Prov 17:24). The
fool imagines that he can buy wisdom when actu-
ally he has no inclination for it (Prov 17:16). He
takes no delight in understanding (Prov 18:2),
hates knowledge (Prov 1:22), and therefore does
not choose the fear of the Lord (Prov 1:29). The
end of the fool’s complacency is destruction
(Prov 1:32).

The fool is a serious menace to the community.
Associating with a fool, who has a twisted sense
of values deprives one of knowledge (Prov 14:7).
He can cause serious problems to his fellow man,
for he actually enjoys doing wickedness (or
lewdness; Lev 18:17; Prov 10:23). A fool’s utter-
ances bring strife and involve him in blows with
his adversaries (Prov 18:6). Anyone who be-
friends him will be destroyed (Prov 13:20). Par-
ents of the fool suffer greatly. His mother is
grieved with him (Prov 10:1) and his father can
never have any joy over him (Prov 10:1; see also

1012 1905 (kisléw)

Prov 17:25; 19:13a). Yet for his part, the fool
despises his mother (Prov 15:20).

kesel. Confidence, hope. Confidence and hope
relate to trust (or lack of it) in God (Prov 3:26; Job
8:14). As folly, it is identified as evil (Eccl 7:25)
and applied to the person whose way of life is to
live for this world only (Ps 49:13 [H 14}). In five
other usages, kesel is rendered ‘‘flanks’’ (Lev
3:4, 10, 15: Ps 38:7 {H 8)}).

kisl4. Confidence, folly. The fear of God was
Job’s confidence (Job 4:6) while at the same time
a people who have experienced the peace of God
are not to turn back to folly (Ps 85:8 {H 9).

k°silat. Foolish. Describes Folly, in opposi-
tion to Wisdom (hokma), personified as a wo-
man. Sexual immorality, characterized as
k* silat, is contrasted to Wisdom who calls the
immature to a life of rectitude.

k*sil UI. Constellations (isa 13:10), Orion
(Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8). (aAsv and RSV same.)
The relation to k‘sil is uncertain, since in the
Job and Amos passages, k‘si/ refers to a specific
star, while in Isa the plural ksiléhem ‘‘their con-
stellations’’ is used more generally.

In Job 9:9 the Lxx translates k‘sil as **Hes-
perus’’ (related to the mythological Evening Star,
therefore, the West). The Vulgate does the same.
In Job 38:31, ‘‘loose the bands of Orion”’ (kJv),
the Lxx is similar, *‘opened the barrier of Orion.”’
The Vulgate here reads Arcturus for Orion.

There are differences of opinion concerning the
astral groups. Arcturus is used differently in the
versions: in Job 9:9 Arcturus is used to render the
group ‘dsh but the Lxx translate *‘Pleiades,’’ and
the RSV and Nass “‘the Bear.’’ Arcturus is used in
the Lxx for the astral kimda (Job 9:9), but in 38:31,
Pleiades is used for kimd. The Vulgate uses
Arcturus for k°sil. In Isa 13:10, ‘‘the stars of
heaven and the constellations thereof,’’ the plural
k® siléhem, is rendered by the Lxx, ‘‘for the stars
of heaven and Orion.”’

There are other possibilities. Targum Jonathan
renders k° sil as ‘‘giant’’ in Job 9:9 and 38:31. For
Isa 13:10 the Targum reads, ‘‘the stars of the
heavens and their titans.”’ In modern usage the
Arabic designation for the constellation Orion is
al gibbar, modern Hebrew gibbér ‘‘the strong
one.

Bibliography: Blanck, S. H., **Folly,”’ in IB,
II, pp. 303-304. Fraenkel, J., ‘‘Astronomy,”’ in
Encyclopedia Judaica, 1, p. 795. Greenstone,
Julius, Proverbs, Jewish Publication Society,
1950. Harris, R. Laird, ‘‘Proverbs,’” in WBC.
‘*Hesperus,’” in Oxford Classical Dictionary.
Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964.
‘‘Onion,”’ in Oxford Classical Dictionary. **Ori-
on, the Pleiades, the Hyades,’’ in Larousse En-
cyclopedia of Mythology, Prometheus, 1959, pp.

164-65. Toy, C. H., Proverbs, in ICC. Walker,
W.L., ‘‘Fool, Folly,’ in ISBE, II, pp. 1124-25.
THAT, I, pp. 836-37.

L.G.

1012 3263 (kisléw) Chislev. The ninth month
of the Babylonian calendar. Used only in
the post-Exilic books Zech 7:1: Neh 1:1.
For other months see hodesh, no. 613b.

1013 885 (kdsam) shear, clip (Ezk 44:20).
Derivatives
1013a =nme> (kiissemet) spelt.
1013b *aD">D (kirsém) tear off. Occurs

only in the Piel, in Ps 80:14 *‘boars
from the forest tear it off.”’
mneps (kassemet). See no. 1013a.

1014 8D9 (kasas) compute (Ex 12:4).

Derivatives
1014a 85% (mekes) computation, propor-
tion to be paid, tax (Num 31:28).
10146 «=MO3% «(miksa) computation (=

number, Ex 12:4; =
worth, Lev 27:23).

valuation,

1015 Bp (kasap) yearn for, long after (with
l€, Ps 17:12; Job 14:15).

Derivative
10l5a tHd> (kesep)

In the Niphal stem it means yearn for (Gen
31:30); be ashamed (Zeph 2:1, so KB, BDB, GB,
ZOR.). With /6’, it means be shameless. (Some
trace connection with kesep ‘‘silver’’ as the pale
metal; hence Middle Hebrew hiksip, become pale
with yearning.)

silver, money.

kesep. Silver; (silver) money. Kesep refers to
silver as freshly mined and smelted (Prov 25:4;
26:23; Ezk 22:18); as material for vessels, trum-
pets, idols (Gen 44:2; 24:53; Num 10:2; Ex 20:23;
Isa 2:20). It is often used with numbers to indicate
shekels of silver (with sheqel or sh*qalim omitted;
Gen 20:16; 45:22). It is also used with minas (Ezr
2:69) or talents (Ex 38:27; I Kgs 20:29; I Chr 19:6).
It may be used for price (of sale, Lev 25:50).

Silver is found as native metal in some mines in
Greece. It was also extracted from its ores by
smelting with lead. The lead-silver alloy was
purified by heating and burning off the lead as
oxide. The impurities are skimmed off. There are
frequent oT references to the refiner’s fire and the
dross of silver (Ezk 22:18-22).

Silver was the usual standard of trade. Two
shekels was the price of aram in Moses’ day (Lev
5:15). Silver coins were used in Greece as early

450

as 670 B.c. There are no clear references to silver
coins in the oT, but the Persian gold daric may be
mentioned in Ezra 8:27.

Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., “‘Metallurgy,”’
in ZPEB, IV, p. 210. Archer, G. L., ‘*Coins,’’ in
ZPEB, I, p. 903.

G.L.A.

ned (keser). See no. 1009a.

1016 Oy> (ka‘as) be vexed, indignant, angry,
wroth, be grieved, provoke to anger and
wrath. (ASV, RSV Similar.)

Derivatives

1016a toys (ka‘as) vexation, grief.
1016b = Wwys (ka‘as) vexation. Dialectical
variation of ka‘as.

The root meaning of kd‘as is to vex, agitate,
stir up, or provoke the heart to a heated condition
which in turn leads to specific actions. This term,
as well as the synonyms for anger and wrath (‘ap,
hémad, qasap, and ‘ebrad; see discussion of
synonyms at gdsap) are used anthropomorphi-
cally and anthropopathically of God. They refer
to God’s inner self as vexed and provoked by
rebellion or sin. The term when applied to God,
implies that man can affect the very heart of God
sO as to cause him heat, pain, or grief to various
degrees of intensity.

In the Qal stem the verb is used five times to
indicate the state of vexation in men. Thus, king
Asa was vexed or exasperated when he was re-
buked by the prophet Hanan: (JJ Chr 16:10);
likewise Sanballat when he saw builders at work
on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 4:1 {H 3:33]).
From these instances we may gather that the
state of vexation is not normally proper for a true
child of God. In fact, Eccl 7:9 teaches that the
child of God should not be hasty in spirit to be
vexed, because such vexation rests in the bosom
of fools.

God ts said not to continue in this state of vexa-
tion when his jealousy is quieted (Ezk 16:42). In-
deed, vexation is not an abiding attribute of God.
Yet, his people may provoke him to anger and
wrath by their unfaithfulness. Because God is
holy and loving he will only share himself with a
people whom he has bound to himself in coven-
ant love, and whom he has taken to himself for
fellowship and service. He never shares himself
with the profane and wicked. Hence when his
covenant people become unfaithful to him, he, by
virtue of his holiness and jealous love (Ex 34:14),
is provoked to anger and wrath against them.
Thus he may be deeply vexed, agitated, pained,
or grieved by disobedient Israel. This is the gen-
eral burden of the forty-five passages in the oT in
which the Hiphil stem of the verb is used. E.g.,

451

1018 mbD (kapa)

Moses warned the Israelites that if their descen-
dants, after having been in the promised land,
corrupt themselves by making graven images in
any form, the Lord will be deeply vexed at them.
He calls heaven and earth to witness that God in
his vexation will make them to utterly perish
from off the earth (Deut 4:25). Moses speaks also
of his fear of God when God has been aroused to
a highly vexed state (Deut 9:1-8). And when God
has been continuously and deeply provoked,
vexed, grieved, much is required to quiet the
heart of God. E.g. king Mannesseh provoked
God so deeply by his pervasive involvement in
idolatry (cf. II Kgs 21:1-26) that when Josiah at-
tempted reforms, the Lord was not appeased.
Judgment had to fall upon Judah (1] Kgs 23:26), a
judgment which destroyed many of the people
and removed the nation from the promised land.
This judgment, in keeping with God's justice is
not contrary to divine love. Rather, it is an ex-
pression of divine love which has been offended,
rejected and deeply grieved. Divine love suffers
long; it also defends itself and removes the ob-
jects of its vexation and sorrow.

ka‘as. Vexation, provocation, anger, wrath, spite,
grief, sorrow (ASV and Rsv have “‘provocation’”’
in place of **wrath’’).

This noun is not used of God in quite the same
way the verb is. Rather it speaks of what man
does in relation to God.

Man vexes and provokes God to anger. This
act of man is referred to a number of times:
Jeroboam provoked God by his sinful provoca-
tions, i.e. calf worship (I Kgs 15:30) as Israel did
later with her idolatries, which are called **pro-
vocations’ (Ezk 20:28). This emphasizes the fact
that man vexes God; man, created and called to
please and glorify God, when he falls into sin,
gives him a deep agitation of heart.

Man also is a source of vexation to his fellow-
men. Peninnah provoked Hannah to vexation and
caused her much grief (1 Sam 1:7, 16). A foolish
son produces vexation or grief for his father
(Prov 17:25). Adversaries, physical and spiritual,
are a source of vexation and tears for the righ-
teous (Ps 6:7 [H 8]). Thus sinful man, by nature,
tragically fails to live in peace and happiness with
his fellow men as God commands him to do.

Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 838-41.

G.V.G.

wys (ka‘as). See no. 1016b.

1017 93 (kép) rock (Jer 4:29: Job 30:6).

MD (kap). See no. 1022a.

1018 MbDd (kapa) subdue (Prov 21:14).

1019 p> (kapal)

See nos. 1026a,b.
See no. 1021a.
See no. 102Sa.

SIpD (k* pdr).
DYDD (kK pis).
“DD (k¢pir).

1019 %pg(kdpal) fold something double, double
over (Ex 29:6; 28:16; 39:9). Niphal: be
doubled (over, Ezk 21:19, of two ways ata
crossroads). (Arabic kiflun ‘‘double’’;
Akkadian kapalu ‘‘to coil, twist.’’)

Derivatives

98D (kepel), O°9D> (kiplayim) a
double (Job 41:13 [H 5]), i.e. the
doubled thickness of the croc-
odile’s hide). The dual kiplayim re-
fers to a double portion (of chas-
tisement, Isa 40:2).

1019b tm¥psr (makpéld)

(perhaps Double-cave?).

1019a

Machpelah

Name of the cave purchased by Abraham for
Sarah's burial, and later for himself and for
Jacob, in the northeastern field of Hebron belong-
ing to Ephron son of Zohar, the Hittite (Gen 23).
It was purchased for four hundred shekels of
silver. The location faced Mamre (v. 19).

[The transaction has been much discussed. It
has been treated as a typical oriental bargaining
match with Abraham as a semi-foreigner ending
up having to pay a large figure. M. Lehmann (see
bibliography) held that here we have an example
of Hittite law. Abraham asked for only the cave.
But Ephron insisted that he take the whole prop-
erty and thus Ephron divested himself of feudal
responsibilities to his overlord. Speiser (in AB,
Genesis, pp. 171-73) doubts that Ephron was a
member of the distant Hittite nation. He thinks
rather that Ephron was a non-Semite who could
more readily be persuaded to sell to an alien like
Abraham. At least it is agreed that four hundred
shekels was dear.

The tomb of Machpelah shown to tourists
today was built in Herodian times, as its lower
masonry testifies. Over that was built a church,
now a mosque. The site therefore has been iden-
tified since before the dispersion. It may be the
authentic place. See the article by H. G. Stigers
(see bibliography) who assisted in the Hammond
excavations at the tell of ancient Hebron. R.L.H.]

Bibliography: Lehmann, M., ‘‘Abraham’'s
Purchase of Machpelah. and Hittite Law,”
BASOR 129:15-18. Stigers, H. G. **Machpelah,”’
in ZPEB, IV, pp. 26-28.

G.L.A.

1020 359 (kdpan) be hungry, hunger. Occurs
only in Ezk 17:7, kadpna@ ‘al ‘‘stretched
hungrily.”’

452

1021 obs (kps).

1022 p> (App).

Derivative

1020a 3D (kapadn) hunger, famine (Job

5:22; 30:3).

Assumed root of the following.
102la b°SQ (kapis) rafter, girder(?). Oc-
curs only in Hab 2:11.

Assumed root of the following.

1022a MD (kap) the palm of the hand,
hand (opened or turned upward so
as to expose the hand, in contrast
with yad ‘‘hand’’ in_ general,
whether open or closed in a grasp
or fist); flat of the hand, sole of the
foot (Gen 40:11; II Kgs 4:34; Lev
14:16; Gen 8:9; Josh 3:13). Also
‘*handful’’ (of meal, IT Kgs 17:12).

1022b mBD (kippa) branch, leaf.

kap. Palm ofthe hand. kap is also used of hands
spread out in prayer (Ex 19:29; Isa 1:15). It may
also refer to a pan or concave vessel (Ex 25:29;
Num 4:7); or the hollow of a sling (I Sam 25:29).
Not used as extensively as yad nor so much in the
various extended usages of that word (e.g., yad
also means ‘‘strength, force’’). In Uganitic kp is
used to refer to the amputated hands of the enemy
apparently used in body count (UT 19: no. 1286).
This gruesome usage is not clearly witnessed in
the oT, but may be suggested in Jud 8:6, 15.
G.L.A.

1023 "83 (kapar) I, make an atonement, make

reconciliation, purge. (Denominative
verb.) This root should probably be distin-
guished from kdpar II ‘‘to smear with
pitch.”

Parent Noun

1023a 95> (kdper) I, ransom, gift to se-
cure favor.

1023b {5bD (Kippur) (used in the plural
kippurim) atonement, used espe-
cially in the expression ‘‘day of
atonement.’’

tASB> (kapporet) place of atone-
ment; KJV, “‘mercy seat.”’

1023c

The root kapar is used some 150 times. It has
been much discussed. There is an equivalent
Arabic root meaning ‘‘cover,’’ or ‘‘conceal.’’ On
the strength of this connection it has been sup-
posed that the Hebrew word means ‘‘to cover
over sin’’ and thus pacify the deity, making an
atonement (so BDB). It has been suggested that
the oT ritual symbolized a covering over of sin
until it was dealt with in fact by the atonement of
Christ. There is, however, very little evidence for
this view. The connection of the Arabic word is

weak and the Hebrew root is not used to mean
‘*cover.’’ The Hebrew verb is never used in the
simple or Qal stem, but only tn the derived inten-
sive stems. These intensive stems often indicate
not emphasis, but merely that the verb is derived
from a noun whose meaning is more basic to the
root idea.

koper. Ransom. Every Israelite was to give to
the service of the sanctuary the ‘‘ransom’’ money
of half a shekel (Ex 30:12). Egypt, in God’s sight,
was given as a ‘“‘ransom’’ for the restoration of
Israel (Isa 43:3). This word ‘‘ransom”’ is parallel
to the word ‘‘redeem’’ (pada, which see) in Ps
49:7. There is a warning that a man guilty of mur-
der must be killed—no ‘‘ransom”’ can be given in
exchange for his life (Num 35:31). The word is
also used in a bad sense as a “‘bribe’’ which
wrongly purchases favor (1 Sam 12:3).

From the meaning of kdper ‘‘ransom,”’ the
meaning of kdpar can be better understood. It
means ‘‘to atone by offering a substitute.’’ The
great majority of the usages concern the priestly
ritual of sprinkling of the sacrificial blood thus
‘‘making an atonement’’ for the worshipper.
There are forty-nine instances of this usage in
Leviticus alone and no other meaning is there
witnessed. The verb is always used in connection
with the removal of sin or defilement, except for
Gen 32:20; Prov 16:14; and Isa 28:18 where the
related meaning of ‘‘appease by a gift’’ may be
observed. It seems clear that this word aptly il-
lustrates the theology of reconciliation in the oT.
The life of the sacrificial animal specifically sym-
bolized by its blood was required in exchange for
the life of the worshipper. Sacrifice of animals in
oT theology was not merely an expression of
thanks to the deity by a cattleraising people. It
was the symbolic expression of innocent life
given for guilty life. This symbolism is further
clarified by the action of the worshipper in plac-
ing his hands on the head of the sacrifice and
confessing his sins over the animal (cf. Lev 16:21;
1:4; 4:4, etc.) which was then killed or sent out as
a scapegoat.

kippur. Atonement. kapporet. Mercy _ seat.
These two nouns are derived from the verb as
used in the intensive stem: The first is used today
in the name of the Jewish holiday yom kippur
‘day of atonement’’ (used only in the plural in
the oT) which was the tenth day of the seventh
month, Tishn. This solemn day was the only day
of fasting prescribed for Israel. It was celebrated
by a special sin offering for the whole nation. On
that day only would the high priest enter within
the inner veil bearing the blood of the sin offering
(cf. Heb 9:7). A second goat was released as an
escape goat to symbolize the total removal of sin
(see ‘dza’zél *‘scapegoat’’).

1024 “p> (kapar)

1025 p> (kpr)

kapporet. Mercy seat. This noun is_ used
twenty-seven times and always refers to the gol-
den cover of the sacred chest in the inner shrine
of the tabernacle or temple. It was from above
the mercy seat that God promised to meet with
men (Num 7:89). The word, however, 1s not re-
lated to mercy and of course was not a seat. The
word is derived from the root ‘‘to atone.’’ The
Greek equivalent in the Lxx is usually hilastér-
ion, ‘‘place or object of propitiation,’’ a word
which is applied to Christ in Rom 3:25. The trans-
lation *‘mercy seat’’ does not sufficiently express
the fact that the lid of the ark was the place where
the blood was sprinkled on the day of atonement.
‘*Place of atonement’’ would perhaps be more
expressive.

R.L.H.

II, cover over with pitch.
This denominative verb is used only in
Gen 6:14 in the waterproofing of the ark.
The cognate word is used in the Babylo-
nian flood story.

Parent Noun

1024a “BD (kdper) II, pitch. A noun,
from which the above verb was doubtless de-
rived. Pitch, bitumen, asphalt was used in early
antiquity as an adhesive to hold inlays into
Statues. It was a logical matenal for caulking
the ark as specified both in the Bible and the
Babylonian flood story.

R.L.H.

1025 S55 (kpr) II. Assumed root of the follow-

453

ing.
1025a t3°9SD (k pir) young lion.

102S5Sb =o5BD (képer) TH, name of a plant
(henna?, Song 1:14; 4:13). Deriva-
tion uncertain.
1025c “353 (kdpar) village. Derivation
uncertain. An element in the NT
name *‘Capernaum.”’
1025d “b> (koper) IV, village. A_var-
iant of kdpdr. Possibly the same as
the plural in Neh 6:2.
k‘pir. Young lion. That the word specifies the

age of the lion is doubtful. To distinguish between
the different words for lion is difficult. Cf. /ab?’.
Often it is used in parallelism with ‘aryeh
‘‘lion’’ (the generic term, usually an adult). In
Ezk 19:3, the k®pir learns how to catch prey.
Occurs frequently in narrative, prophetic books,
and poetry. Other words for lion are /abi’, layish,
shahal and shahas. It is difficult to distinguish
between these words. Some may refer to age,

some to prowess, etc.
G.L.A.

1026 35> (kpr)

1026 “55 (kpr) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1026a =o“BD «(kK*pdér) I, bowl (1 Chr 28;
Ezr 1:10; 8:27).
“IBD (A* por) WM, hoarfrost (Ps
147:16; Ex 16:14; Job 38:29).

1026b

mup> (kapporet). See no. 1023c.

1027 *we> (kadpash) make bent, press or bend
together. Occurs only in the Hiphil (Lam
3:16).

1028 <3MB> (kaptér) I, the island of Crete. In
Egyptian spelled k-f-t-y(w); Akkadian kap-
tara; Uganitic k-p-t-r. Homeland or at least
a Staging center of the Philistines (Amos
9:7; cf. Deut 2:23; Jer 47:4). The gentilic is
kaptori ‘‘Cretan.’* (At Mari spelled ka-ap-
taru-u.)

1029 “imp> (kaptér) IH, a capital on top of a
pillar (Amos 9:1; Zech 2:14). (2) A knob
or bulb on the lampstand (Ex 25:31; 37:17).
(Apparently derived from the name of
Crete, as the place from which such
ormamentations were first imported.)

G.L.A.

1030 Derivation uncertain.

"2D (kar) pasture.

1031 33 (kér) ameasure, usuallydry. Equal to
a homer, therefore 10 ephahs (q.v.).

1032 *5555 (krbl) be-mantle or bind around.
Occurs only in the Pual, in I Chr 15:17,
‘‘bemantled with a robe of byssus.”

1033

m3D (kara) I, dig, excavate; dig through.

Derivatives
map (kara) cistern or well.
mat (mikreh) pit—of salt(?) Only
Zech 2:9.
mat «6(m°kura),
origin.

1033a
1033b
1033¢

mm™33% (m°kura)

The object of this verb is usually a pit, trench, or
cistern. It is used figuratively for entrapping a per-
son with an evil plot or strategem (Prov 16:27). In
the Niphal it means **be dug"’ (Ps 94:13). There is a
different root, kdrd, meaning ‘‘to trade in” (a
commodity), do business in: buy (Job 6:27 with
‘al, with dir. acc., Deut 2:6: Hos 3:2).

G.L.A.

1034 map (kara) HI, get by trade, trade.

1035 m9 (kara) IM, give a feast. Occurs only

in II Kgs 6:23, wayyikreh lahem kéra

g°dola ‘and he gave a great feast for
them.”’

Derivative

1035a MND «(kéra) «=a feast (Il Kgs 6:23).

1036 33535 (Afriib) Cherub.

The name of various representations of angelic
beings which are represented as part human, part
animal. Usually used in the plural, cherubim. The
English, cherubims, uses a superfluous plural
ending.

The derivation of the word is dubious. The Ak-
kadian cognate verb means, “‘to bless, praise,
adore’ (CAD). As one of the characteristics of the
cherubim was adoration of God, this derivation
would appear suitable.

Cherubim are mentioned first as angelic guard-
ians of Paradise lost (Gen 3:24). Next they appear
as winged figures of pure gold facing each other
and overshadowing the atonement cover (NIV, the
KJV iS mercy seat, Ex 25:20). They were also a
prominent figure in the decorations of the taber-
nacle curtains (Ex 26:1, 31). Nothing is said here
of their shape except that they had faces, presum-
ably human, and wings. Significantly, Ex 25:22
says that God will speak with men from above
(mé‘al) the atonement cover from between (mib-
bin) the cherubim (so also Num 7:89). It is as-
sumed by Albright ef a/. that the iconography
represented Yahweh standing on the cherubim as
the storm god of Syria, Hadad, is represented as
standing on a sacred bull (W. F. Albright, ‘‘What
Were the Cherubim?”’ in The Biblical Archae-
ologist Reader, 1, p. 95). Indeed, in most places
the rsv translates the phrase ‘dwells (at) the
cherubim”’ (no preposition is expressed) as ‘‘on”’
(II Sam 6:2; I] Kgs 19:15: I Chr 13:6; Ps 80:1 [H 2];
99:1; Isa 37:16). In these places the NAsB supplied
‘‘above,’’ the kJv and Niv ‘‘between”’ in line with
the use of bin in Ex 25:22.

In Solomon's temple, cherubim were widely
used for decoration (I Kgs 6:29, 32; 7:29). In the
most holy place he made two large cherubim of
olive wood overlaid with gold. These cherubim
faced forward with their two inner wings touching
above the ark and their two outer wings touching
the walls of the shrine. Thus the wingspread of
each was fifteen feet. Presumably the original ark
with its two solid gold cherubim was under these
large touching wings.

In Ezekiel’s symbolic or millennial temple,
cherubim were used for decoration (Ezk 41: 18-20,
25) but no ark with its cherubim are mentioned.
The cherubim of the decorations each had two
faces, of a man and of a lion, facing in opposite
directions. The easiest way to understand this is to
hold that the cherub was standing upright with
faces turned right and left something like the

454

Hapsburg eagle, but certainty is not possible.
There is no need to suppose with Albnght and
many that they were sphinxes.

More detail can be gleaned from the vision of
Ezk 1 which 1s mentioned again in 9:3 and chapter
10 and in 11:22. There the cherubim stand as
corner posts of the structure bearing the throne of
God. They had a human body and hands (1:5; 10:7)
but the feet went straight down like a calf—
without the human ankle and toes. These
cherubim had four wings. Two covered their
bodies in modesty, two were extended upward so
that their tips touched the wings of the cherubim at
the other corners. The seraphs (fiery ones) of Isa 6
seem to be similar creatures. They had six wings
using the extra two to fly on God’s errands. The
description of Rev 4:6-8 has features reminiscent
of both Ezk and Isa. The cherubim of Ezk 1 had
four faces—of a man, lion, ox and eagle. Why
these four we do not know. It may be that they
represented birds, tame animals, wild animals and
men in attendance before God. Their four faces
were So placed that the structure could travel east,
west, north and south with lightning speed and
always go face forward with no_ steering
mechanism. The intersecting wheels (Ezk 1:16,
NIV) looking something like a gyroscope had the
same result. That these cherubim bore the throne
of God is perhaps the reason that the temple
cherubim are called a chariot in one verse (I Chr
28:18) though the reference is obscure. In the
theophany of Ps 18:10 [H 11] parallel to 11 Sam
22:11, the imagery is that God ‘‘mounted the
cherubim and flew, he soared on the wings of the
wind’’ (NIV).

Evidently the representation of these high
angelic beings varies from place to place, but they
are regularly near the throne of God engaged in
worship and service.

Bibliography: Albnght, W. F., ‘‘What Were
the Cherubim?” in The Biblical Archaeologist
Reader, |, p. 95. Acomb, D. E., **Cherub,”’ in
ZPEB, I, pp. 788-90. Woudstra, M., The Ark of
the Covenant from Conquest to Kingship, Pres-
byterian and Reformed, 1965, pp. 68-77.

R.L.H.

minssa (k‘ritut). See no. 1048a.
1037 555
1037a

(krk). Assumed root of the following.

395H (takrik) robe. Occurs in
the phrase w°takrik bus w*’arga-
man ‘‘a purple robe of fine linen’
(Est 8:15).

1038 3555 (krkb). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1038a 93553 (karkdb) arim(Ex 27:5; 38:4)
referring to the ledge of an altar.
Middle Hebrew, a bowl.

1042 953 (karmel)

1039 Dap (karkos) saffron (Song 4:14).
maand (karkara). See no. 1046.
1040 and (kdram) tend or dress vineyards or
vines. A denominative verb.

1041

1042 53

455

Parent Noun
1040a fans (kerem)

Vineyards are mentioned over ninety times in
the oT, first in connection with Noah (Gen 9:20).
Grape growing was and still is an important part of
Palestinian farming. The ‘‘grain, new wine, and
oil’? were the three prominent products of the field
(see tirésh). Grapes were trodden to make juice
for wine and also were dried to make raisins which
were widely used, to judge from Abigail's gift to
David (I Sam 25:18; cf. I] Sam 16:1). Treading the
winepress became a forceful figure of divine
judgment (Isa 63:3; Rev 14:19). The grapes of
Palestine were part of the proof of the productivity
of the land (Num 13:23), especially significant be-
cause Egypt did not specialize in grapes.
Vineyards were not to be picked clean, but glean-
ings were to be left for the poor (Lev 19:10). Fa-
mous is Naboth’s vineyard, his patrimony which
he would not part with, but which Ahab secured to
his own destruction.

Israel is God's vineyard (Isa $:1ff.; Jer 12:10).
God gave it special care, but it yielded bitter fruit.
‘*He looked for justice, but saw bloodshed; for
righteousness, but heard cries of distress’’ (Isa
5:7, NIv). Vineyards are part of the figures of
plenty and peace in the millennial day (Isa 65:21;
Amos 9:13). The vine is also used in the precious
NT figure, ‘‘I am the vine, you are the branches”
(John 15).

vineyard.

R.L.H.

27993 (karmel) I, plantation, garden-land;
garden-growth, fruit, orchard.

Often a garden planted between rows of fruit-
bearing trees (Isa 10:18; Jer 2:7; Jer 48:33; of a
garden-like forest (Isa 37:24) or of a stand of
stately cedars (II Kgs 19:23). Also of a kind of
food, whether made from fruit or from mashed or
compacted kernels forming a paste (Lev 23:14;
2:14).

(karmel) I, a promontory just below
‘Haifa (fertile and fruitful, Josh 19:26; I Kgs
18:19); @ mountain town on the west of the
Dead Sea (Josh 15:55; 1 Sam 25:5).

The Carmel range is prominent and famous. It
forms today the harbor of Haifa, which, however,
was blocked by marshes in former times. The
southern boundary of the fertile valley of Es-
draelon, it stretches back about thirteen miles to

1043 97993 (karmil)

the southeast attaining a height of 1742 feet.
Megiddo, situated by a pass through the range,
was the scene of crucial battles in the past. There
Thutmosis II] won a famous victory and Josiah
met his death at the hands of Pharaoh Necho.

The Carmel area has been inhabited since very
ancient times. The caves of Skhul and Tabun and
others in the Wadi el-Mugharah have yielded the
important skeletons of ‘“‘Carmel Man.’’ First
dated about 130,000 years ago they are now dated
by Carbon 14 at about 35,000. The presence of
Neanderthal features mixed with modern features
was a surprise and possibly suggested the restudy
of Neanderthal man which has concluded that he
was erect and modern in many ways (cf. Albnght,
W. F., The Archaeology of Palestine, rev. ed.,
Pelican, 1961, p. 55; for the dating, see Time and
Stratigraphy in the Evolution of Man, publ. 1469,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington,
1967, p. 20.).

Bibliography: Baly, D., Geography of Pales-
tine, Harper, 1957, especially pp. 152-53. Mare,
W.H., ‘‘Carmel,’’ in ZPEB, I, pp. 754—SS.

R.L.H.

1043 9955 (karmil) crimson, carmine.

BOD (kirsém). See no. 1013b.
1044 yap (kdra‘) bow down, kneel, sink down to
one’s knees, kneel down (to rest, of an ani-

mal), kneel in reverence, before God or a
king (Ps 22:30; 72:9).

Derivative

YI2 (kera‘) leg. Always used in
the dual and always of legs of an
animal. Once used of the hopping
legs of locusts, etc (Lev 11:21).

1044a

The verb means to bow down, but is applicable
both to bending in general and to bowing in wor-
ship or obeisance (thirteen times). It clearly refers
sometimes to kneeling. At least in II Kgs 1:13 the
captain went down on his Knees. Also, in Jud 7:6
the majority of Gideon’s army got down on their
knees to drink. Job 4:4 refers to the knees, ‘*you
have strengthened the feeble (bowed) knees.”’

But the word can be used more generally. It
refers to an animal’s crouching to rest (Num 24:9).
It also refers once to a woman bending in labor
pains (I Sam 4:19). The Hiphil more often refers
figuratively to bringing one low.

It is a natural picture that one who falls on his
knees in obeisance also bends his back. This ap-
parently is the connotation of the word as used for
the posture of worship. It does not mean to fall
prostrate on the ground; it means to fall on the
knees and bow in worship.

The important thing, naturally, is not the posi-

456

1045 bEs> (karpas)

1046 *595 = (kadrar).

1047 wes (krs).

tion, but the attitude. The word may give a clue,
however, to ancient positions used in prayer and
worship. Other words are gddad, bow the head,
shaha (properly hadwa) the most common word
for bow in worship.

R.L.H.

cotton or fine linen (Est
1:6).

Occurs only in the Pilpel,
m¢karkar **dancing’’ (literally whirling,
only in II Sam 6:14, 16).

Derivatives

1046a 33 (kar) lamb.
1046b fANp aD (kirkard) beasts.
1046c t33D (kikkar) round disk.

kar. Lamb, ram, captains. (ASV and RSV simi-
lar.) This word, which occurs thirteen times, has
no clear verbal root in Hebrew. Similar nouns are
found in both Akkadian and Ugaritic. It refers to
lambs raised for slaughter but not necessarily ina
cultic setting. Three times in Ezekiel it refers to
battering rams.

kirkara. Swift beasts. (asv and Rsv ‘‘drom-
edaries,’’ NiIv ‘‘camels.’’) Appears only in Isa
66:20 relating the swift modes of travel by which
their former captors will hurry the Jewish exiles
back to the homeland.

G.V.G.

kikkar. Round disk; district; loaf of bread. This
noun carries three different meanings. (1) A round
disk: of aleaden lid (Zech 5:7); of a disk of gold or
silver bullion, usually weighing one talent (II Sam
12:30; I Kgs 10:10); as a unit from which smaller
objects are made (Ex 25:39; I Kgs 9:14; the talent
weighed c. 75 pounds or 34.3 kilograms). (2) A
(circular) district, territory, used especially of the
Jordan Valley (Gen 13:10; I Kgs 7:46), or of the
district of Jerusalem (Neh 3:22; 12:28). (3) A circu-
lar loaf of bread (I Sam 2:36; Prov 6:36). (The
kikkar as a talent weighed 3000 shekels.)
G.L.A.

Assumed root of the following.

1047a wp (karés) belly (Jer 51:34).

1048 map (kdrat) cut off a part of the body, e.g.

head, hand, foreskin; cut down trees, idols;
cut out, eliminate, kill; cut (make) a covenant.

Derivatives
1048a fmimea> (k°ritat) dismissal.
1048b fminaa (k*ratét) beams.

Cognates are found in the Akkadian verb kardtu
‘‘to cut off’ and verbal adjective kartu *‘cut up,”’

as well as in Tigre where the verbal equivalent
means ‘‘to bring to an end.”’

In addition to the literal meaning of this root,
‘to cut off’ (Ex 4:25; I Sam 5:4) and ‘‘to cut
down’’ (I Kgs 5:20; a ‘‘woodcutter’’ in Isa 14:8)
there is the metaphorical meaning to root out,
eliminate, remove, excommunicate or destroy by
a violent act of man or nature. It is sometimes
difficult in a given context to know whether the
person(s) who is ‘“‘cut off’ is to be killed or only
excommunicated. Verses like Gen 9:11, ‘‘ Neither
shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a
flood’’ clearly refer to destruction, but Ex 12:15
appears to refer to exclusion from the community.
An interesting passage which illustrates the diffi-
culty in deciding whether the word is literal or
metaphorical in usage is Num 11:33. Did the Lord
strike the Israelites with a plague before the meat
of the quails was chewed (literally ‘*cut off’) or
was it while they were still eating quails before the
quails ceased to come or were removed?

The most important use of the root is *‘tocut’’ a
covenant b°rit (q.v.). The word here is pregnant
with theological meaning. A covenant must be cut
because the slaughter of animals was a part of the
covenant ritual] (Speiser, Genesis, in AB, p. 112;
BA 34:18). Genesis 15 is a significant passage in
this regard. The Lord made (cut) a covenant with
Abram (v. 18) involving a mysterious ceremony.
Animals were cut in half and the parts laid oppo-
site each other. E. Kutsch (THAT, I, p. 859) says
that this ritual does not mean (a) the union of the
two contracting parties (Gen 15:18) designated by
the flame’s passing through between the two
pieces (so C. F. Keil) because this meaning does
not fit in Jer 34:18 (JJ. J. P. Valeton, ZAW 12:227):
(b) the ‘‘mystical-sacramental unification’’ of the
two partners (B. Duhm, Das Buch Jeremia, 1901,
p. 284; J. Henninger, Biblica 3:344-53, esp. 352f.),
because in Gen 15:18 and Jer 34:18 only the sub-
ject of the b‘rit goes through, not the partner; (c)
neither ‘‘the purification’? of the one who goes
between the halves of the animal (cf. O. Masson,
‘‘A propos d’un rituel hittite pour la lustration
d’une armee,”’ Revue de |’ Histoire des Religions,
137:5-25), nor (d) that to this one is communicated
the living power released by the death of the ani-
mal in order to increase his capabilities (W. R.
Smith, Die Religion der Semiten, 1899, p. 243; E.
Bickerman, ‘‘Couper une allinace,’’ Archives
d'histoire du droit oriental, 5:133-56; F. Horst,
Gottes Recht, 1961, p. 309) because neither of
these interpretations finds support in the context
(D. J. McCarthy, Treaty and Covenant, 1963, pp.
5Sff.). Rather it depicts the self-destruction of the
one making the contract in an analogous way: that
the fate of the animal should befall him in the event
that he does not keep the b° rit (so already Rashi
and today the majority of interpreters). This
meaning is suggested by Jer 34:18 and is sup-

1050 >¥p (kashal)

ported by parallels in classical antiquity (cf. R.
Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im AT,
1896, pp. 44f; e.g. Livius I, 24), and in Israel's
world (e.g. E. Kutsch, kdrat b*rit ‘‘eine Verp-
flichtung festsetzen,”’ F. S. Elliger, 1971 (Rem.
26]). An eighth-century treaty reads, ‘‘As this calf
is cut to pieces so may Mati‘el be cut to pieces”’
(Sefireh, I,A). God’s covenant with Abraham in-
volved the redemptive history of the world. And
so the Creator of the universe binds himself
through this theophany-ritual to an unconditional
promise ratified by blood. The binding is sym-
bolized by the smoking furnace and flaming torch
passing between the pieces of the slain victims.
Perhaps it was a symbol that ultimate fulfillment
would come only when the God-man as an inno-
cent victim bore the curse of a broken body in
behalf of those who have broken the Covenant.

k*ritat. Dismissal, divorce. lt seems very likely
that this word is related to the root kdrat. The
word is used only a few times in the oT (Deut 24:1,
3; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8).

k°ratot. Beams hewn and cut off (I Kgs 6:36;
T2242):
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 857-60.
E.S.
minsd (k°rutdt). See no. 1048b.
sw2 (keseb). See no. 949.

1049 WD (kasd) be sated, gorged with food.

1050 %w> (kashal) stumble,

457

Occurs only in Deut 32:15, ‘“‘you grew
fat, became thick, were gorged.”’

Swap (kashshil). See no. 1050a.

totter, stagger
(usually from weakness or weariness, or
in flight from attackers).

Derivatives

1050a_ °&> (kashshil) ax (perhaps as
an instrument for felling trees) only
Ps 74:6.

1050b hyd «(kishshdlén) a stumbling, a
calamity.

1050c t5iwsr (mikshél) a_ stumbling, a
stumbling block.

1050d = m9war = (makshéla) decay, ruin.

The verb is usually used of physical falling, but
numbers of times the figurative use of failing or
ruin occurs (Ps 64:8 [H 9]; II Chr 25:8). However,
the root is rarely used in the sense of the NT
skandalidz6 ‘‘cause one to fall into sin.’’ The
nearest to this is Mal 2:8 where the priests by
their teaching ‘‘have caused many to stumble’’
(NIv). In Jer 18:15 it says the idols made the
people ‘‘stumble in their ways,”’ but here the fig-

1051 *Hwe (kashap)

ure is the frequent one of a path representing the
path of life. Proverbs 4:16 says the wicked cannot
sleep ‘‘till they make someone fall’ (Niv) which
probably, like Jeremiah, refers to stumbling in
the path of life. It is perhaps from this figure that
the idea of causing someone to stumble into sin
arose in the nT and in the Syriac usage of this
root.

mikshél. Stumbling-block, means or occasion
of stumbling: Lev 19:14; Isa 57:14; obstacle,
cause for guilt, occasion of stumbling (Job 7:19;
14:4; Ezk 7:19; 14:4). Or: defense of the heart
(I Sam 25:31); sar mikshél ‘‘a rock of offence.’’

R.L.H.

WoW (kishshalén). See no. 1050b.

1051 *mw> (kdshap) use witchcraft. Denomi-

native verb.
Related Nouns

10Sla tMwd (keshep) witchcraft.
10S1b tHwWD (kashshadp) sorcerer.

This verb and its related nouns mean the same
as the Akkadian kaSapu and the Ugaritic ktp
(sorcery). It occurs six times, in the Piel stem
only. The participial form is used five times.

The pharaoh of the exodus had those who prac-
ticed this variety of the occult in his retinue of
advisers (Ex 7:11). They are grouped with the
hakdmim (wise men) and hartummim (magicians,
q.v.).

These sorcerers were outlawed in Israel. In Ex
22:17 the feminine form appears (m° kashshép4a)
and in the long list of Deut 18:10 the masculine
(mm kashshép). The penalty was death.

Among the sins of King Manasseh was witch-
craft (II Chr 33:6). This is the only occurrence of
the finite verb form.

Another occurrence of the participle is in Dan
2:2. Like the pharaoh, King Nebuchadnezzar
summoned his ‘‘sorcerers’’ along with his
‘‘magicians’’ (hartummim), enchanters (‘ash-
shadpim, q.v.), and Chaldeans (kasdim).

Malachi saw these sorcerers being judged in
the end along with adulterers, liars, and oppres-
sors of widows, orphans, and foreigners (3:5).

keshep. Witchcraft, sorcery, soothsayer, spell.
This masculine noun occurs six times in the oT,
always in the plural (I] Kgs 9:22; Isa 47:9, 12; Mic
5:12 {H 11]; Nah 3:4 twice).

kashshap. Occurs only once, Jer 27:9, ‘‘sor-
cerer.”"

Bibliography: Davies, T. W., Magic, Divina-
tion, and Demonology, 1898, reprint, KTAV,
1969.

R.L.A.

458

1052 Awa = (kashér)

be right and proper to (in
‘the eyes of, Est 8:5); to prosper (Eccl
11:6). Cf. Akkadian kasdadru ‘‘succeed’’:
kishron is: skill; success (Eccl 2:21; 4:4);
advantage (Eccl 5:10). (Medieval Hebrew
kosher = “right and proper,’ 1.e. accord-
ing to the rules of ritual purity.)

Derivatives
1052a)ANWSD = (késhara) singing. Cf. UT
19: no. 1335.
10S2b NNW. (kishrén) success.
1052c }8=— WD (kishdr) distaff.
G.L.A.
1053 3nd (katab) write, record, enroll.
Derivatives
1053a 33 (k*tab) writing, document,
edict. Only used in exilic and
postexilic books.
1053b «=nand (k*tébet) a mark, perhaps a
tattoo (Lev 19:28).
1053c 33% (miktab) writing, the thing

written.

katab is the only general word for ‘‘write’’ and
it is widely used. Curiously, it is not used in
Genesis. Moses wrote on a scroll God’s curse on
the Amalekites (Ex 17:14). God himself wrote the
Ten Commandments (Ex 31:18). Moses also is
specifically said to have written the Book of the
Covenant (Ex 24:4), the Sinai legislation (Ex
34:27), the names of the leaders of the tribes
(Num 17:2-3 [17-18]), the wilderness itinerary
(Num 33:2), the law ‘from beginning to end”’
(Deut 31:9, 24) and Moses’ final song (Deut
31:22, 24). It is quite possible that the general
references of Deut 31:9 and 24 refer to the whole
of the Pentateuch (cf. Deut 28:58-61: 29:20-21)
although critical scholars refer it only to Deut—
and question even that.

References to wnting abound in the rest of the
oT. Joshua wrote (Josh 24:26), a young man
wrote for Gideon (Jud 8:14, NasB, NIV), Samuel
wrote the constitution of the kingdom—and oth-
ers, prophets, kings, scribes and common people
wrote as well. It appears from the many refer-
ences in I and II Kgs that the court records of
both Israel and Judah were written, preserved
and available. The series of such notations begins
with Solomon (I Kgs 11:41) and goes to the
breakup of the kingdom under Jehoiakim (II Kgs
24:5). Similar records were kept by the Babylo-
nian kings and some have been discovered
(Wiseman, D. J., Chronicles of the Chaldean
Kings, British Museum, 1956). Fortunately for
Mordecai such records were also kept by the Per-
sian kings. Like modern minutes and records,
they apparently made dry reading (Est 6:1-2).

The enigmatic references to the Book of Jasher
may possibly be explained as referring to similar
records. The word Jasher (like Jeshurun, Deut
33:26) is probably a poetic name for all Israel.
The Book: of Jasher may thus have been a record
book of the events of Israel in the pre-monarchy
days as the annals of the kings of Judah and of
Israel were in later days. It is mentioned only in
Josh 10:13 and 11 Sam 1:18. It bears no relation to
the apocryphal book of the same name.

According to R. K. Harrison, Wellhausen still
in his day held that the Hebrews did not write
before the times of the monarchy (HIOT, p. 201).
Such a view seems odd today, but it reminds us
how little archaeology was really known one
hundred years ago. Wniting began among the
Sumerians shortly before 3000 B.c. and at about
the same time in Egypt. There was a wealth of
literature by Abraham’s day and Moses, trained
in the learning of the Egyptians, surely could
write Egyptian, Akkadian and Hebrew, possibly
also Hurrian and Hittite.

Some have argued that although writing was
available it was little used among the Hebrews
who have left us few examples of their writing in
comparison to the nearly one million clay tablets
found in Mesopotamia and the abundant inscrip-
tions and papyri in Egypt. Actually, we do have
sporadic Hebrew wniting scattered from Solomon
to Ezra. We have very little after Ezra until the
Dead Sea Scrolls. One possible explanation for
this is that the Hebrews who used alphabetic
script wrote on papyrus and leather. These mate-
rials are well preserved in Egypt (and the Dead
Sea caves), but soon deteriorate in the Palesti-
nian rainy season.

F. F. Bruce rightly emphasizes that the He-
brews in Palestine had a great advantage over the
Egyptians and over those in Mesopotamia who
wrote on clay tablets. The Hebrews had an al-
phabet. Whereas one must know several hundred
signs to read Akkadian and also a large number to
read Egyptian, the Hebrews only had to learn
twenty-two. Says Bruce, “‘It is worth noticing
that it was the alphabet that made it possible for
all classes to be literate; its invention 1s therefore
a landmark of great importance in the history of
civilization,’” and, we may add, in the spread of
the knowledge of God’s word (The Books and the
Parchments, rev. ed., 1963, p. 30). Harrison
draws a significant conclusion, “It is no longer
necessary to assume that an extended period of
oral transmission iS a necessary prerequisite to
the written form of many if not all of the oT
documents as is common in liberal circles’’
(HIOT p. 209).

Bibliography: Bruce, F. F., The Books and
the Parchments, 3d ed., Revell, 1962. Cerny, J.,
Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt, Ares, 1977.
Driver, Godfrey R., Semitic Writing: From Pic-

1059 HND (katép)

tograph to Alphabet, rev. ed., 1954. HIOT, pp.
201-207. White, W., in ZPEB, V, pp. 995-1015.
R.L.H.

nan> (k*tobet). See no. 1053c.
mma (k°tit). See no. 1062a.

1054 %m> (Atl). Assumed root of the following.

1054a 9nd (kdtel) wall of house.

1055 *an> (katam) I, only Niphal: be stained,
be defiled. (Aramaic k*tam; kitmd, a
stain: Syriac k® tam ‘‘be defiled.’’ Akka-
dian katadmu “‘to cover.’’)

1056 ans (ktm) Il. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1056a tens (miktam) miktam. A _tech-
nical term which appears in Psalm titles. Mean-
ing unknown. For related terms, see sela.

This term is used in six Psalm titles, always
linked with /°dawid ‘‘of’’ or ‘‘belonging to David’”’
(Ps 16, 56-59). All six are psalms of lament and four
of the headings have historical references to
David's struggles with the Philistines (56), Saul
(S57, 59) and the Arameans (60). If it comes froma
root ‘‘to cover” (cf. Akkadian katamu). miktam
could mean a ‘“‘song of covering’ or ‘‘atone-
ment.’’ Another view understands the term to
mean an ‘engraving,’ such as an inscription on a
stone slab, perhaps with gold letters (ketem =
gold). For other such terms see seld.

H.W.

1057 ane

Apparently this word is of Nubian ongin.
Egyptian spells k-t-m.t in syllabic writing, imply-
ing a loan word. But cf. Akkadian kitimmu
‘*goldsmith’’. See Ps 45:10; Job 28:16, 19: Isa
13:12: Prov 25:12; Dan 10:5.

(ketem) gold.

G.L.A.

1058 373 (ktn). Assumed root of the following.
1058a tmgmnd (Kuttonet) tunic, a long shirt-
like garment, usually of linen (Gen

37:3; If Sam 15:32; Isa 22:21).

Adam's was made of fur (Gen 3:21). Also worn
by women (I] Sam 13:18; Song 5:3). Worn es-
pecially by priests (Ex 28:4; 29:5; 39:27; Lev 8:7;
10:5; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:69). (Cf. Akkadian kitinnu
or kitintu, a linen garment made from kit linen;
the Aramaic kitti#ind’ is the same as the Hebrew.)
The word was borrowed by the Greek yitov.

PIND (kittonet). See no. 1058a.
1059 MQ (katép) shoulder, shoulder-blade, side
or slope (of a hill).

459

1060 *an> (katar)

(Distinct from Baw sh°kem which includes
neck and shoulders.) Of man: I Sam 17:6; Deut
33:12; of refractory beasts: Neh 9:29; of butch-
ered meat: Ezk 24:4; shoulder-piece of ephod: Ex
28:7; mountain-slope: Num 34:11; supports of the
bases for the lavers beside the temple: I Kgs 7:30.

G.L.A.
1060 *"n> (katar) surround (Piel);
round (with hostility, Hiphil).

SUT-

Derivatives

1060a "Md (keter) crown (Est only).

1060b *Sn> (kdtar) tocrown. Denomina-
tive verb.

1060c ANND (kdteret) capital of a pillar.

MIND (kdteret). See no. 1060c.

460

1061 wnp (kdtash) pound, pound fine, bray.
Occurs only in Prov 27:22, ’im-tiktosh
’et-ha’ éwil bammaktésh ‘if you pound the
fool in the mortar.”’
Derivative
1061a whose (maktésh) mortar (Prov
2122).
1062 mop (katat) crush to pieces, crush fine.
Derivatives
1062a mend (katit) beaten, pounded fine,
in a mortar, costly.
1062b AMS «(mkitta) crushed fragments

(Isa 30:14, only).

1063 9 (/*) to, at, in, in reference to, of, by
etc. In recent translations, occasionally
‘*from.””

Even though Hebrew possessed, at least in its
later stages, a large number of prepositions, many
prepositional functions remained concentrated in
the four prefixes; b°, k®, 1°, and min. Of these, /°
most nearly corresponded to the Indo-European
dative case. (The present article relies very heav-
ily on the BDB entry.)

/€ may indicate direction, either of physical
movement (“‘that I may go ‘to’ my country’’ Gen
30:25) or of personal attention or attitudes. The
Psalmist asked God to attend ‘‘to’’ him (Ps 55:2
(H 3}). The Psalmist also affirmed that his soul
would not be deserted ‘*to’’ Sheol (Ps 16:10). God
mocked ‘‘at’’ rebels (Ps 2:4; rsv ‘‘have in de-
rision.’’).

It may indicate the direction or result of a trans-
formation or change. God’s fashioning of Adam’s
rib ‘“‘into’’ a woman (Gen 2:22) and the expres-
sions, ‘‘who put bitter ‘for’ sweet and sweet ‘for’
bitter’? (Isa 5:20) are clear examples. A process
might endow a given object with a new character
or role. Plant life was designated as being man’s
‘*for food’’ (Gen 1:29). The Levite took on service
‘‘for a pnest for Micah’’ (Jud 17:13).

It expresses location both in space and in time.
Spatial location is exemplified in such phrases as
‘‘at the door’’ (Gen 4:7) and *‘at Michmash’’ (Isa
10:28); temporal location by such phrases as “‘in
times of trouble’’ (Ps 9:9 [H 10}) and ‘*in the spring
of the year’’ (II Sam 11:1).

A very numerous and vaguely defined body of
usages is grouped under the heading, reference.”
In these usages, the meaning of /* is best regarded
as something rather vague like ‘‘in reference to’’
with the exact meaning derived from the context.
Abraham requested of Sarah, **Say, ‘in reference
to’ me”’ (Gen 20:13). A census could be conducted
‘**in reference to’ (i.e. “‘according to’’) fathers’
houses’’ (Num 1:2).

It can indicate possession as in “‘the man ‘of’
you’’ (I Sam 2:33) and ‘‘your sons”’ (II Kgs 10:30;
lit ‘‘sons ‘to’ you’’). Such a construction, ‘*my
own possession’ (Ex 19:5; lit. ‘‘possession ‘to’
me’’), expresses God’s special relation to his
people within the requirements of the covenant.

/° may express the construct relation in cases in
which a construct chain would be grammatically
awkward or impossible. It is especially useful if
the writer wished to keep the possessed item in-
definite (e.g. ‘‘two slaves ‘to’ Shimei’’ meaning
two of Shimei's slaves, I Kgs 2:39).

The subject of passive verbal ideas may be thus

463

introduced: ‘Blessed be Abram ‘by’ God” (Gen
14:19). From a purely descriptive perspective, the
direct object of some verbs is marked by /° **with
which your enemies shall distress you’’ (Deut
28:53; i.e. *“make distress ‘for’ you’’) and ‘‘save
us’’ (Josh 10:6; 1.e. “*make deliverance ‘for’ us’’).
This is common in Aramaic.

Used with infinitives, tt may indicate purpose
(‘for bearing,’ Eccl 3:2), result ("* ‘so as to’ walk
... and ‘to’ fear,’’ Deut 8:6), an infinitive of refer-
ence (“do not go far ‘in reference to’ going,”’ Ex
8:28), or an objectival infinitive ("began ‘to’ mul-
tiply,’’ Gen 6:1).

There is an additional meaning of /° suggested
from Ugaritic and now accepted by many in He-
brew, the meaning “‘from.*’ Gordon says that the
most interesting feature of Ugantic prepositions
is the meaning *‘from’’ for both } and / (UT 10:1).
He alleges that Ps 84:11 [H 12}, also Josh 2:4
where ‘“‘from the tribes of Israel’’ with /° is par-
allelled by 4:4, ‘*from each tnbe”’ with min. Da-
hood gives other examples from the Pss (Psalms,
AB, III, p. 394). Holladay’s Lexicon does not
offer this usage, but does admit an emphatic and
asseverative use in agreement with Dahood.

1064 s® (16’) not, no.

lo’ was the primary Hebrew term for factual
negation in contrast to ‘al which typically de-
scribed potential negation. Other negatives
functioned less frequently for factual negation
(e.g. ‘ayin, bal and bli). This article will, first,
examine the major syntactical functions of /o’,
and, secondly, study some theologically signifi-
cant negations expressed by this term.

Major syntactical functions. lo’ negates factual
Statements in all time frameworks. It serves to
negate omnitemporal, general statements. The
happy man does not walk in the counsel of the
ungodly (Ps 1:1). Further, he is likened to a tree
whose foliage does not wither (vs. 3). It negates
past statements (‘‘I did not call," I Sam 3:6), pre-
sent statements (‘‘I am not a prophet,’ Amos
7:14 [many would take this as past time, but there
are plenty of other possible illustrations. R.L.H.]),
and future statements (‘‘It will never be inhab-
ited,”’ Isa 13:20). It is used in emphatic future
negations (*‘Surely, you shall not die,” Gen 3:4).
It negates adjectival attributes such as ‘a son,
not wise’ (Hos 13:13) and *‘a way, not good”’ (Ps
36:4).

It may be used in an emphatic negative com-
mand: **You shall not kill’ (Ex 20:13). For a mil-
der negative, ‘a/ with the jussive is used. The
Hebrew imperative ts never used with a negative.

1065 385 (/’b)

i/o’ is used in negative final clauses as in Ex 28:43.
‘‘So that they not (i.e. “lest they’’) bring guilt.”’
lo’ followed by /* with an infinitive states that
something cannot or must not happen (e.g. **‘He
could not drive out,’’ Jud 1:19, and ‘‘We must not
mention,’’ Amos 6:10). As a negative adverb, it
may indicate denial or refusal (Jud 12:5). Like
English ‘‘not’’ it may indicate a question: *‘And
should IJ not pity...?°’’ (Jon 4:11). Double nega-
tion occurs (Zeph 2:2).

/6’ is used in several negative compounds:
b*1l6’, without; halo’, not so?; walo’, and/if not;
Alo’, as though not; /*/6’, without; and ‘im lo’,
if not.

Some theologically significant negations.
Philosophers have long referred to language of
negation in describing the transcendent attributes
of God. Biblical negations using ld’ frequently
describe God. God transcends humanistic
models: *‘God is not a man’’ (Num 23:19). God so
transcends human capacities, especially man’s
moral capacities, that men cannot see God and
live (Ex 33:20). God is immutable; his character
does not change (Mal 3:6). God's unchanging
faithfulness is spoken of, most particularly in re-
gard to his covenants (Ps 89:33-34). God’s near-
ness (‘‘not a God afar off,’* Jer 23:23) implies his
omnipresence. God is not confined by finite (or
infinite) space (I Kgs 8:27). Nor is God bound by
time (Ps 102:27 [H 28]). God’s holiness 1s shown
in that evil cannot exist in his presence (Ps 5:4—5).

There are other negations worthy of notice.
Several describe the powerlessness of idols: they
are impotent (i.e. ‘‘They are not able’’) in the
time of captivity (Isa 46:2); they cannot move
from their place, do not answer, and cannot save
(Isa 46:7). Finally, in the Davidic covenant, the
Hebrews will someday be settled in the land not
to be disturbed or afflicted again (II Sam 7:10).
Neither shall God's covenant faithfulness turn
from the Davidic dynasty (II Sam 7:15).

On occasion there is uncertainty as to whether
lo’, not, or /6, to him, is intended in the Hebrew
text (e.g. Job 13:15; ksv “Yet will I trust him,”
i.e. “to him,’’ and rsv ‘‘I have no hope’’). Con-
text, versions, and general theology must be re-
lied on in such cases.

1065 ss> (/’bd).
106Sa A389 (tal’uba)
13:5).

Assumed root of the following.
drought (Hos

1066 "89 (/a’d) be weary, grieved, offended.
Derivative
1066a iAN89H (1°ld’a) toil, hardship.

la’a refers either to physical or psychological
weariness and is used in poetic figures based
upon both. The physical weariness of the runner

464

1067 Os? (d'art)

1068 sso (Ik).

is thus described (Jer 12:5). The Sodomites are
described as physically wearied from searching
for Lot’s door (Gen 19:11). Physical weariness is
sarcastically attributed to Moab from much activ-
ity in idolatry (Isa 16:12; cf. Prov 26:15).

Psychological weariness expresses several at-
titudes. On Job's part, discouragement (Job 4:5)
and annoyance (Job 4:2) are thus described. Dis-
gust is also indicated by /a’a4 when the Egyptians
are said to be too ‘“‘tired”’ to drink the corrupted
waters of the Nile (Ex 7:18) and when God is
depicted as ‘‘tired’’ of the Hebrews’ insincere re-
ligious rituals (Isa 1:14). As a poetic figure weari-
ness describes the land struck by drought condi-
tions (Ps 68:9 [H 10).

Often the idiom of ‘‘being weary’’ with some-
thing serves as a dramatic, poetic way of assert-
ing that there is an objectionable excess of what
causes weariness. The Hebrews were wearied by
‘too many”’ pagan, religious advisors (Isa 47:13).
Attempting to hold in God’s message of wrath
was too much for Jeremiah to bear (Jer 6:11).
God himself was weary from too much relenting
(Jer 15:6).

tla’4. Toil, hardship (rsv “‘hardship,’’ ‘‘ad-
versity’’). The primary reference is to that which
produces weariness. It refers to the wilderness
hardships of the Hebrews (Ex 18:8; Num 20:14),
the troubles of the restored Hebrew community
(Neh 9:32), and the judgments which God
brought upon his sinful people (Lam 3:5). Corre-
spondingly, insincere religious services were
called a source of weariness for God (Mal 1:13).

A.B.

cover. Occurs only in II
Sam 19:5, *‘the king covered his face.”

eso (la’t). See no. 1092a.

Assumed root of the following.

tint) (mal’ak) messenger, _repre-

sentative.
1068b thos (m*1a’ka)

1068a

work, business.

1068c tmiss?% (mal’akit) message, only
only in Hag 1:]3.

mal’ak. Messenger, representative, courtier,

angel. ‘‘Messenger’’ is an inadequate term for

the range of tasks carried out by the ot mal’ak.
These were 1) to carry a message, 2) to perform
some other specific commission, and 3) to repre-
sent more or less officially the one sending him.
There were both human and_= supernatural
m‘la’kim, the latter including the Angel of
Yahweh (i.e. the Angel of the Lord).

Human messengers. The human mal’ak could
be a message bearer (Gen 32:2). The kinds of
messages varied. They may have announced

good news (I Sam 6:21), threats (1 Kgs 19:2), or
requests (Num 20:14; 22:5; Jud 7:24). However,
the term was applied to courtiers or retainers sent
for other purposes. They could spy (Josh 6:25) or
kill (1 Sam 19:11; I] Kgs 6:32). David sent **mes-
sengers’’ to summon Bathsheba (I] Sam 11:4).
The m‘la’kim could serve as diplomatic repre-
sentatives (Jud 11:12-14; I] Sam 5:11: 1 Kgs
20:2).

Men, particularly the prophets, could serve as
God's messengers. For the prophets, the term
implied official representation of God as well as
message bearing (11 Chr 36:15-16; Hag 1:13).
David is called an *‘angel/messenger of God.’ A
possible interpretation is that David represented
God in that he represented some particular divine
attribute: innocence (1 Sam 29:9), wisdom
(11 Sam 14:17), or hoped-for graciousness (IJ Sam
19:27). In Isaiah, God's messenger is seen in
weakness (Isa 42:19).

Supernatural messengers. (This section deals
only with the term mal'ak, not with the broader
area of angelology.) Supernatural messengers
represented the same general range of functions
as human messengers. Message-bearing might be
central (Zech 1:9; 5:5). More often they per-
formed some particular commission such as
guarding a human effort like the search for
Isaac's bride (Gen 24:40) or protecting the He-
brews in the wilderness (Ex 23:20). They exe-
cuted judgment (I] Sam 24:17; Ps 78:49), deliv-
ered (Gen 19:12-17), and protected (Ps 91:11).
A special function of supernatural messengers/
angels is that they, by their very presence, pre-
sent an aspect of God's glory (Gen 28:12-17: cf.
angels in Isa 6, Ezk 1, Rev 4:6-8, and the
cherubim in the Holy of Holies). In addition they
join in active praise to God (Ps 148:2; cf. Isa 6:3).

The Messenger/Angel of Yahweh. This figure
has the same general range of functions as other
messengers. He brought messages, good (Gen
16:10-13) and threatening (Jud 5:23). He per-
formed specific commissions of judgment (II Kgs
19:35; Ps 35:5-6) and deliverance (Gen 22:11: Ps
34:7 [H 8]). He could also be called the *‘angel of
God” (Jud 13:6, 9, cf. v. 3), though this title is not
exclusively his. He alone had the ministry of
intercession with God in behalf of men (Zech
1:12; 3:1-S).

There has been extensive discussion of his
identity. He seems to be God, since those who
see him marvel that they have seen God (Jud
13:21-22) and he speaks for God in the first per-
son (Gen 16:10; Ex 3:2, 6; Jud 2:1). He is iden-
tified with the pre-incarnate Christ on the
grounds of similarity in functions, especially the
intercessory function noted above.

mla’ka. Work, business, craftsmanship, goods,
property. Like the English ‘“‘work,” m°lda’ka

465

1069 ax> (i'm).

1069 ox® (/’m)

could refer either to the activity of working, the
requisite skills of work, or to the results of work.
In contrast to terms like ‘@mal and yaga‘ which
emphasized the toilsome, laborious side of work,
this term emphasized work as involving skill and
benefits.

All work was banned both on the weekly Sab-
bath (Ex 20:9-10) and on the festal Sabbaths (Lev
16:29). God himself ceased from working on the
Sabbath day (Gen 2:1-2).

Turning to specific usages of mla’kd, it could
refer to a particular task or project at hand (Neh
5:16) or it could refer to one’s routine or habitual
work, i.e. one’s business (Gen 39:11; Prov 18:9).
It referred to the king’s business (I Sam 8:16) and
that of the royal bureaucracy (I Kgs 9:23).

*“Work’’ referred to skilled craftsmanship
when God endowed men with supernatural skills
for the skilled work of the tabernacle (Ex 31:3:
RSV, “‘craftsmanship’’), and Solomon imported
Phoenician craftsmen for the skilled work of the
temple (1 Kgs 7:14).

The resulting products of work, both skilled
and unskilled, were described by this term.
Moses looked upon the skilled **work”™ of the
tabernacle (Ex 39:43). Or it could refer to prop-
erty in general without regard to special skills or
value (e.g. I Sam 15:9, ‘‘all that was despised”’
for ‘every despised work’’; cf. also Ex 22:8, 11).

Bibliography: Funderburk, G. B., **Angel,”
in ZPEB I, pp. 160-66.

A.B.

Assumed root of the following.

10692 tax? (fom), B58? (I’6m)_ na-
tion(s), people(s). (ASV and RSV
agree.)

The Semitic root (as seen in Arabic la'ama
‘‘assemble’’) suggests that the meaning of the
word is togetherness, i.e. the common people
considered as a whole. The word is also found in
Ugaritic, (UT 19:no 1346) Girdlestone (Synonyms
of the Old Testament, Eerdmans, reprint, 1975,
p. 257) translates /*’6m as *‘race.’” However, it is
used to refer to peoples in their varied walks of
life (Ps 44:14 [H 15]; Prov 11:26).

In Gen 25:23, Rebekah is told that two nations
(gdvim) are in her womb and two /°’&mmim are
to be separated from her. Cne /°’6m is to be
stronger than the other. Isaac's progeny would
consist of two distinct types of people, each iden-
tified by their unique quality. In Gen 27:29 ‘am-
mim appears as a near-synonym for /°’a&mmim.
The thought expressed is that people, in unified
groups and reflecting varying characteristics, are
to express homage to Abraham's grandson.

In Ps, /°’6m is used in synonymous parallelism
with gdyim (44:2 [H 3]) and ‘ammim (Ps 7:7
[H 8]). In Ps 67 all three terms express the Psal-

1070 83° (/b’)

mist’s desire that all men, of whatever relation-
ship or characteristic, praise the Lord. In Prov
and Isa, parallel phrases indicate that the term ts
qualified by its synonyms, but the thrust of the
term remains: all people in their definable groups.
This clearly suggests the unity and the diversity
of humanity.

G.V.G.

55 (/éb). See no. 1071a.

1070 s3° (/b'). Assumed root of the following.

(1070a 939 (Ibi) lion. Occurs only in Ps
57:5 in phrase napshi b° tok I° ba’im
and Nah 2:13, lib’étdyw.

1070b = 8939 (/*biya’) lioness, only in Ezk
19:2.

1070c =tN°39 (labi’) lion (often “lioness”
in RSV).

The Akkadian cognate is labbu (from an origi-
nal lab’u?), Ugaritic Ibu, Arabic labu’at, possi-
bly the source of Greek leon.

labi’ often serves as a symbol of the violence of
men (Gen 49:9; Num 23:24): the violence of God
in judgment (Hos 13:8); desolation (Isa 30:6).
God's great power overwhelms even the mighty
lion (Job 4:11). Other words for lion include
k‘pir, ’aryéh, layish and shahal.

A.B.

1071 *339 (labab) ravish (Piel), become in-
telligent (Niphal). Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

107la +39 (léb), 39°
understanding.

1071b tm39 (libbd) heart.

1071c tags (l*biba) bread.

1071d t33° (libbéb) cook bread. Denom-
inative verb, occurring only in the
Piel.

ldbab occurs as a denominative verb from /éb
(Song 4:9). Translated *‘ravished my heart” (KJv,
RSV) and ‘‘made my heart to beat faster’’ (NASB).
BDB suggests ‘*encouraged.”’

‘*Become intelligent’’ suits the single Niphal
usage (Job 11:12).

leb, leébab. Heart, understanding, mind (also
used in idioms such as *‘to set the heart upon”’
meaning “‘to think about’’ or “to want’’).
Concrete meanings of /éb referred to the inter-
nal organ and to analogous physical locations.
However, in tts abstract meanings, “‘heart’’ be-
came the richest biblical term for the totality of
man’s inner or immaterial nature. In biblical lit-
erature it is the most frequently used term for
man's immaterial personality functions as well as

(lébab) heart,

466

the most inclusive term for them since, in the
Bible, virtually every immaterial function of man
is attributed to the “*heart.”’

Very few usages of /éb refer to concrete, phys-
ical meanings. The death accounts of Nabal
(I Sam 25:37) and Joram (II Kgs 9:24) likely refer
to the physical organ. The physical organ defined
the location of Aaron’s breastplate (Ex 28:29).
Psalm 38:9 probably refers to the beating of the
physical organ. Physical ‘‘innerness’’ is ex-
pressed by ‘‘heart.’’ The deeps congealed ‘‘in the
heart of’ the sea (Ex 15:8) and the fires of Sinai
rose ‘‘to the heart of’ Heaven (Deut 4:11). The
usage of ‘heart’ for a divinely given vital princi-
ple may best fit Job 34:14—15 (‘if he take back to
himself the heart he gave,’ writer’s paraphrase).

By far the majority of the usages of /éb refer
either to the inner or immaterial nature in general
or to one of the three traditional personality
functions of man: emotion, thought, or will.

In referring to the inner nature, /éb may con-
trast some relatively obscure or less visible as-
pect of man’s nature with the more public side of
his being. It may be regarded as an inner reflec-
tion of the outer man (Prov 27:19; Rsv “‘mind’’).
Dream consciousness may be meant when the
heroine's ‘‘heart’’ was awake though her body
slept in the Song of Songs (5:2). Statements such
as ‘‘Why does your heart carry you away?” (Job
15:12) contrast the heart with the remainder of
the person. However, in other contexts, “*heart”’
expresses the totality of a man’s nature and
character, both inner and outer (I Kgs 8:23; Ps
9:1 (H 2)).

Closely related to the above is the usage of /éb
as an emphatic personal term (cf. similar usage of
nepesh, ‘esem, etc.) The plagues are sent, not
just upon Pharaoh, but upon Pharaoh's heart (Ex
9:14). Thus, Jacob's stealing of Laban’s heart
might emphasize Laban as the object of Jacob’s
actions rather than Jacob's subtlety (Gen 31:20;
cf. Rsv, ‘Jacob outwitted Laban’’). Similarly, the
breastplate of judgment on Aaron's heart may
emphasize Aaron as the bearer of judgment as
well as a bodily location (Ex 28:29). A variation
of this usage is ‘“‘heart”’ as reflexive: ‘‘Refresh
your hearts’’ for *“‘Refresh yourselves’ (Gen
18:5) and ‘‘strengthen your heart’’ for ‘‘streng-
then yourself (with food)"* (Jud 19:5).

The whole spectrum of emotion is attributed to
the heart. Examples of positive emotions are the
following: Hannah’s heart rejoiced (1 Sam 2:1) as
should the hearts of those who seek the Lord
(1 Chr 16:10). Love may be centered in the heart,
as when Delilah complained that Samson's heart
was not with her (Jud 16:15). Absalom gained for
himself the loyalty of the Hebrew nation by steal-
ing their hearts (II Sam 15:6). The joyful excite-
ment from the news that Joseph was alive made
Jacob’s heart faint (Gen 45:26). Reception of

comfort is seated in the heart as in the idiom ‘‘to
speak to the heart’’ (Gen 34:3; Isa 40:2) for “*to
comfort.”’

As for negative emotions, grief is “‘evil of
heart’ (Neh 2:2; Rsv ‘‘sadness of heart’’).
David's regret or bad conscience at cutting Saul’s
garment is expressed as ‘‘his heart struck him’’
(I Sam 24:6; cf. Il Sam 24:10). God’s regret at
creating man is centered in God's heart (Gen 6:6).
The broken heart accompanies being oppressed
(Ps 34:18 [H 19]}). Contempt (II Sam 6:16), envy
(Prov 23:17), and anger (Prov 19:3) are all
functions of the heart.

Idioms relating the heart to fear and bravery
are sO numerous as to deserve separate treat-
ment. Fear is expressed as follows: The heart
may ‘‘go out”’ or “‘leave’’ (Gen 42:28; kJv, RSV,
‘‘fail’’); it may ‘‘fall’’ (I Sam 17:32: rsv, **fail’’).
To remove courage is to hinder the heart (Num
32:7, 9). Fear occurs when the heart ‘‘deserts”’ its
owner (Ps 40:12 (H 13}; kyv, “‘fails’’) or “‘melts”’
(Josh 14:7). Trembling of heart may represent
emotions ranging from the complete demoraliza-
tion of God’s people under judgment (Deut 28:65;
cf. I Sam 28:5) to Eli's anxiety over the welfare of
the ark of God (I Sam 4:13). On the other hand
the ‘“‘heart of a lion’’ speaks of courage (II Sam
17:10).

Thought functions may be attributed to the
heart. In such cases it Is likely to be translated as
‘‘mind”* or ‘‘understanding.*’ To ‘‘set the heart
to’’ may mean to “‘pay attention to’’ (Ex 7:23) or
to ‘‘consider important’ (II Sam 18:32). Creative
thought is a heart function. Wicked devices origi-
nate in the heart (Gen 6:5). The rSv translates
‘‘which came upon Solomon's heart”’ as ‘‘all that
Solomon had planned” (I] Chr 7:11).

Wisdom and understanding are seated in the
heart. The ‘wise heart’’ (1 Kgs 3:12; rsv, ‘‘wise
mind’’) and “‘wise of heart’? (Prov 16:23) are
mentioned. This idiom can be so strongly felt that
‘heart’ virtually becomes a synonym for such
ideas as ‘‘mind’’ (II Chr 9:23; rsv) or ‘‘sense’’
(Prov 11:12; rsv). The heart functions in percep-
tion and awareness as when Elisha’s heart (i.e.
Elisha’s perceptive nature; RSV ‘‘spirit’’) went
with Gehazi (II Kgs 5:26). As the seat of thought
and intellect, the heart can be deluded (Isa 44:20;
RSV ‘‘mind’’).

The heart is the seat of the will. A decision may
be described as “‘setting’’ the heart (IJ Chr
12:14). ‘Not of my heart’’ expresses ‘‘not of my
will’ (Num 16:28). The ‘‘hearts’’ of the Sheche-
mites inclined to follow Abimelech (Jud 9:3).
Removal of the decision-making capacity is de-
scribed as hardening the heart (Ex 10:1: Josh
11:20). Closely connected to the preceding is the
heart as the seat of moral responsibility. Righte-
ousness is ‘integrity of heart’* (Gen 20:5). Moral
reformation is to ‘‘set one’s heart aright’? (Job

467

1072 *O39 (ldbat) thrust

1073 °3> (ib?) lion.

1074 935 (lbn).

1074 33° (/bn)

11:13). The heart is described as the seat of moral
evil (Jer 17:9).

Personality dispositions may be considered as
more or less permanent personality patterns.
Some typical dispositions located in the heart are
generosity (‘‘generous heart’’; Ex 35:5), pride
(‘his heart became high’’; II Chr 26:16), and faith
(“*the heart made firm’’; Ps 78:8).

libba. Heart (kjv, RSV), rage (KB). Unique
form of unclear meaning (Ezk 16:30). Perhaps a
variant of /éb.

Itbiba. A kind of bread. Perhaps pancakes
(BDB) or heartshaped (KB) bread (II Sam 13:6,
8, 10).

libbéb. Piel denominative verb for cooking the
l°biba bread (II Sam 13:6, 8).

Bibliography: ‘‘Heart,’’ JewEnc. Pedersen,
Johs, Israel, its Life and Culture, vol. 11, Oxford,
1959, pp. 102-8. TDOT, III, pp. 606-11; VII, pp.
908-13; IX, pp. 626-28. THAT, 1, pp. 861-66.

A.B

See no. 107Ic.
See no. 1077b.
See no. 107Sa.

mas? (I*biba).
m3? (labba).
wis? (i bash).

down, out, or
away. Occurs only in the Niphal (Hos
4:14; Prov 10:8, 10).

A form from [b’ q.v.
See no. 1070b.
See no. 1070c.

8939 (I*biya’).
8°32 (labi’).

Assumed root of the following.
1074a 139 (ldban) white.
1074b *t139 (labén) be white.
in the Hiphil.
1074c «6 tms) (l’ band) moon.
1074d tmys> = (Itbdnaé), 7535
frankincense.
1074e 9 t33332 «(/°banén) Lebanon.
1074f 339 (libneh) poplar. Occurs only
in Gen 30:37; Hos 4:13.
tm3% «(1° bend) _ brick.
139 (laban) make bricks. Denom-
inative verb.
10741 339% (malbén) brick mold.

The Semitic root /bn referred to a range of light
colors including: the white of snow, the light
brown or creamy color of fresh wood and manna,
the grey of the moon, the white of yogurt
(Lebanese Arabic), and, finally, either the white
snow caps of the Lebanon mountains or their
light colored limestone. The Hebrew derivatives
vary in their individual theological overtones.

Occurs only

(l°béna )

1074g
1074h

1074 339 (Ibn)

laban. White. Describes goats (Gen 30:35),
peeled wood (Gen 30:37), manna (Ex 16:31),
horses (Zech 1:8; 6:3), milk (Gen 49:12), and the
infection of leprosy (Lev 13). Its theological sig-
nificance is relatively limited. As the color of
leprous infection, it may represent corruption
and death. Zechariah’s white horses, particularly
in comparison with the white horse of Revelation
(6:2), may signify military conquest. In contrast,
the white garments advocated by the Preacher
accompany a restrained hedonism (Eccl 9:7-9).
In Gen 49:12 the whiteness is probably descrip-
tive and refers to prosperity and abundance.

labén. Be white. A denominative verb derived
from /dbdn. Its major theological motif relates
whiteness to moral purity. The cleansing which
God brings to the sinner makes the sinner white
as snow (Ps 51:7 {H 9]; Isa 1:18). The cleansing of
martyrdom also makes white (Dan 11:35). A
fourth (in the Hithpael) has been translated both
reflexively (Dan 12:10; rsv ‘“‘make themselves
white’’; and passively (k)v ‘‘made white’’). While
either translation is grammatically defensible, the
latter translation avoids the misleading sugges-
tion that such moral cleansing comes by self-
reformation. The white tree branches of Joel 1:7
represent the judgment accomplished by voraci-
ous locusts.

i‘bana. Moon. A poetic term for the moon (cf.
yaréah). It is used in poetic figures both for
beauty and for glory. As a figure for beauty it
describes a beautiful maiden (Song 6:10). The in-
creased light of the moon symbolizes the miracu-
lous glory of the coming golden age (Isa 30:26).
On the other hand, the glory of the moon will be
superseded by God’s glory which is to be re-
vealed in that same age (Isa 24:23).

l*bona, Itbona. Frankincense. A resin from the
bark of trees of the genus Boswellia. As the
amber resin dries, white dust forms on the drops
or tears of frankincense thus giving rise to its
Semitic name. In biblical times most frankincense
came either from or via Sheba in southern
Arabia. It was a major item in the ancient luxury
trade in spices.

In the oT it is significant as one of the ingre-
dients of the holy incense (Ex 30:34) and as part
of the cereal offering (Lev 2:1; kjv ‘‘meat offer-
ing’). The frankincense seems to have held a
high degree of sanctity since all the frankincense
was included in that portion of the cereal offering
given as God’s memorial portion (Lev 6:15). It
was excluded from the cereal offering for
jealousy (Num 5:15). It was also sprinkled on the
shewbread (Lev 24:7). Frankincense seemed to
be such a characteristic element in the sacrificial
system that the term could be used to represent
the entire system (Isa 43:23; Jer 6:20).

468

It could also symbolize luxury and sensuality
(Song 3:6; 4:6, 14).

I-banoén. Lebanon. Generally refers to the
Lebanon mountain range more or less coinciding
with the present Mount Lebanon. In ot ideology
‘*Lebanon’’ was important both as a part of the
promised land and as a literary symbol for such
ideas as majesty, power, or grandeur.

Lebanon in Old Festament History. From early
times Lebanon, or part of it, was included in the
promised land (Deut 1:7; Jud 3:3). The Lebanese
coast, Phoenicia, up to and including the land of
the Gebalites (i.e. Byblos) is listed in the prom-
ised but unconquered lands (Josh 13:5). Hebrew
military and commercial activities in the Lebanon
(J Kgs 9:19; II Chr 8:6) were probably confined to
the foothills of Mount Lebanon bordering the
Beqaa Valley. The Lebanon range provided
cedar wood for building the Old Testament tem-
ples (II Chr 2:8; Ezr 3:7).

Lebanon in Literary Symbolism. Lebanon and
its cedars were symbols of greatness in popular
proverbs (II Kgs 14:9), folk tales (Jud 9:15), and
in the more literary imagery of the prophets. The
Assyrian is said to have indicated the magnitude
of his conquests by boasting that he had pene-
trated Mount Lebanon (II Kgs 19:23). God's
greatness is shown in that God planted the cedars
(Ps 104:16) and in the manner in which the Leba-
non skips or leaps at the sound of his voice (Ps
29:5). Yet God’s power is such that he can also
destroy those cedars (Isa 10:34). The mighty
cedars are used elsewhere as appropriate sym-
bols for proud, arrogant men (Ezk 31:3). They
may also symbolize flourishing prosperity (Ps
92:12).

The Lebanon region also served as a poetic
image for the mysterious and romantic, as nota-
bly in the Song of Solomon. It is used in romantic
entreaties (Song 4:8, 11, 15; cf. 3:9). Its connota-
tions may have been a factor in naming one sec-
tion of the Solomonic palace the House of the
Forest of Lebanon’’ (I Kgs 7:2).

Ibena. Brick. Most usages of this term occur
in contexts showing the toil and futility of human
effort. A sarcastic, poetic doublet emphasizes
that the Tower of Babel, an archetype of futile,
human effort, was built of brick (Gen 11:3). Futil-
ity is Seen again when the apostate Ephraimites
under judgment defiantly boast that they will re-
build the fallen bricks of Samaria (Isa 9:9).
Brick-making characterized the Hebrew toil in
Egypt (Ex 5:6-14). In light of the above, the brick
used by Ezekiel for an object lesson (4:1; Kiv
‘‘tile’’) may conceivably have emphasized the
futile toil of the Jewish defense effort. A variant
form of this word refers to the surface beneath
God's feet in theophanies (Ex 24:10), a surface

which elsewhere is referred to as the firmament
(ragia‘; Ezk 1:26).

Bibliography: ‘‘Lebanon,’’ in ZPEB. Van
Beek, Gus, W., ‘‘Frankincense and Myrrh,”’ in
The Biblical Archaeologist Reader, vol. Ul, pp.
99-126.

A.B.

m3? (libneh). See no. 1074f.
W299 (l°banén). See no. 1074e.

1075 ws> (labésh) dress, be clothed.

Derivatives

1075a twas (lbash), Wa? (bash) gar-
ments, apparel.

1075b twsab = =(malbish), wa? (mal-
bush) vestments.

107Sc tnwsn (tilbdshet) garment.

labésh and its derivatives show three levels
of usage: 1) being clothed, 2) being clothed as a
sign of rank, status, or character, and 3) poetic
figures likening abstract qualities to clothing.

In addition to simply referring to clothes as
something to be put on (Song 5:3), clothes may
reveal something about the wearer. David’s
daughters showed both their royal status and
their virginity by their clothing (IJ Sam 13:18).
The purple of Ezk 23:6 was intended to show
nobility or royalty. The king’s favor, and result-
ing positions, were marked by special clothing for
both Joseph (Gen 41:42) and Mordecai (Est 6:11).
Clothing could reveal sensuous luxury (Jer 4:30)
or prosperity (Prov 31:21). A change in garments
will typify the holiness needed to enter the Holy
of Holies of Ezekiel’s future temple (Ezk 42:14).
Professional offices could be revealed by garb
such as the prophet (Zech 13:4) or the warrior
(Ezk 38:4).

Occasions of grief were marked by the wearing
of special clothing. Garments of widowhood may
be the best known example (Gen 38:19). Mourn-
ing (II Sam 14:2; Est 4:1) and repentance (Jon
3:5) could be marked by weaning special clothing.
In Zechariah’s vision Joshua’s sinful state is re-
vealed by his filthy garments (Zech 3:3; see be-
low). The poetic figure describing Job as
‘‘clothed with worms” (Job 7:5) showed Job's
unhappy state.

When God clothed Adam and Eve in skins
(Gen 3:21), he provided a nch symbol of their
new status. These garments are generally inter-
preted as showing the need for sacrifice through
the need to kill the animals to provide the skins.
However, the conversation between the
Mesopotamian hero, Gilgamesh, and Utnapish-
tim suggests that the wearing of skin clothing
might also symbolize all the frailties of fallen
human life.

1077 35° (hb)

The richest level of usage is using clothing as a
poetic figure for abstract qualities. God wears
majesty and strength as garments (Ps 93:1). God
is challenged to put on strength, i.e. to use his
power (Isa 51:9). God clothes himself in mgh-
teousness, salvation, vengeance, and fury in pre-
paring for judgment (Isa 59:17).

Men may be “clothed” in various qualities.
Job was clothed in nghteousness (Job 29:14).
Salvation (II Chr 6:41) and strength (Isa 52:1)
may be worn. Men were clothed in the Spirit for
specific purposes (Jud 6:34; I Chr 12:19; II Chr
24:20). Negative qualities like shame (Ps 35:26;
cf. Job 8:22) and cursing (Ps 109:18) also were
worn like clothing.

The most significant figure of this sort is the
one likening God’s imputed mghteousness to
clothing. The individual’s own good deeds are
filthy rags (Isa 64:6; cf. Joshua in Zech 3:3) which
God removes and then clothes his own in salva-
tion and righteousness (Isa 61:10). Then, like
Joshua in Zechariah’s vision, men clothed in
God’s righteousness can stand before God.

I-bash. Garments, apparrel. This and other de-
rivatives cover the same general range of mean-
ings as the verb. /* bash may refer to the formal
vestments of an office (II Kgs 10:22). It could
refer to literal clothing representing grief (Ps
35:13), luxury (II Sam 1:24), glory (Ps 45:13
[H 14]), and transitoriness (Ps 102:26). It was
used as a poetic figure for abstract qualities like
strength and dignity (Prov 31:25).

tilbéshet. Garment. Used once likening ven-
geance to a garment (Isa 59:17).

malbish. Vestment, garment. Used to refer to
literal clothing such as royal livery (1 Kgs 10:5)
and priestly garments (II Kgs 10:22) and as a po-
etic figure for abstract qualities. Red-stained
garments symbolized vengeance (Isa 63:3) and
certain fine garments showed luxurious glory
(Ezk 16:13).

Bibliography: Sandars, N. K., tr., The Epic
of Gilgamesh, Penguin, 1964, pp. 97, 102-4.
THAT, I, pp. 867-69.

A.B.

1076 3% (lédg) a liquid measure, about one-half

liter (Lev 14). There were probably
seventy-two logs in one bath (bat, q.v.).

1077 s3m> (/hb). Assumed root of the following.

1077a tsam> (lahab) flame, blade.
1077b tm3m2? (lehaba) flame, tip of wea-

pon.
1077c tnam?y (shalhebet) flame.

lahab. Flame, blade, point. This term refers
either to the flame of fire or to the tip or blade of a
weapon probably due to the rough similarity in

1078 3n° (lhg)

appearance between the two objects. The Arabic
lahiba means ‘‘burn with thirst.’” The Akkadian
la’bn means ‘‘fever.’’ The Aramaic shaphel form
shalhél is *‘burn (up).”’

lahab refers to the tips or blades of daggers
(Jud 3:22), spears (Job 39:23; ‘“‘point of spear’’
rather than ‘“‘flashing spear’’ as in Rsv), and
swords (Nah 3:3).

It denotes the flames from Leviathan’s mouth
(Job 41:21) and the literal flames of an altar on
which the angel ascended to Heaven (Jud 13:20).
The ‘‘crackling of a flame’”’ is one of the noises of
invasion (Joel 2:5).

A supernatural ‘‘flame of fire’’ will be among
God’s great judgments at the end of history (Isa
29:6; cf. Isa 30:30; 66:15-16).

lehaba. Tip (of weapon), flame. Once describes
a weapon tip, that of Goliath’s spear (I Sam 17:7).

In all other usages, it serves as a poetic figure
for some human or divine act. The ‘‘flame’’ from
Sihon symbolized military conquest (Num 21:28;
cf. Jer 48:45). Anger was described as a ‘‘fire of
flame’’ (Hos 7:6; rsv ‘‘flaming fire’’). The
‘‘flame’’ represented dangers from which God
would protect his people (Isa 43:2).

God’s judgment was repeatedly likened to a
flame. The ‘‘flame’’ is associated with God’s
judgment upon his own sinful people (Isa 5:24),
on Egypt during the Exodus (Ps 105:32; rsv
‘lightning that flashed’’; literally ‘‘fire of
flame’’), and the Negev (Ezk 20:47; rsv ‘‘blazing
flame’’; Hebrew lahebet shalhebet, see below).
God’s ‘‘holy one’’ will someday be a flame of
judgment upon God’s enemies (Isa 10:17) as will
God’s people also (Ob 18). God’s very presence
is symbolized by a ‘fire of flame’’ (Isa 4:5; Rsv,
KJv ‘‘flaming fire’’).

The overlap between the meanings ‘‘blade’’
and ‘‘flame’’ raises the possibility that at some
point the image of the voice as a flame of fire (Ps
29:7) and the image of the tongue as a sword (Rev

19:15) were originally the same image.

shalhebet. Flame. Used as a poetic symbol,
twice of judgment (Job 15:30; Ezk 20:47) and
once as a symbol of jealousy (Song 8:6). Appar-
ently this was derived from a shaphel form from
the root lahab. See the Aramaic form cited
above.

A.B.

1078 am® (hg).
1078a

Assumed root of the following.
a9 (lahag) study, i.e. devotion
to books (Eccl 12:12).

1079 mmo (ldhad) languish, faint (Gen 47:13).

1080 *B9m9 (lihléah) amaze, startle. Occurs
only in the Hithpalpel participle in Prov

26:18, ‘“‘like a madman _ shooting fire-
brands’”’ (NIV).

1081 em? (lahat) kindle, burn.

Derivative
1081a tem> (lahat) flame, blade(?).

lahat may refer to literal burning, or it may be
used as a poetic figure to describe God's judg-
ment. The Akkadian /a’atu. means ‘‘consume
with fire.’ The Aramaic /*hat means ‘‘con-
sume,’ ‘“‘burn up.”’

Some typical examples of /dhat in the sense of
literal burning are: the burning of Korah’s fol-
lowers (Ps 106:18; cf. Num 16), the burning of
mountain forests (Ps 83:14 [H 15]), and of trees
(Joel 1:19). The breath of Leviathan kindled coals
(Job 41:21 [H 13]). It refers to the burning behind
the invaders mentioned in Joel (2:3). Once it re-
fers to the way in which lightning burns up eit
enemies (Ps 97:3) and it describes as ‘‘flaming”’
the fires which serve God (Ps 104:4).

In purely figurative usages, it describes men as
‘‘burning”’ in their desire to destroy others (Ps
57:4 [H 5]; cf. Rsv ‘‘greedily devour’’). It de-
scribes divine attributes and acts such as God’s
anger in burning the foundations of the mountains
(Deut 32:22). Evil-doers will burn as chaff in the
great coming day of judgment (Mal 4:1 (H 3:19]).
The verb may even describe God’s own people as
burning in God’s judgment (Isa 42:25).

lahat. Flame, (blade?). Used once (Gen 3:24)
where it is usually translated as *‘flaming”’ (liter-
ally ‘‘flame of the sword’’). However, the over-
lap in meaning between ‘‘flame’’ and ‘‘blade”’
(cf. lahab) suggests that ‘‘blade’’ (of a sword)
deserves consideration as a possible interpreta-
tion.

A.B.

1082 *am? (laham) swallow greedily. Occurs
only in the Hithpael, in Prov 18:8, mit-
lahamim ‘‘bits greedily swallowed’’ (see
also Prov 26:22).

1083 3m9 (lahén) on
(Ruth 1:13).

this account, therefore

1084 mpm? (lahdqd) band, company (I Sam
19:20). Meaning and etymology dubious.
1085 39 (i%), 39 (1a°)would that, I wish, per-
haps. A Hebrew particle used to mark
several kinds of potential constructions.
1085a s39 (lalé’) if not, unless (e.g., Jud
14:19; I Sam 25:34).

la marks three degrees of personal desire or
agreement: wishes, entreaties, and statements of

470

assent. It also marks two types of potential
clauses: ‘‘perhaps’’ clauses and conditional
clauses.

When used to express a wish, it may be trans-
lated ‘‘would that’’ or ‘‘I wish.’ Abraham’s de-
sire that Ishmael might live before God (Gen
17:18) and Joshua’s rhetorical wish that the He-
brews had remained beyond the Jordan (Josh 7:7)
are both marked by this particle. Combined with
other devices to indicate potentiality, it may ex-
press a very strong wish (I Sam 14:30). In Ab-
raham’s petition that the Hebronites would hear
him (Gen 23:13), l&@ serves as a particle of en-
treaty. Finally, it marks Laban’s agreement with
Jacob’s proposition on wages (Gen 30:34).

When introducing pure potential clauses, it
may be translated as ‘‘perhaps’’ as when Jo-
seph’s brothers speculated that Joseph might
hate them (Gen 50:15; Rsv ‘‘it may be’’). When
accompanied by a statement of consequence. i.e.
an apodosis, the lz clause becomes the protasis
of an unreal conditional sentence. ‘If the Lord
had meant to kill us’’ (Jud 13:23) and ‘‘if Absalom
were alive’’ (II] Sam 19:7) are good examples of
this (cf. Job 16:4; Ezk 14:15).

A.B.

1086 x35 (/6’) not. Alternative form of 8%

(q.v.).

1087 m9 (lawd) I, join, be joined.

Used once in the Qal (Eccl 8:15); the remaining
usages are in the Niphal. /dw4 refers to the join-
ing of an item or person to someone or something
else. Most significant theologically is its usage to
refer to foreigners who join themselves to God’s
people as converts.

In general usage it refers to the way in which
hedonistic pleasures ‘‘stay with’ a man (Eccl
8:15); also it is used for joining in a military al-
liance (Ps 83:8 (H 9}), the conjugal joining of hus-
band to wife (Gen 29:34), and the joining of the
Levites with Aaron for service at the tabernacle
(Num 18:2-4).

As a term referring to conversion it describes
those who, impressed by God’s work in restoring
his people, will join themselves to the Hebrews in
the worship and service of God, i.e. will be
spiritually converted (Isa 14:1). Others will join
themselves to God as a result of some divine
judgment (Zech 2:15; cf. Est 9:27). Such Gentile
converts are assured that they will not be sepa-
rated from God’s Covenant (Isa 56:3-6). Some-
day God’s repentant people will (re)join them-
selves to a true covenant relationship to God (Jer
S0:S).

This usage of /dw4 to reflect religious dedica-
tion supports the notion that the name ‘‘Levi’’
expressed the religious dedication of the tribe of
that name to the Lord’s service.

471

1088 mo (lawa) I,

1089 3° (wh)

Bibliography: ‘Levi,’ in ZPEB. Albright,
W. F., Archeology and the Religion of Israel, Sth
ed., pp. 106, 203.

A.B.

borrow (Qal), lend
(Hiphil).

This may be a Specialized usage of ladwa
(supra). In contrast to the purely economic sig-
nificance of borrowing and lending in modern
life, these acts were endowed with a special
theological significance in the or. Only once is
borrowing referred to as a primarily economic act
in the borrowing of the restored Hebrew commu-
nity to raise money for paying taxes (Neh 5:4).
Also, the borrower and the lender are once re-
ferred to as one of several pairs expressing all
classes of society (Isa 24:2).

Remaining usages reflect the special theologi-
cal and moral perspectives of the or. The Hebrew
was not permitted to receive interest for loaning
to another Hebrew (Ex 22:24-25). [Another view
(reflected in KJv) is that interest on loans was
allowed but not excessive interest (usury). In de-
fense of this position, E. A. Speiser shows that in
the surrounding cultures a loan was discounted
with interest paid in advance. The thing prohib-
ited in Akkadian sources and in the biblical laws
was additional interest after a defaulting debtor
was enslaved. See the fuller discussion and refs.
under neshek. R.L.H.] Willingness to lend was a
sign of righteous graciousness (Ps 112:5). Some-
times, the expectation or obligation of concrete
repayment may be so remote or inappropriate
that ‘‘lending’’ becomes almost synonymous
with ‘‘giving’’ (Prov 19:17; note also ‘‘loan”’ and
‘*give’’ as parallel in Ps 37:26).

The want or poverty which leads to borrowing
is Said to indicate the absence of God’s blessing
(Deut 28:44), while the ability to grant a loan
characterizes a God-given prosperity (Deut
28:12). Inability to repay debts shows the futility
of the wicked (Ps 37:21). Finally, Scripture ob-
serves that the borrower is a slave to the lender
(Prov 22:7).

Bibliography: ‘*Loans’’ in JewEnc.

A.B.

1089 m5 (/wh) III. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1089a 839 (liwyd), m9 (léya) wreath.
Occurs in the phrase liwyat hén,
referring to the instruction of par-
ents (Prov 1:9), and to the work of
Wisdom (Prov 4:9).

1089b rss? (liwyatdn) large aquatic ani-
mals, may be crocodile (Job 41:1
ASV marg.), serpent (Isa 27:1), or
whale (Ps 104:26), usually rendered

1090 135 (/az)

‘*Leviathan”’ (consistently in kJv,
ASV, and RSV).

liwyatdn appears six times in the oT, as a literal
animal, a figure for Egypt (Ps 74:14), and a figure
for sinful mankind in general (Isa 27:1).

Derived from a root attested in Arabic, /wy *‘to
twist’ (liwyd ‘‘wreath,’’ Prov 1:9), liwydtdn is
reflected in Ugaritic /tn, a monster called Lotan.
Biblically, however, it appears only with other
beasts: n@hdash ‘‘snake’’ (Isa 27:1), or tannin
‘large reptile’ (Ps 74:13—-14).

Yahweh overawed Job by confronting him with
his invincible creature liwydtan (Job 41 [H
40:25ff.}). Clearly the Nile crocodile, with scaly
hide (vv. 7, 15-17 [H 40:31; 41:7-9]), terrible
teeth (v. 14 [H 6]), and swift swimming (v. 32 [H
24]), it is described poetically, i.e. “his sneezes
flash forth light... out of his nostrils smoke goes
forth’ (vv. 18-21 [H 10-13]), but not mythologi-
cal. Other hyperbolical comparisons follow: **he
spreads out like a threshing sledge on the mire; he
makes the depths boil like a pot”’ (vv. 30-31 [H
22-23], NASB)]. In the Psalter (cf. rahab [q.v.] in
Isa 51:9-10) the power of the crocodile becomes a
natural symbol for the troops of Egypt, over-
thrown by the Lord at the Red Sea:

Thou didst divide the sea...

Thou breakest the heads of Leviathan

Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabit-
ing the wilderness (Ps 74:13-14).

Perhaps here liwydatdn refers to the corpses of
Egyptian soldiers that were washed up on the
shore before Israel (Ex 14:31).

Elsewhere liwya@tadn swims in God’s ‘sea,
great and wide,’ a creature ‘“‘whom Thou hast
formed to play therein’’ (Ps 104:25-26), presum-
ably a Mediterranean whale or dolphin (NBD, p.
729). Yet unlike the hostile beasts in the some-
what parallel ‘‘Hymn to the Sun,’’ composed by
the reform pharaoh Akhenaten, Leviathan et al.
wait humbly upon God (v. 27) as mankind’s ‘'‘fel-
low pensioners’ (C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the
Psalms). The noun liwyatan may also designate
Serpents, such as might be roused by snake-
charming magicians, who were also reputed to
impose curses (Job 3:8; cf. Num 22:5-6).
‘‘Leviathan’” thus comes to denote a swift sea
serpent, slain of God, to symbolize his es-
chatological ‘‘punishing the inhabitants of the
earth for their iniquity”? (Isa 26:21-27:1).

Many scholars identify the oT leviathan with
such mythological monsters of chaos as Lotan of
Ugarit or Tiamat and Kingu of Babylon. Its
crushed heads in Ps 74:13 (assumed to be seven)
are equated with those of seven-headed dragons
(illustrated in IDB, III, p. 116) slain by Baal
(Scripture substituting the name Yahweh), and its
aroused coils in Job 3:8 with those which were

472

supposed to cause eclipses when wrapped about
the sun.

Negative criticism holds that the writers of the
Old Testament had a real faith in these creatures.
But that the oT authors actually believed in such
mythology should be roundly denied. However,
some have held that the references to Leviathan
as many-headed in Ps 74:14 and to its serpent
character in Job 3:8 may be allusions to the cur-
rent mythological themes (cf. Smick, bibliog.).
Albright calls this a proper demythologizing by
the biblical authors (YGC, pp. 183-93).

Bibliography: Kissling, N. K., ‘*Antecedents
of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History,’ JBL
89: 166-77. Payne, J. B., Theology of the Older
Testament, Zondervan, 1971. Pfeiffer, C. F.,
‘*Lotan and Leviathan,”’ EQ 32: 208ff. Smick, E.
B., **Mythology and the Book of Job,’ JETS 13:
106.

J.B.P.

1090 35 (laz) turn aside, depart.

Derivatives

1090a tm) (ldzit) deviation, crookedness.

1090b =135 (luz) almond tree, almond
wood. Occurs only in Gen 30:37,
referring to the rods which Jacob
stripped.

The verb /az occurs in the Qal, Niphal, and
Hiphil stems. The Qal imperfect is used in Prov
3:21, as Wisdom instructs her son not to let sound
wisdom and discretion ‘“‘slip from sight’’ (NEB).
Maintaining such a focus assures him of life and
grace.

In Prov 4:21 Wisdom encourages her listeners
to heed her words and not let them slip out of
mind (NEB; literally, do not let them depart from
your eyes). In this passage /a#z occurs in the
Hiphil imperfect.

In the four following examples, /a@z occurs in
the Niphal participial form. Two passages use it
figuratively of crooked or devious ways (Prov
2:15; Prov 14:2). (Note NEB ‘‘double-dealer’’ in
14:2.) Isaiah 30:12 also denounces those who
rather than trusting in the Word of God, trust in
oppressive and devious practices of their own
scheming. In so doing, however, they draw the
judgment of God.

Finally, Prov 3:32 uses the word figuratively of
a crooked, perverse person who is detested by
the Lord.

lazat. Deviation, crookedness. Proverbs 4:24,
the only passage that uses the word figuratively
urges men to put away /° zat §* patayim the **de-
viation of the lips,’ i.e. perverted talk.

W.C.K.

1091 myo (/wh). Assumed root of the following.
1091a tm> (liah) tablet, plank, board.

A cognate of the Akkadian /?’'u™" or Sumerian
SIS? ].U ,UM, liah appears over forty times in
the ot. Since Sumerian uses the determinative for
wood (GIS), we may suppose that originally tab-
lets were made from wood. Any such wooden
tablets have long since perished. The first known
tablets consist of pictographs on clay, found in
layer IV B of Uruk (cf. D. J. Wiseman, /ilus-
trations from Biblical Archaeology, Eerdmans,
1958, pp. 10-11). “ah, however, can refer to
writing surfaces of stone (the tablets of the Ten
Commandments in Ex 24:12; 34:28), the wooden
planks of the tabernacle (Ex 27:8; 38:7) or of a
ship (Ezk 27:5), and the metal plates on the base
of the lavers in Solomon's temple (1 Kgs 7:36).

luaah is also used figuratively. Men are told to
write God's commandments on the “‘tablet of
[their] heart’ (Prov 3:3; 7:3). The sin of Judah,
ironically, is engraven on the “‘tablet of their
hearts’ (Jer 17:1). The prophet Habakkuk is tn-
structed to write the vision on a billboard(?) so
that it will be plain for a messenger to read and
run (Hab 2:2).

The stone tablets handed to Moses were the
work of God and the writing of God (Ex 31:18;
32:16; 34:1); yet God employed Moses, as a sec-
ondary agency, to write the words he wanted on
the tablets (Ex 34:27, 28). This is in keeping with
other biblical statements which attribute to God
directly what is accomplished through the agency
of men. Ultimately, all must and does originate
and end with God (e.g., the crucifixion, Acts
2:23).

Just as Moses is commanded to record the bat-
tle with the Amalekites as a memorial for young
Joshua (Ex 17:14), so Isaiah is told to write the
prophecy against dependence on Egypt ‘‘on a
tablet and note it in a book’’ (Isa 30:8). These
texts with such others as Jer 36 document the
process of inspiration.

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., Semitic Writing,
rev. ed., London: 1954, pp. 16, 79-80.

W.C.K.

1092 35 (lat) wrap closely, envelop.

Derivatives

1092a te (/dt), ws? (la't) secrecy.
1092b «=i «(l6t) envelope, covering. Oc-
curs only in Isa 25:7.

lat. Secrecy, mystery. Used in Ex 7:11, 22; 8:7
(H 3], 18 [H 14] in the plural with the preposition
b* to refer to the enchantments or secret arts
(RSV) practiced by Pharaoh's’ magicians
(hartummim, a name borrowed from an Egyptian
word hry-tp ‘chief lector-priest’’) in their at-
tempt to keep up with Moses’ and Aaron’s

473

1093 99 (/éw7)

plagues of God. In four other nontheological con-
texts it is used as an adverb, secretly, softly
(Ruth 3:7; Jud 4:21; I Sam 18:22; 24:5).
Bibliography: Vergote, J., Joseph en Egypte,
1959, pp. 66-73.
W.C.K.

1093 9 (léwi) Levi.

Derivative

1093a 35 (léwi) Levite, denoting a mem-
ber of the tribe of Levi.

Levi was the third son born to Jacob by Leah,
his less-favored wife (Gen 29:34).

Levi, progenitor of the tribe of Levi, took part
in a distinctly odious incident (Gen 34). His sister
Dinah had been raped by Shechem, son of the
Canaanite Hamor. He would be permitted to
marry her if he and his whole city would consent
to be circumcised. This they did, but while they
were still recovering from the operation, Simeon
and Levi went and slew all the males of.the city
(Gen 34:25-26).

Jacob was so indignant over this deed that he
still remembered it on his deathbed. Instead of
blessing Levi, he predicted that both it and Si-
meon would be scattered in Israel (Gen 49:7).
While this curse turned out to be the eventual end
of Simeon’s identity in the land of Canaan, Levi's
descendants by faith turned it into a blessing.
Their scattering became the occasion for minis-
tering on behalf of the Lord to all Israel. God
adopted this tribe as his own inheritance in lieu of
the firstborn male of every household (Num
3:11-13).

No other information is given about the man
Levi or his tribe until the family went down to
Egypt. The historicity of their sojourn in Egypt
may be attested in part by the number of Egyptian
names among the Levites: Merari, Moses, Phine-
has, and Hophni (mrry ‘‘beloved’’: mss ‘‘born
of,’ according to some; 3p-nhsy ‘‘the bronze-
colored one, and /fnr ‘‘Nubian’’).

An unnamed descendant of Levi married an
unnamed Levite woman who bore Moses, Aaron,
and Miriam (Ex 2:1ff.). The reference to Amram
and Jochebed in Ex 6:20 “‘ giving birth’’ to Moses
and Aaron is typical of biblical genealogies. The
immortalized ancestors are frequently credited
with bearing the children of subsequent genera-
tions. (Note the language of Gen 46: 15, 18, 25.)
There were 8,600 descendants of four brothers or
cousins, of whom 2,750 were between the ages of
30 and S50 years (Num 3:17-20, 27-28; 4:35-37).
Obviously, the record implies that there are more
than four generations connecting Levi and
Moses; this Amram was not Moses’ actual father,
who remains unnamed (Ex 2:1).

Aaron becomes the high priest in the line of the

1094 995 (lal)

Levites who showed their fidelity in Ex 32:26—29.
Aaron in turn hands the office to his son Eleazar
(Deut 10:6) and he hands it to his son Phinehas
(Jud 20:27, 28). Then the high priesthood is trans-
ferred from the line of Eleazar to the Aaronic line
of Ithamar in Eli (I Chr 24:3: I Sam 2:22, 28). Eli’s
sons are too wicked to deserve this pre-eminence
(1 Sam 2:27—36), so in Solomon's day Abiathar is
deposed and the Aaronic Zadok takes over as
predicted by the **man of God”’ in I Sam 2:27-28,
35; I Kgs 2:26~27, 35).

lewi. Levite. Despite strong disclaimers to the
contrary, it is evident that the tribe of Levites
was descended from the ancient Levi. Levi was
Jacob's third son by his wife Leah (Gen 29:34).
Since Leah was competing with her prettier sister
Rachel for Jacob’s attentions and affection, she
named her son Levi, adding the wordplay, **My
husband and | shall surely be united [or joined].”

The Lord alluded to this remark when he in-
structed Aaron that he and his sons would bear
the responsibility for the sanctuary and the
priesthood, while the tribe of Levi was joined to
him to assist him in carrying out these duties
(Num 18:1-2). Note how the NEB translation of
these verses distorts the Hebrew distinctions in
the text so as to favor a critical interpretation!

The Wellhausen theory insists that division of
the priesthood into priests and Levites derives
from the reform of Josiah (621 B.c.) at the ear-
liest. Wellhausen claimed that the high priest was
still unknown even to Ezekiel, for the first actual
reference to such a division is Ezk 44:6ff. where
the services of the temple and altar are assigned
to the sons of Zadok.

Why then is the high priest expressly men-
tioned in II Kgs 12:10; 22:4, 8; 23:4 and possibly
in If Sam 15:27? Why does Deut 18:1-8 make
such an obvious distinction between the *‘ priest”
ministering at the sanctuary (vv. 3-5) and the
‘‘Levite’’ otherwise occupied (vv. 6-8)? Even the
phrase ‘‘the priests the Levites’’ (Deut 17:9, 18;
18:1: 24:8; 27:9: Josh 3:3; 8:33; Jer 33:18, 21 [note
reverse order in v. 21]; Ezk 43:19; 44:15; II Chr
23:18; 30:27) only implies that all priests are Le-
vites, not the reverse. In Hebrew the limiting
word is always placed after the word it limits,
hence the phrase means ‘‘the Lévitical priests.”’
(Note the Rsv wrongly inserts ‘‘that is between
the phrases ‘‘the Levitical priests’ and ‘‘all the
tribe of Levi’’ (Deut 18:1). The Levites are not to
be equated with the priests on the basis that the
terms used to describe the Levites’ duties in Deut
18:7 are the same as those used of priestly duties,
i.e. ‘to minister in the name’’ (cf. 18:5 of priest,
17:12; 21:5) “‘to stand before’ (cf. I Kgs 10:8,
etc.). These terms are used of priestly duties, but
so are they used of subordinates like young
Samuel (1 Sam 2:11, 18; 3:1).

474

1094 535 (lal)

1096 395 (lin), °° (lin) lodge,

In the hierarchical order of the cultures, the
Levites take second place after the Aaronite
priests aS compared with other Israelites. Ac-
cording to the Mosaic legislation, some of the
Levites’ duties included bearing the ark (1 Sam
6:15; If Sam 15:24), performing various services
in the tabernacle (Ex 38:21; Num 1:50—53), and
ministering to Aaron and his sons (Num 3:9;
8:19). David placed them in charge of the liturgi-
cal music (I Chr 15:16, 17, 22) and of policing the
temple (I Chr 9:26; 26:17). In the time of Ezra,
they taught the people the Law (Neh 8:7-8; cf.
Deut 31:25).

But most important of all, the tribe of Levi was
to serve as a substitute for the firstborn of all
Israelite males (Num 3:11-13). Scripture thereby
resists the analogical deduction (hence a warning
in other areas such as double predestination) that
would demand human sacrifice, since all the
firstborn of the earth belong to the Lord. Instead
of human sacrifice, God once again accepted a
substitute; this time one Levite for each firstborn
male in Israel.

Bibliography: Cody, Aelred, A History of Old
Testament Priesthood, Pontifical Biblical Insti-
tute, 1969. MacRae, A. A., ‘‘Numbers,’’ in NBC,
pp. 166-67. Orr, James, The Problem of the Old
Testament, London: Nisbet & Nisbet, 1909, pp.
180-92. TDNT, IV, pp. 239-41.

W.C.K.

See no. 1089a.
See no. 1089b.

my? (liwyda).
mw? = (liwyatan).

shaft or enclosed space with steps
or ladder. Occurs only in I Kgs 6:8,
ub*lalim ya‘ala.

1095 3595 (lwiw). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1095a = 835) (Iilay) loop.

See no. 1085a.
See no. 109Sa.

so95 (1alé’).
999 = (litlay).

spend the
night.

Derivatives

1096a 5979 (malén) lodging place, inn.
1096b mg (m*lind) lodge, hut. Oc-
curs only in Isa 1:8; 24:20.

Usually /an is used of men lodging for the night in
some place. Thus Lot graciously invited the two
angels, who had come to destroy Sodom (Gen
19:2), to lodge with him. Jacob spent the night at
Bethel (Gen 28:11). But more interesting illustra-
tions of the use of the word are figurative: Ps 30:5
[H 6] says, **Weeping may endure for a night, but
joy comes in the morning.”” The theological usage

emphasizes the brevity of God’s anger as op-
posed to the life-giving power of his abundant
favor.

Righteousness lodges in a faithful city (Isa
1:21), while the man who fears the Lord dwells at
ease (Ps 25:13). Indeed, he who listens to life-
giving reproof will abide among the wise (Prov
15:31). Proverbs 19:23 says it succinctly: ‘*The
fear of the Lord is life indeed [emphatic lamed],
and he who has it shall abide satisfied.’’ The con-
verse is likewise briefly stated: ‘‘Man being in
honor does not endure; he is like the beasts that
perish’ (Ps 49:12 [H 13]).

The best verse of all is Ps 91:1. ‘“‘He who
dwells in the secret place of the most High shall
abide in the shadow of the Almighty.”’

malon. Lodging place, inn. There are eight
references to lodging places such as the one cho-
sen by Joseph's brothers as they returned from
Egypt (Gen 42:27; 43:21). The most famous is the
one where Moses and Zipporah stopped for the
night on their way back to Egypt. There God
sought to kill Moses (afflict him with a fever or
disease?) because he had failed to circumcise his
son (apparently because of Zipporah’s protesta-
tions, Ex 4:24).

In other cases, it is the prophet who longs for
some sort of camp in the wilderness so that he
can leave his people, because their sins are loath-
some (Jer 9:2 [H 1]). In Isa 10:29 the approach of
the Assyrian king and his nightly stopovers are
noted with fear. Indeed, a proud Sennacherib
boasted that he would enter Lebanon's remotest
campground (I1 Kgs 19:23; cf. Isa 37:24).

The feminine form m° lina also occurs. It re-
fers to a hut or cottage in a vineyard (Isa 1:8) built
for the watchman of the crop. An eschatological
passage States that the earth will reel to and fro
and totter like a cottage (Isa 24:20). Notice then,
both its proverbial fragility and isolation.

W.C.K.
1097 339 (lun) murmur, rebel (against).
Derivative
1097a thom (r°lainnd) murmuring.

Except for Josh 9:18, a reference to Israel's
displeasure with Joshua's handling of the Gibeon-
ite lie, all occurrences of the verb /iin are to be
found in six chapters in the Pentateuch: Ex 15,
16, 17; Num 14, 16, 17, each with the preposition
‘al ‘‘against.”’ In each case the subject of the
murmuring is all of the congregation of Israel.
Numbers 16:11, however, may refer only to
Korah (cf. 16:19). The object of their verbal as-
saults is usually Moses and Aaron (Ex 16:2; Num
14:2); occasionally, Moses is singled out (Ex
1$:24; 17:3; Num 14:36) or Aaron (Num 16:11); at
other times the Lord himself is the object of their

475

1099 prs (la'a), vp

1100 ws

1101 smo (hh).

1101 sn (hh)

abuse (Ex 16:7-8: Num 14:27, 29). In the final
analysis their murmuring was always against God
who commissioned the leaders of the people. The
murmuring, of course was not without reason,
namely, hunger or thirst in the desert, or an ap-
parently unattainable goal. But they sinned be-
cause they doubted God and cast aspersion on his
justice, goodness, and power.

Noeldeke suggests that a double ‘ayin root,
Inn, or (on the basis of an interchange between
lamed and resh,) rnn ‘‘to cry aloud.’’ But no
evidence exists to support either idea. Even KB’s
connection with Arabic I(yjm ‘“‘to blame”
likewise fails. Whether in the Niphal or Hiphil
form, the verb means to express resentment, dis-
satisfaction, anger, and complaint by grumbling
in half-muted tones of hostile opposition to God’s
leaders and the authority which he has invested
in them.

The true nature of this murmuring is seen in the
fact that it is an open act of rebellion against the
Lord (Num 14:9) and a stubborn refusal to be-
lieve God’s word and God's miraculous works
(Num 14:11, 22, 23). Thus the right attitude in
real difficulty is unconditional acceptance and
obedience. God's own must never stand in judg-
ment upon him.

t‘lanna. Murmuring. Always used of Israel’s
murmurings (pl. const. noun) against the Lord;
an act of rebellion, disbelief, and disobedience to
duly constituted authority (Ex 16:7, 9, 12; Num
14:27; 17:5, 10 [H 20, 25}).

Bibliography: Coats, George W., Rebellion in
the Wilderness, Abingdon, 1968, pp. 21-28.
THAT, I, pp. 870-71.

1098 ys (laa‘'), vy> (la‘a') I, swallow, swal-
low down.
Derivative
1098a y> (ld'a) throat. Occurs only in

Prov 23:2, ‘and you will put a knife
to your throat” (to restrain oneself
from overindulgence in food).

(la'a‘) HI, talk wildly.

yy (las). See no. 1113.

(lash) knead.

mao (lazut). See no. 1090a.
mo (lah). See no. 1102a.

mo (léah). See no. 1102b.

Assumed root of the following.
110la m9 (lh?) jaw, cheek.

This noun occurs twenty-one times in the or
and is attested in the Ugaritic /hy (e.g. UT, 16:II

1102 mmo (hh)

Aght:1:29-30 tbhg lht nish **who will shut the jaws
of his detractors’’).

The most famous jawbone appears in Jud 15:
15-17, 19. Samson uses it to slay or vanquish (see
naka) one thousand men, and thereby names the
place Ramath-lehi, **hill of the jawbone.”’

In Job 41:2 [H 40:26], God reduces Job to
thoughtful silence while asking him if he is capa-
ble of taming Leviathan (poetic name for a
crocodile) by putting a hook through its jaw. But
God is able to put the hook in its jaw and in the
jaw of tannim, an aquatic figure for the Egyptian
Pharaoh (Ezk 29:4) and in the jaw of Gog (Ezk
38:4). He will put a bmdle in the jaws of the
people of the nations (Isa 30:28) but take it from
the jaws of his own so that they may eat (Hos
11:4).

While men like Micaiah, the true prophet of the
Lord, may be smitten on the cheek by false
prophets like Zedekiah (I Kgs 22:24; II Chr 18:23)
and Job may be verbally smitten on his cheeks by
his miserable comforters (Job 16:10), God will
deliver the last blow to the enemies’ cheeks (Ps
3:7 [H 8]). Men will even smite with a rod the
leader of Israel on the cheek (Mic 5:1 [H 4:14]).
The Servant of the Lord, the Messiah, will volun-
tarily submit his “‘back to the smiters and [his]
cheeks to those that pluck out the beard’ (Isa
50:6), but he too will emerge triumphant.

W.C.K.

pin? (/* him). See no. 1104b.

1102 mn? (/hh). Assumed root of the following.
1102a m> (lah) moist, fresh, new.

1102b mo (léah) moisture, freshness.

> (f°h?). See no. 1101a.
1103 3m9 (ladhak) lick (e.g. Num 22:4; I Kgs
18:38).

1104 and (laham) I, fight, do battle.
Derivatives

1104a 7am3 (lahem) war (?). Only in Jud
5:8.

1104b so aim) «=((/¢hiim) intestine, bowels (?).

1104c tram (milhama) battle, war.

The most significant usages of the verb /aham,
which occurs 171 times, pertain to God's role in
Israel’s wars. When God calls Israel to arms
against an enemy, it is because of the enemy's
moral degradation (Deut 7:4, 16, 25: 20:18, etc.).
In such conflicts, it is the Lord who does battle
on Israel's behalf (Ex 14:14, 25; Deut 1:30; 3:22:
Josh 10:14, 42: Jer 21:5; Neh 4:14; I] Chr 20:29).
In doing so, Yahweh often calls into his service

476

not only Israel, but also the elements of nature
(Josh 10:11; 24:7; Jud 5:20). Nevertheless, the
Israelites must also join the battle and fight with
the Lord. Even though their land has been
deeded to them as an inheritance, they must con-
quer it in battle (Ex 23:27-33). Bauernfeind
comments: ‘‘Nevertheless, neither their equip-
ment (Jud 7:2ff; 1 Sam 14:6; 17:45, 47) nor their
numbers (Jud 7: [I Sam 24:1ff; Ex 30:12) turned
the scale. It was Yahweh who went before them
(Jud 4:14; Deut 20:4; 11 Sam 5:24), gave them
courage (I Sam 30:6) and took it from their foes
(Ex 15:15-16; 23:27f) by miracles (Josh 10:11;
24:7; Jud 5:20; by terror, I Sam 14:15). To him
and him alone belonged the praise (Ex 14:4, 18;
Zech 4:6)" (TDNT, VI, p. 508).

Israel constituted the *‘armies of the Yahweh”
(Ex 12:41) whose troops had to be holy (Isa 13:3).
Even the Israelites’ weapons and campgrounds
had to be holy if the Yahweh was to camp with
them (Deut 23:10—15; II Sam 1:21; Isa 21:5). Thus
“if it had not been the Lord who was on our side,
when men rose up against us, then they would
have swallowed us up alive’ (Ps 124:1-3 [H 4];
118:10-14). ‘‘Fight against those who fight
against me, O Lord” (Ps 35:1). But Israel's trust
must be in the Lord, warn the prophets, not in
horses, chanots, weapons, or men (cf. Deut
17:16—17; I Sam 17:47; Isa 31:1-3; Hos 8:14).

Israel itself was subject to attack from God if
they flaunted his laws and indulged tn sin. Amos
2:14-16 comes very close to describing all-out
warfare against Israel. Isaiah 63:10 states
explicitly that when the Israelites rebelled against
the Holy Spirit, God became their enemy and
fought against them.

There is yet coming a time when God will fight
once more; this time against all the nations which
have attacked Israel (Zech 14:3). Yahweh has de-
creed the death of the beast and the end of his
power (Dan 7:11, 26; 8:25; 11:45). God will per-
sonally put on the breastplate of righteousness,
helmet of salvation, suit of vengeance, and coat
of zeal as he judges the enemies from the nations,
until the fear of him is spread from east to west
(Isa 59:17-19).

lahem. War(?). This word appears only in Jud
5:8 and is usually translated *‘then was there war
[at] the gates.’’ Others read it as “‘then was there
barley bread’’ or ‘the barley bread was ex-
hausted.’’ The first is probably to be preferred.

milhama. Battle, war. Of the 319 occurrences
of this noun, our interest centers on the battles in
which Yahweh was involved. While much has
been made of the concept of “‘holy war’
popularized by von Rad, the demure of men like
A. Weiser must be raised. There is greater
breadth to the concept than simply the fulfillment
of an ancient sacral ordinance.

True, Yahweh is a ‘‘man of war’’ (Ex 15:3) and
his name Yahweh s°ba’6t, *‘Lorp of hosts’’ does
on occasion reflect the fact that he is
commander-in-chief of Israel's armies (I Sam
17:26, 45). David acknowledged that ‘the Lord
saves not with the sword and spear: for the battle
is the Lord’s’’ (I Sam 17:47). And there was a
book containing “‘the wars of the Lorp’’ (Num
21:14). However, not every battle was a war of
herem wherein everything in the captured city
was devoted to destruction.

Further, many of Israel’s wars were fratricidal
wars between the tribes (Jud 19-21) and even
Selfish wars of aggression (II Sam 24; I Kgs 22;
Jud 17). Israel also fought defensive wars (Num
31: 1 Sam 11-17; 28-30; II Sam 5, 8) and offensive
wars (Num 21:21-35; Deut 2:26—3:17; Josh
6-12).

Just before Yahweh makes ‘‘wars to cease”’
(Ps 46:9a [H 10]) and forever destroys the im-
plements of war (Ps 46:95 [H 10}; Isa 2:1-S; Mic
4:1-5) the nations shall raise their arms against
Israel and their Messiah, but to no avail (Ps 2; Ps
45:3ff. [H 4]; Zech 14).

Bibliography: Al, pp. 247-67. Gross, H.,
‘War,’ in Sacramentum Verbi, II], pp. 958-61.
Pederson, J., Israel: Its Life and Culture, vols.
HI-IV, Copenhagen, 1940, pp. 1-32. von Rad,
G., Studies in Deuteronomy, Regnery, 1953, pp.
45-49. TDNT, VI, pp. 507-11.

W.C.K.

1105 oam> (laham) U1, use as food, eat.

Derivative
110Sa tan? (lehem) food, bread, grain.

This noun occurs 296 times in the ot. But
‘‘man does not live by bread alone, but by every
word that proceeds from the mouth of the Lorp”’
(Deut 8:3). Man is not what he eats!

Yet all food is the gift of God. He planted the
garden of Eden and caused all the trees to grow
which were good for food (ma’adkal, Gen 2:9).
Likewise the Psalmist asserts that God *‘caused
the grass to grow for the cattle and vegetables for
the service of man: that he may bring food from
the ground...and bread which strengthens
man’s heart’ (Ps 104:14—15). Yes, he ‘gives food
to all flesh’’ (Ps 136:25): to the hungry (Ps 146:7)
and to the beasts and young ravens (Ps 147:9).
God himself even instructs man the art and prin-
ciples of agriculture: how to prepare the ground,
how to sow the seed in rows or to broadcast oth-
ers, and how to harvest each after patiently wait-
ing the appointed number of days (Isa 28:24-29,
note grain in v. 28).

Man must never presume that this “‘staff’ on
which he leans will always be available, regard-
less of how he acts. God can and did ‘break the

477

1105 am? (laham)

whole staff of bread’’ (Ps 105:16; Isa 3:1; Ezk
4:16; 5:16; 14:13; Amos 4:6). This was the princi-
ple announced by Moses in Lev 26:26: God
would send increasingly severe judgments on any
nation that refused to walk in righteousness be-
fore he brought the ultimate calamity. Even
worse than a famine of bread was famine of the
Word of God (Amos 8:11) both of which resulted
from the same cause: compounded sin.

Sadly enough, even though God was richly
supplying Israel with her grain, fine flour, oil, and
honey (Ezk 16:19), she, like the adulterous
Gomer, insisted on running after her lovers, not
realizing that God had been the source of those
gifts (Hos 2:5, 7-8 [H 7, 9-10]).

What could the few righteous like Habakkuk
do when they saw their nation headed for such
disaster as a result of hardened and entrenched
sinfulness? He would “‘rejoice in the Lord’’ and
‘joy in the God of [his] salvation’’ even though
outwardly he was shaking with fear and the fields
yielded no food ('dkel), (Hab 3:17—18).

There is another kind of bread, wine, and milk
that can be bought without money or labor. Men
may have it if they repent and seek the Lord (Isa
§5:1-7). Jesus later calls himself the true bread
from heaven just as the manna in the wilderness
was ‘“‘bread from heaven” (Ex 16:4ff.). Even
Elijah was fed food by God's ravens when there
was none to be had (I Kgs 17:6). At other times,
God provided grain by sending visions and lead-
ership in Joseph (Gen 41:54, 55; 43:25, 31, 32:
45:23; 47:12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20). Both spiritual and
physical bread come from the Father of all good
gifts.

The dough which the Israelites took with them
from Egypt was unleavened, because they had to
leave in haste (Ex 12:34, 39). Note, however, Lev
23:17. The Pentecost wave loaves were to be
baked with leaven! So leaven cannot always be a
principle of evil. The ‘‘bread of wickedness”
(Prov 4:17) or the *‘bread of deceit”’ (Prov 20:17)
is always obtained by wrong and results in bitter-
ness of life. No better is the ‘‘bread of adversity’
(Isa 30:20), which spells times of persecution, or
the ‘bread eaten in secret’ (Prov 9:17) with the
seductress, for the act of adultery will poison a
man’s whole life.

There ts a better day coming when God will
restore the bread and grain to its creation—state.
The heavens and the earth will flow with abun-
dance as man enters into that ‘‘Rest’’ of which
Canaan with its promised fruitfulness (“a land of
wheat and barley, vine and fig trees and pome-
granates, a land in which you will eat bread with-
out scarcity, in which you will lack nothing,
(Deut 8:7~-9) was an earnest or down payment.
Nature will erupt in uninterruptible, delicious
productivity (Joel 3:18 [H 4:18]; Amos 9:13-14;
Isa 55:10-13; Ezk 47:6—12).

1106 n> (/ahas)

Bibliography: Heaton, E. W., Everyday Life
in O.T. Times, Scribner's, 1956, pp. 81-87; 97-
115. Richardson, TWB, pp. 37-38. Ross, J. F..
IDB, II, pp. 307-308.

W.C.K.

1106 ym? (lahas) squeeze, oppress.

Derivative
1106a tym? (lahas)

No more graphic word picture of the meaning
of /ahas in its nineteen examples can be given
than that of Balaam’s donkey squeezing up
against the wall and thereby crushing Balaam’s
foot (Num 22:25a, 256: Il Kgs 6:32).

The word finds its most important usage in the
realm of ethical theology. Israelites were not to
oppress foreigners or strangers (Ex 22:21 [H 20]:
23:9), for they once had been strangers in Egypt.
that great oppressor. Oppressive treatment was
strictly forbidden to all and to Israel in particular.

Israel experienced a whole wave of oppressors
during the period of the judges (Jud 1:34; 2:18:
4:3; 6:9: 10:12: 1 Sam 10:18). But the Lord sent
deliverers in each situation. Later he sent op-
pressors, (the king of Syria and others; II Kgs
13:4, 22) against Israel on account of sin (Amos
6:14).

Other nations will face their oppressors (Isa
19:20), too. But God always hears the cry for
mercy and deliverance, and he will then fight
daily against those oppressors (Ps 56:1 [H 2]).

lahas. Oppression, distress. Almost all of the
eleven instances of this word deal with the op-
pression of Israel by her enemies. One exception
is the expression for a prisoner's rations, “the
bread of oppression and the water of oppression”’
(I Kgs 22:27: I] Chr 18:26). Isaiah 30:20 says that
the Lord sends physical privations (in a seige
here?) but there will still be left a Teacher, and
ears to hear the exhortation, **This is the way,
walk in it"* (Isa 30:21). The word is usually trans-
lated in the Lxx by thlipsis “tribulation.”
W.C.K.

oppression, distress.

1107 wm (lahash) whisper, charm.

Derivative

1107a) twee) (lahash) a whispering, charm-
ing.

ladhash is found in Aramaic and rabbinical He-
brew with the sense of ‘‘to hiss as a serpent.”
Thus the word may be a dialectal variant of
nahash, since nun and lamed are of similar sound
(cf. the verb /a@gah where the / acts like an n; the
verb “to oppress,’ /adhas or nahas; and the noun
“room.” dishka and nishka).

God will not listen to the prayers of serpent-

charmers (note Ps 58:5 [H 6]). Their mouths are
usually full of reptile-like poison.

Just as bad are those who whisper together
(Hithpael) to devise evil (Ps 41:7 [H 8]; see also
David's whispering serpents, 1] Sam 12:19).

lahash. Whisper, charm. In Isa 3:20, the
garishly attired women wear amulets or charms,
perhaps as protection against snakes or demons.
Professional enchanters (Isa 3:3) attempted to
charm serpents (Jer 8:17; Eccl 10:11) as part of
Israel’s decline into magic and divination. Some
have conjectured that these charms may have
been serpent-shaped earrings (why not leg-
bands?) since the words tabba'ét and nizmé-
ha’ap in Isa 3:21 are words for finger-rings and
nose-rings.

When God's chastening came upon Israel, they
cried out to God with whispers of prayer (Isa
26:16); Ugaritic /h3t “‘whispers’*> (UT 19:no.
1373). This does not appear to be an incantation.

Bibliography: Davies, T. Witton, Magic, Di-
yination and Demonology Among the Hebrews
and their Neighbors, KTAV, 1969, pp. 50-53.

W.C.K.
1108 6 (l6f) myrrh.
wo (lat). See no. 1092a.
1109 sp> (/r’). Assumed root of the following.
1109a. ASOD (l*ta'ad) a kind of lizard
(Lev 11:30).
1110 wed (ldtash) hammer, sharpen, whet.

1111 m9) (lay*la), 99%

Unlike the Egyptian Hymn to the Aton in
which the night is dreaded because the sun (Aton)
has gone home, the oT insists that the darkness
and night were created by God (Gen 1:4, 5; Ps
74:16). During the night God is awake, providing
for the beasts of the forest (Ps 104:20-22) and
protecting men from pestilence (Ps 91:5-6). In-
deed the very alteration and regularity of day and
night is the result of God's covenant with each
(Gen 8:22: Jer 33:20, 25) and thus each succeed-
ing day and night is a reminder of God's faithful-
ness to his other covenant with Abraham and
David (Jer 33:21-26). To God, the night is as
bnght as the day (Ps 139:11-12).

Of all the 242 occurrences of this word, the most
memorable night was the one in which God de-
livered his people from slavery. (Ex 11:4; 12:12,
29). It is annually recalled in the passover. In-
structive, in this connection, are the three days
and three nights of I Sam 30:12. Verse 13 plainly
says, ‘Today is the third [day].°’ Therefore it
may be concluded that the expression is a stereo-
typed formula which applies when any part of

(layil) night.

478

three days is involved, not an affirmation that
seventy-two hours have expired (cf. our Lord's
three days and three nights.)

Elsewhere the night appears as a time of trial,
weeping, suffering, and communion with God
(Isa 30:29: Job 7:3: Ps 6:6 [H 7]: 77:2 [H 3]; Isa
26:9; Ps 1:2; 42:8 [H 9]; 77:6 (H 7]; 88:1 [H 2]:
92:2 [H 3]: 119:55).

W.C.K.

1112 mos (lilit) Lilith.

A female goddess known as a night demon who
haunts the desolate places of Edom (Isa 34:14).
The ruin of Edom is so complete that only
wildcats, satyrs, and Lilith will stay there.

In late rabbinic literature, she is depicted as a
creature with wings and long, flowing hair. No
doubt she personifies the night or sunset.

In Ugaritic literature she receives sacrifices
(UT 23:7) and is invoked in a hymn (UT 104)
which calls her “the veiled bnde™ (A/t.mk|ktmr])
and ‘‘our lady” (b/tn). The former epithet she
shares with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar.

Actually, these night spirits are to be corre-
lated with the male Lilis. This masculine form
covers both male and female genders, as
explicitly stated in one of the many references
contained in the Aramaic Magical Bowls (see
Cyrus H. Gordon, Archiv Orientalni, 6:322). She
appears as La-/e in Linear A and as /ly ina
Phoenician incantation from Arslan Tash. Isaiah
in his reference does not encourage worship or
respect for this demonic deity. The name may be
used symbolically to depict a desolation. (Cf. kiv
‘*screech owl.”’)

Is it not possible also that what was a night
demon in the pagan culture was just a night crea-
ture (So NIV), perhaps a bat or owl, in Israel? The
pagan with his animism fills realities with spirits.
Cf. Hebrew reshep “pestilence”? with Ugaritic
rshp the ‘‘god of pestilence’ and Hebrew yam
‘sea’? with Ugaritic the “god who is Prince
Sea.’ So lilit might have been a real creature
demonized in the surrounding culture.

Bibliography: Leuillet, René and Xavier
Léon-Dufour, **Night,”’ in DBT, pp. 346-47. For
a picture of Lilith, see Henry Frankfort, Art and
Architecture of the Ancient Orient, 1958, pl. 56,
p. 56.

W.C.K.

1113 p> (lis) scorn.

Derivatives

139 (ldsén) scorning (Prov 1:22).
Occurs in phrase ‘anshé lasén
‘‘men of scorning,’’ |.e. scorners
in Isa 29:8; 28:14.

lli3a

1114 wes (lysh).

1115 339 (lakad)

1113b MES (Cm lisa) satire, mocking
poem (Hab 2:6), figure, enigma
(Prov 1:6).

Fools scorn and mock at sin (Prov 14:9) and
judgment (Prov 19:28). The scorner (Qal partici-
pial form) himself may be described as proud and
haughty (Prov 21:24), incorrigible (Prov 9:7), re-
sistant to all reproof (Prov 9:8: 15:12), and hating
any rebuke (Prov 13:1). Wisdom and knowledge
easily elude him (Prov 14:6).

So despicable ts the scorner that he may be
labelled as odious to all men (Prov 24:9). There-
fore he must be avoided (Ps 1:1) by all who would
live godly lives. Further, he should be punished
by hitting so that the easily pursuaded naive fool
may benefit from the lesson (Prov 19:25; 21:11).
One good way to remove contention from a group
is to eject the scorner, and then ‘strife and re-
proach will cease” (Prov 22:10). A prepared
judgment awaits all such scorners (Prov 19:29),
for their trademark of life has been “‘to delight”
in their scorning (Prov 1:22). They shall be
brought to nothing and consumed (Isa 29:20).

That the particular type of wickedness of the
scorner is pride is suggested by Prov 3:34. Here
the scorner is contrasted with the humble. In this
verse the Lxx renders “‘scorner” by “proud”
which is followed in the nt Jas 4:6 and I Pet 5:5.
Cf. Prov 21:24. Dahood points out a parallel of
this word with “evil” in the Karatepe I inscrip-
tion (Psalms, 1, in AB, p. 2).

Among the various mockers and scorners are
wine (Prov 20:1), the proud (Ps 119:51), the king
of Samaria’s henchmen (Hos 7:5), and Job's
friends (16:20).

As a Hiphil participle, the word means an in-
terpreter, such as Joseph used to fool his brothers
(Gen 42:23). The interpreters in Isa 43:27 are the
teachers of Israel, God's priests and prophets
who have sinned by refusing to give out God's
word as he first gave it. In I] Chr 32:31. the word
represents ambassadors or representatives of
Babylon.

The most interesting text is Job 33:23. Elihu
speaks of God graciously teaching men through
the discipline of suffering the more perfect path
of the Lord. Then God sends an angel, i.e. a mes-
senger otherwise Known as an interpreter, am-
bassador, or even a mediator to show man what
is right.

Bibliography:
WEC, p. 560.

Harris, R. L., *‘Proverbs,’* in

W.C.K.

Assumed root of the following.
l1l4a we (lavish) lion. See labi' for
other words for ‘‘lion.

1115S) 59 (lakad) capture, seize, take.

479

1116 7799

Derivatives

S22 (leked) a taking, capture. Oc-
curs only in Prov 3:26, in phrase
wshamar raglka millaked.

nso (malkddet) a catching in-
strument, i.e. a snare, trap. Occurs
only in Job 18:10, in phrase mal-
kudté ‘alé natib.

Most of the 121 uses of /akad deal with men
capturing or seizing towns, men, spoils, and even
a kingdom (I Sam 14:47). It is used figuratively of
the entrapment of men who are caught in snares
of all sorts laid by their enemies (Jer 5:26; 18:22;
Ps 35:8). In Prov 5:22 the wicked is captured with
the cords of his own sins. Likewise, in Ps 9:15
[H 16] the heathen are seized in the very net
which they hid to capture others. They are cap-
tured by their pride, haughtiness, and the words
of their lips (Ps 59:12 [H 13]; Prov 6:2; 11:6).

This word also serves as a figure of divine
judgment. The Stone of Stumbling will cause
many to stumble, fall, be broken, be ensnared,
and be captured (Isa 8:15). When God shakes the
foundations of the earth, just prior to the Millen-
nium (“‘many days’’ of Isa 24:22), the ungodly
shall be seized in the trap (Isa 24:18) as were
those who drunkenly mocked the prophet’s mes-
sage (Isa 28:13). When God moves in judgment,
husband and wives (Jer 6:11), scribes and wise
men (Jer 8:9) along with Moab (Jer 48:7, 44) will
be included.

Others are ensnared by a woman (Eccl 7:26) or
are caught in the ‘‘cords of affliction’ (Job 36:8).
W.C.K.

I115a

1115b

1116 99 (lamad) learn (Qal), teach (Piel).

Derivatives

11l6a 39 (limmid) taught. |

1116b +94 (malmad), 29% (malméd)
oxgoad.

1116c ta%a%m (talmid) scholar.

As one of the twelve words for teaching in the
oT, lamad has the idea of training as well as
educating. The training aspect can be seen in the
derived term for ‘‘oxgoad,’’ malméd. In Hos
10:11 Ephraim is taught like a heifer by a yoke
and goad. The Ugaritic /md means ‘‘learn/teach’”’
and lamda@du means ‘‘learn’’ in Akkadian.

The principle use of this verb is illustrated in Ps
119. Here is repeated the refrain, *‘Teach me thy
statutes’ or ‘‘thy judgments”’ (vv. 12, 26, 64, 66,
68, 108, 124, 135, 171). At the request of king
Jehoshaphat, a group of men went out and taught
the book of the Law in the cities of Judah (II Chr
17:7, 9).

While Greek uses two different words for *‘to
learn’? (manthano) and ‘‘to teach” (didasko),
each having its own content, goal, and methods,

480

1117 *3y9 (la‘ab) jest.

Hebrew uses the same root for both words be-
cause all learning and teaching is ultimately to be
found in the fear of the Lord (Deut 4:10; 14:23;
17:19; 31:12, 13). To learn this is to come to terms
with the will and law of God.

In other instances, men are trained in ways of
war (I Chr 5:18) sometimes by the use of song (Ps
60: English heading [H 1]; Jud 3:2; Song 3:8).
Micah envisions a time when men will no longer
learn warfare (4:3; Isa 2:4).

No one, however, has taught the Lord or acted
as his counselor (Isa 40:14). Rather, anyone who
knows anything has learned it from him, the
source of all truth.

limmud. Taught. The taught ones in Isa 8:16
are the Lord’s disciples who know his law. The
Servant of the Lord, however, has the tongue and
ear of the learned (Isa 50:4). Therefore all Israel's
children await the messianic era with joy, for all
will be taught by the Lord (Isa 54:13).

talmid. Scholar. Only one oT passage, I Chr
25:8, uses this word. There ‘‘the small and the
great, the teacher and the scholar’’ are included
in the selection of the twenty-four divisions of
priests. In rabbinical times, the teacher of the law
was called the talmid Rabbi and his pupils were
known as talmidim, i.e. apprentices. Yet in
another sense, all Israel were talmidim, appren-
ticed to the torah of God. The Jewish Talmud
gets its name from this root.

malméd. Oxgoad. Judges 3:31 is the only pas-
sage which notes that Shamgar slew (or van-
quished? cf. naka) six hundred Philistines with
this iron-tipped instrument attached to a long
shaft used to goad the ox as it plows. Metal
weapons were scarce because the Philistines held
a comer on the market (I Sam 13:19-22), hence
the amazing deliverance which God granted by
the hand of this otherwise unknown judge.
Bibliography: Rengstorf, K. H., °**Man-
thand,”’ in TDNT, IV, pp. 400-405; pp. 426-41.
THAT, I, pp. 872-74.
W.C.K.

we? (1*méd). See 9, no. 1063.
379 (1*miid). See no. 1116a.
ys (l6a‘). See no. 1098a.

Occurs only in the
Hiphil, in I] Chr 36:16, ‘they mocked
God’s messengers’* (NIV).

1118 ay (la‘ag) mock, deride.

Derivatives

1118a tay? (la‘ag) mocking, derision.

1118b 3p? (ld‘ég) mocking, adjective.
Occurs only in Ps 35:16, and possi-
bly Isa 28:11.

Among the seven Hebrew terms for blasphemy
(see below) and slander is this one, occurring
eighteen times. Various subjects of this verb in-
dicate its range of meaning.

The wicked mock the poor and thereby insult
their divine Maker (Prov 17:6). Their wicked eyes
mock their fathers (Prov 30:17). They delight in
laughing at such servants of God as Job (Job
21:3), Jeremiah (Jer 20:7), Asaph (Ps 80:6 [H 7]),
Nehemiah (Neh 2:19), the Jews (Neh 3:33), and
‘Hezekiah’s mailmen (II Chr 30:10).

Men who mock God's servants and message
will ultimately be mocked in turn: delivered into
the captivity of people who speak with what
seems to be a stammering or mocking tongue (Isa
33:10).

The source of this kind of judgment is God.
The classic text is Ps 2:4. The Lord will mock
those rebels who say of God the Father and his
Messiah, *‘Let us break off their bands and cast
off their cords.’’ God will laugh at the heathen; he
will have ail of them in derision (Ps 59:8 [H 9]).
Likewise, Wisdom joins God in laughing at the
calamities of the coarse and hardened fool; she
mocks when their fear comes (Prov 1:26) just as
‘the virgin, the daughter of Zion’’ mocked the
proud, boastful Sennacherib (II Kgs 19:21; Isa
37:22), when God delivered her.

la‘ag. Mocking, derision. The Psalmist com-
plains that God has made Israel a reproach
(herpd), a scorn (geles), and a derision to every-
one around them (Ps 44:13 [H 14]: see also Ps
79:4). The same is said of the two sisters Samaria
and Jerusalem: ‘**Thou shalt be laughed to scorn
and had in derision’’ (Ezk 23:32). This derision
which 1s directed at Jerusalem in particular will
come from the nations that surround her (Ezk
36:4).

Compare /a@shan ‘‘to speak against,” rdgal
‘‘spy out,’ ‘‘slander’ (going about as a busy-
body), rdgan *“‘to murmur,”’ to backbite,”’ dibba
‘‘defamation,’’ sahaq ‘to laugh at,” “deride,”
qalas *‘to scoff at.”’

The phrase halla‘ag hashsha’dnannim ‘the
scorn of the nonchalant’’ (Ps 123:4) is not as
‘‘impossible’’ grammatically as Briggs thought it
was; aS Dahood has reminded us, it needs no
emendation. The article is often present on the
construct state in Phoenician and Hebrew con-
struct chains. These mockers are either the hea-
then opposition or Israelite rogues whose air of
independence makes them despicable to God
and men.

The most controversial passage (at least in its
application in the NT, I Cor 14:21) is Isa 28:11.
God will speak to Israel with ‘‘stammering lips,”’
i.e. In captivity the language of the foreign cap-
tors will appear to be unintelligible gibberish.
Since Israel had regarded the prophetic word as

1124 np> (laqah)

so much nonsensical talk, God would pay them
back in their own currency in Assyria. Such is the
import of Hos 7:16. In return for the ‘‘rage,”* 1.e.
the defiant speeches of Israel's princes who
openly disavowed the Lord, God would let the
same Egyptians to whom they appealed for help
turn on them in derision. One turncoat deserved
another!

W.C.K.

1119 ty9 (ld‘az) speak indistinctly, unintelli-
gibly. Occurs only in Ps 114:1, ‘am lo‘éz
‘‘a people speaking unintelligibly.”’

1120 *op (ld‘at) swallow (greedily). Occurs
only in the Hiphil, in Gen 25:30, hal‘iténi
‘‘let me swallow.”

1121 my (la'and) wormwood.
yy (la'a‘). See no. 1099.
1122 sp% (lpd). Assumed root of the following.

1122a t°_2 (lappid) torch.

The flaming torch, like the pillar of fire, the
lamp in the tabernacle, and the glory of God, sig-
nified the holy, awesome presence of the Lord
moving among his people. Thus God moved as a
flaming torch between the divided pieces to con-
firm his covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:17) and
appeared in flashes of lightning on Sinai (Ex
20:18; cf. Ezk 1:13). When Zion is finally deliv-
ered, her salvation will be like a burning lamp (Isa
62:1) and her governors like a torch of fire (Zech
12:6).

W.C.K.

See no. 1122a.
See no. 1780b.

3°52 (lappid)
9B? (lipné).
1123. mp9 (lapat) twist, turn, grasp with a twist-
ing motion.
8X9 > (lasén). See no. 1113a.

1124 mp9 (ladqah) take (get, fetch), lay hold of
(seize), receive, acquire (buy), bring, marry

(take a wife), snatch (take away).

Derivatives

1124a tmp? (leqah) learning.

1124b so mip9r3 «(malqéah) I, booty, prey.

1124c =o mip’ = (malqéah) =U, jaw. Occurs
only in Ps 22:16 in phrase al shéni
mudbaq malqéhay “‘my tongue is
made to cleave to my jaws (i.e.
gums).”°

1124d) ss psmp79 «(melqadhayim) tongs, snuf-
fers.

481

1125 wp (laqat)

1124e mpm (miggah) a_ taking, receiv-
ing. Occurs only in II Chr 19:7,
miqqah-shodhad ‘a taking of a
bribe.”

1124f 4 =6mmpm = (maqqahad) ware. Only in
Neh 10:32, hammagqgqahot *‘(their)
wares.

This root is used over a thousand times in the
OT, often taking its nuance from the words with
which it is used. As in English one can take ven-
geance (Isa 47:3) or receive disgrace (Ezk 36:30),
and God receives (accepts) prayer in Ps 6:10
where it is used in parallel with shéma‘ *‘to hear”’
(cf. Job 4:12). A similar parallel exists between
lagah ‘‘snatch”’ and gdnab ‘‘steal’’ (cf. Job 4:12;
Jer 23:30-31; Jud 17:2). In the passive stems
(Pual and Niphal) the usage ‘‘be taken, carried
away’ (I Sam 4:11) or ‘“‘be brought’’ (Gen 2:15)
suggests that such ‘‘taking”’ is against the will of
those taken. These basic meanings are also found
in postbiblical Hebrew, Aramaic, Moabite,
Phoenician, Arabic, Ugaritic, and Akkadian.

In addition to the common meanings of ldgah
there are a number of extended uses, some of
which have theological significance. The *‘take”’
aspect of the word may extend, in some contexts,
into the meaning “‘select’’ and/or *‘summon.”’
According to Deut 4:34, God ‘‘took”’ (selected)
Israel from among the nations (cf. also 4:30;
I Kgs 11:37; Josh 3:12; 4:2). In Job 41:4 [H 40:28]
the leviathan is ‘‘taken’’ (selected) as God’s per-
manent vassal who has a binding covenant with
him. *‘Summon"’ would fit equally well in some
of these contexts. BDB (pp. 543, 546) finds
‘“summon"’ for /a@gah in Num 23:11, Jud 11:5,
and I Sam 16:11. One should be careful with the
semantics here because ‘take or fetch’’ also
makes sense, but this is true of many of the
nuances of this word. An interesting but vexing
usage of this type occurs in Ps 75:2 [H 3]. The
translations differ considerably. The «sv renders
it, ‘‘When I shall receive the congregation,’ RV
‘‘When I shall find the set time,’ rsv “‘I ap-
point,’’ NASB *‘] select.”” M.Dahood's *‘summon”’
makes good sense here, **I will summon the as-
sembly, I will judge with equity’’.(Psalms, II, in
AB, p. 209).

Twice Jeremiah uses /a@qah for the ‘‘taking up”’
or ‘‘use’’ of words. In 23:31 he speaks against the
false prophets who ‘“‘‘use’’ (RSV, NASB) their
tongues as if the Lord had inspired them. In 29:22
the exiles “‘use’’ a curse formula based on the
demise of certain false prophets.

Fire from God is described with a reflexive use
of the root /dgah in Ex 9:24 and Ezk 1:4. The
explanation that the fire seizes, enfolds upon it-
self is not entirely satisfactory.

Perhaps the most theologically interesting
usage of /4gah centers around the two clear con-

482

texts where the word describes bodily assump-
tion into heaven. We refer to Enoch’'s disappear-
ance when God ‘“‘took”’ him (Gen 5:24) and
Elijah’s assumption in a whirlwind (II Kgs 2:3,
10-11). In the light of such physical assumption,
it is not unreasonable to question whether there
may be other similar uses. Elyjah, whose body
was assumed, used /dgah to refer to death at the
hands of his enemies ‘they seek my life, to take
it’’ (I Kgs 19:10, 14; cf. also Prov 24:11). Just the
opposite meaning appears in other places where
God is the subject and a rescue from dying or
distress is in mind. So Ps 18:16 [H 17} says, *‘He
sent from on high, he took me; he drew me out of
the deep waters.’’ But there are at least three
contexts where more than merely saving a per-
son’s life appears to be in the mind of the Psalm-
ist. Psalm 49 presents a stark contrast between
the end of the wicked and the end of the nght-
eous. The wicked ‘‘die like beasts’’ (vv. 12 [H
13], 20 [H 21]}) without any hope of immortality,
‘that he should live forever’ (v. 9 {H 10}). The
Psalmist, however, has a triumphant faith that
‘*God will redeem him from the power of Sheol,
for he will receive (lagah take, snatch) me” (v.
15 (H 16]). If the Psalmist is talking about being
rescued from death for a few years when he
knows he too must die like the beasts, then the
Psalm has no point. Psalm 73: 23-25 [H 24-26]
also contrasts the wicked with the nghteous and
once again a faith that reaches beyond this life is
centered around the word /dgah. ** You will guide
me with your counsel and afterwards receive
(take) me to glory” (v. 24 [H 25)).

leqah. Teaching, learning, persuasiveness. This
word occurs nine times, in four of which it is the
object of yasap ‘to add more, increase’ (Prov
1:5; 9:9; 16:21, 23). As with the root meaning
“take, seize,’ the “grasping” is with the mind
and hence “‘perceiving’’ is the nuance prominent
in this derivative. Note some of the words with
which it is paired: bind ‘‘understanding”’ (Isa
29:24), haka@m ‘‘wisdom’’ (Prov 1:5; 9:9) and
tora “instruction, law’ (Prov 4:2). In Prov 7:21
legah means ‘‘the persuasiveness’’ of a harlot.
But in Prov 16:21 the word is used in a good sense
of a teacher’s persuasiveness.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 875-78.
W.C.K.

1125 we (laqat) glean, pick, gather up.

Derivatives

1125a tap? (leqget) gleaning.
1125b te3po" (yalqut) wallet, bag.

The objects of this verb vary as much as the
subjects, e.g. they gather stones (Gen 31:46),
manna (Ex 16:4-S, 26), money (Gen 47:14), grain
(Ruth 2:3, 7; Isa 17:5), fallen grapes (Lev 19:10),

arrows (I Sam 20:38), firewood (Jer 7:18), food
off the ground (Jud 1:7), or a bunch of ruffians
(Jud 11:3). Not only men, but also occasionally
animals gatnered (food, Ps 104:28).

A theologically important verse is Lev 19:9
(see also 23:22) in which Israel is warned not to
reap the corners of their fields or gather the glean-
ings of [the] harvest. The gleanings were to be left
for the poor and the resident alien, as illustrated
in Ruth 2:15-18; cf. Lev 19:10; 23:226.

Israel's final restoration to her land is depicted
by Isaiah under the figure of grains picked up
after being threshed by the Lord's judgment:
‘*And you shall be gathered one by one, O you
sons of Israel”’ in that day (Isa 27:12).

leqet. Gleaning. Only found twice (Lev 19:9;
23:22), as discussed above.

yalqat. Wallet, bag. This hapax legomenon ts
found in I Sam 17:40. It is the word for David’s
shepherd's bag into which he had placed five
smooth stones. So far the word is unattested
elsewhere.

W.C.K.

1126 pp (ldgaq) lap, lick.

1127 wp (lgsh). Assumed root of the following.

1127a = ~(legesh) after growth, i.e.

spring crop. Occurs only in Amos

rae

1127b twip>rm «=(malgésh) latter rain.

1127c }=6wp = (lagash) take the aftermath,
i.e. take everything (Job 24:6).
Probably denominative from
legesh.

malkosh. Latter rain, spring rain. The latter
rains occur during March and April, while the
former rains (q.v.) begin the season of rain, usu-
ally including severe thunderstorms, in the sec-
ond half of October to November (or even as late
as January in a bad year). The latter rains of
March and April are desperately needed for the
coming harvest, hence Job's description of his
miserable comforters in a marvelous simile (Job
29:23). If this rain fails, it is obvious that God is
displeased with his people: °**] also withheld the
rain from you when there were only three months
to harvest’ (Amos 4:7; Jer 3:3).

But if all is well between God and his people,
then ‘‘he will give the rain for {their] land in its
season, the early rain and the latter rain so that
[they] might gather in [their] grain and wine and
oil” (Deut 11:14; Jer 5:24). When God returns to
his people, it is like the coming of the latter and
former rains upon the earth, proclaims Hosea
(6:3). God invites men to ask him for rain at the
time of the latter rain and he will send it copiously
(Zech 1{0:1). In fact, when men repent, one of

483

1128 sw (lshd).

1131 WwW (lashan)

1131 39 (lashan)

God's signs of immediate blessing ts the rain (Joel
2:23).

Proverbs uses the appearance of the spring
clouds preceeding the latter rains as a simile of
the king's favor (Prov 16:15).

Bibliography: Baly, Dennis, Geography of
the Bible, Harper, 1957, pp. 51-52, 99.

W.C.K.

Assumed root of the following.
1128a = =6WY «(lashdd) juice, juicy or dainty
bit (Num 11:8; Ps 32:4).

Tw (lashén). See no. 1131a.

1129 sw (lshk). Assumed root of the following.

1129a inDw> (lishka)

Most frequently this word designates the three
tiers of rooms or cells allocated to priests, sing-
ers, and keepers of the temple (Ezk 40:17, 38,
44-46: 41:10: 42:1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12). During the
time of Ezra and Nehemiah, the term was used of
storerooms (Ezr 8:29; Neh 10:38-40) and per-
sonal chambers (Ezr 10:6; Neh 13:4, 5, 8, 9.) In
Jer 36:12, 20, 21 it refers to the scribe’s room in
the palace.

One of the most theologically important pas-
sages is Jer 35:2, 4. Jeremiah was commanded to
take the Rechabites to a room connected with
Solomon's temple and offer some wine to them.
They went but refused the wine out of deference
and obedience to an old command given by one
of their forefathers. Jeremiah learned that obedi-
ence to God was indeed possible if men could
steadfastly obey merely human laws.

In Samuel's day there was another room con-
nected with the high place (ba@ma) where he par-
took of a sacrificial meal with Saul, king-elect
(I Sam 9:22: cf. v. 19).

nishka. Chamber. A late word, doubtless a
by-form, with a similar-sounding letter inter-
change (1 and n). It was used also of rooms for
individuals (Neh 3:30; 13:7) and storerooms (Neh
12:44).

room, chamber.

W.C.K.

1130 ow? (leshem) a precious stone in the high

priest’s breastplate (Ex 28:19; 39:12). Niv,
RSV, NASB translate *‘jacinth.”’

slander. Denominative

verb.
Parent Noun
1131la tw) (ldshdn)
Only two examples of the denominative verb

appear. Psalm 101:5 warns that God will silence
all who privately slander their neighbors and

tongue.

1132 mA® (ith)

Prov 30:10 cautions against disparaging a slave to
his master lest the speaker be ill-spoken of in
turn.

lashon. Tongue. This word occurs 117 times in
the oT. The God-given organ of communication
with one’s fellowman and God, the tongue is
shown to be at once the source of much good and
evil. A few passages refer to the physical tongue,
e.g. of men lapping (Jud 7:5), thirsting (Lam 4:4),
and dumb (Job 29:10; Ps 137:6; Ezk 3:26) or of
animals such as dogs (Ex 11:7), crocodiles (Job
40:25), and adders (Job 20:16). By extension, it
carries geographical meaning such as_ the
‘““tongue”’ of land which protrudes into the Dead
Sea (Josh 15:2, 5; 18:19; Isa 11:15) or a tongue-
shaped wedge of gold (Josh 7:21, 24).

However, most attention is focused on the
misuse of the tongue, Ps S2 (especially vv. 2, 4
(H 4, 6]) being the classical teaching passage.
Here Doeg, the Edomite, used his tongue deceit-
fully to lead Saul to destroy the priestly house of
Ahimelech (I Sam 22:7ff.). But Ps 51 stands as an
example of the proper use of the tongue, singing
of God’s righteousness after experiencing cleans-
ing from sin (v. 14 [H 16]; see also Ps 126:2).

The tongue is the agent of many evils: subver-
sion (Prov 10:31), slander (Prov 17:4), flattery (Ps
5:9 [H 10]), mischief and trouble (Ps 10:7), arro-
gance (Ps 12:4 (H 5}), hurt to others (Ps 52:2
{H 4]), and falsehood (Prov 17:4; 6:17; 12:19;
21:6; 26:28; Ps 78:36; 120:2-3; Mic 6:12). It can
be like the tongue of a viper (Ps 140:3 (H 4}), a
bow or arrow (Jer 9:3 [H 2], 8 [H 7]), a sharp
sword (Ps 57:4 (H 5]; 64:3 [H 4]; Hos 7:16), a
razor (Ps 52:2 [H 4]). The tongue can be used as a
weapon (Jer 18:18) because ‘‘life and death are in
the power of the tongue’”’ (Prov 18:21). All such
use of the tongue is ultimately directed against
God, for while it violates mostly the ninth com-
mandment, it is accompanied by an arrogance
and boasting that usurps the place of God (Hos
7:16). God will teach all who mock his message
and in drunken stupor complain about the
prophets’ wearisome ‘‘watch your p’s and watch
your q’s,’’ with ‘‘another tongue’’: foreign exile

484

1132 mA (Ith).

1133 sn (tk).

(Isa 28:11; cf. Jer 5:15, ‘‘a nation whose language
you do not know’’).

Most presumptuous of all are the false
prophets (Jer 23:31). They cry ‘peace, peace’’ in
a move to seek popularity (23: 16ff.). But they fail
to distinguish their own dreams from real
prophecy (23:28ff.), and they plagiarize and per-
vert the burden of the Lord (23:36ff.). Con-
trariwise was the reluctance of Moses who com-
plained that he had a heavy tongue (Ex 4:10) even
though Stephen testified that he was mighty in
words and deeds (Acts 7:22). Moses’ words did
not, then, refer to a speech impediment, but
rather to a certain type of quickness in debate.
God's solution was a promise to be with his
tongue and to send him another tongue, Aaron.

The tongue of a righteous man, however, is
valued as highly as choice silver (Prov 10:20).
When wise men speak they bring health to their
listeners (Prov 12:18); they use knowledge in a
proper manner (Prov 15:2). Wisdom and kindness
characterize the tongue of the virtuous woman
(Prov 31:26). Not a thought, answer, or word on
the tongue is unknown to the Lord (Ps 139:4;
Prov 16:1-2; II Sam 23:2).

In the future day of the Lord, the deceitful
tongue will not be found among the remnant
(Zeph 3:13); even the tongue of the dumb will
shout for joy (Isa 35:6).

Bibliography: Surgy, Paul de, ‘‘Tongue,” in
DBT, p. 533. Behm, J., *’ gldssa,’’ in TDNT, I, p.
721.

W.C.K.

Assumed root of the following.

1132a =o mmo = (meltaha) wardrobe, wear-
ing apparel. Occurs only in II Kgs
10:22.

Assumed root of the following.

ano (letek) barley measure of un-
certain size thought to be half an
homer—five ephahs. Occurs only
in Hos 3:2. (ZPEB V, p. 917.)

1133a

DIiSNl2 «(ma’dbiis). See no. 10b.

1134 “8% =(m’d). Assumed root of the following.

1134a TSI (m*’dd) exceedingly, much,
force, abundance.

This term is used three hundred times in the oT,
mainly as an adverb. Infrequently, it is used as a
substantive, e.g. Deut 6:5, ‘You shall love the
Lord your God with your whole heart, with your
whole soul, and with your whole strength.’ Thus
it was said of King Josiah, the likes of whom
Israel had never seen before, that he turned to the
Lord with his whole heart, soul, and strength,
according to the whole law of Moses (II Kgs
23:25).

It is found in many combinations, all express-
ing the idea of exceeding (e.g. Gen 1:31, in which
the Creator calls his creation exceeding good) or
very greatly (e.g. Ex 1:7, where this term is used
twice in describing the prolificacy of the Israel-
ites under the hand of God).

McBride observed: ‘‘The three parts of Deut
6:5: lébab (heart), nepesh (soul or life), and
me’ 6d (muchness) rather than signifying different
spheres of Biblical psychology seem to be seman-
tically concentric. They were chosen to reinforce
the absolute singularity of personal devotion to
God. Thus /ébdb denotes the intention or will of
the whole man; nepesh means the whole self, a
unity of flesh, will, and vitality; and m°’dd ac-
cents the superlative degree of total commitment
to Yahweh.”’ (See bibliography.)

The nT struggles to express the depth of the
word m°’od at this spot. In the quotation in Mk
12:30 it is rendered *‘mind and strength,’’ in Lk
10:27 it is ‘*strength and mind,” in Mt 22:37 sim-
ply *‘mind.”’

Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 617-37.

W.C.K.

1135 AS (mé’a) hundred.

This noun occurs 583 times, usually in state-
ments reporting ages of persons, census results,
or the measurements of various objects.

The longevity of the antediluvian and postdilu-
vian fathers (Gen 5 and 11) has caused much
comment. However, it is clear that these hun-
dreds of years (the maximum being 969 years,
reached by Methuselah) were real years, for God
intended to show to all that mankind was built for
immortality. Nevertheless, the effects of sin
began to take their toll on man’s physical being.
Thus his life span grew shorter and, con-
sequently, the period of procreation. By Ab-

487

raham’s time it was thought to be impossible for a
one hundred-year-old man to father a child (Gen
17:17). But God miraculously provided Isaac, the
child of promise.

A significant prophecy was given in Gen 15:13.
Israel was to be in bondage for four hundred
years and indeed they were. According to Ex
12:40, the exact time was four hundred and thirty
years. If there is around number here, it is in Gen
15:13.

In one place it appears probable that the word
‘*hundred’’ (with consonants m’h) is a mistake
for ‘‘cubit’’ (with consonants ’mh). The porch of
Solomon’s temple is said to be 120 (supposedly
cubits, so Rsv). But this would be 180 feet, an
impossible height. Some mss of the Lxx here read
20 cubits, the same height as the holy of holies. It
seems probable that there has been a metathesis
of the letters, and some Lxx witnesses have pre-
served the original reading. The same metathesis
occurs in a Qere/Kethib variation in Ezk 42:16.

An eschatological passage, Isa 65:20, says that
in the new heavens and new earth “‘the child shall
die an hundred years old, but the sinner being an
hundred years old shall be accursed.’’ Whether
verses 20-25 are a part of the description of the
new heavens and new earth, or are a subpara-
graph as Buswell claims (Systematic Theology,
II, p. 517), is debatable. E. J. Young, however,
argues that death will not deprive either the
young child or old man of his days (Isa 65:20a).
Neither will longevity be unusual, for a person
who dies at the age of one hundred years will be
considered just a baby or a sinner who has been
cut down very early. Cf. niv: *‘He who dies at a
hundred will be thought a mere youth; he who
fails to reach a hundred will be considered ac-
cursed.”’

Bibliography: Green, William Henry, *‘Pn-
meval Chronology,’ in Classical Evangelical
Essays in O.T. Interpretation, Baker, 1972, pp.
13-28. Young, E. J., The Book of Isaiah, U1,
Eerdmans, 1972, p. 515.

W.C.K.

‘IN? (ma’dway). See no. 40c.
BIN (m*'um). See no. 1137a.

1136 MSN (m*’ima) anything.

Used thirty-two times, usually in negative sen-
tences. Ecclesiastes 7:14 has God setting pros-
perity alongside aversity so that men can find
nothing apart from himself (cf. 3:11). Balaam pro-
tests in Num 22:38 that he has no power to do

1137 ON? (m’m)

anything apart from the word of God. Often
m®’ama is a euphemism for something bad, such
as the thing Abraham was about to do to Isaac
(Gen 22:12, *‘Do not do anything to the lad,’’) or
the thing Ammon waited to do to Tamar (II Sam
13:2, ‘‘He thought jt difficult to do anything to
her’’).

W.C.K.

See no. 1139a.
See no. 52f.

DIN? §(ma’éds).
Sine (ma’ér).
IN? (mo’zen). See no. 58a.
Venta (ma’akal). See no. 85d.
moN = (ma’dkeler).
BOON = (ma’akdlet).
mMpeNle (ma'amasa).
ple (ma’dmar).

See no. 85e.
See no. 85f.
See no. 117e.

See no. 118e.

1137 Os (m’m). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1137a TOINt (m’aim), O13 (mum) defect,
blemish.

This word denotes any physical defect, such as
was not found in Daniel and his three friends
(Dan 1:4ff.) and in the man who would be God’s
priest (Lev 21:17ff.), or any moral defect (Job
31:7; 11:15; Deut 32:5). The epitome of un-
blemished men was Absalom (II Sam 14:25); of
women the Shulamite maiden (Song 4:7).

Animals offered as sacrifices to God had to be
without spot or blemish (Lev 22:20, 21, 25; Num
19:2; Deut 15:21; 17:1). To offer anything less
would be to disobey God and disregard the obvi-
ous teaching that man’s substitute for his sins had
itself to be totally blameless.

W.C.K.

1138 “IN (ma’én) refuse.
Piel.

Used only in the

Derivatives

1138a 8 (ma'én) refusing.
1138b TIN% (mé’én) refusing.

Especially significant are those occasions
when Pharaoh (Ex 4:23; 7:14; 10:3) or Israel re-
fused to obey God’s commands. They simply
‘‘refused to walk in [God's] law’’ (Ps 78:10). Is-
rael also refused to repent (Hos 11:5; Jer 3:3; 8:5)
or to receive instruction (Jer 5:3; 9:6 [H 5]; 11:10;
Zech 7:11). Only once is God ever said to have
refused: he refused to give Balaam permission to
curse Israel (Num 22:13).

ma’én. Refusing. This verbal adjective ap-
pears four times in the oT, three times in the
phrase 'im-ma’én ‘atta | shalléah, of Pharaoh’s

488

1140 *DS8% (mda’as) II, flow, run.

refusal to release Israel from bondage (Ex 8:2
(H 7:27]; 9:2; 10:4). It is also used of Zedekiah’s
refusal to surrender to the Babylonians (Jer
38:21).

me’en. Refusing. Only found in Jer 13:10, of
rebellious Israel who kept on refusing to listen to
God's word and worshiping other gods.

W.C.K.
1139 ON (ma’as) I, reject, despise.
Derivative
1139a DIN «(ma’ds) refuse. Occurs

only in Lam 3:45, ‘‘offscouring and
refuse you make us.”’

Examination of some seventy-three uses of this
verb reveals that men despise the Lord who is
among them (Num 11:20) and thus merit God’s
rejecting them (Hos 4:6). When Israel requested
Samuel to appoint a king over them, they rejected
the Lord (I Sam 8:7; 10:19).

Wicked men do not despise evil (Ps 36:4 [H 5]);
they just reject the knowledge of God (Hos 4:6),
the law of the Lord (Amos 2:4; Isa 5:24; Jer 6:19)
the word of the Lord (I Sam 15:23, 26; Isa 30:12;
Jer 8:9), the righteous decisions of God (Ezk 5:6;
20:13, 16), the covenant made with Abraham
(II Kgs 17:15), the statutes of God (Lev 26:15;
Ezk 20:24), and the disciplinary chastening of the
Lord (Prov 3:11). In fact, they have totally re-
jected the ‘‘Stone’’ which has now become the
‘‘capstone of the building’ (Ps 118:22).

Especially reprehensible in God’s eyes is Is-
rael’s externalized religious practice. God hates
and despises their feast days and offerings since
they come to him without any genuine affection
(Amos 5:21).

God rejects men who do not listen to him (Hos
9:17). However, he will never reject them totally,
for that would break his covenant (Lev 26:44).
God has chosen the seed of Abraham, his ser-
vant, and he will never cast them away (Isa 41:9).
In fact, as long as God keeps his covenant with
day and night (Jer 33:25) so long will he refrain
from rejecting his covenant made with David and
Levi (Jer 33:24). He will not despise the seed of
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and David (Jer 31:37;
33:26). True, Ps 89:38 [H 39] does seem to con-
tradict this strong affirmation by saying God has
indeed rejected his anointed (cf. II Kgs 17:20; Jer
6:30; Ps 78:59, 67). This statement, however, re-
fers only to individual participation and not to the
abiding promise which remains open to all who
will believe.

Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 879-92.

W.C.K.

Occurs only
in the Niphal (Job 5:7; Ps 58:8).

1141

MeN (ma'dpeh). See no. 143a.
“PN (ma'dpél). See no. 145e.
m°PNl2 (ma’dpélyad). See no. 145f.
MBN (ma’dpét). See no. 152a.

*9NI (ma’ar) pain, prick.

This word appears four times, in the Hiphil
stem. Once it is used figuratively of Israel's op-
pression by their neighbors (Ezk 28:24), who are
likened to ‘‘pricking bnars and_ scratching
thorns.’’ In the other three passages, it refers toa
malignant (7?) or rotten (?) mold associated with
leprosy (q.v.) (Lev 13:51-52; 14:44).

W.C.K.

39822 (ma’arab). See no. 156e.
masta (m°’erad). See no. 168a.
mossla (mabdala). See no. 203b.
Si5% (mabo’). See no. 212b.
moista (m’ baka). See no. 214a.

1142 S332 (mabbil) flood.

A technical term reserved for the watery catas-
trophe which God brought on the earth during the
days of Noah. That event was so well known that
mabbil usually occurs with the definite article
(except in Gen 9:11, 15). mabbiul is used only
once outside Gen 7-11. Psalm 29:10 says that
‘‘the Lorp sits upon the flood, indeed, the Lorp
is enthroned king forever.’’ Instead of Baal, the
god of storm and thunder who according to the
Ugaritic myths defeated yam the sea god, the
Lord's voice is heard in the thunder, and it is he
who reigns over the destructive forces of nature,
in this case the storm so beautifully described in
Ps 29.

All attempted etymologies for this word have
failed because of linguistic difficulties. A few of
the suggestions have been: the Akkadian root nbl
‘to destroy,” Akkadian abubu from the alleged
wabubu ‘cyclone,’ Akkadian bubbulu, biblu,
bibbulu *‘inundation,’’ which is the best sugges-
tion yet. But it also fails since the term is not used
in any of the Akkadian flood stories. Hebrew ydb/
‘*to flow, stream’’ or nb/ ‘‘waterskin’’ have also
been suggested. But these suggestions are not
linguistically supported and appear to be parents
to the unwarranted thought that mabbdl refers to
a ‘‘theavenly ocean’’ or a “‘heavenly store of
water in jars.”’

While God himself brought the waters of the
flood on the earth because of man’s sin (Gen
6:17; 7:6), afterward he covenanted never again
to destroy the earth with water (Gen 9:11, 15).
Thus God’s own can be certain that the earth will
endure until the desired eschaton comes.

W.C.K.

489

l

tomemt

1144 33% (mgd)

meisia (m°busad). See no. 216b.
yisr «= (mabbiia'). See no. 1287a.
mata (mibhar). See no. 231d.

sins (mibhor). See no. 23 le.

zr (mabbat). See no. 1282a.
Nba «(mibta’). See no. 232a.
mes (mibtah). See no. 233e.

meg°537 (mabligit). See no. 245a.
miata. (mibneh). See no. 255c.

"¥3% (mibsar). See no. 270g.

mast (mibrah). See no. 284c.
nyvowsr (m* bash‘ lot). See no. 292b.

143 3% (mag) soothsayer, magician.

This loan word from Akkadian mahhu *‘sooth-
sayer’’ occurs only twice, and that in one chap-
ter, Jer 39:3, 13. One of Nebuchadnezzar’s pr-
inces was *‘Nergal-Sharezer the Rab-mag’”’ (Rsv).
This was Neriglissar, the husband of Amel-
Marduk’s sister (the one Jeremiah called Evil
Merodach, son and successor to Nebuchadnez-
zar). Neriglissar killed Evil Merodach and be-
came king in his place.

Nergalsharezer’s position was one of high mili-
tary rank. He was chief soothsayer (rab mag) in
the operations against Zedekiah during the seige
of Jerusalem.

Bibliography: Thomson, R. C., in Cambridge
Ancient History, 11, Cambridge, 1960, p. 217.

W.C.K.

See no. 307d.
See no. 309c.

miopar (migbalot).
Mywwsa9 (migha‘dt).

144 “29 (mgd). Assumed root of the following.

1144a tate (meged) excellence.
11446 QSAR) «(migddnad) choice or excel-
lent thing.

meged. Excellence. Only eight passages in
three chapters illustrate the usage of meged. It is
always an evaluation of the gifts of nature as
being choice, excellent or beautiful, and preci-
ous. Song 4:13, 15, 16 lauds the excellent fruit;
only Song 7:13 [H 14] uses the word meged by
itself. Deuteronomy 33:13, 14, 15, 16 bless the
Lord for the choice things from the heavens,
moon, hills, and earth. It appears to be a eulo-
gistic word which sees the beauty of all things
as God's gifts to lovers (Song) and to the tribes
of Joseph (Deut).

W.C.K.

319 (migdol).
2349 (migdal).
m2 (migdana).
M342 (m" gura).
“iata (magor). See no. 332a, 330c.
mtd (magzéra). See no. 340d.
“2 (maggal). See no. 1292a.

See no. 315g.
See no. 315f.

See no. 1144b.
See no. 330d.

1145 "3% (magar)

mead (m*gilla). See no. 353m.
mada (m°’ gamma). See no. 361b.
12 (magén). See no. 367c.

1% «(magan). See no. 367e.

maa (m*ginna). See no. 367d.
mapa (mig'eret). See no. 370b.
mpata (maggépa). See no. 1294b.

1145 723% (mdagar) cast, throw, toss (Ezk 21:17;

Ps 89:45).
maj (mgéra). See no. 386e.
mysala (migra‘a). See no. 384a.
Mpa (megrapa). See no. 385b.
wai (migrash). See no. 388c.

See no. 1146a.
See nos. 399k, I.

372 (mad).
"3 (midbar) 1, Il.

1146 “3 (maddad) measure.

Derivatives

1146a 2 (mad) measure.
1146b tm (middad) measure,
ment.

measure-

1146c ‘“W32 (mémad) measurement. Oc-r
curs only in Job 38:5.
1146d = tit2 (madén) stature. Occurs

only in IT Sam 20:21.

Usually ma@dad, which occurs fifty-three
times, refers to measuring lengths or distances. It
is used heavily in Ezk 40-47, which supplies
measurements for the millennial temple which,
according to many, is to be built during the mes-
Slanic era (see also Zech 2:6).

But there are imponderables which are beyond
the capacities of man’s measurements—like the
oceans of the earth. But God can measure these
easily (Isa 40:12). He can also count the mul-
titudes of future Israelites, although their number
would appear to be as the sand of the sea (Hos
1:10 [H 2:1}). The innumerable stars of heaven
and the sands of the sea indeed become models of
the increase of Jacob and the security they enjoy
under God (Jer 33:22; 31:27).

As God will increase the people, so he has
measured out to them certain territories (Ps 60:6
[H 8]: see also 108:7 [H 8]). As he prepares his
judgment, he stands and measures the nations
with his discerning eye (Hab 3:6).

mad. Measure, and then what is measured, a
cloth garment. The portion of Judah's measure
(used figuratively) from the Lord is to be scat-
tered because they have forgotten their Lord (Jer
13:25). This word usually denotes a priest’s gar-
ment (Lev 6:3), a soldier's fighting garb (1 Sam
17:38: 18:4; I] Sam 20:8), or just an outer garment
(1 Sam 4:12; Jud 3:16). It is also used figuratively,
as in Ps 109:18, which says that some men use
cursing for their outer clothes. The simile is re-

490

1147 m2 (midda) tribute.

1148 ss) (mdh).

flected in Ugaritic UT 16:Text 75:11:47-48 “‘like
clothing was the abuse of his brothers, like ves-
ture the abuse of his kinsmen’’ (after M. Da-
hood).

midd&. Measure, measurement. The measur-
ingline used to measure God's future dwelling
place (Zech 2:5; Ezk 40:3, 5; 42:16—19), it was
also used to take the measurement of the walls of
Jerusalem (Neh 3:11, 19ff.), a house of size ora
man of size (Jer 22:14; 1 Chr 11:23; 20:6), and the
size of the tabernacle curtains (Ex 26:2, 8 etc.). It
is of some interest to note that the tabernacle
curtains were four cubits (six feet) wide—yjust the
width of a standard Egyptian loom. The word ts
used of time in Ps 39:4 [H 5]: ‘‘Lord make me to
know mine end and the measure of my days,
what it 1s; that I might know how frail I am.”
Note also its use of God’s wisdom, the measure
of which ts longer than the earth and broader than
the sea (Job 11:9).

W.C.K.

A loan word from
the Akkadian mandattu, middad occurs
only in Neh 5:4.

mia (midda). See no. 1146b.

Assumed root of the following,

doubtless a by-form of mddad.

1148a = (madi) MIN3 (madweh) gar-

ment. Occurs in II Sam 10:4: I
Chr 19:4.

See no. 1148a.

miva (madweh). See nos. 4llIc, 1148a.
m9 (maddtah). See no. 1304a.
NW (madén). See nos. 426c, 1146d.
yim (maddia‘). See no. 848h.
maiva (m‘dura). See no. 418c.

mnvs (midheh). See no. 420b.

ma (m'dinad). See no. 426d.
most) (madména). See no. 441b.
ya (madda‘). See no. 848g.

mys (modda‘at). See no. 848f.
mpa (madgara). See no. 449a.
mana (madréga). See no. 452a.
saa (madrak). See no. 453b.

waa (midrash). See no. 45Sa.

2 (madi).

1149 m3 (ma) what?

This frequently-occurring interrogative pro-
noun ts most significant when associated with the
word ‘name. ‘‘What is your name?” is not a
question which inquires after a person's family or
personal name; it endeavors to find what charac-
ter or quality lies within or behind the person. To
ask for simple identification, one would say in
Hebrew, “Who (mi) are you?”’

Thus, the *“man’’ who wrestled with Jacob
asked him in Gen 32:27 [H 28], ‘‘What is your
name?’ When he responds, ‘‘Jacob’’ (sup-
planter), the **man”’ (called an angel in Hos 12:4
[H 5]) says that it is now “‘Israel’* (Prince of
God).

In Prov 30:4, Agur asks who has ascended to
heaven and then descended? Who has gathered
the wind in his fists? Who has bound the waters
in a garment? Who has established the ends of the
earth? What is his name? What is his son’s name?
The speaker ts not asking for God’s name.
Rather, he seeks to know its character and
meaning.

Accordingly, the question which Moses antici-
pates from his enslaved brethren, *‘What is his
name?’ (Ex 3:13), corresponds to our discussion
above. The Israelites will wish to know
Yahweh's character and qualities which will en-
able him to prevail over the difficulties they face.
So Moses reveals just what the name Yahweh
(YHWH) means: He is the God who will dynami-
cally and effectively meet their need.

Finally, notice that God brings the animals to
Adam to see **what”’ he will call them (Gen 2:19).
As Motyer says, *‘Verse 20b indicates that qual-
itative issues are present” (p. 18, fn. 46). Other
significant passages in which md is associated
with persons include Ex 16:7-8; Num 16:11;
I] Sam 9:8; II Kgs 8:13; Job 7:17; 18:14; 21:15; Ps
8:4 [H 5]: 144:3; Song 5:9; Isa 45:10; Lam 2:13;
Ezk 19:2. It is associated with impersonal items
in ten passages: I Kgs 9:13; Zech 1:9, 19 [H 2:4};
4:4, 11; 5:6; 6:4; Est 9:26.

Bibliography: Buber, Martin, The Revelation
and the Covenant, Harper & Row, 1958, pp.
48-55. Motyer, J. A., The Revelation of the Di-
vine Name, London: Tyndale, 1959, pp. 17-24.

W.C.K.

1150 *M% «(mahah) linger, delay.

This word, in the Hithpalpel stem, occurs nine
times. But only in two passages does it carry
theological significance. In Ps 119:60 the Psalmist
affirms that he has not delayed, but rather has-
tened to observe God's commandments. Ha-
bakkuk 2:3 encourages the prophet to wait for the
vision, since it has an appointed time. It may
seem to delay, nevertheless it will not tarry, it
will come.

W.C.K.

mime (m'himda). See no. 486a
ssmta_ (mahir). See no. 1152c.

1151 95% «(mahal) circumcise, weaken.

The Aramaic ‘*cognate,’’ m°hal, means to cir-
cumcise, but in Hebrew the word appears only
once and that in a figuarative sense, ‘to cut

491

1152. *957 (mahar) I, hasten,

1152 *9i3%3 (mahar)

wine’ (Isa 1:22). Keil and E. J. Young point out
that this semantic development ts paralleled in
other sources, e.g. Latin, castrare vinum and
French, couper du vin. So much water has been
added to the wine that its character has been
weakened. The Aramaic word and the Hebrew (if
that also means ‘‘circumcise’’) is doubtless a by-
form of the root mul *‘to circumcise” (q.v.).
W.C.K.

som (mahdlak). See no. 498a.
bora (mahalal). See no. 500b.
mvaoma (mahdlimot). See no. 502c.
marama (mahdmora). See no. 509a.
mopma (mahdpeka). See no. 512d.
mops (mahpeket). See no. 512d.

used only in
the Niphal and Piel.

Derivatives
1152a +39 (mahér) I, speedy, swift (ad-
jective).
115S2b t55% «6(maher) TH, quickly (ad-
verb).
1152c 0 ts%m% «6(mahir) quick.

11S2d tasme (m*héera) haste.

The feet of wicked men hasten (mdhar) to shed
blood and practice evil (Prov 1:16; 6:18: Isa 59:7).
But God will come and bear prompt or swift wit-
ness against their sorcery, adultery, false swear-
ing, poor wages to employees, and poor treat-
ment of the widow, orphan, and stranger (Mal
3:5). To emphasize the swiftness of destruction,
Isaiah symbolically names his second child **has-
ten prey, hurry spoil” (mahér-shalalhadshbaz, Isa
8:1, 3), for God is now prodding on the Assy-
rians, the ax in his hand, to accomplish his
punishment on Israel. In a later day he would
bring that bitter and impetuous nation,
Babylonia, to do the same thing (Hab 1:6).

Eliphaz lectured Job that God takes the wise in
their own craftiness and that the plans of schem-
ers are dissipated (?) (Job 5:13) only to have God
heave the first part of his words back on him in
Job 42:8 (hence the quotation formula in I Cor
3:19).

This verb usually has an adverbial meaning
when it is linked with another verb, e.g. “they
quickly forgot his works; they did not wait for his
counsel’ (Ps_ 196:13). Dtstress, however,
prompts the prayer, **! am in trouble, hear me
speedily” (Ps 69:17 [H 18]: 102:2 [H 3]; 143:7: cf.
79:8).

maher /. Hastening, swift, speed. One of the
two occurrences of the adjective is important
theologically. Zephaniah 1:14 warns that the day
of the Lord is very near and it comes with great
speed especially for those who are unprepared or

1153 “39 (mahar)

who sigh for it as a panacea for all their troubles
(cf. Amos 5:18-20).

mahér II. Quickly, speedily. God expresses
surprise at how quickly men have turned away
from him to build the golden calf (Ex 32:8; Deut
9:16; cf. Jud 2:17). If Israel continued to do evil,
they would quickly perish altogether from the
land (Deut 4:26) and God’s anger would destroy
them suddenly (Deut 7:4). But if Israel would
faithfully follow the Lord, they would quickly de-
stroy the Canaanites in a major sweep through
the land (Deut 9:3). Some of the nations, how-
ever, would be put out by God little by little so
that the land would not be overrun with wild
beasts (Deut 7:22; cf. Jud 2:23).

One proverb warns, “Do not go hastily to a
debate, you may not know what to do in the end’”’
(Prov 25:8).

mahir. Quick, prompt. ‘‘Do you see a man di-
ligent in his business? He shall stand before
kings’* says Prov 22:29. In its description of the
Davidic throne, Isa 16:5 includes prompt justice
as one of its characteristics.

m‘hera. Haste, speed. In Ps 147:15 the word
m¢ héra is used to show that the Lord’s word runs
swiftly on the earth, while Isa 58:8 promises that
in return for acts of mercy to others, one’s health
will spring forth speedily. Meanwhile, do not fret
over evildoers, for they shall quickly be cut down
like grass (Ps 37:2).

W.C.K.

1153. "M2 (mdahar) H, acquire by paying a pur-
chase price. Denominative verb.
1153a ts «(modhar) wedding money.

The verbal form occurs only twice, in Ps 16:4
and Ex 22:16 [H 15]. The text of Ps 16:4 ts dif-
ficult. It may mean that *'sorrows shall be multi-
plied (for all] who hasten after another god” or
who exchange (by paying a price, BDB).

The fiancé who gives wedding money is not
thereby presenting gifts to the family or the girl.
These are to be clearly distinguished as in Gen
34:12. The gifts were presents and rewards for
accepting the proposal of marriage, but the wed-
ding money was given in addition to these (cf.
Rebekah’s case in Gen 24:53; also Gen 29:24, 29;
Josh 15:18-19; I Kgs 9:16).

mohar. Wedding money, bride price. There are
only three instances of this word in the Scrip-
tures: Gen 34:12; Ex 22:16; I Sam 18:25. The
mohar was a sum of money or its equivalent,
which the fiancé paid to the girl’s father as a
compensation to the family. It was not, strictly
speaking, the purchase price, but the customary
wedding money. Exodus 21:7-11 illustrates the
outright purchase of a maidservant to be a con-

492

1154 3) (mw).

cubine. Note also the penalty for violating a girl's
virginity (Deut 22:29). (See the contrast between
wedding money and marriage, and refusal of mar-
riage and penalty to a seducer in Ex 22:16-17
[H 15—16]).

Jacob paid in services for his marriages to Leah
and Rachel (Gen 29:15-30). David performed a
valiant deed in battle for Saul’s daughter, Michal
(I Sam 18:25-27), just as Othniel did for Caleb’s
daughter (Josh 15:16). Hamor’s son, Shechem,
was willing to pay any sum to Jacob for his
daughter Dinah (Gen 34:11).

Apparently the father was allowed to enjoy the
use of the wedding money, but it would revert to
the bride at her father’s death or if the death of
her husband reduced her to poverty. What else
could have prompted the complaint of Rachel and
Leah that their father Laban had ‘‘devoured their
money’ after having ‘‘sold’’ them (Gen 31:15)?

The Babylonian law called for the fiancé to pay
to the girl's father or sometimes to the girl herself
the tirhatu, a sum varying from one to fifty
Shekels of silver. According to Assyrian law, the
tirhatu was given to the girl either as a compensa-
tion for her loss of virginity or as insurance in the
event that her husband died. Even today among
Palestinian Arabs the fiancé pays a mahr to the
girl's parents.

Bibliography: AI, pp. 26-29. Gaspar, Joseph
W., Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the
Old Testament, Catholic University of America
Press, 1947, pp. 7-15.

W.C.K.

mpnn (mahdtalla). See no. 251 1a.

A paragogic syllable, attached
to 3, 3, ?, so as to form independent
words, a3, 3793, 72°.

bei (md'l). See no. 1160.

1155 383 (m6d’ab) Moab.

Derivative
1155a 938 «(md'abi) Moabite.

Lot’s son by his elder daughter (Gen 19:37). He
became the father of a nation which settled east
of the Dead Sea after God dispossessed the pre-
vious inhabitants (Emim) because of their un-
righteousness (Deut 2:10-11). Moab attempted to
hire Baalam to curse Israel (Num 22:3, 4, 7,8, 10,
14, 21, 36; 23:6, 7, 17; 24:17) and practiced rites
of religious prostitution connected with sacrifices
to the dead (Num 25:1ff.: cf. Ps 106:28). The
prophets directed these messages against Moab:
Amos 2:1-3; Isa 15-16; Jer 48; and Ezk 25:8-11.
Their god was Chemosh.

mo’abi. Moabite. Although the deuteronomic
code prohibited a Moabite from entering the con-
gregation of the Lord even to the tenth generation
(Deut 23:3 [H 4}), Ruth, a Moabitess, believed in
the Lord and became the wife of Boaz and thus a
forebear of King David and the Messiah (Ruth
1:22; 2:6; 4:10). David conquered the Moabites.
They rebelled after Ahab’s death finally gaining
independence (II Sam 8:2; II Kgs 3:4-27).

[The Moabite Stone gives Moab’s side of this
campaign. It says that Moab served Israel ‘‘all
the days of Omri and half the days of his son,
forty years.’’ This has recently been interpreted
to mean “‘half the days of his grandson,”’ i.e.
Joram as given in II Kgs 3. The servitude would
then include the reign of Omri (twelve years),
Ahab (twenty-two years), Ahaziah (two years)
and part of Joram (six years). Overlapping years
would make the total forty (see D. Cross and N.
Freedman, Early Hebrew Orthography (Ameri-
can Oriental Society, 1952, p. 39). R.L.H.]

Bibliography: Bartlett, J. R., **The Moabites
and Edomites,’’ in Peoples of OT Times, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 229-58. Van Zyl, A. H.,
The Moabites, Brill, 1960. Wiseman, D. J., *“*The
Moabite Stone,’’ in ZPEB, IV, pp. 267-68.

W.C.K.

1156 33% (mag) melt.

So great in power is the Lord, that the earth
melts when he touches the land (Amos 9:5). The
mountains and hills totter, tremble, and shake at
the sound of his voice (Nah 1:5; Ps 46:6 [H 7}; Ps
75:3 (H 4]). As all the forces of heaven and earth
fought on the Lord’s side in the past, so in the
day of the Lord’s future, final triumph even na-
ture must tremble at his approach.

If Arabic maga ‘surge, be in tumult, totter’’ is
to be connected with our Hebrew root, then
‘‘tremble’’ might be a better meaning especially
since it is paralleled by r‘sh ‘‘shake’’ in Nah 1:5.
It serves as a figure of helpless, disorganized ter-
ror in the ot. Cathcart points to Jer 4:24 to sup-
port this rendering: ‘‘I saw the mountains, and lo
they were quaking, and all the hills rocked to and
fro.’’ But in Mic 1:4 and Ps 97:5 the hills melt like
wax. Therefore there must be a combination of
ideas: trembling and melting.

God also can soften the earth with showers (Ps
65:10 (H 11] and cause a man’s possessions to
dissolve (Job 30:22).

Regularly this melting is a figure for the panic-
stricken condition which God’s judicial acts
cause in the heathen: Canaan (Ex 15:15; Josh 2:9,
24), Philistia (I Sam 14:16; Isa 14:31), the earth
and its population (Ps 75:3 (H 4)).

However, there is a final day coming when the
mountains shall flow with new wine and the hills

493

1158 wird (mot)

melt, shake, or wave with corn (Amos 9:13, NEB).
See mot ‘‘totter’’ for synonyms.
Bibliography: Cathcart, Kevin J., Nahum in
the Light of Northwest Semitic, Pontifical Bibli-
cal Institute, 1973, pp. 52, 96, 104. McCarthy, D.
J. *‘Some Holy War Vocabulary in Joshua 2,”
CBQ 33: 228-30.
W.C.K.

1157 333. (mwd). Assumed root of the following.

1157a 2H (tamid) continuity.

Most frequently this word is used in an adjecti-
val genitive construction with ‘d6/@ for the con-
tinual whole burnt offering made to God every
morning and evening (Ex 29:42; Num 28:6, 10,
15, 23; Ezr 3:5; Neh 10:34; cf. Ezk 46:15, every
morning; and the continual minha, Num 4:16;
Neh 10:34; Lev 6:13. The word is used alone to
designate the daily burnt offering in Dan 8:11-13;
11:31; 12:11. Numbers 4:7 refers to the ‘‘bread of
continuity’’ meaning the bread that was always
there.

The word is also used adverbially in connec-
tion with the cult to denote constancy in cultic
duties (e.g., Aaron's breastplate, Ex 28:29-30).
Some passages, however, stress constancy of
personal devotion, e.g., Hos 12:6 [H 7], ‘‘Turn to
your God; keep mercy and justice and wait on
your God continually.’’ The Psalms likewise
urge, let his praises continually be in your mouth
(34:1 [H 2}; 71:6), hope continually in the Lord
(71:14); let God’s truth continually preserve you
(40:11 [H 12]); let prayer be made to him continu-
ally (72:15), and keep his law continually
(119:44). Isaiah promises that the Lord will con-
tinually guide those who respond to the social
needs about them as evidence of true spirituality.
Indeed, *‘Seek the Lord and his strength, seek his
face continually’’ (I Chr 16:11).

W.C.K.

ys (mdda‘). See no. 848e.

1158 wiv (mdédt) totter, shake, slip.

Derivatives
1158a tod (mot) shaking, pole, bar of

yoke.
1158b tmyYs (mdta) pole, bar of yoke.

This verb, which occurs as a figure of speech
referring to great insecurity, can also denote de-
pendability and certainty when used of God and
prefixed with a negative.

When mot is used with regel ‘‘foot,”’ it speaks
of the foot slipping or sliding in a time of calamity
(Deut 32:35; Ps 38:16 [H 17]; 94:18). In Ps 82:5
this verb depicts general disorder on the earth:
‘‘all the foundations of the earth are slipping.” It
also is used to refer to the instability of dead idols

1159 3373 (mak)

mounted on platforms that are lable to topple
over or be picked up and carted off by a con-
queror. Isaiah has much sport urging idolatrous
Israel to make sure their gods will not be moved
(Isa 40:20; 41:7).

Two millennial psalms affirm that “the Lorp
reigns, therefore the inhabited world (tébél)
cannot be moved (Ps 93:1, I Chr 16:30; Ps 96:10).
Since the Lord also laid the foundations of the
earth, it will not totter forever and ever (Ps
104:5).

Not as much can be said for the kingdoms of
this world: they were moved when the Lord said
so (Ps 46:6: note parallel verb mig *‘to melt’’). In
a dramatic passage, Isaiah pictures the earth reel-
ing to and fro like a drunkard or a little vineyard
hut, (m°land, see maldn) in a violent storm. It
convulses, reels and shakes violently (Isa 24:19-
20) as God’s hand moves in judgment just prior to
the ‘“‘many days” (millennium?) of Isa 24:22.
David spoke poetically of the earth being split
and trembling in need of God's healing when it
was Shaking (Ps 60:2 [H 4]), but this is probably
to be classified with Ps 46:2 [H 3] which allows
that even if the earth heaves (mdr) and the
mountains slip into the heart of the seas, God will
still be our refuge and strength. As these passages
and Ps 82:5 show, the verb refers to the sudden,
unexpected and disastrous shaking of the solid
earth. Since this inconstancy is against the order
of creation, it is associated with God's wrath.
The power of his wrath is evident in such cosmic
disorder.

Righteous men are unmoveable and secure, for
they have the Lord as their Rock and Salvation
(Ps 62:2 [H 3], 6 [H 7]; 112: 6; 15:5; 16:8; 21:7
{H 8]; 30:6 [H 7}). God gives them a hand on the
pathway of life so that their footing does not slip
(Ps 17:5). The enemy of the righteous will have
no cause to rejoice tn his being moved (Ps 13:4
[H 5}), for he trusts in the salvation of God.

Such assurance is strengthened even more by
the everlastingly secure covenant which God
made with Abraham and David. The promise is
unconditionally maintained in perpetuity for all
who will participate by faith. While the moun-
tains may move (mish) and the hills shake,
God's loyal love will never move (mish) and his
covenant of peace (the new covenant, the Ab-
rahamic and Davidic covenant) will never shake
(Isa 54:10). See also mush **depart, remove’’ and
mug “‘melt, shake.”

mét. Pole, bar (of the yoke), shaking. The
word mot is used of shaking and therefore of a
carrying pole that shakes as the bearer walks.
In three passages, it is used of a carrying pole
such as the one used to carry the tabernacle fur-
nishings (Num 4:10, 12) or the one used by the
spies to carry back the grapes, pomegranates,

494

1159 35979) (muk) be low,

1160 53 (mal) IT, °% (mol),

and figs from Canaan (Num 13:23). Concerning
the meaning of mdt in Ps 55:22 [H 23], M. Da-
hood suggests that the word connotes stumbling
into the netherworld (i.e. into the jaws of death).
In Ps 66:9 it may even be a poetic name for the
underworld, **Who has kept us among the living
and has not put our foot in the quagmire.** While
the idea of the netherworld may be overdrawn,
the idea of stumbling is not. Nahum 1:13 says, **]
will break his yoke” (shdbar and mota); cf. also
Jer 28:10-12: Lev 26:13; Ezk 30:18. Probably the
mot is strictly speaking the bar across the ani-
mals’ necks which becomes a name for the whole
yoke.

méta. Pole, bar. This feminine noun also is
used for bars or staves to carry the ark (I Chr
15:15) or figuratively the yoke of oppression (Lev
26:13: Jer 27:2: 28:10, 12, 13; Isa 58:6, 9; Ezk
30:18; 34:27). The most colorful and theologically
significant passage is in Jeremiah. The false
prophet Hananiah dared to break Jeremiah’s real
yoke (a symbol of impending Babylonian bon-
dage) only to find himself confronted with
another real yoke of iron and a sentence of immi-
nent death which occurred two months later.

It is probable that here belongs Prov 24:11:
‘*Rescue captives from (preposition /amed) death,
and do not restrain the rods from (preposition
lamed) killing.’

Bibliography: Dahood, M., Proverbs and
Northwest Semitic Philology, Rome: Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1963, p. 51. Psalms I, in AB,
pp. 78-79. , Psalms I, in AB, pp. 38-39.

W.C.K.

depressed, grow
poor (e.g. Lev 27:8, 25:47).

Si (m0d'l)
front, in front of.

116] 599 (mal) I, circumcise, let oneself be

circumcised, be cut off (afew forms may
be taken as from 99).

Derivative
16a tm999 (mula)

The use of the verb in the ot begins in Gen 17.
Here the Lord confirms his covenant with Ab-
raham recorded in Gen 12:1-3. The practice of
cutting off of the prepuce of the penis was a prac-
tice used even before the time of Abraham (Old
Kingdom Egyptian tomb art and hieroglyphs
Egyptian Grammar, A. H. Gardiner, p. 448). It
was probably used as it is to this day as a puberty
rite marking the passage of a son to the privileges
of manhood, a rite sometimes accompanied by
licentious overtones. The operation was _ per-
formed on a boy about thirteen years old. God
revealed to Abraham that he was to use this

circumcision.

shedding of blood as a sign of the covenant with
Abraham. In the ot God ordered the child to be
circumcised on the eighth day of his life, re-
moving it from a puberty rite to a sign with
strictly religious significance. This infant circum-
cision seems to have been unique in antiquity.
Moderns have proved the practice has hygienic
value but there is no place in the oT where this
point is made.

Since the practice symbolized God’s covenant
with Abraham and his descendants, it is from the
various aspects of this covenant that circumci-
sion derives its spiritual significance. To those in
the oT who took its meaning seriously, it was the
mark of submission to the sovereign will of God.
As so often happens with religious symbolism,
the Hebrews eventually used this sign of a deep
spiritual reality as an end in itself and wrongly
made of it an automatic entry into the kingdom
of God.

The prophets became aware of this perversion
and preached against mere circumcision of the
flesh, that is, circumcision not accompanied by
living faith. Jeremiah spoke of the circumcision
of the heart. He said, ‘*Circumcise yourselves to
the Lord, and take away the foreskins of your
heart, you men of Judah’’(Jer 4:4). But long be-
fore Jeremiah the people had been warned of this
danger. Indeed, Jeremiah was quoting Deut
10:16. The use of the verb in Deut 30:6 proves the
Statement above, that circumcision symbolized
the deepest spiritual reality of the Hebrew relli-
gion. The verse says, *‘The Lorp your God will
circumcise your heart and the heart of your off-
spring, so that you will love the Lorp your God
with all your heart and with all your soul, that
you may live.”” In Mt 22:36-40 our Lord in-
structed the Pharisees that this was indeed the
greatest commandment and the sum and sub-
stance of all the law and prophets. The verse in
Deut clearly teaches that true circumcision was a
work of God in the human heart—the spiritual life
God creates in his people. This is precisely the
teaching of the apostle Paul in Col 2:11 where
speaking of the full deity of Christ he says, “‘In
whom also ye are circumcised with the circumci-
sion made without hands, in putting off the body
of the sins of the flesh by the circumcision of
Chnist.’’ (Cf. also Rom 2:28-29 and 4:9-12.) Be-
cause baptism and circumcision both symbolize
the regenerative work of God which always in-
cluded cleansing from sin and love for God, some
segments of the church baptize their infants just
as God instructed the oT saints to circumcise
them. Others in church do not stress this analogy
and so baptize only those who profess faith in
Christ after reaching the age of discretion.

mala. Circumcision. This noun is used only
once, in Ex 4:26, where Zipporah accused Moses

495

1163 *599 (mig), 2% (mig)

1164 *"39%3 (mur) change, exchange.

1164 *"9% (mur)

of being a bloody husband because of circumci-
sion. The context makes very clear the impor-
tance God placed on circumcision as a sign of
God's covenant with his people. Even Moses the
lawgiver was not free to neglect circumcising his
son. To do so was tantamount to a denial of the
covenant.
Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp. 73-81.
E.B.S.

nso (moéledet). See no. 867f.

spa (musab). See no. 1455b.

TOW (musad), “ba (mdsad). See nos.
875d,f.

Teva (miasak). See no. 1492b.

“pd (modsér). See no. 141f.

352 (miusar). See no. 877b.

TyVd (md'éd), Wd (méd'ad).
878b,e.

maya (mi'dada). See no. 878d.

Avi (mi'ap). See no. 158la.

myyi (md'ésa). See no. 887b.

M2ywd (mi‘aqa). See no. 1585b.

mp (mdpét). See no. 152a.

See nos.

1162 yx (mws). Assumed root of the following.

1162a = =pva (més) chaff.

Ne (mdsa’). See no. 893c.

3379 (musab). See no. 1398d.

PEM (musaq). See nos. 897b, 1895c.
MPs (miseget). See no. 897c.

mock, deride.
Occurs only in Ps 73:8, probably in the
Hiphil.

tpt (mdgéd). See no. 901b.
wea (mdgésh). See no. 906c.

Used in
the Niphal, Hiphil and Hophal only.

Derivative
1164a fmm (t°murd) exchange.

This verb appears tn thirteen passages of scrip-
ture which deal with various topics. In Mic 2:4,
Gog will spoil and change the portion of his
people because of their sinfulness. Psalm 46:3 af-
firms in a hyperbolic phrase, “though the earth
be altered,’ that God is still our refuge and
strength. In Ps 15:4, the man who abides by his
sworn word and does not change is the kind of
man whom God will establish, but as for those
who sin against him increasingly, he will change
their glory into shame (Hos 4:7). When Israel
worshiped the golden calf, they thereby changed
their glory (i.e. their glorious God) into a bull that
eats grass (Ps 106:20). Israel did what no other

1165 395% (moérag)

nation ever had done. The nations never changed
their gods (which were not, after all, gods at all).
But Israel changed their glory for that which did
not profit at all (Jer 2:11).

A group of texts deals with vowed offerings.
Once they have been dedicated to the Lord, they
may not be changed good for bad or vice versa. If
there is an exchange however, it and the ex-
change shall be holy to the Lord (Lev 27:10 [four
times}; 27:33 [three times]).

t*mara. Exchange, recompense. Two passages
merit attention. Job 28:17 says that wisdom can-
not be attained in exchange for jewels of fine
gold. Ruth 4:7 records the ceremony of land re-
demption and exchange when Boaz married Ruth
on the quitting of all claims by a closer relative.

W.C.K.

1165 35%

A piece of farm equipment made of a plank
platform. Holes were bored in the bottom of it,
through which protruded sharp stones or metal
points. It was drawn by one or two animals and
weighted down by stones or by the driver as he
drove it over stalks of grain. Araunah gave such a
piece of equipment to David to use as the wood
for his sacrifice on the future holy site (11 Sam
24:22; I Chr 21:23).

According to Isa 41:15, however, God will
make Israel his threshing sledge to harvest his
judgment in the eschaton.

hdriis was another type of thresher or disc har-
row made of iron. It occurs in a parable (Isa
28:27). AMOS mentions it as an instrument of de-
struction and uses it as a figure of brutality which
incited the wrath of God (Amos 1:3).

Bibliography: Corswant, W., Dictionary of
Life in Bible Times, Oxford University Press,
1960, pp. 279-80. (See the figures in IDB, IV,
p. 391, fig. 67; p. 636, fig. 60.)

(mérag) thresher.

W.C.K.

ssi (mérad). See no. 909a.
1166 ms (méra) razor (Jud 13:5; 16:17; I
Sam 1:11).

mai (méra).
mao (méreh).
wa (mérash).

See nos. 907c,d.
See nos. 910b,c.
See no. 920d.

1167 ws (mash) I, depart, remove.

This term appears twenty times in the oT. It is
first used to describe the pillar of cloud and the
pillar of fire (the sign of the presence of God in
the Israelite camp) which never left its place in
front of the people day or night (Ex 13:22).
Joshua did not depart from the tabernacle while

496

1168 wd (mish)

Moses went into the camp (Ex 33:11). Later, the
Lord instructed Joshua that the book of the law
was never to depart from his mouth; he was to
meditate on it day and night (Josh 1:8).

When Israel attempted to enter Canaan pre-
sumptuously, after having accepted the unbeliev-
ing majority report of the spies, the ark of the
covenant of the Lord did not depart from the
camp (Num 14:44).

Isaiah’s use of the term is theologically signifi-
cant. While the mountains will depart (Isa
54:10a), God’s covenant of peace made with Ab-
raham and David, and the new covenant of
Jeremiah will not be removed (Isa 54:105; 59:21).
It ts permanent! If God’s ordinances with the sun,
moon, and stars depart, then his promise with
Israel will do likewise (Jer 31:36). As of this writ-
ing, however, the sun, moon, and stars continue
to shine and therefore his covenant promise to
Israel continues.

In the final day when the Lord appears a sec-
ond time, he will remove the iniquity of the land
(of Israel) in one day (Zech 3:9). So magnificent
will be his appearing that the Mount of Olives will
split and one half will remove itself to the north
and the other half to the south (Zech 14:4).

Men who trust in the Lord will be like trees
planted by a river; they will not cease yielding
fruit (Jer 17:8).

W.C.K.

II, feel (e.g. Gen 27:21; Ps
115:7; Jud 16:26).

See no. 922c.
See no. 929d.

ayia (mdshab).
syns (mdsha'a).

1169 mx (mat) § die, kill, have one executed.

Derivatives
1169a M32 (mawet) death, dying, Death
(personified), the realm of the dead.
1169b = Mi «~(mamot) death.
1169c =o mimn (t©miuta) death. Occurs

only in phrase b°né t® mata ‘‘chil-
dren of death,”’ i.e. those worthy of
death and appointed to death (Ps
79:11; 102:21).

mat may refer to death by natural causes or
to violent death. The latter may be as a pen-
alty or otherwise. The root is not limited to the
death of humans although it is used predomi-
nantly that way.

This is a universally used Semitic root for dying
and death. The Canaanites employed it as the
name of the god of death and the netherworld,
Mot (cf. ANET, pp. 138-42). In Hebrew it 1s oc-
casionally used metaphorically as when Job
speaks of the death of wisdom (12:2). But the

literal demise of the body in death is usually in
view. Ezekiel reminds us that God has no plea-
sure in the death of men, for his purpose was and
is that they live (18:32). The normative oT teach-
ing about death is presented in Gen 3:3, where
God warns Adam and Eve that death is the result
of rebellion against his commands. Since God’s
purpose for our first parents was never ending
life, the introduction of death was an undesirable
but a necessary result of disobedience. The phys-
ical corruption of the human body and the con-
sequent suffering and pain brought about by the
Fall were only the obvious symptoms of death.
Death is the consequence and the punishment of
sin. It originated with sin. A grand theme of the
oT is God's holiness, which separates him from
all that is not in harmony with his character.
Death, then, in the oT means ultimate separation
from God due to sin. And sin is any rebellion or
lack of conformity to his holy will. All men then,
in a sense, are what the Hebrews would call b° né
mawet ‘‘sons of death’’; that is, they deserve to
die because they are sinners. This and a related
term (‘ish mdwet ‘‘man of death’’) are used (Ps
79:11; 102:20 (H 21}) of the people of God in cap-
tivity who must look to him for deliverance from
impending doom.

In Ugaritic (ANET, above) the god Mot was a
well-defined figure who ruled the netherworld, a
land of slime and filth. He fought with Baal, the
god of fertility for which he suffered the displea-
sure of El, head of the pantheon. Baal, as the
provider of fertility, rain, etc., was a hero god to
the Canaanites and as such his cult became a dis-
tinct snare to the Israelites. The same is not true
of Mot, so he was not mentioned in the ort, al-
though some claim to find occasional references
to him. M. Dahood (Psalms, in AB, XVI, XVII,
XVIIa) attempts to read Mot into the Psalmist’s
references to the foe, but he is not convincing.
Jeremiah in one case personifies death, describ-
ing it as one who comes in through the windows
(9:20). What may be clearer is the use of mdwet
‘‘death’’ as referring more broadly to the realm of
the dead. In Isa 38:18 we read:

‘*For Sheol cannot praise you,
death cannot celebrate you;

they that go down into the pit cannot hope
for your truth.”

There is certainly room for difference of opin-
ion here, for the place Isaiah has in mind could be
either the grave or the realm of the dead. It would
appear that Job 38:17 which says, *‘Have the
gates of death been revealed to you?” is a clearer
reference to ‘‘death’’ as the realm of the dead.
Other passages that may be taken this way are:
Isa 28:15, 18; Hos 13:14; Hab 2:5; Ps 6:5; 49:14 [H
15]; and article lagah; Prov 7:27; Job 28:22, etc.

But see sh°’6l and R. L. Harris, *‘The Mean-

497

1169 ms (mut)

ing of Sheol as Shown by Its Parallels,’ JETS
4:129-35.

This passage in Isa 38:18 leads us to the oT
statement that *‘The earth the Lord hath given to
the children of men, but the dead praise not the
Lord’ (Ps 115:165f.; Isa 38:11; Ps 6:5; 30:10;
88:11ff.). Bultmann notes *‘ After death, then, the
righteous are outside the infinitely important
sphere of life in which cultic relationship with
God is maintained’? (TDNT, II, p. 847). How-
ever, he is mistaken when he extends this line of
thinking to conclude: **‘Death and its kingdom are
outside the stream of power which has subjected
all the kingdoms of life to itself’ (ibid.). We have
shown elsewhere (see hayyim) that God is the
Lord of life and death and that he will conquer
death.

In the Mosaic ceremonial law corpses were
considered unclean—another indication of the oT
attitude toward death as an intruder and the re-
sult of sin. The Canaanites on the other hand
‘*normalized’’ death through the myths of the
‘godly Mot’’ who like other gods was subject to
appeasement. The Canaanites had rituals which
included bodily mutilation and sacrifices for the
dead. The Israelites were forbidden to practice
such rituals (Deut 14:1). The law of Moses was
also designed to protect Israel from one of the
vilest effects which the ‘‘normalization’’ of death
had on the Canaanites, and that was child sac-
rifice.

For everything that is detestable to the Lorp
they have done for their gods,

even to burning their sons and daughters
in fire for their gods’’ (Deut 12:31).

Because of its view of death oT revelation
places a high premium on life. A long life is con-
sidered a great blessing (Prov 3:2) and an im-
mortal life the ultimate in blessing (Ps 16:11; 21:4
[H 5]; 73:23-26). The Canaanites felt the latter
belonged only to the gods (ANET, p. 151, vi).

Contrary to the opinion of many moderns, the
OT teaching that requires capital punishment for
premeditated murder arose out of a high view of
life, not a low view. The same is true of God’s
order to destroy those people who were com-
mitted to the detestable practices mentioned
above. Psalm 106:34—38 explains why this is so:
Because Israel did not destroy these peoples they
learned their practices and sacrificed their own
sons and daughters to demons.

Bibliography: Heidel, Alexander, ‘‘Death and
the Afterlife in the OT,”’ in The Gilgamesh Epic,
University of Chicago. Richardson, TWB, p. 60.
THAT, I, pp. 893-96.

E.B.S.

nim (mdtar). See no. 936g.
m2te (mizbéah). See no. 522b.

1170 at (mzg)

1170 33% (mzg). Assumed root of the following.
1170a a (mezeg) =mixture, i.e. mixed
wine. Occurs only in Song 7:3, in
phrase ‘al-yehsar hammazeg
‘*(that) never lacks blended wine.”
1171 1%) (mzh). Assumed root of the following.
117]la mtta (mazeh) sucked out, empty
(Deut 32:24; Isa 5:13).
Ww (maz). See no. 534b.
mrt (mm zuza). See no. 535b.
Tit2) (mazén). See no. 539a.
"it) (mazér). See nos. 75a, 543c.
1172 mY (mézah) girdle. Probably a_ loan
word.
1172a ot «6 (m*ziah) § girdle. Occurs only

in Job 12:21, ‘‘loosen the girdle of

might,’ i.e. weaken them, make

them defenseless by ungirding.
3919 (mazlég). See no. 552a.

1173 ms39 (mazzalét) constellations.
‘*planets,’’ RSV similar.)

Appears in II Kgs 23:5 and Job 38:32. The Ak-
kadian cognate refers to the phases of the moon,
but the usage of the term in Judaic writings indi-
cates that zodiac constellations are being referred
to in Hebrew. In Kings the word is used with
reference to the pagan worship of the stars with
all such worship’s astrological significance. In
Job it is used with kimd k‘sil and ‘ayish (the
Pleiades, Onon and the Bear, all of which see), to
indicate God's creative power and the folly of
questioning his wisdom.

(ASV

G.L.C.

Mav (m°’zimma). See no. 556c.
“312 (mizmér). See no. 558c.
mate (mazméra). See no. 559c.
mare (m*zammeret). See no. 559d.
“yita (miz‘ar). See no. 571b.

1174 "3% (mzr) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1174a fst = (mamzér) bastard, child of
incest.

Only found in Deut 23:2 [(H 3], it is used of an
illegitimate child who is refused entrance to the
congregation of the Lord until the tenth genera-
tion. Zechariah 9:6 may refer to an individual, but
more likely it figuratively depicts the mixed popu-
lation of Ashdod. It is possible that the Deut ref-
erence also refers to a child of mixed paren-
tage—Hebrew and pagan.

W.C.K.

1175 5% «6(mzr) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
117Sa 33%) (ma@zér) net. Meaning dubi-
ous.
mata (mizreh). See no. 579a.

1176 miss (mazzarét). Occurs only in Job
38:32. Meaning dubious. Perhaps it refers
to a particular star or constellation. See
mazzalot.

mara (mizrah). See no. 580c.
yar (mizra'). See no. 582f.
pata (mizraq). See no. 585f.

mia (méah), mM (mdah). See nos. 1181a,b.

1177 SM ~(maha’) _ strike (=clap the hand, e.g.

Isa 55:12; Ezk 25:6).

See no. 588a.
See no. 589a.

NSM (mahbe’).
sama (mahbo’).
mama (m¢habb‘ra). See no. 598k.
mane (mahberet). See no. 598).
none (mahdbat). See no. 600b.
naan (mahdgoret). See no. 604d.

1178 mm (maha) 1, wipe, wipe out.

Almost all of the thirty-three occurrences of
this verb are theologically significant. It is first
found in the flood narrative. Every living thing on
the face of the earth that breathed was blotted out
(Gen 7:22-23) including all human beings, except
eight. maha figures prominently in the prayer in
which Moses begged God to forgive the sin Israel
incurred when they worshiped the golden caif.
“If not, blot me out of your book,’’ prays Moses
(Ex 32:32-33). It had been God's intention to blot
out Israel’s name from under heaven (Deut 9:14),
as repeated in Deut 29:20 (H 19] (see also Ps
69:28 {H 29]). Whether he regards it thus as a
stain (as in Ps 51:3, 11) or a debt in a ledger (as in
Col 2:14) is not known with certainty. But he was
willing, as was the apostle Paul, to be accursed
for the sake of his brethren.

Note that erasures in ancient leather scrolls
were made by washing or sponging off the ink
rather than blotting. *“‘Wipe out’’ is therefore
more accurate for the idea of expunge.

When God did move in judgment, he wiped
Jerusalem as one wipes a dish, wiping it and turn-
ing it upside down (IJ Kgs 21:13). During the time
of the judges, the entire tribe of Benjamin was
almost blotted out (Jud 21:17).

The sinner prays as David did that God will
blot out, i.e. erase his transgressions and in-
iquities (Ps 51:1 (H 3], 9 (H 11]). God does so for
his own sake and remembers those sins no longer
(Isa 43:25). Thus sins which loomed as a thick

498

cloud were blotted out (Isa 44:22). While God is
omniscient, these sins he deliberately remembers
against us no longer. The reverse action can be
seen in Ps 109:14, and Neh 4:5 [H 3:37].

maha is also used to describe the lifestyle of an
adulterous woman who eats, wipes her mouth,
and protestingly claims that she has done no
wrong (Prov 30:20).

Then there is the case of the jealous husband
who suspected his wife of adultery. As part of the
psychological ordeal to which she was subjected
in the presence of the Lord, the woman had to
drink bitter water into which curses written on a
scroll had been wiped in order to determine her
innocence or guilt. (Num 5:23).

Finally, Isa 25:8 proclaims that God will wipe
away tears from all faces.

W.C.K.

1179 mms (maha) UH, strike. Occurs only in
Num 34:11, a@mahd ‘al-ketep yam-kinneret
‘‘and (the border) will strike upon (i.e.
reach to) the shoulder of the Sea of Kin-

neret.’’
Derivative
1179a 9M (me hi) stroke. Occurs only
in Ezk 26:9.

mata (m°hiigad). See no. 615b.

1180 tim (mahéz) city. Loan word from the
Akkadian mahdzu ‘‘city.’’ Occurs only in
Ps 107:30.

23m (mahdl). See no. 623g.
mim> (mahdzeh), mma (mehéza). See
nos. 633f,g.

1181 mm (mhh). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

118la me (méah) fatling.

1181b = m%3 (mdah) marrow. Occurs only
in Job 21:24, where it symbolizes
prosperity.

118lc *3M2 (maha). Verb derived from
moah,. Occurs only in the Pual, in
Isa 25:6, sh®manim m®€muhdyim
‘fat pieces full of marrow.”’

sm (me hi). See no. 1179a.

mma (mihya). See no. 644b.

sma (m°hir). See no. 1185c.

mona (mahala), mma (mahdleh). See
nos. 655c,b.

moma (m°hilla). See no. 660f.

m9 (mahdliy). See no. 655d.

hom (mahdlap). See no. 666d.

ng 79 (mahdlasa). See no. 667».

nieme (mahdléget). See no. 669d.

499

1183 ym (mahas)

npome (mahi*got). See no. 670g.
noma (mahlat). See no. 655 or no. 623h.

1182 meen (mahdma'dt) curd-like. Occurs

only in Ps $5:21 (H 22]. Perhaps min com-
parative plus hem’d ‘*curd”’ (q.v.).

‘tame (mahmad), tama (mahmdéd). See
nos. 673d,e.

brome (mahmal). See no. 676b.

Mxemea (mahmeset). See no. 679d.

mamta (mahdneh). See no. 6e.

PIMs (mahdnaq). See no. 697a.

moms (mahseh). See no. 700b.

pions? (mahsém). See no. 702a.

“som (mahsér). See no. 70Se.

1183 ym (mdahas) strike, wound severely.

Derivative
1183a tym (mahas) severe wound.

This word is well attested in Ugaritic poetry. It
is found in the oT in parallel pairs with itself (Ps
110:5-6), with smh *‘to annihilate’ (Ps 18:39-41,;
note that the two verbs mahas and sadmah, both
in the first person singular, form an inclusion as
in Ugaritic poetry), and with ly ‘‘to annihilate”
(II Sam 22:39; Ps 18:38-39). The blow denoted by
mdahas is generally lethal and decisive, as Jael’s
was to Sisera (Jud 5:26).

The Lord will smite kings of many countries in
the day of his great wrath (Ps 110:5-6). In fact, he
does so even now to all who continue to walk in
their sins (Deut 33:11; Ps 68:21 (H 22]). Hence,
the kingdom of the ungodly can expect increasing
hostilities until the final deliverance of God
comes in the end (Hab 3:13). God smites and he
heals; ‘‘neither is there any that can deliver out of
his hand’’ (Deut 32:39). Even Eliphaz recognized
this (Job 5:18). No picture of God moving in his
vengeful justice is more vivid than Ps 68:23
(H 24), which portrays God smiting his foot in the
blood of his enemies (who have come against a
revived nation of Israel in the eschaton). There is
a possibility that this verse may be explained by
Ps 58:10 (H 11] where the verb is wash (rahas)
the feet in blood. The ancient versions read
‘‘wash’’ also in Ps 68:23 (H 24].

mahas. Severe wound. Only Isa 30:26 uses this
word. The Lord will heal the blow of the wound
that came to his people. This will take place in
‘that day’’ when the moon shall be as bnght as
the sun and the sun shall be seven times more
luminous than it is now.

Bibliography: Fisher, Loren, Ras Shamra
Parallels, 1, Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1972,
pp. 80, 227, 257-58.

W.C.K.

1184 Sm (mahagq)

See no. 718a.
See no. 719d.
See no. 719e.

sama (mahséb).
myme (mehésa).
pesmi (mahdasit).

1184 pM = (mahaq) annihilate.
Jud 5:26.

Occurs only in

spr (mehqar). See no. 729b.

1185 sm (mhr). Assumed root of the following.
1185a ft ms (mahar) tomorrow.

1185b thar (mohérat) the morrow.
1185c fm (m°hir) hire, price.

mahar. Tomorrow. Occurring fifty-two times,
mahar is seldom used substantively, e.g. ‘‘to-
morrow is the new moon’’ (I Sam 20:5). In other
passages it is used adverbially: *‘Let us eat and
drink, for tomorrow we die’’ (Isa 22:13) or **To-
morrow the Lord shall do this thing.”

Of theological interest is the use of mahar to
mean in future time, e.g. Ex 13:14 and Deut 6:20,
‘‘When in time to come your sons ask you”
(NEB). In Josh 4:6, 21 memorial stones were set so
that in future days when the children asked what
they meant, the answer could be given. Similarly,
the transjordanian tribes feared that the time
would come when they would be cut off from the
heritage of Israel, so they also erected a memorial
(Josh 22:24, 28). Laban and Jacob looked forward
not just to the morrow in the sense of the follow-
ing day, but to time that would come (Gen 30:33).
Significantly enough, none of the prophets used
this phrase to designate the eschatological era.

Proverbs warns against boasting about what
one will do on the morrow (Prov 27:1). Neither
should one promise to give tomorrow to a
neighbor when he has it to give right then and
there (Prov 3:28). God is in charge of our tomor-
rows, therefore we must be hesitant to plan as if
the future were entirely in our hands.

mohérat. Tomorrow. The most interesting fea-
ture about this feminine noun is that ‘‘on the
morrow of’ means after (Lev 23:11, 15, 16; Num
33:3; Josh 5:11). Twice the preposition /° is used
before madhordat to mean ‘‘on the morrow” (Jon
4:7; | Sam 30:17).

m¢hir. Hire, price. Relation to above root un-
clear. This word is used only fifteen times in the
oT. Deuteronomy 23:19 prohibits bringing the
price of a ‘‘dog’’ (male prostitute) into the house
of God. Isaiah 55:1 describes the free offer of
God’s salvation as being without money and
without price. Wisdom cannot be purchased with
gold, not at any price (Job 28:15). In a similar
vein, Prov 17:16 asks why put a price (tuition?)
into the hand of a fool to get wisdom (an educa-
tion) when you know he has no heart (motivation)
in it?

500

1187 “8% (matar) rain.

One of the great tragedies in Israel was that the
rulers judged for reward, the priests taught for a
price or reward and the prophets divined for
money (Mic 3:11). Contrariwise, the pagan
Cyrus, whom God raised up, released the cap-
tives of Israel for no price or reward (Isa 45:13).
This is the opposite of Antichrist who will divide
the land for personal gain (Dan 11:39).

W.C.K.
MIM (mahdra’a). See no. 730b.
myn (mahdrésha). See no. 760d.
PIMs (mohdrat). See no. 1185b.
nwrt (mahsdp). See no. 766b.
mewna (mahashaba). See no. 767d.
aswma (mahshak). See no. 769d.
mamma (mahta). See no. 777a.

mamas (m°hitta). See no. 784g.

manm> (mahteret). See no. 783a.

mae (matbéah). See no. 786e.

my (matteh), Mer (mitta), MB (miatteh).
See nos. 1352b,c,e.

mete (matweh). See no. 794a.

yer (m til). See no. 1186a.

1186 59 (mtl). Assumed root of the following.

1186a 999M) (til) wrought metal rod.
Occurs only in Job 40:18, mtil
barzel. This phrase refers figura-
tively to the bones of the hippopot-

amus.

T9M22 (matmén). See no. 81 1a.
yar (matta'). See no. 1354c.
Byers (mat'am). See no. 815b.
mmper (mitpahat). See no. 818d.

Denominative verb.

Parent Noun
1187a fb (matadr) rain.

Genesis 2:5 states that the Lord ‘had not
caused it to rain on the ground.’’ The garden was
watered by a ‘mist”’ or, better, a ‘“‘river’’ (Har-
ris, R. L., ‘The Mist, the Canopy and the Rivers
of Eden,’’ JETS 11:177-80). These statements
explain why there were no “‘plants of the culti-
vated land”’ (perhaps thorns arising from rain ac-
tion) or ‘‘herbs of the cultivated land’’ (perhaps
cereal grains? cf. Gen 3:18).

Destructive rain from God fell on the earth in
the flood of Noah’s day (Gen 7:4). God rained
down hail on the unbelieving Pharaoh (Ex 9:23),
and fire and brimstone on Sodom and Gomorrah
(Gen 19:24). He will yet rain down great
hailstones, fire, and brimstone on Gog and his
hordes in that great concluding battle of history

(Ezk 38:22). Such a prospect is in view for all the
wicked (Ps 11:6).

The connection between man’s spiritual condi-
tion and the amount and timing of the rainfall is
seen in passages like Amos 4:7. When man’s
heart is right with God, he graciously gives the
command to the clouds and they refresh the earth
(Isa 5:6), just as he graciously rained manna on
Israel in the wilderness (Ex 16:4; Ps 78:24).

matar. Rain. The rain (in some thirty-eight
references) is never to be taken for granted by
mankind; it comes from the hand of God (Ps
147:8; Job 5:10; 28:26; 36:27) in amounts propor-
tionate to the spiritual condition of the inhabi-
tants of that land (Deut 11:11, 1S [H 14). When
men love the Lord their God and serve him with
all their heart and soul (Deut 11:13), he sends rain
on their land in its regular season (Deut 11:14:
28:12). But when they turn and go after other
gods, the rain is shut off in heaven. Men and
beasts languish (Deut 11:17) and the land is
turned into powder and dust (Deut 28:24). Thus
the condition of the promised land was itself a
witness to the spiritual life of the people.

It may be noted that the Bible does not support
the fanciful cosmology often attributed to it. The
‘‘windows of heaven’ (Gen 7:11) are more accu-
rately translated ‘‘sluice gates’’ (cf. hallén and
the reference there to ‘drubbd). The Hebrews
knew from observation that rain comes from
clouds (Isa 5:6; I Kgs 18:44).

The prophets pointed to the rain as a sign for
the people of God’s anger or favor (Isa 5:6; 30:23;
Amos 4:7; Zech 10:1). Rain that fell during the
wheat harvest was a sign of God's judgment, for
it came out of season and at the worst moment
possible (I Sam 12:17—18). Solomon prayed that
God would open the heavens, closed by the
people’s sin, after they had called upon him in
prayer (I Kgs 8:36; see also II Chr 6:27). Elijah
had just such a prayer ministry (1 Kgs 18:1). In-
deed at the very juncture in history when Israel
chose to worship Baal the storm god (I Kgs 16-
:31-32), Elyah appeared with the warning,
‘‘There will be neither dew nor rain these years
except by my words”’ (I Kgs 17:1).

Waiting for the rain became proverbial: like a
man waiting for the rain with his mouth held open
wide (Job 29:23). It is also used in similes: the
Messiah will come down like rain on the mown
grass (Ps 72:6). He will dawn on them as the ten-
der grass shining after the rain (II Sam 23:4). In
that day a tabernacle will provide shelter from the
storm and rain (Isa 4:6).

Rain accompanied by thunder was sent on the
Egyptians as a sign of supernatural power during
the plagues (Ex 9:33-34; cf. Deut 11:10). There
are three occurrences of the statement, “‘He
causes the vapors to ascend from the ends of the

1188

501

1188 % (may)

earth; he makes lightnings with rain, and brings
the wind out of his treasures’’ (Ps 135:7; Jer
10:13; 51:16).
Bibliography: Baly, Denis, The Geography of
the Bible, Harper, 1957, pp. 41-52.
W.C.K.

may (mattarad). See no. 1356a.

%2 (may) water, O%) (mayim) waters.

Found only in the plural form, it occurs some
580 times. The theological importance of water
may be discussed in terms of its historical, ritual,
metaphorical, and eschatological aspects. The
scarcity of water in Palestine explains the numer-
ous references in the oT to man's quest for water.

Historical Aspects

The waters of heaven and earth were created
by God. In an all-embracing summary, Ps 104
relates that God created the waters in the clouds
(v. 3) and on the earth (v. 6). He controls their
boundaries (vv. 7-9), appoints springs to break
out on the earth (v. 10), and rain to fall at his
bidding (v. 13), thereby fructifying the earth and
gladdening the heart of man (vv. 11-18).

Many liberal critics draw a crude picture of
biblical cosmology in which the ‘‘ waters on high”
are held back by a solid firmament, being permit-
ted to fall to the earth through ‘‘windows’”’ (see
the drawing after S. H. Hooke in ZPEB, I,
p. 395). Actually, this is a strange mixture of mis-
translation and misuse of poetic imagery. The bib-
lical account depicts Elohim creating the upper
waters, the watery clouds of heaven, and the
lower waters by the word of his mouth (Gen !:7,
9). An ‘“‘expanse’’ (rather than the Greek and
Latin derivative ‘'firmament’’) was created be-
tween the two bodies (Gen 1:6). No idea of hard-
ness, dome-like effect or solidity is attached here.
Rather, as in Ezk | and 10, it is merely a separat-
ing expanse. Neither are the lower waters, espe-
cially the ‘deep’ of Gen 1:2 (t*_hé6m) to be con-
nected with any primeval deep or mythological
monster of chaos. t*hém is a good Canaanite
word for the sea, cf. Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2537)
just as the ‘‘waters under the earth’ (Ex 20:4;
Deut 4:18; 5:8) are not necessarily infernal, but
simply water below the shoreline in which men
can fish. Likewise the *‘windows of heaven’’
(Gen 7:11; 8:2) are metaphorical representations,
for on other occasions these same ‘‘windows”’
pour forth grain (I] Kgs 7:2), blessings, perhaps
shekels (Mal 3:10), and trouble (Isa 24:18). (See
‘arubbd in article on hallén.)

God is also the regulator and dispenser of all
the waters: he causes the rains to fall ‘*in time”’
(Lev 26:4; Deut 28:12). He opens the floodgates
in judgment (Gen 7:17-20) and closes them (Gen

1188 % (may)

8:2-3). But even the normal flow of rivers (Num
24:6) and the presence of wells and springs (Gen
16:14; Ex 15:23, 27) continue to be his concern.
His ability to provide water was proved by the
provision of water in the wilderness.

One of the factors controlling the dispersement
and availability of water is the conduct of man.
Water is withheld from covenant breakers, law-
less and disobedient peoples (Lev 26:19; Deut
28:23; Amos 4:7; 1 Kgs 18:18), but given
graciously as a sign of the blessing of God to that
nation or city which obeys the voice of God.

This divine mastery and ownership ts demon-
strated in the flood of Noah’s day (Gen 7), the
Red Sea deliverance (Ex 15:1-18), the Jordan
River crossing (Josh 3:16; 4:18), and Elijah’s
crossing of the Jordan (II Kgs 2:8). Thus the
waters of the Red Sea distinguish between the
people of God and hardened idolaters, while the
waters of the Jordan recognize the authoritative
command of its ruler’s messengers. Likewise
water sprang from the rock for a thirsty nation at
the word of God’s servant Moses (Ex 17:1-7;
Num 20:1-13; Ps 78:16, 20; Isa 48:21).

Ritual Aspects

Various ritual ablutions were performed to
symbolize inner moral purity, preparation for
meeting or worshiping God, and innocence.
Ritual washing was required in the case of ordina-
tion (Ex 29:4; Lev 8:6), the high priest's prepara-
tion for the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:4, 24),
leprosy (Lev 14:5-7, 50-52), sexual emissions
(Lev 15:13), and contact with a corpse. While the
rites in theselelves were powerless to bring about
inner moral purity, they signified one’s prior
inner state of purity and his sense of God's holi-
ness.

There is one use of water in a kind of
psychological ordeal (Num 5:11—31) which has no
known parallels in the ancient near east. That is
the trial of jealousy. (A true ordeal in the near
east involved physical danger from which an in-
nocent person was supposed to be delivered, e.g.
being thrown into a river. In the Middle Ages,
handling hot iron or walking through fire was
supposed to be a test of innocence. The Bible
contains no examples of this kind of ordeal.)

If a jealous husband suspected his wife of adul-
tery (there being no witnesses), he could bring
her before the priest. He (the priest) then sprin-
kled dust from the sanctuary floor over a vessel
of water, thereby making it ‘bitter water."’ The
woman was required to repeat a formula of
curses which the priest wrote on a scroll and then
washed into the bitter water. No doubt the result-
ing effect on the woman’s body, after she drank
the water, was psychosomatic, God using the
mind and emotions to produce the signs that indi-
cated guilt or innocence. Jeremiah refers to this

502

ordeal when he announces (8:14; 9:15 [H 14];
23:15) that all Israel is due to drink ‘‘bitter’’ or
‘*poisoned’’ water.

Water also plays an important role in the ritual
performed in the case of an unsolved murder.
Those living closest to the scene of the crime
were required to wash their hands over a sac-
rificed heifer (Deut 21:1-9) in order to cleanse the
area, which probably gave rise to the custom of
washing one’s hands in innocence (Ps 26:6; 73:13;
cf. Mt 27:24).

The oT never encouraged ‘‘refreshment”™ (or
‘*pouring out water’’) for the dead as some would
argue from Deut 26:14; I Sam 7:6; Jer 16:7.
Neither did it connect water with magic, for Deut
18:9-14 is clearly against all such practices.
Joseph's cup of divination (Gen 44:5) is a case of
deception to fool his brothers based on the
idolatrous practice of hydromancy.

Metaphorical Aspects

Water is an element in many metaphors. The
desire for God, he who is the source of ‘‘living
water’ (Jer 2:13), is like a deer’s thirst for water
(Ps 42:1 [H 2]). Consequently, all who drink of
him (Isa 55:1-2) are “like a watered garden and
like a spring of water, whose waters fail not’’ (Isa
58:11) or like trees by the river of waters (Ps 1:3;
Jer 17:8). Apart from God, man is like a dry,
waterless land doomed to die (Ps 143:6).

In the realm of marriage, sexual enjoyment
with one’s own wife is likened to drinking *‘living
water’’ from one’s own well (Prov 5:15; Song
4:15), while harlotry involves drinking ‘‘stolen
waters’’ (Prov 9:17).

Other figures depict a fearful heart as melting
and becoming water (Josh 7:5), the knowledge of
God as wide and broad as the waters of the seas
(Hab 2:14; Isa 11:9), and death as the spilling of
water (I1 Sam 14:14; Ps 22:14 [H 15]). Distress is
likened to much water (I] Sam 22:17) or deep
waters (Ps 69:3, 15).

Great rivers symbolize imperial powers that
can swamp other nations; thus the Euphrates (Isa
8:7) and the Nile (Jer 46:7-8). God used these
‘‘rivers’’ to punish his people.

Eschatological Aspects

When Israel is restored to their land in a new
exodus, God will again miraculously refresh his
people by watering the old desert (Isa 35:67;
43:20) and by changing the land into a garden
showplace (Isa 41:17-20), although some hold
that this passage refers metaphorically to the
spiritual refreshment of his people. Paradise will
be restored when a river from the temple in
Jerusalem will flow down toward the Dead Sea.
The trees lining its banks will be a source of life
and healing (Ezk 47:1—12; Zech 14:8).

In the coming messianic era, God will grant
rain in its season (Ezk 34:26) so that thirst and
want are forgotten (Isa 49:10; Jer 31:9). The Lord
will ‘sprinkle clean water’’ on the restored tribes
and they will be purified of all their filthiness
(Ezk 36:24-25).

Bibliography: MHarris, R. L., ‘‘The Bible and
Cosmology,’ JETS 5:11-17. Reymond, Philippe,
‘*‘L’eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans |’ Ancien
Testament,’’ Supp VT, 1958. Richardson, TWB,
pp. 279-80. TDNT, VIII, pp. 317-22.

W.C.K.

1189 % (mi) who.

Whereas mG ‘‘what?”’ inquires after the
character or quality of things and sometimes per-
sons, mi *‘who?’’ usually refers to persons and
seeks only the identity, ancestry, or some exter-
nal fact.

mi is used with personal association in thirty-
six passages, e.g. Gen 24:65 in which Rebekah
asks Eliezer, ‘‘Who is this man walking toward
us?’’ He answers, “It is my master.’ Pharaoh
asks Moses and Aaron, “‘Who precisely is to
go?’’ (Ex 10:8). The reply is, ‘*All’’ (Ex 10:9).
David, astounded by the announcement of God’s
grace to him, cried out, ‘‘Who am I, O Lord
Yahweh and what (mi) is my house (dynasty)?”’
(11 Sam 7:18). Other passages demonstrating the
same idea are: Ex 15:11; 32:26; Deut 3:24; 4:7-8;
5:26; 20:5-8; Jud 9:28, 38; 10:18; 21:5, 8; I Sam
18:18; 25:10; I] Sam 7:23, 22:32; II Kgs 6:11; 9:5;
I Chr 17:21; Job 5:1; 34:7; Ps 24:8, 10; 25:13;
34:12 [H 13]; 89:48 [H 49]; Isa 48:14; 50:1; Ezk
27:32.

Some believe that Ex 3:11; II Chr 2:6 [H 5] and
Gen 33:8 are exceptions to the rule just an-
nounced. However, Moses asks in Ex 3:11,
‘*Who am I to go to Pharaoh?” Apparently he is
just claiming to be a nobody. He is not referring
to his character, but rather to his ancestry.
Likewise Solomon asks in II Chr 2:6 [H 5], ‘“Who
is able to build [God} a house?’’ and **Who am I
then?’’ His ancestry in light of the greatness of
the task is nothing. He assumes a stance of humil-
ity, as did his father David (II Sam 7:18). When
Esau asks Jacob, ‘‘What (mi) was all that com-
pany of yours that I met?’’, he refers only to its
size, not its potential or character. When Mic 1:5
asks, **What (m7) is the transgression of Jacob?”
and ‘‘What (7m) are the high places of Judah?”’ it
is calling only for an identity or list of sins and
high places; their character and meaning is trans-
parently evil.

Bibliography: Motyer, J. A., The Revelation
of the Divine Name, London: Tyndale, 1959, pp.
19-20.

W.C.K.

sy (métab). See no. 863a.

503

1191 99% (myn), 3 (mwn).

1191 99% (myn), 173 (mwn)

1190 %5%2 (mikal) brook (meaning dubious).

Occurs only in phrase mikal hammdadyim
(II Sam 17:20).

Assumed root of
the following.

119la T!% (min) kind.

L11I9Ib tmpen (ft miund) likeness, form.

min. Kind. The word min occurs in thirty-one
passages (chiefly Gen 1, 6, 7; Lev 11; Deut 14),
thirty of which belong to Moses’ Pentateuch. The
other one is Ezk 47:10.

The etymology of min cannot be established
with certainty. Ludwig Koehler would have it
come from the noun ¢t® mind ‘‘form’’ with some
such meaning as ‘‘to think out’’ or ‘‘to invent.”
Skinner’s /nternational Critical Commentary on
Genesis rejects this line of reasoning and selects
rather an Arabic root meaning ‘‘to split (the earth
in plowing),’’ with the resulting idea of dividing.

Three significant grammatical points are noted
by Barton Payne: |. min is always used with the
preposition /° ‘‘to’’ or “‘in respect to, according
to’’ and thereby provides specification or, in
Driver’s phrase, ‘‘technical enumeration.’’ 2.
min always occurs in the singular form even
though English translations sometimes render
it as plural (Ezk 47:10, Kiv). But it is in fact a
collective noun giving the generic form in each
case. 3. min always is followed by one of five
suffixal pronominal endings. Affixation of these
endings strongly suggests that each form has his,
her, or its own generic group to which it belongs
by order of the creator.

Some have argued that when God created min,
he thereby fixed the ‘‘species.’’ This is a gratul-
tous assumption because a link between the word
min with the biologist’s descriptive term species
cannot be substantiated, and because there are as
many definitions of species as there are
biologists.

In light of the distinctions made in Gen |, such
as the distinction between herbs and grasses
which are, however, members of the same class
(Angiosperms), it is possible that in some cases
the biblical term min may indicate a broader
group, such as an order. Elsewhere, in Lev 11:14,
15, 16, 19, 22 (four times), 29, min appears con-
sistently as equivalent to nothing broader than
genus. However, Lev 11:4 ‘‘the falcon after its
kind,’’ and 11:16 ‘‘the hawk after its kind,’’ refer
to divisions within the order Falconiformes, yet
both have subdivisions called min. Likewise, as
Payne points out, the locust, bald locust, cricket,
and grasshopper all belong to the order Orthop-
tera and the locust, bald locust, and grasshopper
belong to the family Acridiidae, but again each
has its subdivisions called min (genus?).

God created the basic forms of life called min

1192 pd (mys)

which can be classified according to modern
biologists and zoologists as sometimes species,
sometimes genus, sometimes family or order.
This gives no support to the classical evolutionist
view which requires developments across king-
dom, phyla, and classes.

t*mana. Likeness, form. A nocturnal appari-
tion of a spirit with an undiscernible form (Job
4:16). In Num 12:8, Moses witnesses the
similitude of the Lord, 1..e., his passing-by glory
(see Ex 33:22; also Ps 17:15 of the Psalmist’s wish
to see God when he awakes). Elsewhere men are
warned against making images in the likeness of
anything which God created (Ex 20:4; Deut 5:8;
4:16, 23, 25).

Bibliography: Payne, J. Barton, ‘*The Con-
cept of *Kinds’ in Scripture,’ JASA 10:17-19.
TDNT, I, pp. 181-82.

W.C.K.
1192 3 (mys). Assumed root of the following.
1192a YY (més) squeezer, i.e. oppres-
sor (Isa 16:4).
1192b 0 «PND (mis) Squeezing, pressing,
wringing (Prov 30:33).
2% (mig). See no. 1163.
"ws (mishar), “Wa (mishdr). See
nos. 930e,f.

See no. 936h.
See no. 940b.
"325% (makbar). See

"nv (mitar).

33857 (mak’db).

"32% (makbér),
nos. 948c,d.

mam (makka). See no. 1364d.
mat (mikwa). See no. 96lc.
Ni3% )=6(makén). See no. 964c.

1193 33% (makak) be low, humiliated (Ps
106:43; Eccl 10:18; Job 24:24),

mata (mikla). See nos. 980c, 982d.

220% (mikldl), 925% (maklal), %9>5n
(miklal). See nos. 985c,d,e.

neat (makkolet). See no. 85g.

Yat (mikman). See no. 99la.

mapa «(mikmeret), nam. (mikmoret).
See nos. 995Sc,d.

BJs (miknas).

Da’ (mekes).

mpat (mikseh),
nos. 1008c,d.

m2p2%2 (makpéla).

See no. 1000a.
See no. 1014a.
mba’ ~(m*kasseh). See

See no. 1019b.

1194 "3% (makar) sell.

Derivatives

1194a 3% (meker) merchandise.
1194b t"3779 (mimkar) sale, ware.

504

1194c =omsa%r = (mimkeret) sale. Occurs
only in Lev 25:42.
1194d M55 «(m*kérad) swords.

One of the central teachings of the oT is that
God, his people, and ‘the real estate which he
gave to them belonged together. Since God re-
mained the sole owner of the land, he attached
certain conditions to the Israelites’ occupation of
it. One condition was that the land was not to be
sold permanently (Lev 25:23). If someone be-
came so poor that he had to sell his property, his
nearest kinsman was to redeem it (Lev 25:25). If
he had no kinsman, and never recovered suffi-
cient means to buy it back himself, it remained in
the hands of the purchaser until the year of
Jubilee. In that year, the seventh seven, every
family was to return to its ancestral possession.
The law of Jubilee was the first land reform in
history.

Selling fellow Israelites into slavery was pro-
hibited (Ex 21:16; Deut 24:7; Joel 3:3 [H 4:3];
Amos 2:6; Neh 5:8; Zech 11:5). They could,
however, Sell themselves, i.e. their services and
work, but their servitude was terminated in the
seventh year (Deut 15:12) and in the year of
Jubilee, when all servants went free (Lev 25:39,
40, 47, 48, 50; Deut 15:12; Jer 34:14). Also in the
sabbatical year debts were cancelled (Deut
15:1-3).

The Lord sold his people into the power of
their enemies when he became displeased with
them (Deut 32:30; 28:68; Ps 44:12 [H 13]; Isa
50:1; Ezk 30:12). Actually, the Israelites sold
themselves: for nothing! But God would yet re-
deem them without money (Isa 52:3). I Sam 12:9
spells it out, **‘When they forgot the Lord their
God, then he sold them... ,”’ which happened
repeatedly during the time of the judges (Jud
2:14; 3:8: 4:2: 10:7).

Joseph was sold by his brothers to the Ishmael-
ites who in turn sold him into Egyptian slavery
(Gen 37:27, 28, 36; 45:4). But when Joseph re-
vealed his identity to his astonished brothers he
said, ‘*Be not grieved, not angry, with yourselves
that you sold me here, for God sent me ahead of
you to preserve life’’ (Gen 45:5) and more point-
ediy in Gen 50:20, **You devised it for evil but
God planned it for my good.”’

Esau sold his birthright (Gen 25:31, 33). Thus
he forfeited his right to be the chief heir for a little
soup. The Nuzu tablets (c. 1500 B.c.) witness two
other cases of men yielding inheritance rights toa
younger brother for some immediate temporal
consideration.

One passage uses the verb figuratively, ‘‘buy-
ing the truth and selling it not’’ (Prov 23:23).
Perhaps the Israelite king, Ahab, illustrates that
passage, since ‘‘he sold himself to work wicked-
ness’ under the instigation of his pagan wife,

Jezebel (I Kgs 21:20, 25). Unfortunately, the
same could be said for all Israel (I1] Kgs 17:17):
completely committed and sold out to accomplish
wickedness!

meker. Value. Used in four passages, only
one of which is significant here. Proverbs 31:10
mentions the ‘‘virtuous woman,’ who has a
value far above rubies. The reason is apparent
from the description given of her in the context.

mimkar. Sale, ware. Most of the passages
using mimkar deal with the sale or things sold as
collateral and how one goes about redeeming
them in the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:14, 27, 29, 33,
$0; see also Neh 13:20).

Bibliography: Vaux, R. de, Al, pp. 164-66;
175-77. Harris, R. L. Man: God’s Eternal Crea-
tion, Moody, 1973, pp. 137-38.

W.C.K.
39% (makkar). See no. 1368f.
m3% =©6 (mikreh), mat (mtkurad). See
nos. 1033b,c.
wor (mikshdl), mows (makshéld).
See nos.1050c,d.
snot (miktab). See no. 1053c.
mmsta (m*kitta). See no. 1062b.
pnsta = (miktam). See no. 1056a.
who (maktésh). See no. 106la.
1195 sr (male’) be full, to fill.
Derivatives
119Sa 8979 (malé’) fullness, that which
fills.

1195b tN (m*ld’) fullness.

1195c 09RD (melé’G) fullness, full pro-
duce.

119Sd so masshra (milla’G) _ setting of jewel.

119S5e 93479) (milld’), Ss? (millia’) — set-
ting, installation.

1195f mse (millé’t) setting, border, rim.

Meaning dubious.

Examination of 249 occurrences of this verb (in
the Qal and Niphal) reveals that it can have either
a Spatial signification or by extension the impor-
tant theological concept of temporal signification.

The spatial signification is found in Ex 10:6, the
locusts filling the houses, Joel 3:13 (H 4:13], the
winepress full of juice, and II Kgs 4:6, the widow
pouring oil into empty vessels until they are full.

The temporal signification is seen in the com-
pletion of a fixed time, e.g. the days of Rebekah’s
pregnancy, which were fulfilled when she gave
birth (Gen 25:25), the seven days that had
elapsed, i.e., ended, were full after the Lord
struck the Nile (Ex 7:25), and the three weeks
which were completed while Daniel fasted (Dan
10:3).

505

1195 so (male’

Even more significant is the use of this term to
represent the omnipresence of God: **Do not I fill
heaven and earth? says the Lord”’ (Jer 23:24). He
is not only universally present and fills the whole
earth with his glory (Num 14:21; Ps 72:19; Isa
6:3), but he is also locally visible by his glory
(kabéd) in the cloud which fills the tabernacle
(Ex 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11: Isa 6:1; Ezk 10:3;
43:5; 44:4).

This term is also used of God’s ability to finish
a work begun or accomplish a word promised.
The Piel form of ml’ seems to emphasize the ful-
fillment of utterances.

Men fulfill their words when they practice
idolatry as they said they would (Jer 44:25).
When Solomon expelled Abiathar from his
priesthood, Eli's words were fulfilled (I Kgs 2:27)
just as Jeremiah’s words were fulfilled by the
seventy-year exile (I] Chr 36:21). God acted to
fulfill his word spoken to David when he built the
temple (I Kgs 8:15, 24; I] Chr 6:4, 15). God will
also act to fulfill the counsel and petition of his
Messiah (Ps 20:4, 5 [H 5S, 6}).

Von Rad lists other theological terms that show
how the Lord’s prophetic word functioned in his-
tory: ‘“‘does not fail’’ (l6’-nadpal Josh 24:45 [H
43]; 23:14; 1 Kgs 8:56; Hf Kgs 10:10); ‘‘it will be
established” (gam, 1 Sam 1:23; 15:11, 13; 11 Sam
7:25; I Kgs 2:4; 6:12); ‘‘it comes to pass’’ (bd’,
Josh 23:15); cf. also Ezk 12:25, 28, ‘Thus has
the Lord Yahweh spoken: None of my words
will be delayed any longer; the word which |
speak is performed, says the Lord, Yahweh”
(Theology of the Old Testament, WI, p. 94).

The Piel form of mdlé’ is also used to denote a
period of time, i.e. number of days (Gen 29:27-
28), years (II Chr 36:21) or length of gestation
(Job 39:2) which must be completed. Con-
sequently, the emphasis is not to be placed solely
on the predicted word, but also on the faithful
God who will achieve, perfect, and do what was
said: The time between the prediction and its ful-
fillment contains significant happenings which
evidence this same powerful and faithful God
who continues to fill chronological time (chro-
nos) with opportune moments (kairoi). This be-
longs generically to that final achievement of all
that the word promised (cf. Nt pleroun, Heb.
kala, Gr. teled, Heb. tdaman, Gr. teled). Interest-
ingly enough, Moule, citing J. A. Fitzmyer, says
that “Qumran literature lacks both the fulfillment
formula found in Matthew and also the ‘pattern’
in the use of the Old Testament... [found] in the
New Testament... {and] scarcely any examples
of the use of ml’ in a phrase referring to the con-
firmation or completion of God’s promises or
plan’’ (‘‘Fulfillment-Words in the New Testa-
ment,”’ p. 309).

In figurative expressions, the earth is often
portrayed as full of violence (Gen 6:13; Mic 6:12;

1196 *m379 (malah)

Jer 23:10; 51:5; Ezk 7:22) and sometimes as full of
the glory, mercy, goodness, and knowledge of
the Lord (Ps 33:5; 119:64; Isa 11:9; Hab 3:3). The
land can be filled with sin (Jer 16:18; Ezk 8:17).
‘To fill one’s hand’’ (with sacrifices) is **to con-
secrate’’ one's service (I Chr 29:5; Ex 32:29) ora
priest (Jud 17:5). Likewise to fulfill the desire of a
man is ‘‘to satisfy’? him (Ex 15:9).

m‘lo’. Fullness. It means “what fills up” a
large number. Gen 48:19 has Jacob predict that
Joseph’s son Ephraim would become a multitude
of nations or as the NEB has it, ‘‘a whole nation in
themselves”’ just as Isa 31:4 speaks of a mass or
multitude of shepherds.

Most frequently this word is used with land and
speaks of the fullness or the entire contents be-
longing to the Lord (Deut 33:16; Ps 24:1) or to the
threatening invader (Mic 1:2; Amos 6:8 [i.e. of
the city); Jer 8:16; 47:2; Ezk 12:19; 19:7). But
when Isaiah witnessed the vision of his call, the
whole earth was full of his glory (Isa 6:3).

The Lord clatms all the inhabited world (tébél)
as his own along with all of its contents (Ps 50:12;
89:11 [H 12]; 98:7; Isa 42:10; 1 Chr 16:32). In-
deed, even the sea is invited to sing and roar in
praise to the Lord with all of its contents (Ps
96:11).

The other significant theological usage occurs
in the reference to the homer-full of manna stored
in the presence of the Lord, in the ark (Ex 16:33).

Bibliography: Childs, Brevard S., ‘*Prophecy
and Fulfillment,’ Interpretation 12:259-71.
Moule, C. F. D., ‘‘Fulfillment-Words in the New
Testament—Use and Abuse,” NTS 14:308ff.
Fitzmyer, J. A., “The Use of Explicit O.T. Quo-
tations in Qumran Literature and in the NT,”
NTS 7:297ff. Richardson, TWB, pp. 87-88.
THAT, I, pp. 897-99.

W.C.K.

ms¥ro (mal’ak), miose9~ (mal’akit). See
nos. 1068a,c.
msm (millé’t).
1299 (malbén). See no. 1074i.
waa (malbuish). See no. 1075b.
mor (milla). See no. 1201a.
nyo (milla’). See no. 1195e.
mbes (malliah). See no. 1197c.
mo37%) (m?lakad). See no. 1199d.
1199 (malén). See no. 1096a.

See no. 1195f.

1196 *m97 (mdlah) I, tear away, dissipate.
Occurs only in the Niphal, in Isa 51:6,
shamayim ke‘adshan nimlaha ‘‘the heav-
ens will vanish like smoke”’ (NIV).

Derivative

1196a omy (melah) rag (Jer 38:11-12).

506

1197 m3 (malah) II, salt, season.

Denomina-
tive verb.

Parent Noun
1197a tm (melah) salt.

1197b so smor (m*léha) saltiness, _barren-
ness.

1197c =o ms?) (malliah) mallow, a_ plant
which grows in salt marshes (Job
30:4).

1197d =ombr (mallah) mariner.

Only three passages use this denominative
verb. According to Lev 2:13, the meal offering is
to be seasoned with salt. In Ex 30:35 the ingre-
dients used in compounding incense were to be
salted (KJV, “tempered together’’).

Nowhere does there occur the aspect of enter-
ing into friendly relations by eating bread and salt
together. Arab society to this day retains such
expressions as ‘‘there is salt between us”’ or “‘]
love you as | love salt.”’

The third passage is Ezk 16:4, which uses a
Hophal perfect and infinitive absolute to describe
a newborn baby being rubbed or washed with
salt. Probably this is merely to cleanse and heal
the child rather than to establish any covenant [of
salt] between the newborn and God. We may
hope the salt solution was dilute!

melah. Salt. Various uses of salt are men-
tioned in twenty-eight passages of the oT. It was
obtained from large quarries located on the
southwest side of the Dead Sea (Gen 19:26; Ezk
47:11; Zeph 2:9). In Job 6:6 it is mentioned as a
condiment. Salt and oil were always mixed with
the meal offering (Lev 2:13). Ezekiel 43:24 notes
that the priest will cast salt on the burnt offerings
of the millennial age. The incense offering, the
symbol of public worship to God, must also be
‘*seasoned with salt’’ (Ex 30:35). Some hold that
salt in these offerings represents that which pre-
vents putrefaction, while honey and leaven do
not prevent it and were excluded for that reason.
Others point out that the use of salt as a preser-
vative is not clear in the Bible. The burnt offer-
ings, at least, were not to be kept and incense
does not putrefy. Therefore the use of salt in
these offerings may be a matter of seasoning or of
dedication, for salt was an item of value. Honey,
on the other hand, does not easily putrefy.

The term ‘‘covenant of salt’’ is applied to the
perpetual statute by which revenue was to be
given to the priests (Num 18:19), and to the co-
venant established with David whereby he was
accorded an everlasting reign over Israel (II Chr
13:5). These relationships are thereby designated
as irrevocable and binding (see also Lev 2:13).

The preservative qualities of salt are perhaps
seen in the prophet Elisha’s using it to purify the
spring at Jericho (II Kgs 2:20-21), though the ef-

ficacy here was miraculous. On the other hand,
salt was scattered over the site of a city devoted
to God for destruction (Jud 9:45) which thus be-
came the symbol of barrenness and desolation
(see also Deut 29:23 [H 22}; Job 39:6; Zeph 2:9).
Bibliography: Corswant, W., A Dictionary of
Life in Bible Times, Oxford University Press,
1960, pp. 233-34. Ross, J. F., **Salt,”’ in IDB, IV,
p. 167.
W.C.K.

mane (milhama). See no. 1104c.

1198 *o% (mdlat) be delivered, escape (Niphal);
deliver, save (Piel). ASV and RSV similar.
BDB ‘‘slip away.”’

Derivative
1198a 979 (melet) clay (flooring). RSV
mortar. Occurs only in Jer 43:9,

an object lesson of the coming de-
struction of Egypt.

mlt is one word of the cluster that includes
ga’al, yasha‘, nasal, palat and shadl6m. These
words are translated in the Lxx by several Greek
words: s6z0 (including diaséz6 and anas6z0)
about seventy times, Aryomai eight times, and
exaireo five times. This distribution suggests that
they have similar meanings with somewhat dif-
ferent emphases.

Although mdlat may denote escape from court
services to see one's relatives (I Sam 20:29) or
deliverance of the needy from affliction (Job
29:12), the most prominent facet of meaning is of
deliverance or escape from the threat of death,
either at the hands of a personal enemy (J Sam
19:11; 23:13) or a national enemy (II Sam 19:10),
or by sickness (Ps 107:20).

The usual emphasis is on the role of Yahweh in
deliverance (particularly parallelling the Lxx
hryomai, Ps 116:4; 107:20; 22:5 (H 6]). His salva-
tion is for the righteous (Prov 28:26; Job 22:30)
but his judgment on sin cannot be escaped (I Kgs
19:17; Amos 2:14-15). Deliverance is possible
only for those who call on him (Joel 2:32 [H 3:5]).
He is the protecting, delivering God. By contrast,
escape is not found in the strength of a horse (Ps
33:17), the might of another nation (Isa 21:6),
riches (Job 20:20), or in one’s own understanding.

Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 971-73, 978-
80; VI, pp. 998-1003.

G.L.C.

meso «= (m lila). See no. 1202.
mx°779 «(mm ¢ lisa). See no. 1113b.

1199 39% (malak) I, be, become king or queen,
reign. Denominative verb.

507

1199 3979 (malak)

Parent Noun

1199a +597 (melek) king.

1199b tmpbn (malka) queen.

1199c tod (m°leket) queen.

1199d =o mp3%% «(m*lakad) kingship, royalty.
1199e =m35%% «(malkit) sovereign power.
1199f mp9 (mamlakd) sovereignty.
1199g = msa¥rr> « (mamlakit) sovereignty.
1199h +35% (mdlek) Molech, a pagan god.

11991 tpsx-939% (malki-sedeq) Melchizedek.

Since Semitic nouns are usually derived from
verbs, the reverse 1s always a signal to look to the
noun for the essential meaning. mdalak, though
employed over three hundred times, appears only
in Qal and Hiphil stems (except for one Hophal,
Dan 9:1). The meaning of the Qal (over two
hundred times) is always ‘‘to reign,’’ i.e. to be
and exercise functions of a monarch, whether
male (king) or female (queen).

The normal sense of the Hiphil of malak would
be to cause to be king (or queen) and such is the
case—‘ ‘make king, cause to reign.”’ This can be
the act of inauguration by anointing (IJ Sam 2:9;
5:17) or anointing and crowning (II Chr 23:11). It
can also be the act of God or men in exalting a
man to such an office, the ceremony not being
considered (I Sam 15:35; I Kgs 12:20). The
Hophal, employed only once, at Dan 9:1, seems
specifically to indicate that Darius was not re-
garded by the author, Daniel, as supreme
monarch of the Medo-Persian empire but rather
was made (passive voice) sub-melek at Babylon,
an important but secondary, city and area of the
realm.

melek. King. Since the Bible was written
when sovereignty (seat of authority) in civil gov-
ernment was viewed somewhat differently than it
is today, officials and functionaries whom men
today would designate by other titles (comman-
dant, governor, chieftain, etc.) are regularly
designated melek. That thirty-one columns, av-
eraging about eighty-five entries per column, are
devoted in Englishman’s Hebrew and Chaldee
Concordance to this word is an indication of its
prevalence in the oT.

melek is simply the most common word for
chief magistrate and is similar in meaning to sev-
eral other words usually translated lord, captain,
ruler, prince, chief and such like: ndgid, nadib,
nasik, nasi’, qgasin, rozén (always pl.), Sar (very
frequent). As nearly as can be determined, none
of these terms is consistently employed in the
Hebrew Scriptures to designate a well-defined of-
fice. Conclusions based on the use of one or
another of them are precarious, as for example
that nagid always designates Gentile rather than
Israelite magistrates or the other way around.

The essential theology of the ot with reference

1199 3975 (malak)

to melek (king) is not to be obtained merely by
examining the over 2500 occurrences of the
word. Rather we must examine the OT idea of
magistracy, i.e., of civil authonty. Underlying all
civil society was consuetudinary, i.e. common or
customary law. No state then (including the
Mosaic) or now could operate by statutory laws
alone. Furthermore, civil government was the
rule of magistrates. They were rulers (Sarim) ina
greater sense than are rulers in the West today.
For though responsible to statutory law and to
custom, part of the custom was to rely simply on
decisions of the magistrate—for whom there are
many designations (see above)—to supply what-
ever leadership, control, and support people ex-
pected from their government. Government,
therefore, tn a degree much greater than in any
Western land, was rule by just (hopefully) men
rather than by laws that were just.

Proverbs 8:15—16 supplies a locus of materials
for our search for a theology of the king or su-
preme magistrate: ‘By me [wisdom] kings reign,
And princes decree justice. By me rulers rule,
And nobles, even all the judges of the earth.’
The least definite is king, the first. Let the four
others amplify the idea of kingship. **Princes”’
(singular r6zén) occurs only six times, always in
poetry. By reference to a cognate Arabic word it
is understood to mean one who is ‘‘weighty,
grave, firm of judgment’’— incapable of being
shaken, of majestic repose, dignified in speech
and action as befits one invested with great
power. ‘‘Rulers’’ (Sarim), a common word
means head man, one of recognized authority in
whatever realm he operates (‘‘powers that be,”’
Rom 12:1). There is no metaphor when lteading
merchants are denominated princes (Sdrim, Isa
22:8). Certain angels are called §adrim (Dan 10:13,
21). **Nobles’’ (sing. n@dib) is one inclined to-
ward liberality, of noble character, hence also of
position. *‘Judges’’ (sing. shoépét < shdapat q.v.)
is perhaps the most comprehensive term for one
who exercises civil authority, whether executive,
judicial, or legislative. A sixth word, ndagid is a
favorite name for Hebrew kings, twice occurmng in
Prov (8:6; 28:16), means one who stands in front.

These are the main oT ideas about kings and
other rulers. Though rulers were to be benign, the
idea of democracy, that authority moves from
people to rulers, is difficult to find in the Bible.
Rulers were thought to be constituted by divine
authority rather than human. To come before the
judge was to come before God (Ex 22:8, 9 [H 7-
8]). It is to be observed that in Ex 22:9 [H 8],
"élohim must be rendered magistrates (pl.) rather
than God (sing.), for the verb yarshi‘an is Hiphil
third person masculine plural of rdsha‘ ‘‘to con-
demn.”’

The term melek appears in modified form in
almost every Semitic language with approxi-

508

mately the same meaning (BDB in loc.). The He-
brew idea was shared everywhere in oriental an-
tiquity.

We must guard against assigning consistent
technical meaning to melek, even when clearly
literally intended. It can mean emperor (of an
empire) as in the case of Nebuchadrezzar king of
Babylon (Jer 46:2), or one of an emperor's vas-
sals as in the case of Jehoiakim, king of Judah
(Jer 46:2) or the chieftain of a tiny city-state such
as the Canaanite and Philistine towns (e.g., Gen
14:2-8; 20:2; 26:1, 8; many times in Josh). One of
a joint-rulership or, possibly, triumvirate such as
we now Know Belshazzar to have been (Dan §:11,
Aram. equivalent to Heb. here) or a subordinate
governor of a province as Darius ruler over Baby-
lon under Cyrus emperor of Persia (Dan 5:30)
might likewise be called melek.

Two important related matters must be noted.
1. The place of kingship in Israel. There was
no magistrate called King in Israel in earliest
times. Civil authority was wielded in patriarchal
times by tribal elders, in early years of the set-
tlement, by village and tribal elders. During the
time of the shoph* tim (usually, but misleadingly,
rendered ‘‘judges’’) there were temporary char-
ismatic (in the proper sense: by divine gift) heads
of tribal alliances. But ancient ideas of monarchy
usually (but not invanably) associated dynasty
with kingship. The books of Samuel tell the story
of the first effort, against the express will of God,
to establish a permanent national monarchy.
Though dynasty was desired by the house of
Saul, Providence prevented it. But kingship had
been anticipated in Mosaic Law (Deut 17:14-20;
28:36) and God established David and his dynasty
forever over Israel. As Bright says, **The theol-
ogy of Davidic kingship is best seen in the royal
psalms [Royal psalms include: Ps 2; 18 (II Sam,
ch. 22); 20; 21; 45; 72; 89: 101; 110; 132; 144:]-
11), which, though they cannot be dated pre-
cisely, are all preexilic and for the most part rela-
tively early. Its classical expression, however, is
in the oracle of Nathan (IJ Sam 7:4-17), a piece
undoubtedly developing an ancient nucleus (cf.
also II Sam 6; I Kgs 8). It is also found in the old
poem of I] Sam 23:1-7, ascribed to David him-
self. The tradition is by no means incredible: cf.
O. Procksh, ‘‘Die letzten Worte Davids”
(BWANT, 13 [1913], pp. 112-125); A. R.
Johnson, Sacral Kingship in Ancient Israel (Car-
diff, University of Wales Press, 1955, p. 15} —
where there is further bibliography. The sub-
stance of this theology is that Yahweh’s choice of
Zion and the Davidic house is eternal (Ps 89:3 [H
4); 132:11-14): though kings might for their sins
be chastened, the dynasty would never be cut off
(II Sam 7:14-16; Ps 89: 19-37 [H 20-38]). The king
ruled as Yahweh's ‘‘son’”’ (Ps 2:7; I] Sam 7:14),
his ‘‘first-born’’ (Ps 89:27 [H 28]), his ‘‘anointed”’

(Ps 2:2; 18:50 [H 51] (H 7}; 20:6). Because he was
established by Yahweh in Zion, no foe would
prevail against him (Ps 2:1-6; 18:31-45 (H 32-46]
[H 8-13]; 21:7-12; 132: 17 f.; 144:10 f.); on the
contrary, foreign nations would submit to his rule
(Ps 2:7-12; 18:44 (H 45]f.; 72:8-11). The Davidic
covenant developed the pattern of the patriarchal
covenant, in that it was based in Yahweh's un-
conditional promises for the future [See G. E.
Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the
Ancient Near East (The Biblical Colloquium,
1955)}" (Gohn Bright, A Ajistory of Israel,
Westminster, 1959, p. 204).
2. The relation of king and the national religion
and ritual (cult). As seen above, the king was a
sacred person—he ruled in a divinely appointed
estate and by divine authority (see also R. D.
Culver, Toward a Biblical View of Civil Govern-
ment, Moody, 1975, pp. 41-55, 74-76, 87, 88, 123,
129, 169, 170, 251). But he had no place in the
priesthood. To intrude tnto that holy office was
regarded as grossest sin (cf. the case of Saul’s
invasion of the priest’s office, I Sam 13:1-14).
There is a school of radical biblical-historical
thought which asserts that Israel’s practice of
kingship, being borrowed from the pagan
neighbors (IJ Sam 8, esp. v. 20), involved also a
pagan theory and a ritual pattern to express it,
supposed to be common in the ancient near east.
According to this view the king, being in theory a
divine king, became the central figure in an an-
nual new year festival, dramatically enacting the
dying and rising again (as the seasons) of the fer-
tility deity. Therein the king ritually (as a sort of
pontifex maximus, high priest) re-enacted the
struggle of creation, subsequent victory over the
powers of chaos, and a sacred marriage and then
re-assumed his actual throne. All this, it is said,
was to ensure the spring revival of nature and the
fruitfulness of field and flock for another annual
cycle of the seasons, as well as stable govern-
ment for the year. This theory is stoutly main-
tained with variations by a large number of
scholars (A. Bentzen, King and Messiah {Eng.
tr., London: Lutterworth Press, 1955}; I. Eng-
nell, Studies in Divine Kingship in the Ancient
Near East {Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksells,
1943]; S. H. Hooke, ed., Myth and Ritual (Lon-
don: Oxford Univ. Press, 1933]; The Labyrinth
{London: S.P.C.K., 1935}; G. Widengren, Sac-
rales Koenigtum im Alten Testament und im
Judentum {Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1955)).
But though many of the psalms are alleged by
these writers to reflect the annual ritual described
above, the theory is really without a shred of bi-
blical evidence and there are scholars who throw
much doubt on the whole idea (See bibliography,
especially Frankfort who points out that although
the king was deified in Egypt he was not in
Mesopotamia, with rare exceptions.)

509

1199 319 (malak)

malk&. Queen, except for twice in plural at
Song 6:8-9 always of foreigners, sometimes ap-
parently head of state (I Kgs 10:1), more fre-
quently a king’s consort (Est 1:9; 2:22). In the
case of females: Athaliah,(II Kgs 11:3; IJ Chr
22:12), Esther (Est 2:4), Vashti (Est 1:9), and
Nebuchadnezzar’s consort (Dan 5:10), the cir-
cumstances vary the meaning. In the former the
usurping, murderous grandmother employs
power illegitimately. The latter exercised no civil
power at all, being only the favored consort of the
melek. As a malkad, Esther had no monarchial
power but only such as her social position as
king’s consort supplied. Of the thirty-three
(thirty-five with Aramaic of Dan 5:10) appear-
ances of malkd, all save two (Song 6:89) refer to
queens of foreign lands. The ‘‘queen”’ in oriental
antiquity was not usually the king’s wife and she
was not usually a reigning person, so the name
for her position was not normally the feminine
form of melek but rather g° bird, meaning great
lady (I Kgs 11:19; 15:13; HW Chr 15:16; Jer 13:18;
29:2). The ‘*queen (m‘leket) of heaven’ (Jer
7:18; 44:17, 18, 19, 25) was a pagan female deity
worshiped at Jerusalem. The word may be a
proper name. (Also, rarely, sdrd, and shégal, are
used of kings’ consorts).

m‘leket. Infrequent difficult form indicating a
certain pagan queen of heaven (Jer 7:18).

molek. Molech (ksv, followed by most modern
versions) or molek. The name found in the He-
brew Bible for the pagan male deity, presumably
borrowed from Israel’s neighbors, to whom
apostate Israelites sacrificed infants in the valley
of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem. The
consonants, milk, are the word melek *‘(divine)
king,’’ while the vowels are those which the
Masoretes, following immemorial custom,
supplied from the Hebrew word boshet
**shame.’’ Just what the synagogue reader, say in
Jesus’ time, may have read—bosheth, melek or
molek—is hard to say. It is even rendered
moloch (wodAoyx) in the Lxx, which also renders it
‘their king’’ (I Kgs 11:7 [H 5]}) and ‘‘the king
Moloch” (Jer 32:35 {H 39:25}).

Molech (= Milcam) was a favorite of the Am-
monites, worshiped by human sacrifice (I Kgs
11:5; I] Kgs 23:10; Jer 32:35) but the god and the
dreadful practice of infant sacrifice in his honor
were carried by northern Canaanite (Phoenician,
Punic) people throughout the Mediterranean
area. Waltke (ZPEB, V, pp. 269-70) gives an ex-
cellent discussion and bibliography as also
Helmbold (WBE, II, pp. 705-6). National Geo-
graphic provides a popular description of the
Phoenicians and their worship of Baal-Maloch
(August 1974, pp. 166-67).

In biblical thought Moloch is_ connected
forever with the ultimate in apostate worship of a

1200 *3929 (malak)

false melek by the people who should have wor-
shipped only Jehovah ‘‘their king’ [Milcam].
The two worst apostates among the kings of Is-
rael and Judah, Ahab and Manasseh, promoted it
in the ravine later called Gehenna (NT) which be-
came the name thereby of eternal hellfire. See
II Kgs 16:3; II Chr 28:3; I] Kgs 26:6; II Chr 33:68,
vid. also Jer 7:31; 32:15). Pious horror of the
practice, with lurid—perhaps accurate descrip-
tion—is to be found in Jewish sources. David
Kimchi says the image of Moloch was of brass
and was hollow. A fire was kindled within the
idol. When the extended hands became hot,
Moloch’s pniest taking the babe from its father’s
hand, placed it in Moloch’s hands to the ac-
companiment of drums to prevent the father from
hearing the screams of his dying offspring (com-
ments on II Kgs 23:10).

For further study cf. YGC pp. 234-244. Al-
bright’s view is that the mdlech sacrifice was not
to a god molech, but was the royal sacrifice, 1.e.
the extreme sacnifice of infants. It was common
in Carthage. Albnght gives credit to Israel’s
higher standards for the diminishing of the prac-
tice in her neighbor Phoenicia.

malki-sedeq. Melchizedek. This name occurs
only in Gen 14:18 and Ps 110:4. Formed from
melek ‘king’? and sedeq ‘‘righteous,’’ with the
transitional hireq yod. Whether it indicates a
construct (possessive) relation or the first per-
sonal singular pronominal suffix is a matter of
dispute. If the former were true, the name would
mean ‘‘king of righteous ({one?)]’’; if the latter,
‘*my king is righteous.’’ ‘*‘Salem’’ almost cer-
tainly refers to Jerusalem. The geography of the
campaign in Gen 14 allows it. The similarity of
‘*Adonizedek,’’ king of Jerusalem (Josh 10:1)
supports it. Comparison with David, king of
Jerusalem (Ps 110:4), cements the connection
with Jerusalem. The appearance of Melchizedek
in the Bible ts important theologically. It lends
strong support for the notion that knowledge of
the true God possessed by Noah and his sons did
not die out. Monotheist Abraham (Gen 18:25)
forthrightly acknowledged Melchizedek as priest
of the same ’é/ ‘elyén *‘God Most High,’’ whom
Abraham worshipped (Gen 14:18-20). We simply
do not know how many Melchizedek-like per-
sons, under more stress than Lot (II Pet 2:6-8),
survived the pervasive idolatry of the ancient
world. We inevitably think of Job. There were
the monotheistic-like views of the fourth century
B.c. philosophers of Athens and of Akhenaton,
youthful pharaoh of Egypt who lived a millen-
nium earlier. Similar sentiments were expressed
in Vedic literature. In the person of Melchizedek
we find evidence of an ancient near eastern tradi-
tion of true worship at Jerusalem long before
Ornan the Jebusite transferred title of the rocky

510

1200 *59% (malak) I, counsel, advise.

‘*Mount Moriah”’ to the crown (II Sam 24:18-25;
I Chr 21:18-30). Perhaps Moses knew already
something of ‘‘the place which the LORD your
God shall choose’’ for the central sanctuary
(Deut 12:5). The book of Hebrews, building on
the announcement of Messiah's non-Aaronic
priesthood in Psalm 110 elaborates the doctrine
of our Lord’s completely successful priesthood
on this textual basis (Heb 6:20; 7:1-8:13).

Bibliography: Bright, J., A History of Israel,
Westminster, pp. 204-207. Frankfort, H., King-
ship and the Gods, University of Chicago, 1948,
pp. 317ff. , The Problem of Similarity in
Ancient Near Eastern Religions, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1951. TDNT, I, pp. 565-74; IV, pp.
568-69. THAT, I, pp. 908-19.

R.D.C.

Occurs
only in the Niphal, in Neh S:7, **I consulted
with myself.’’

ns5o = (mal’kddet). See no. 1115b.
oyx-D979 (malki-sedeq) See no. 11991.
moor (m°leket), miso (malkit). See
‘nos. 1199c,e. |

1201 *99% (malal) I, say, utter, speak.

Derivative
1201la tm? (milla)
malal occurs only on the lips of Sarah, Bildad,

Elihu, and a psalmist (Gen 21:7; Job 33:3; 8:2; Ps
106:2) and only in the Piel. Its major synonym 1s
dabar(q.v.).

word, speech.

milla. Word, speaking, speech, talking, by word,
what to say, anything to say, answer, matter; in
the Aramaic of Daniel: thing, words, matter,
commandment.

milla occurs thirty-four times in Job, once in II
Sam, twice in Ps, once in Prov, and twenty-four
times in Daniel. There seems to be no discernible
difference in usage between milla and dabadr
through milld might relate more to word as ex-
pression and ddabar as meaning.

In the first three verses of II Sam 23 four words
for speech occur including milla (v. 2), “‘his word
was in my tongue.’ In Prov 23:9 **the wisdom of
thy words,”’ milla is parallel with dabar (v. 8).
For the revelation of God (Ps 19) among the
terms used is milla (v. 4), “words to the end of
the world.’’ The Psalmist in 139:4 says God’s
knowledge extends to every word on the Psal-
mist’s tongue.

In Job (kJv) milla is *‘words’’ nineteen times,
‘*speech’’ or ‘‘speeches’’ six times, “‘speaking’’
twice, while ‘‘talking, byword, matter, anything
to Say, answer, to speak, what to say’’ each

1203

1204

1205

1206

1207

once—all speaking of the arguments advanced by
Job and his friends.

In Daniel milla refers to the substance of
dreams, the interpretation of dreams, or to vari-
ous official statements, decrees or verdicts. Of
the twenty-four references only seven are trans-
lated by “‘word”™ or *“‘words,’’ while “‘thing”’ or
‘‘things’” occur eleven times, ‘‘matter’’ five and
‘*commandment’”’ once.

E.S.K.
1202. %4 (mdlal) HU, rub, scrape (Prov 6:13).
Derivative
1202a mp (m‘lila) ear of wheat. Oc-
curs only in Deut 23:26.
957 (mdalal) UI, languish, wither, fade

(e.g. Job 18:16: 24:24).

99% (mdalal) IV, circumcise, a by-form
of mal (Josh $:2: Gen 17:11, Ps 58:8).

"729% «(milmad). See no. 1116b.
mize = (malkoah). See no. 1124b.
wiper (malqésh). See no. 1127b.
pymee (melgahim). See no. 1124d.
mani (meltahd). See no. 1132a.
mynv (malta'a). See no. 2513d.

*por (malas) be smooth, slippery. Occurs
only in the Niphal, in Ps 119:103, mah-
niml’sa vimrdtekad “how smooth (_e.
pleasant) are your words to my palate.”

"39% (melsar) guardian (Dan 1:11. 16).
A Babylonian title, meaning dubious.

2929 (mdlaq) nip, nip off (Lev 1:15: 5:8).

(mamgurot). See no. 330e.
See no. 1146c.
See no. 1169b.

misarar

9 (méemad).

nwa (mamot).

“Ta (mamzér). See no. 1174a.

af «(mimkar). See no. 1194b.

mast’ (mimkeret). See no. 1194c.

maya (mamlaka), mspyr (mamlakit).
See nos. 1199f.g.

157 (mimsak).

ht (memer).

See no. 1220b.
See no. 1248).

1208 S522 (mamré’) Mamre, xx Mambre.

This name first appears in Gen 13:18 as the site
where Abraham settled after his separation from
Lot. Genesis 14:13. 24, make it evident that at
this time the area was not a town, but the per-
sonal property of an Amorite named Mamre. He
and his two brothers Eshcol and Aner had en-
tered an alliance with Abraham against the con-

1209

511

1209 119 (man)

federacy that had captured Lot. The relationship
seems to have been mutually beneficial—use of
the land in exchange for military support (Gen
14:13).

The site is usually identified with Ramat el-
Khalil (Halul) about two miles north of Hebron,
just east of the main road, although the traditional
location of the Cave of Machpelah “east of
Mamre’ which became the patriarchal tomb
(Gen 23:19-20; 25:9; 35:27: 49:30; 50:13). is in the
city of Hebron itself.

Mamre was the place where Abraham received
the promise of Isaac's birth (Gen 18:1-—15) and the
destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (cf. Heb
13:2). It was not this event, however, that made
the site a holy place. Abraham had already built
an altar to Yahweh at his campground (Gen
13:18).

Bibliography: Mader, E., Mambre (Haram
Ramat el-Halil), 2 vols., 1957. Vaux, Roland de.
Supplement au Dictionnaire de la Bible, 1957,
cols. 753-758, figs. 542-43. Masterman, E. W.
G., *“Mamre.” in ISBE, III, pp. 1973-74.

G.L.C.
“ss (mamror). See no. 1248k.
myst (mimshah). See no. 1255d.
Swi (mimshal). See no. 1259b.
ews (mimshaqg). See no. 1261b.
oA (mamtagqgim). See no. 1268d.

vw (man) I, manna.

Manna was the basic food of the Israelites dur-
ing their wilderness wanderings. It occurred
along with the miraculous provision of water and
quail. The English spelling “‘manna’™’ is derived
from the Lxx. In Ex 16:14 the Lxx reads “man”
but elsewhere *‘manna. ”

Although manna played a crucial role in the life
of the Israelites, the word appears only fourteen
times in the oT, all but four of them occurring in
Ex 16, Num 11, and Deut 8. Manna is called the
‘bread’ from God (lefiem, Ex 16:15), “food”
from heaven (d“ gan, Ps 78:24, asv), and “‘angel’s
food” (lehem ‘abbirim, Ps 78:25). The translation
angel's food.’ while picturesque, is not accu-
rate. The asv “bread of the mighty” 1s prefer-
able. There is no other instance of ‘angel’ being
used to translate ‘abbirim. ~‘Mighty” or
“strong is more usual, and fits the parallel
structure of the Psalm better. Possibly it could be
‘bread of God” using the word ‘a@bir (q.v.) as a
surrogate for deity (cf. Jn 6:33).

The Israelites ate manna from the middle of the
second month after the Exodus (Ex 16) until the
day of their arrival in Canaan (Josh S:12, Ex
16:35). Only the portion preserved by Aaron in
the tabernacle remained after that time. Accord-
ing to Deut 8:3, 16, the purpose of the giving of

1210

1210 3% (man)

the manna was to teach God's people to depend
upon him and his words for their lives and their
needs. If the Word of God is his creative instru-
ment in bringing the cosmos into existence (Gen
1:3ff; Ps 33:6, 9), then here too what God utters
from his mouth is concretely realized. Man can
only survive by depending on his saving creative
Word. (Note the use of Deut 8:3 by Jesus in his
response to Satan's temptation to turn stones to
bread in Mt 4:4 and Lk 4:4. John 6 develops at
length the role of Jesus as the true manna.)

There have been many attempts to identify
manna with some natural edible substance found
in western Sinai. The most widely held theory
identifies the manna with a secretion from the
tamarisk tree (Tamarix gallica). Certain types of
insects puncture the bark and small, sticky,
light-colored drops of sap crystallize on the twigs
or drop to the ground. In the cool of the morning.
before the hot sun melts them, these sweet par-
ticles can be gathered and eaten. There are obvi-
ous resemblances between this natural phenome-
non and the biblical manna: both appear in the
morning “‘with the dew” (Num 11:9): the mate-
rial looks like small white globules or flakes (Ex
16:14, 31: Num 11:7: the description ‘‘appear-
ance of bdelltum”™’ was interpreted by the rabbi's
as “like pearls.’ Lxx Arystallos). the taste is
sweet. “like wafers made with honey and oil”
(Ex 16:31: Num 11:8): and both substances melt
in the sun (Ex 16:21).

However, there are also differences between
these two substances. Manna could be ground or
milled, baked or boiled (Ex 16:23; Num 11:8): the
tamarisk secretion cannot be processed this way.
Only on the sabbath could the manna be kept for
more than a day without becoming wormy. The
tamarisk secretion occurs only for a few weeks in
the summer, while manna was a daily provision
for forty years in the Negeb as well as western
Sinai, suddenly ceasing when Israel entered Ca-
naan. This suggests that in fact the manna was a
miraculous provision for the nation.

G.L.C.

2 (man) II, what, who, whomsoever.

Exodus 16:15 contains the only use in the He-
brew ot1 of the interrogative pronoun mdn. The
KJV, ASV (marg), and RSv (marg) translate mdan-hiv
as “‘it is manna, while kJv (marg) and the texts
of asv and rsv translate **what is it?” The com-
ment “they did not know what it was” indicates
that the asv and rsv translation is to be preferred
over the kJv. Most contemporary scholars follow
BDB in identifying mdn as a late popular etmol-
ogy of man **manna’™ based on the late Aramaic
usage. man is not the common oT word for
‘‘what,” but this usage is not unknown in the
second millenium s.c. UT 19: no. 1504 lists sev-

1212

eral occurrences of mn(m), both personal **who™
and tmpersonal “‘what.”’ It appears that mdn
‘*what"’ is acommon Semitic word—not a *‘ popu-
lar etymology. (See also Huffmon, Herbert B.,
Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts,
Johns Hopkins, 1965, pp. 103, 231.)
Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 462-65.
G.L.C.
21! % (Ps 150:4).

(mén) — string of harp

Te

This ubiquitous preposition has cognates in
Aramaic and Arabic, but is not found in Ugaritic.
There the meaning *‘from”’ is found in the prepo-
sitions b and /. In form, the preposition is often
attached to its noun with the nun assimilated and
the next letter doubled (if it is not a laryngeal).
When used with light pronoun endings it 1s usu-
ally reduplicated (e.g. mimmenni ‘from
me’).

The many usages may be briefly classified, but
various nuances will be adopted tn translation.

First ‘from.’ With verbs of motion or separa-
tion: to go from, or to be away from, 1.e. without:
or away from in relation to some other spot or
direction, therefore: on the east or beside a city.

Second, with other verbs, it means out of, e.g.
out of Egypt. It is used for material out of which
something is made. Allied with this is the causal
force: to shake from the noise. or on account of
our transgressions.

Third is the partitive min: He took some of, or
even, one of. This last becomes anyone, a single
hair, etc.

Fourth, used of time it usually means time from
when, e.g. from antiquity. From of old can be
used to mean in olden time.

Fifth, min is often used in comparisons to
mean more than, above, beyond, etc., sometimes
too much for, too great for.

Sixth, it may be prefixed to an infinitive in
which case its causal force or consequential
meaning comes out: because he knew. so as not
to give. If the verb ‘‘to be’’ is understood: from
being king, i.e. not to be king.

Like other Hebrew prepositions it is used in
many combinations. sin plus ‘ad means literally
from... to, or inclusively, both this and that.
min combines with ‘et “with,” with / “to.”
Sometimes when the / precedes it practically
loses its own force and just means “‘when,”’ Le.
time from when.

b and / include the meaning “from” in Hebrew
as well as in Ugaritic. An interesting case of the
interchange is II Sam 22:14, ‘*He thundered from
the heavens.’ which has min but b in the parallel
in Ps 18:13 {H 14] but two verses later the situa-
tion is reversed. N. Sarna has remarked that this

(nin) from, out of, more than.

512

usage of b for min was held by medieval Jewish
grammarians before Ugaritic was discovered
(“The Interchangeability of the Prepositions
Beth and Min in Biblical Hebrew,”’ JBL 78:310-
16). It is not so clear that min can mean “‘in,”’
though Dahood argues that it does (AB, Psalms
III, pp. 395-96).

R.L.H.
2 (mén). See no. 121Sa.
mata (mangind). See no. 1291.1b.
1213) 3%) (mand) count, number, tell, appoint,
prepare.
Derivatives
I213a tM (manda) portion, part.
1213b tm2%) (mdneh) pound, maneh, mina.
1213c =a (mOneh) counted number,
time.
1213d tM) (m' nat) portion.
I213e 0 t32) (in ni) number.
1213f =383%)«~(madndn) grief.

The primary meaning in the Qal and Niphal is
“to count or number.” The intensive stems place
heavier stress on the idea of appointing or assign-
ing. mdnd occurs in parallel with sdpar (q.v.).
The root plus its derivatives occurs some fifty-
five times, not counting six uses of the Aramaic
cognate m‘nd or mnd.

The normal use of the root in the Qa] and
Niphal is in the context of arithmetical computa-
tions of various sorts. People (I] Sam 24:1),
money (II Kgs 12:11), animals (Jer 33:13), stars
(Ps 147:4), days (Ps 90:12), dust (Gen 13:16), are
all reckoned this way. sidnda can be used nega-
tively also, in the sense of an infinite number that
cannot be computed (e.g. Gen 13:16: Eccl 1:15).

Twice the intensive use “reckon” or “‘assigna
place’ is apparent in the simple stems. In Isa
53:12, the Servant is assigned a place with sin-
ners. In Isa 65:12 the prophet puns on the name
Meni, the god of fate (q.v.), “Destiny,” with the
promise that God will “‘destine’’ idolaters to the
sword.

The idea appoint or ordain is usual in the inten-
sive stems. Twice in Dan (1:5, 10) and four times
in Jon (1:17 [H 2:1]; 4:6-8), inanimate things—
Daniel's food, Jonah’s fish, the gourd. worm. and
hot wind—are under the control of God. In Dan
1:11 and I Chr 9:29, a hierarchy of authority is
identified by 7dnd as men or other creatures are
given specific responsibilities.

Dahood (in Psalms, AB, XVII), following the
Ugaritic example, identifies the mn of Ps 61:7 [H
8} and mnw of Job 7:3 as Qal forms rather than as
Piels. However he retains the sense of appoint
rather than the more usual Qal idea of computa-
tion. Similarly, although in Ps 68:23 (H 24]. Kiv

513

1213 M2 (manda)

translates minéhit “‘in the same” (i.e. “in the
blood of thine enemies’), asv and Rsv “‘their por-
tion’ take the word as from this root.

There may be some suggestion in this use of
manda that the power to number, count, or ordain
is a somewhat mysterious power, particularly
where large numbers are concerned, and is of
divine origin. The role of God in ordering the
universe and its creatures is evident in the refer-
ence to the stars (Ps 147:4) and the numbering of
the descendants of Abraham (Gen 13:16). The
specific idea conveyed by (e.g.) the Jonah pas-
sages reflects this divine activity.

This perspective illuminates the statement in
1Chr 21:t that Satan provoked David to
**number”™ Israel. If “‘numbering™ is, in fact, a
divine activity, Satan's incursion into this field is
another of his attempts to usurp the divine pre-
rogatives.

{On the other hand. according to the superscrip-
tion of Ps 30, this lament psalm may be as-
sociated with the dedication of the temple site, an
event that took place in connection with the sin of
numbering the people (cf. I Chr 21:1). Here
David confesses that he sinned in thinking and
acting as though he had no need of the Lord: *'I
said in my prosperity. I will never be moved” (Ps
30:6 [H 7]). There is also the possibility that
David's sin was not merely counting the people,
but mustering them (pdgad) for war (R. L. Har-
ns, Man—God's Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971,
p. 150-51). RoLHE]

All of the derivatives seem to reflect the con-
cept of numbering. i.e. reckoning up the con-
Stituent parts.

mana. Portion, part. This feminine noun iden-
tifies the choice parts of the sacrificial animals
that were to be given to the priests and Levites.
In other instances (e.g. Hannah, Esther, Nehe-
miah), the distribution of ‘‘portions”’ indicates
the unity of the family or community, and em-
phasizes the high regard the giver had for the
recipient.

maneh. Pound. A unit of weight. BDB sug-
gests that the original meaning may have been a
‘specific part’ of another known weight. The
Hebrew unit was the equivalent of fifty shekels
(cf. Ex 38:25-26) or about one and a quarter
pounds. Ezekiel 45:12 defines the value following
the old Mesopotamian usage at sixty shekels to
the mdaneh, i.e. about one and a half pounds. Ex-
cept for those in Ezk, all uses of the term are of
weights of gold or silver.

[The famous handwriting on the wall was the
enigmatic mene, mene, tekel, uparsin. It is prob-
able that Belshazzar was puzzled not because he
could not read it, but because the writing could
be taken various ways. It could be simply de-
nominations of weight (i.e. money). A mina, a

1214 mora (mnh)

tekel (Aramaic of shekel), and (the conj. “‘u’’)
smaller pieces (Aramaic pl. for peres, half). But
what would this mean? It could be taken ver-
bally, one who counts, weighs, and those who
divide. The last word could be a play on the Per-
sians then attacking. Belshazzar was mystified
and ternfied until Daniel told him the full and
fateful interpretation. See article Mene, mene,
tekel uparsin by D. J. Wiseman in ZPEB with
Bibliography, IV, 184—S. r...H.]

m*nat. Portion. Identified by BDB as a late
Aramaism, but ninth has been identified in the
Ugaritic texts in the sense of a ‘‘portion” of the
sacrifice. RSV in II Chr 31:3 translates the king's
m°nat as his “‘contribution’’ to the sacrifice.
Psalm 63:10 [H 11] 1s paraphrased by rsv as “‘be
prey for jackals.’’ The prayer here is not just for a
violent death and no burial, but rather for the
wicked to be as a sacrifice for the wild beasts.

m‘ni. Number. This is a hapax legomenon
which occurs only in Isa 65:11. The KJV derives
m®ni from manah, ‘count, number, * etc., trans-
lating the text, “*But ye are they that forsake the
Lord, that forget my holy mountain, that prepare
a table for that troop, that furnish the drink offer-
ing unto that number.” (marg. ‘‘a table for
Gad... drink offering to Meni’). The asv and
RSV translate the two words as proper names
‘‘Fortune’ and ‘*Destiny.’ Jerusalem Bible sim-
ply transliterates “*Gad" and **Meni.”’

While the general thrust of the text is clear—
that Israel has turned from Yahweh to idolatry
and is in table fellowship with idols, there is con-
siderable diversity in the identification of the
deities in question. Some relate them to the sun
and moon (LxXx Daimoni and Tyché), two of the
four Egyptian gods who presided over the birth of
men. Others suggest two of the planets, usually
Jupiter and Venus, worshiped in Babylon as
Marduk, the god of the fate of the city, and
Ishtar, the fertility goddess.

Both names appear in the Mari texts where nin
appears to be related to a root meaning “to
love. In Ugaritic the personal name bn mnyy
from the root “to be weakened” or “to lower.”
is found.

These themes fit either with Venus or the
moon, both inconstant heavenly bodies.

Bibliography: Alexander, Joseph Addison.
Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, Zon-
dervan, 1953, pp. 445-47. Delitzsch, Franz,
Isaiah, Il, Eerdmans. 1950, pp. 482-85. Muilen-
berg. James. ““Exegesis: Isaiah 40-66 in IB.
Gordon, C. H.. UT 19:nos. 1496. 1502. 561. 571.
Huffmon, Herbert B., Amorite Personal Names
in the Mart Texts, Johns Hopkins. 1965, pp. 179,
231.

G.L.C.

1214 mare

514

i379 (minhag). See no. 1309a.
mane (minhara). See no. 1316b.
i (mdndd). See no. 1319c.
mista) (manéah). See no. 1323e.
11379) (manon). See no. 1213f.
pia «=(manos). See no. 1327a.
"3929 (manor). See no. 136la.
mai) (m"néra). See no. 1333c.

st (minzar). See no. 1340d.

(mnh). Assumed root of the following.
1214a fam =~ (minhad) meat offering, offer-
ing, present, gifts, oblation, sac-
rifice. (AsV uses ‘‘meal-offering.”’
RSV uses ‘‘cereal-offering.”’ Both
use “‘tribute.’’)

Scholarly opinion is divided as to the root of
minha. Some trace this feminine noun to a verbal
root nhh ‘to lead or guide."’ Most, however,
posit a Hebrew root mnh ‘to give.” Arabic
manaha has the technical meaning ‘to lend
someone something” (e.g. a she-camel, goat,
sheep, or a parcel of land) for a limited period of
time so that the borrower can have free use of the
produce of the loan (e.g. the offspring, milk,
crops, etc.), and then return the original prop-
erty. The fruit then becomes a free gift. Snaith
sees no occurrence of the word in Ugaritic, but
UT 19: no. 1500 tentatively identifies at least one
occurrences of mn/ ina tribute list (Text 137:38,
not 137:28, as cited in UT) and another in the
Anat/Baal Cycle in a parallel construction with
“tribute” (AisWUS no. 1597 “gift,” -*tribute’’).

The word is used in secular contexts of gifts to
superior persons, particularly kings, to convey
the attitude of homage and submission to that
person. In ] Sam 10:27, the Israelites who de-
spised Saul “brought him no present” (minha),
i.e. did not acknowledge the new king. Then, in 1
Kgs 4:21 [H 5:1], Solomon received tribute
(minha) from the kings of the nations he ruled.
(xx uses doron about thirty times for minha.)
There are several other instances of this meaning,
e.g. I] Kgs 10:25: I] Kgs 8:8-9; 17:4, 20:12: Isa
39:1.

The rehgious use of the term derives from the
secular. Specifically, a minhd is a gift of grain,
although Snaith seems to be correct in saying that
since minha originally meant gift or tribute, it
could loosely be used in this sense even when it
took on specific cultic meaning. Of particular
interest in this connection is the distinction be-
tween cebali (q.v.) and minha in 1 Sam 2:29;
3:14: and Isa 19:21. between ‘dla (q.v.) and
minhd in Jer 14:12 and Ps 20:3 [H 4]: and between
shelem (g.v.) and minha in Amos 5:22. Cf. also
Gen 4:3-4. {Both Abel and Cain offered a ninhda
to the Lord (Gen 4:4-5). But whereas it is said of
Abel that he offered the choicest portions of the

animals to the Lord, an act reflecting his heartfelt
commitment to him, it is merely said of Cain that
he offered a minha from the fruit of the ground.
The Lord rejected this formality. Cain’s lack of
true submission (note also his bloodless sacrifice)
issued finally in sinful behavior (Gen 4:7f.). R.L.H.]
These uses of minha indicate that the term does
not mean an animal sacrifice in the specific sense.

The cereal offering 1s defined in Lev 2:1-16 and
6:14-23 [H 7-16]. It could be in the form of raw
grain in the sheaves, dry roasted grains coarsely
crushed, ground into flour (wheat only; barley
flour seems to have been reserved for the *‘jeal-
ousy offering’’ of Num 5:15, 25), or made into
loaves or cakes and baked in an oven or panfried
in oil. Frankincense and salt were also part of the
prepared minha, but no leaven or honey was to
be added.

The minha, offered every morning and eve-
ning, was a holy offering, eaten only by the
priests, not shared with the worshipers. The idea
of atonement is not specifically present in minha,
although that of propitiation certainly is. The of-
fering of the new produce of the land along with
ordinary leavened bread (Lev 23:16) indicates
submission of the totality of the life of God’s
people to the Great Suzerain.

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., **Three Techni-
cal Terms in the Pentateuch,” JSS 1:97-105.
Pedersen, Johannes, /srael: Its Life and Culture,
vols. Hl and 1V, 2d ed. Oxford: University Press,
1959, pp. 330, 354, 368. 417f. Gray, George
Buchanan, Sacrifice in the Old Testament, Ox-
ford: Clarendon Press, 1925, pp. 13-17, 47, 398-
402. Kaufman, Yehezkel. The Religion of Israel,
University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp. 110-115.
Kraus, Hans-Joachim, Worship in Israel, John
Knox, 1966, pp. 112-118. Richardson. TWB. pp.
206-208. Snaith, Norman H., ‘‘Sacrifices in the
Old Testament,” V7 7:308-17. deVaux, Roland,
Al, McGraw, pp. 225, 416-22.

G.L.C.

mm (manila). See no. 1323f.
‘2 (meni). See no. 1213.
moy9 (minleh). See no. 1370a.

1215) 33%) (ennn).
I21Sa = (mén)_ portion

Assumed root of the following.
(Ps 45:9).

1216 P32 (¢nana') withhold, keep back, refrain,
deny, keep restrain, hinder. (asv and RSv
similar, but Rsv adds hold, hold back,
refuse.)

Found only in the simple tenses where most
references imply that the right or power to with-
hold something belongs ultimately to God or his
representative.

515

1217 mware (menashsheh)

Thus it is said that God withholds the fruit of
the womb (Gen 30:2) and the rain (Amos 4:7).
Man's sins cause God to withhold these good
things from man (Jer 5:25), but he withholds no
good thing from those who walk uprightly (Ps
84:11 [H 12]). Thus he does not withhold the re-
quest of his righteous king (Ps 21:2 [H 3]).

A wise man withholds neither food nor any
good thing from the poor or those to whom it is
due (Prov 11:20; 3:27; Job 22:7; 31:16), nor cor-
rection from the child (Prov 23:13).

G.L.C.

See no. 1383c.
See no. 1383d.

See no. 1384d.
See no. 1328a.
See no. 1412d.

‘spy (man‘al).
Syst (minal).
BvDvI2 (min‘ammim).
YIpite (m*na‘dnea’).
mpl (m°naqgqiya).

1217 mw2% (m*nashsheh) Manasseh.

In Gen 41:51, popularly derived as a Piel from
nasha@ (q.v.) and equal to ‘cause to forget.’ This
is the name of four people and a territory. (The
fifth person is obviously *‘Moses” and the scribal
emendation of a supralinear ‘‘n’’ in Jud 18:30-31
is an obvious attempt to dissociate such a good
name from the idolatrous priesthood at Dan).

Manasseh was the elder son of Joseph, and
with his brother Ephraim substituted for Joseph
and Levi in the twelve-tribe territorial allocation
in the Promised Land. Nothing of Manasseh’s
personal life is recorded in the oT, except the
birth of his son Machir. [Note that in the ritual of
Gen 48:5-20, Manasseh and Ephraim, Jacob's
grandsons, were adopted so as to be legally his
own sons. Therefore their descendants became
two tribes in Israel. The adoption is reminiscent
of Nuzi Law. Rk.L.H.]

The large tribe descended from Manasseh oc-
cupted two sections of the land, one in the Trans-
jordanian territory of Gilead between the Jabbok
and Yarmuk rivers, and the other in the territory
north of Shechem to Mount Carmel and Mount
Tabor, including the strategic center of Megiddo
and much of the fertile Esdraelon Valley.

One of the kings of Judah, son of Hezekiah,
and father of Amon, Manasseh reigned fifty-five
years (696-642 bB.c.). For the first ten years he
was co-regent with his father. A loyal vassal of
Assyria (he is named as a tributary in “*prism B”™
of Essarhaddon’s list [ANET, p. 291]; cf. If Chr
33:11), he tntroduced pagan worship practices
into Judah (JI Kgs 21). He became a legend for
evil, and the cause of judgment on the land, al-
though II Chr 33:1]2-13 indicates that he repented
after a period of exile in Assyria. To date, there is
no extant extrabiblical evidence on this latter
point.

The two other men named Manasseh are Israel-

1218 Bm (mas)

1218 of

l

)

hn

ites listed in Ezr 10:30, 33 as having taken foreign
wives.

G.L.C.

Pot Gn’ ndt). See no. J213d.
tribute, tributary, levy, taskmas-
(ASV “‘taskwork.”” RSV

**vassal.'*)

(nas )
ters, discomfited.
‘forced labor,’

The root of this word is unknown, although
some attempt has been made to derive it from
mdsa “to melt, grow faint.’ There is a possible
link in Isa 31:8 (Kv “‘discomfited;"* marg. **be for
melting.’ or “‘tribute’’) or in the general concept
that those under tribute are “‘weak.”° KB cites
Egyptian ms “bearer.”

Of the twenty-three uses of this term, all but
three (Isa 31:8; Lam [:1: Est 10:1) occur early in
the literature.

The institution of tribute or corvee involves in-
voluntary. unpaid labour or other service for a
superior power—a feudal lord. a king, or a for-
eign ruler (Ex 1:11: Est 10:1: Lam 1:1). In Gen
49:15. Jacob's blessing on Issachar identifies him
as bowing to “‘tribute.”” In Egypt. the Israelites
find themselves in that position (Ex 1:11).

The subjugation of the Canaanites by Israel
after the Conquest was by means of mus (e.g.
Deut 20:11: Josh 16:10: 17:13). Under David
there was an organized government department
charged with keeping the mas _ functioning
(11 Sam 20:24).

During Solomon's reign. mas was extended to
include Israelites as well as foreigners and war
prisoners (I Kgs 5:13—14 |H 27-28] and the paral-
lels in Chr: but cf. I Kgs 9:22) in the labor force
necessary to carry out Solomon's extensive
building programs (I Kgs 9:15). This unpopular
measure, and Rehoboam’s refusal to moderate it,
was the immediate cause of the secession of the
ten tribes and the establishment of the northern
kingdom.

Bibliography: Mendelsohn, !., “On Corvee
Labor in Ancient Canaan and Israel... BASOR

167:31-35. _.._. “‘State Slavery in Ancient
Palestine,” BASOR 85:14-17.
G.L.C.
Bm (nas). See no. 1223a.
357 (mmésab). See no. 1456c.

3D’ «(masger). See no. 1462c.
Puaor (masgeret). See no. 1462d.
3B! (massad). See no. 875g.
Ws (misd*ron). See no. 1467c.

19 *mOI (masa) melt, dissolve. Occurs only
in the Hiphil. midsa@ may be a by-form of

nmasas.

1220

516

See no. 1223b.
See no. 1472b.
See no. 147Sa.

MBI (massa).
mom (masweh).
Moir (mo suka).

mor (massah). See no. 1374a.
30% (masak) mingle, mix. (AsV and RSV
similar. )
Derivatives

1220a +302 «(mesek) mixture. RSV well-
mixed.

1220b t7r «(mimsdak) drink-offering,
mixed wine.

This verb occurs only five times and its deriva-
tives once and twice respectively. The root has
been identified in Ugaritic (UT, 19: no. 1509). As
is frequently the case with seldom used words.
the general meaning is obvious from the context,
but there is considerable diversity tn the under-
standing of the precise inflection intended by the
author. Two broad categories have been pro-
posed for this word group.

Four of the five uses of madsak are associated
with drinking (vavin “*wine, Prov 9:2. 5: shékar
‘strong drink”’ or ‘“‘beer,” Isa 5:22: shigquy
“drink,” “‘refreshment.’ Ps 102:9 [H 1[0]). Ac-
cording to Isa 19:14, God has mixed within Egypt
a ‘spirit of confusion,” and thus it staggers as a
drunken man.

mesek. Mixture. **well-

mixed wine.’*)

mimsak. Drink offering, mixed wine, spiced
wine (NEB), libation (Prov 13:30: Isa 65:11).
Traditionally, these nouns have been understood
to mean some kind of mixed drink, usually wine
with spices or honey (e.g. “‘cocktails, ° William
McKane, Proverbs, p. 393. This, of course, is an
anachronism. Cocktails are mixtures of distilled
liquors with other liquids. Before the Arabs dis-
covered distillation in the Middle Ages, there
were no highly alcoholic drinks). Dilution with
water 1s mentioned late in Il Macc 15:39. (Cf. Mt
27:34: Mk 15:23.) In Isa 65:11, an ‘‘oblation”’ for
Meni (q.v.) 1s paralleled with setting a sacrificial
table for Gad. This juxtaposition of sacrificial
terms is also found in Prov 9:2, 5 where Wisdom
Invites participation in her banquet.

Apart from these two uses in Prov, all three of
these words are negative—the folly of the drunk-
ard, the unavoidable wrath of God's bitter judg-
ment poured out on evil.

Delitzsch (F. Delitzsch, /saiah, I, p. 361) trans-
lated masak as ‘‘poured out.’ Dahood (Psalms
in loc.) and Scott (R.B.Y. Scott, Proverbs, AB,
XVIII, p. 24) have followed this concept. To
‘‘pour out’ or *‘drain to the bottom” makes ex-
cellent sense in all eight uses of these words.

G.L.C.

(Ps 75:8 [H 9], Rsv

3o% «6(masak). See no. 1492a.
mop (masséka). See nos. 1375c, 1376a.
1221 30% (miskén) poor, poor man.

This word occurs only in Eccl 4:13: 9:15-16.
Some scholars argue that m‘sakkdan in Isa 40:20
and miskanit in Deut 8:9 are incorrectly pointed
in the mt and ought to be considered with mis-
Aén. Similarly some argue that mriskndt (q.v.) Is
also the same word. Probably a loan word, cf.
Akkadian muSkénu. The Arabic word miskin
“peasant” has been borrowed into Italian and
French.

The paucity of uses of miskén makes it difficult
to draw precise conclusions on the meaning of
the word, although the general meaning is obvi-
ous in the contrast between the poor man and the
king tn Eccl 4:13. The Lxx helps some. The Greek
penés is used of the man who does not have ex-
tensive possessions, and must work for his living.
The “‘rich”’ man (ploytos) can live on his income
without working. This is the disctinction drawn in
the Eccl passages. Often the line between these
two classes of people is indistinct. On the other
hand, however, the ptdchos is the destitute
mendicant—the man who is so poor he cannot
work. There is a clearcut line between this class
of people and the Greek penés. In Mt 5:3, the
“poor in spirit” are the spiritual beggars—so
poor they cannot work for spiritual gain. In Isa
66:2, however, ‘dni is used for “‘poor in spirit”
and refers to one who trembles at God's word.
See also 'ebyon, ‘dni, dal, and rash.

Bibliography: Al, pp. 68-79. Gordis, Robert,
Koheleth: The Man and His World, 3d ed., 1968,
p. 243. TDNT, VI, pp. 885-915, 37-40, 318-32,
esp. 319-25.

G.L.C.

myabI « (misk’ndt). See no. 1494a.

1222 AI Dor

8:19).

(miskénit) poverty, scarcity (Deut

Rob (masseket). See no. 1376b.
mor (m*silla). See no. 1506d.
29D! (maslil). See no. 1506e.
“iobia (masmeér). See no. 1518b.

1223 Bets (masas) dissolve, melt.

Derivatives

Di) (mas) despairing (Job 6:14).
Bla (massa) despair.
Dio (temes) melting (away).

1223a
1223b
1223c¢

The scarcity of uses of mdsa and mdasaé makes
it difficult to distinguish clearly between the two
verbal forms, since both are used in similar con-
texts, combining the concepts of physical and

1224 son

517

1224 “Dl! (masar)

emotional distress. They are doubtless by-forms.
In most cases, there is some outside force that
causes the “melting e.g., fear of a ruler (II Sam
17:10), of a more powerful army (Josh 2:11: 5:1),
at bad news (Deut 1:28; Ezk 21:7 [H 12]). at sor-
row and fear of death (Ps 22:14 (H 15]).

A couple of times madsas is used of garbage:
the uncollected manna that “melted” tn the heat
of the sun, and the ‘‘refuse’’ left after the destruc-
tion of Amalek by Saul (1 Sam 15:9). these, too.
under the power of outside forces.

The predominant feature in several cases is the
presence of Yahweh as the God of power. In his
presence the mountains themselves dissolve (Ps
97:5: Isa 34:3: Mic 1:4) and the nations are power-
less before him (Nah 2:11. cf. Jud 5:14).

Physical sickness causes *‘melting’” of the flesh
(Isa 10:18) but some commentators posit a root
ndadsas “to be sick” for this form.

Similarly, temes in Ps 58:8 {H 9] seems to fit
this interpretation. particularly if the textual var-
iant shklul (kalah “be consumed” for shabb‘ lil
is correct. (Cf. Isa 10:18 where this combination
appears in parallel.)

Bibliography: McCarthy, D. J., ““Some Holy
War Vocabulary in Joshua 2,°° CBQ 33:228-30.

G.L.C.

See no. 1380a.
See no. 1525a.
See no. 1530a.
See no. 1529a.
See no. 1534d.
See no. 1540f.

PBEM (mussa').
“yor (mis‘ad).
“por (mispéd).
SIDS (mispo').
MEDI (mispah).
Bd! (mispar).

(masar) deliver up, offer.

The verb is used only two times in the or. both
of them in the account of the holy war against
Midian (Num 31). The first one, v. 5, says “there
were ‘delivered’ (RSV, “‘provided’’) out of the
thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe.”
The meaning here is obviously, “to assign, ap-
portion, count.’’ Some have suggested an emen-
dation of the Hebrew text from wavyimimds rit to
wavyisap’ru on the basis of the Lxx’s exérithme-
san. The suggested change is quite unnecessary.
The second use ts in Numbers 31:16, *‘Behold,
these caused the children of Israel ‘to commit’
treachery against the Lord.”

Of special interest is the possible connection of
this root with the ‘‘Masorah” which is the ap-
paratus built around the Hebrew text of the oT to
fix its traditional divisions. pronunciation, and
mode of public recitation. This work was done by
the Masoretes, who were Aramaic speaking Jews
of Babylonia and Palestine, between a.p. 700 and
the end of the tenth century.

If *‘Masorah,”’ then, is to be derived from
masar “‘to deliver,’ it is that which is handed

1226

1225 NOM (missat)

down from generation to generation: the text of
the Bible. Others have suggested that Masorahi is
from the root ‘asar “to bind,” 1.e. something
which is bound and gathered: the detailed in-
structions for reading affixed to the text. Still a
third suggestion is that Masovrah is built off the
verb masar but with the primary meaning of *‘to
count’ (Ben-Hayyim).

Bibliography: Ben-Hayyim, Z.. masora
umasoret, Lesonént 21:283-92. Wildeboer, G.
msr, ZAW 29:73-74 and “Das Verbum msr,
ZAW 29:219-20 vs. Bacher, W.. **A Contribution
to the History of the Term ‘Massorah’,” JQR

we

3:785-90 and ‘Das Verbum msr ZAW
29:2 18-19.
V.P.H.
"07 (mosar). See no. 877b.
nibI «(masoret). See no. 14le.
1225 MBM (missat) sufficient, sufficiency.

This translation is based primarily on the
common Aramaic word. It is found but once in
the ot, Deut 16:10, **Thou shalt keep the feast of
weeks unto the Lord thy God witha ‘tribute’ ofa
free will offering of thine hand” (ksv). The wor-
shiper is to bring whatever offering his means
allow (cf. v. 17 in the same chapter). The etymol-
ogy of the word is uncertain.

V.P.H.
“Ino (mistor). See no. [SSlc.
“Hom (mistar), “AdM (mister). See
nos. I5SId.e.
say’ (ma‘bad). See no. 1553f.
Mayra (ma‘dabeh). See no. 1554b.
"3p (ma‘abar). See no. 1556h.
2p (ma‘egal). See no. 1560.

Yro (mda‘ad) slip, slide, give away.

The root is found nine times in the oT if we
include in Ezk 29:7 the reading w“ha‘'admadta as
a metathesis for w“Aim'adtd and thus read “‘and
make all their loins/thighs ‘shake’ ™ instead of
‘stand.’ Four of the nine uses of this verb are in
Psalms (18:36 (H 37]= I] Sam 22:37: Ps 26:1:
27:31. 69:23 [H 24]). The first three of these are
used in a context suggesting security (““my feet
did not give away’) as a result of confidence in
God. Proverbs 25:19 speaks of a “broken tooth
and a ‘palsied’ foot." I Samuel 15:32 says that
Agag came to David “‘totteringly.*’

Bibliography: Talmon, S., ‘I Sam. xv:32b: A
Case of Conflated Readings, VT !1: 456—57.

V.P.H.

Myr (ma‘ddan). See no. 1567d.
MII (ma'ddannit). See no. 1649a.
“sy (ma‘dér). See no. 1571a.

1227 my (mh). Assumed root of the following.
1227a Yr (mech) inward parts, bowels.
1227b = Mbt (mda) = grain (of sand).

518

The noun mé‘eh is used thirty-two times in the
ot, always in the plural, mé‘im. The Kjv most
often retains the translation ‘‘bowels** but the Rsv
opts for a more euphemistic translation unless the
word is used in a passage with the literal sense of
the intestines.

With three or four exceptions the noun ts as-
sociated with persons, both male and female.
Twice if is used in connection with the great
sea-monster, the “‘belly’’ of which was the tem-
porary underground abode of Jonah, and the
place from which he prayed (Jonah 2:!-2). Twice
the noun is found in phrases connected with God's
emotions: Isa 63:15. °*Where is your zeal (gin'a),
your strength (g“burd), your compassion (hamén
meé‘eka) and your mercies (rahadmim) toward
me?’ (cf. also Jer 31:20 [H 19] with the phrase
hamu mé'‘ay parallel to rehém ‘drahadmenni).

Most often, as we have indicated, the word 1s
used of persons and crosses genders. It may be
used of man: Job 30:27 (Job); [I] Sam 16:11. 17:12
(David); Il Chr 21:19 (Jehoram): I] Chr 32:21
(Sennacherib): Gen 15:4 (Abraham). In the fol-
lowing passages tt refers to women: Ps 71:6; Isa
49:1 (my mother): Ruth [:1] (Naomi): Gen 25:23
(Rebekah). Frequently when referring to a
woman mé‘eh is paralleled with beten *‘womb.”

There are three major ways in which the word
is used. First. the word may be used literally, to
refer to one's internal organs, the bowels, the
stomach. Thus, Ezekiel (Ezk 3:3) is told to eat
and digest the roll which God has shown him (and
mé‘eh is parallel to beren), in his ‘belly’ and
‘*bowels.”* Cf. also Ezk 7:19 (parallel to nepesh).
In Il Chr 21:15 (twice), 18-19 there is a reference
to the horrible disease with which the Lord
afflicted Jehoram, the Judean king, in his **bow-
els... This must be some kind of an abdominal
disease, perhaps a violent case of dysentery with
or without prolapsus of the bowel.

The second way in which mé‘eh is used is to
refer to the reproductive organs, both male and
female. Hence. more than simply digestive or-
gans are involved. We are now thinking tn terms
of the reproductive system, the male and female
sexual apparatus (Gen 15:4; 25:23; Ruth 1:11;
I¥ Sam 16:11. 17:12: 1 Chr 32:21: Isa 48:19).

The third way in which mé‘eh is used 1s ina
figurative, metaphorical sense to denote the seat
of emotions. We have already noted this above in
connection with God's compassion (Isa 63:15 and
Jer 31:20). Thus, Isaiah in his lament over Moab
quivers with his whole being (mé‘eh), and his
inmost self (girbi, Isa 16:11). Jeremiah cries out,
‘‘My anguish, my anguish’ (Jer 4:19). The author
of Lam expresses similar emotion (Lam 1:20;

2:11). David hides God's law within his *‘heart™
(Ps 40:9). The term is used to express the affec-
tion felt by the bride for her lover (Song 5:4).

Incidentally, this figure of speech extends into
the NT. “Put on ... bowels (splagchna) of
mercy (Col 3:12). “If there be any consolation
in Christ...if any bowels and mercies” (Phil
2:1).

The metaphorical use of organs of the body
was more common in antiquity. Hebrew uses the
liver (ka@béd, sometimes mispointed kdadbdd
‘“‘slory’) in expressions of joy. the kidneys
(k*layot) for affections, the heart (/éb) for both
affections and mind and the abdominal organs
(mé‘im) for compassion (see the various terms).
In English the word “heart” is used for most of
these expressions, and ‘heart’ is a fatr transla-
tion of most of these words. There is. of course.
no problem in the Hebrew use of an organ to
express a feeling. The Bible no more teaches that
compassion resides in the abdomen than moderns
think it resides in the chest. The Hebrew simply
reflects the common linguistic usage (not tn-
vented by the Jews) whereby mental and emo-
tional states are designated by organs the emo-
tions affect in some way.

V.P.H.
ym (ma'dg). See no. 1S75b.
My (ma'oz). See no. 1578a.
Tvl (man), See no. 158la.
AIvl (ma'up). See no. 1583b.
“iy (ma‘dr). See no. 1588a.
1228 yr (ma'at) be small, diminished.
Derivative
1228a Tey (mat) little.

The verb is used twenty-two times in the o1,
eight times in the Qal, once in the Piel (Eccl 12:3).
and thirteen times in the Hiphil (‘to bring to
nothing, decrease, diminish’’). Its meaning is
fairly well established by the number of times it is
used in juxtaposition to its antonym raba “be-
(come) much/many/great’’ (Ex 16:17-18: 30:15:
Num 26:54; 33:54; Jer 29:6).

m®‘at. Little, few, small, appears one hundred
and one times in the ot. The basic meaning of
m‘at is seen in the following passages: Gen
30:30, ‘‘It was little you (Laban) had before |
(Jacob) came’: 47:9, °*The days of my pilgrimage
have been few and evil’: I Sam 14:6, **There is
no restraint to the Lord to save by many (rab) or
by few’’: Deut 7:7, **You were the fewest of all
the people’*: Ps 8:5 [H 6], °° You have made him a
little less than God,” and so forth.

m®‘at is joined with the word ‘éd to form the
expression ‘6d m‘at “‘a little while.” It occurs
seven times, six of these indicating the cessation

1229

1230 2p (ma'al)

of God's patience with the wicked and the begin-
ning of judgment: Ps 37:10: Isa 10:25; 29:17: Jer
51:33: Hag 2:6. In the seventh passage (Ex 17:4)
Moses remonstrates with God that the people
“are almost ready’ to stone him. We may also
note the frequency (nine times) with which the
interrogative particle is prefixed to mat to form
questions, most of which are rhetorical tn nature.
For example, “Is it a small matter that you have
taken my husband?” (Gen 30:15: cf. Num 13:18:
16:9, 13: Josh 22:17. etc.).

A frequent phrase with this word is Aimm‘at,
literally, ““hke a little” (eighteen times). In most
cases the translation will be derived from the con-
text. Thus. (1) *’a little longer. almost, all but”:
Gen 26:10: Ps 73:2: 119:87: Prov 5:14; (2) “soon,
shortly, straightway °: Ps 81:14 (H 15]: Job 32:22:
1} Chr 12:7 (‘in a little while’): Ps 2:12
(quickly): (3) “very few. a handful”: Ps
105:12: Ezk 16:47: Isa 1:9.

V.P.H.

1f)

(p77).
(mil),
(ma‘yan).

(na‘atapa). See no. 1606a.
See no. IS77e.

See no. 1230b.
ute) See no. !613a.

BY (maak)

The verb appears three times in the or, possi-
bly four (see discussion of Ezk 23:21 below): (1)
Lev 22:24, °° You shall not offer unto the Lord (an
animal whose testicles) are “*bruised”* (ida‘itk),
crushed (Aart), broken (ndatiiqg). or cut (Aart):
probably all referring to methods of castration;
(2) 1 Sam 26:7. **Saul’s spear was ‘stuck/pressed’
in(to) the ground *; (3) Ezk 23:3, “there their nip-
ples were ‘handled’ (mo'aAn), there their virgin
breasts were fondled.’ This is an allegory of
Jerusalem and Samaria depicting their tnter-
course with Egypt, involving idolatry.

Ezekiel 23:21b, the expression ‘“‘for your
young breasts’ might better read **to fondle your
young breasts’’ by changing the preposition
l“ma‘an to read “lim'dk™ (Qal infinitive con-
struct) or /ima’ék (Piel infinitive construct).

press, squeeze.

V.P.H.
1230 ?y7 (mad'al) transgress, commit a trespass,
act unfaithfully.
Derivatives
1230a +5y% (ma'al) trespass.
1230b t99pr (mil) robe.

519

ma'al occurs thirty-five times, always in the
Qal stem. It occurs most frequently in IT Chr and
in Ezk. Among the prophets, only Ezekiel uses
this word (excluding Dan 9:7).

In almost all the biblical references md‘al is
used to designate the breaking or violation of re-

1230 ?p79 (ina‘al)

ligious law as a conscious act of treachery. The
victim against whom the breach ts perpetrated is
God. As we shall see. an almost formulaic phrase
is ma@al ma‘al b’vhwh “to commit a tresspass
against the Lorp” (Lev 6:2 [H 5:21]: Num 5:6:
Josh 22:31; | Chr 10:13: 1] Chr 12:2: 26:16: 28:19,
22: 30:7). A variant, in the first person, is md‘al
ma'al bi “to commit a trespass against me’ (Lev
26:40: Ezk 14:13: 20:27: 39:23, 26).

There are a few instances where the root is
used in contexts in which God ts not the object.
There are three of these. (1) Prov 16:10: the
mouth of a king transgresses (yim'a/l) not in
judgment: (2) Job 21:34 (Job to the three comfor-
ters): how can you comfort me since in your an-
swers there is falsehood? (Pope, in AB, Job,
“sheer fraud’: 3B. ““"nonsense’’): (3) Num §:12,
27. It is these last verses from Num that furnish
the best clues as to the nuance behind the word
ma‘al, Numbers 5:12 says, “if a man’s wife go
aside (sdta). and commit a trespass (d‘al)
against him.”* Verse 13 continues, “‘and a man lie
with her carnally It is obvious, then, that to
‘“commit a trespass ' means to act unfaithfully. to
break a contract. The general idea is defection or
unfaithfulness. Our English word “perfidy”
would come perhaps closest of all.

Occasionally the root is applied to the faithless
acts of individuals, private citizens as in the case
of Achan (Josh 7:1; 22:20: | Chr 2:7), but mostly
royal figures (Saul: I Chr 10:13; Ahaz: II Chr
28:19: 29:19: Uzziah: I] Chr 26:16, 18; Manasseh:
Il Chr 33:19: Zedekiah: Ezk 18:24). Most often it
is an indictment against the nation of [srael from
wilderness times (Num 31:16: Deut 32:51) down
to the postexilic ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah
(Ezra 10:2, 10: Neh 1:8). It is the cause of Judah's
exile (Ezk 39:23: Dan 9:7). In one instance a for-
eign ruler (Shishak) enters Jerusalem because of
Israel's “transgressions (Il Chr 12:2). This
word does not describe the sins of unbelievers
but of believers. covenant peoples, those who
‘break faith’ with their suzerain. Thus, Ezk
18:24 pronounces the principle, ‘When a righte-
ous man turns away from his righteousness and
commits iniquity (‘diwel)... in his trespass that he
has committed (#7d‘a/) and in the sin he has
sinned (fata’) he shall die.”

Of the many words for sin in the o1, mad‘al is
used most frequently in a parallel phrase with
hata’ (q.v.) **to sin, miss the mark": Lev 5:15,
21: Num 54:6: I] Chr 33:19: Ezk 14:13; 18:24.
There are a number of words used in the Lxx for
ma‘al. Interestingly. in Ezk the word used most
prominently is parapipto “to trespass”’ while in
Ezra and Nehemiah the word ts asuntheto “to
default, deflect.’ There is no equivalent pattern
in translation in Chronicles.

ma‘al. Trespass. The noun is used twenty-nine
times, of which twenty instances are as a cognate

520

accuSative to the verb md‘al. Thus. we meet a
phrase, “If a man commit (md‘al) a trespass
(nia‘al).”

m‘il. Robe, cloke, mantle. This type of cloth-
ing may refer to part of the priestly vestments
worn by the high priest to cover the ephod. Like
a shawl there was a hole in the middle, hence to
be pulled over the head. It was also worn by men
of repute: Samuel, | Sam 28:14 (in Sheol at that!);
Saul, | Sam 24:5: David, I Chr 15:27; Ezra, Ezr
9:3: Job, Job 1:20 (and David's daughters, II Sam
13:18). For figurative usages cf. Isa 59:17; 61:10:
Job 29:14: Ps 109:29. The relationship of mil to
ma‘al is uncertain. One suggestion Is to relate the
ideas of *‘covering’’ and “‘acting unfaithfully”
1.e€.. Sinning in secret or under cover, on the anal-
ogy of Hebrew bagad *‘to act treacherously™” and
beged ‘garment’ (Palache: see bibliography).
Bibliography: Palache, J. L., Semantic Notes
on the Hebrew Lexicon, Leiden: Brill, 1959, esp.
p. 10. Porubéan, S., Sin in the Old Testament:
Aloisana, Herder, 1963, esp. pp. 30-31. THAT, I,
pp. 920-21.
V.P.H.

by (mo'al), Spr (ma‘al), mop
(ma‘dleh). See nos. 16241,j,k.
77p (ma‘alal). See no. 1627e.
Dy (mé‘im). See no. 1640c.
ayia (ma‘'amad), "Nayra
See nos. 1637d,e.
Mbps (ma'amasa).
cpp = (ma'amagqgim).
Miva (ma‘dneh), Map
nos. 1650f, 1651b.
maxyr (ma'daséba). See no. 1666f.
"xp (ma'dsdd). See no. 1668a.
“Ay (ma‘dsér). See no. 1675d.
"xy 0 «(ma'‘asar). See no. 1675e.
movi (ma‘dgeh). See no. 1679a.
weer (ma'aqgash). See no. 1684c.
=p?) (maar). See no. 1692d.
sayI> (ma‘ardb). See nos. 1686c, 1689b.
mye (mara). See no. 1704a.
33pm (ma'‘arak). See no. 1694c.
23¥% (ma'‘dreket). See no. 1694e.
ony (ma‘dram). See no. 1588d.
mxapr (ma‘arasa). See no. 1702c.
meryr (ma‘aseh). See no. 1708a.
“wy (ma'‘dasér). See no. 171th.
mpwyre (ma'ashaqqa). See no. 1713e.
yap (mipga’). See no. 1731b.
mp (mappah), MB (mappiah). See
nos. 1390a,b.
Y"Dr = (mepis).
25% (mappal). See no. 1392b.
meer (mipla’ad). See no. 1768c.
ma7eta (miplagea). See no. 1769d.
m?pia (mappela). See no. 1392d.
wep (miplat). See no. 1774e.

(mo‘omad).
See no. 1643a.

See no. 1644e.
(ma‘anad). See

See no. 174Sa.

msopr (mipleset). See no. 1778b.

wep (miplas). See no. 1777b.

nop (mappelet). See no. 1392e.

°YEr (mip'al). See no. 1792c,b.

yet (mappés), YE (mappds). See no.

1394c, b.

“IPE (mipgad).
YSbI (mipras).
APD (mipreqet).

See no. 1802g.
See no. 1827a.
See no. 1828.

wer (miprds). See no. 183la.

mywe (mipsa‘a). See no. 1841b.

mnpts (miptah), Ape (maptéah). See
nos. 1854e.,f.

"hp «(miptan). See no. 1858b.

Yrs (més). See no. 1192a.

3 (masa’) find.

1231

There are approximately 450 usages of this root
in the ot. Most of these are in the Qal stem
(Gerleman, 306 times: but according to Koehler
Baumgartner, KB, p. 5536, 310 times.) As we
shall see, although its basic meaning ts *‘to find”
(in the Lxx, mostly euriskein), masa’ also as-
sumes other shades of meaning. The Niphal stem
of this verb appears 141 times (Gerleman) or 135
times (KB). Once again, the expected translation
would be the passive of the Qal, **to be found.”
But such translations as ‘overpowered,’ “‘cap-
tured,” and “‘apprehended’ are also discover-
able. Note that in the Lxx the translation of
masa’ is often not euriskO but something like
haliskomai “be caught. held.”

The evidence of related languages is helpful.
Hebrew masa’ is to be related to Aramaic mtd’
‘*to reach, attain’ (the word in BA for ‘‘find”’ is
s*kah). to Ethiopic mas'a “to come, arrive’:
and to Ugaritic mza/msa “to reach’ (UT 19: no.
1524).

There seems to be, then. sufficient grounds to
establish for masa’ in the Qal stem not only the
meaning “to find’’ but also **to come upon, meet.
reach.’ As a generalization, we may say that
whenever mdsda’ is used to describe a result fol-
lowing a time of ‘seeking’ the translation is “to
find.’’ Thus, Deut 4:29, “if you seek (bagash) the
Lord, you shall find (s@sa') him.’ Cf. Jer 29:13:
Song 5:6. **Seek (ddrash) the Lord, while he may
be found (mdsda’) (Isa 55:6): cf. I Chr 28:9; If Chr
15:2; ‘they shall seek (sdhar) me early, but shall
not find (nasa’) me” (Prov 1:28).

We may add to this list the copious references
to finding favor (/ér) in the eyes of another (God
or one’s fellow man): Gen 6:8; 18:3; 19:19; 32:5
(H 6): 33:8, 10, 15: 34:11. 39:4; 47:25, 29: 50:4.
The idea obviously 1s to gain acceptance or to win
approbation. The phrase occurs approximately
forty times in the oT.

There are twelve instances in which the subject
of masa’ is God: Gen 18:26, 28, 30: 44:16; Deut

1232

521

1232 M¥D (masa)

32:10: Jer 23:11: Ezk 22:30: Hos 9:10; Ps 17:3:
89:20 {H 21]: Job 33:10: Neh 9:8.

For additional meanings of mdsa’ in the Qal
stem we might note the following: (1) “reach,”
**can you reach the perfections of the Al-
mighty?** (Job 7:11): **they were unable to reach
the door” (Gen 19:11): (2) “‘overtake,”’ “‘your
hand overtook your foes” (Ps 21:8 [H 9}): “the
pangs of death overtook me’™’ (Ps 116:3): ‘*trouble
and anguish have taken hold on me" (Ps
119:143); (3) ‘*to happen to/to befall,’ *‘why has
all this happened to us?” (Jud 6:13).

The Niphal stem also produces in certain cases
the translations. ‘“‘overpowered,* “caught,”
‘‘captured.’’ Thus, Jer 50:24: O Babylon... you
are caught and seized (tdpus). *‘a thief... if he
be caught’ (Prov 6:30-31); “if a thief be caught
breaking in’ (Ex 22:]). This is also seen in cases
where the Niphal participle (/an-nimsda') is used.
So. Jud 20:48 the phrases “all that they found”
and ‘’which they found” mean preferably “‘until
the last ‘captive’’’ and ‘‘all the ‘captured’
cities. In addition to these technical uses,
masa inthe Niphal is often simply a synonym for
hava “to be’: | Sam 9:8, "I have here at hand,”
literally, ‘‘there is found in my hand” (BDB 594b:
2a-f).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ~’Northwest
Semitic Philology and Job,” in The Bible in Cur-
rent Catholic Thought, ed. J. L. McKenzie, New
York: Herder and Herder, 1962, pp. 55-74, esp.
p. 57. Iwry, S., whnms’: A Striking Variant in
IQIs?"* in Textus 5:34-43. THAT, 1, pp. 922-24.

V.P.H.
3¥%2) (massab), 33% (mussab). See nos.
1398c,d.
Max) (missadba), MX (masséba). See
nos. [398f,g.

“"¥7 (m" sad). See no. 1885c.

MZ’2 (masa) drain (out).

The verb is used seven times in the o7, four
times in the Qal and three times in the Niphal.
Sometimes the verb describes the literal draining
of blood from a bird offered in sacrifice (Lev
1:15: 5:9) or the draining/squeezing of water from
a fleece (Jud 6:38).

Three times the verb is used figuratively to de-
scribe the enemies of God who have drunk from
the cup of his wrath down “‘to the last drop’’: Isa
$1:17; Ezk 23:34; Ps 75:8 [H 9], ““Oh, how they
will drain it to the dregs." Dahood renders this
verse, *‘Oh, how its dregs (i.e. of God's cup) will
be drained, the wicked of the earth will drink the
last drop.’’ This rendering changes the MT yinsi
(Qal active) into yumsi (Qal passive). The last
part of Ezk 23:34, cited above, indicates what
consequence befalls the wicked who drain this
cup. In remorse and revulsion they smash the cup

1233 msn (msh)

as the cause of their downfall and tear off their
breasts as the peccant members through which
they have sinned. A graphic picture!

The final use of this verb is in Ps 73:10 again to
describe the wicked, *‘waters of abundance are
‘drained’ by them.” The meaning is obvious
enough. The wicked are so voracious that they
swallow the ocean, leaving nothing for others (an
effective hyperbole). It is unnecessary to connect
the verb here with Ugaritic miss, “‘to suck” as
Dahood has done (Psalms, in AB, in loc.).

V.P.H.

Mme (massa). See nos. 1234a, 1400a.

momyra (mishala). See no. 1881a.

13% (maséd) 1. II. See nos. 1885d,e.

mixta (msiida) I, 11. See nos. 1885g,i.

M3 (miswa). See no. 1887b.

maiz = (mésdla). See no. 1889b.

M8 (masdq), “NPI (msiigd). See
nos. 189Sd,e.

PIs (masig).

“132 (masor).

3 (massitt).

See no. 1896a.
See no. 1898a.
See no. 1400b.

1233 mx (msh). Assumed root of the following.
1233a tm3% (mésah) brow, forehead.
1233b TAME (mishad) greaves.

meésah. Brow, forehead. The substantive ap-
pears thirteen times in the oT, five of which are in
Ezk (3:7, 8 [twice], 9: 9:4). The etymology of the
word is uncertain. One suggestion is to relate it to
the verb sadhah ‘to be bnght, dazzling,’’ on the
analogy of Arabic sabaha ‘‘to shine, sabah
‘*morning, and sabah ‘‘forehead’’ (Blau; see
bibliography).

The most interesting uses of mésah are in the
Ezk passages, plus one from Jeremiah. God says
to Ezekiel (3:7) that all Israel is stiff of forehead
(hizgé mésah) and hardhearted (g°shé léb). The
phrase ‘‘stiff/strong of forehead’’ suggests,
perhaps, the picture of an animal, an ox or ram,
butting its head. But in the next verse (3:8) God
says that he has made the prophet’s forehead
stronger than the foreheads of his foes. That is to
say, God will not only give him hardness equal to
that of his foes, but that he promises Ezekiel to
make him harder for the truth than the people are
against it. There may be here an intentional play
on the prophet’s name which means ‘‘may God
harden/strengthen”’ from the verb hdzaq. Cf.
also 3:9.

In Ezk 9:4 God orders a divine agent to go
through Jerusalem and put a mark on the
forehead of the men who deplored and disap-
proved of the filth practised in the city. The word
for ‘‘mark”’ is taw, the last letter of the Hebrew
alphabet, which in the old Canaanite script was
written X. Cf. also Gen 4:15 (6t): I Sam 21:14;

522

1234 PS (masas) drain out.

Job 31:35: Rev 7:3, 4; 13:16; 14:1: 22:4. This
might shed some light on Jer 3:3 when Jeremiah
says of his audience, ““You have a whore’s
forehead,’ rendered by 5B as ‘‘you have main-
tained a prostitute’s bold front.’ Could
Jeremiah’s accusation, however, be a reference
to some trademark on the head of a prostitute, as
is used today to mark the castes of India?

misha. Greaves, found only once in the or,
I Sam 17:6, *‘And Goliath had ‘greaves’ of brass
upon his legs."’ Greaves are the armor which pro-
tected the front of the leg below the knee.
Bibliography: Blau, J., **Etymologische Un-
tersuchungen auf Grund des_ palastinischen
Arabisch,”’ VT 5:337-44, esp. p. 342. On misha:
Galling, K., Biblisches Reallexicon, Tubingen:
J.C. B. Mohr, 1937, pp. 89-90. idem., *‘Goliath
und seine Riistung,” Supp VT 15:150-69, esp.
pp. 163-65.
V.P.H.

mx (msiah). See no. 1172a.
moxra (m sila). See no. 1889c.
mex (msilla). See no. 1919e.
menox = (msiltayim). See no. 1919f.
MBIX = (misnepet). See no. 1940c.
yea (massa'). See no. 896e.

TW¥ (mis'ad). See no. 1943d.
WY (mis‘ar). See no. 1948c.

MBS «(mispeh). See no. 1950b.
DX = (maspén). See no. 1953d.

Occurs only in
Isa 66:11, famossa wthit'annagtem *‘(that)
you may drain out and delight yourselves.”

Derivative

1234a TY (massa)
leavened cakes.

unleavened bread, un-

A feminine singular noun from the root mdsas,
which occurs frequently as the plural massét
(forty-four times). In the Lxx and NT, it is azuma.
This quickly prepared bread was offered at ordi-
nary meals to unexpected guests (Gen 19:3; Jud
6:19-21; I Sam 28:24). The Israelites, departing
hastily from Egypt, did not have time to wait for
bread to rise (Ex 12:39).

Unleavened cakes were offered in sacrifice
when Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the
priesthood (Ex 29:2), with the cereal offering
(Lev 2:4—-5), with the peace offering (Lev 7:12),
and upon completion of the Nazirite vow (Num
6:15, 17, 19). The bread was carried in a basket
(Ex 29:23; Lev 8:2, 26: Num 6:15, 17). The Le-
vites assisted with the offering (1 Chr 23:27-29).
After the sacrifice, the remainder of the cereal
offering was eaten by the priests (Lev 6:16;
10:12). At the time of Josiah’s reform, priests of

the high places ate unleavened bread among their
brethren (II Kgs 23:9).

Because Israel had eaten unleavened bread on
the night when they left Egypt (Ex 12:8) and dur-
ing the first stages of their travels (Ex 12:39),
annually thereafter they ate unleavened bread
with bitter herbs at the Passover season whether
the first or second Passover (Ex 12:14-20: Num
9:10). Eaten with bitter herbs, it is called the
bread of affliction (Deut 16:3). Onginally
Passover, a one-night celebration, was distinct
from the feast of unleavened bread. being the fol-
lowing seven days. But both days may be re-
ferred to as Passover or “the days of unleavened
bread.’ The eating of unleavened bread began on
the evening of the fourteenth of the month of
Nisan (Ex 12:15, 18: 13:6: 34:18: Lev 23:6: Num
28:17: Deut 16:3: Ezk 45:21) and continued for
seven days (Deut 16:8 gives six days with the
seventh as a day of solemn assembly). Hence this
season was called the feast of unleavened bread
(hag hammassot, Ex 23:18: 34:18: Lev 23:6:
Deut 16:16: Ezr 6:22: I] Chr 8:13: 30:13. 21;
35:17). Israel observed this custom at Gilgal
when entering Palestine (Josh 5:11).

J.P.L.

3X = (mésar). See no. 1973f.

1235) ony (misrayvim) Egypt.

The Hebrew word is of uncertain derivation
but is related to the Akkadian name Misr
(Musur) and the Arabic name Misr for Egypt. In
form, the Hebrew name for Egypt is in the dual,
indicating her two basic constituent divisions:
Upper Egypt (Southern Egypt) and Lower Egypt
(the Delta area). The reason for the equation of
upper with south and lower with north is because
of the northward flow of the Nile. The Egyptians
themselves referred to their land as f3wy “two
lands” or Kemi **Black Land,”* this latter being a
reference to the lush, trrigated soil that ran along
the sides of the Nile. The name “‘Egypt,. from
Greek. possibly goes back to the Egyptian phrase
Hi-ku-Ptah, the **House of the Spirit of (the god)
Ptah, an ancient designation for Memphis (bib-
tical Noph).

Briefly, Egyptian history may be conveniently
divided into and highlighted by the following 1m-
portant periods: (1) The Old Kingdom/Pyramid
Age/third-stxth Dynasties (2700-2200 B.c.): (2)
The Middle Kingdom, especially the twelfth
Dynasty (2000-1800 B.c.): (3) The New Kingdom
or Empire Age, eighteenth-twentieth Dynasties
(1570-1090 B.c.): (4) The Ethiopian period. espe-
cially the twenty-fifth Dynasty (715-663 B.c.): (5)
Saitic/twenty-sixth Dynasty (633-525 B.c.): (7)
Dynasty of the Ptolemies (306-30 B.c.). Generally
speaking, ancient Egypt's history follows an un-

523

1235 BR (misrayim)

dulating line of development. Times of innova-
tion, greatness, expansion are followed by times
of regression, retrenchment, the rise of cen-
trifugal movements and the cycle repeats.

It is difficult, almost impossible, to pinpoint
common denominators in Egyptian religion
throughout almost three millennia of develop-
ment. The gamut runs from a rampant polytheism
to a solar **monotheism.’’ Their religion never
earmarked to everybody's satisfaction a supreme
God. Was it Atum or Re or Horus or Amon-Re’
No one would deny. however, that one charac-
teristic of Egypt's religion was the emphasis on
life after death. And yet this preoccupation with
death was not a morbid one. Mortuary texts are
inevitably gay and optimistic. The Egyptian con-
cept of the afterlife is also an intensely materialis-
tic one. The next life simply continues this one.
This is why, for example, the body was mum-
mified because corporeal existence was the only
existence acceptable to the Egyptian.

In the or it is the patriarchs who first have
relationships with Egypt (Abraham. Gen 12).
This would correspond roughly with the twelfth
Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. The Joseph
story is obviously set in an Egyptian background,
even to the extent of the cycle itself being in the
form of a short story in simple prose (an Egyptian
creation). However, from the time of Moses on,
the Bible generally casts the land of Egypt in a
very negative position. It is the oppressor of
God's people. refusing to give Israel her libera-
tion. It is the prophets particularly who inveigh
against Israel leaning upon Egypt. “Leave her
alone: she is under judgment and will topple” is
their council.

And yet for all this denunciation of Egypt two
passages in the ot about her are extremely in-
teresting. One. the saintly Judean king Josiah
died because he did not listen to the word of God
from the Pharaoh Necho (IJ Chr 35:20ff.). Two,
Isa 19:16ff. anticipates the conversion of Egypt
(and Assyria) to the Lord, **blessed be my people
Egypt’ (v. 25). Traditional foes will be recon-
ciled under God's blessings.

Bibliography: Gardiner, A.. Egypt of the
Pharuohs, New York: Oxford University, 1966.
Wilson, J., The Culture of Ancient Egypt. Uni-
versity of Chicago. 1956. Steindorff, G. and
Seele, K. C.. When Egypt Ruled the East, Uni-
versity of Chicago, 1942.

V.P.H.
AMX (masrep). See no. 1972b.
Di (mag). See no. 1237a.
Map (maugyebet). See nos. 1409c.d.

wer (Cnigdash). See no. 1990f.
om (maghél). See no. 1991d.
mip (augweh). MY Cmigqwa).

nos. 1994c, 199Sa.

See

1236 9212 (maqgel)
Bip) (maqom). See no. 1999b.

“12% (madqor). See no. 2004a.

meta (miqqah). See no. 1124e.

“wi (migtar), 6P% (muqtar). See

nos. 2011d,e.

map (migteret). See no. 2011 f.

1236 35% (magqgél) rod, staff (e.g. Gen 30:37:
Jer 1:11). Derivation uncertain.

wen (miglat). See no. 2026a.

nyse (migla'at). See no. 203 1a.

mata (migneh), 32% (mignad). See
nos. 2039b,c.

per (migsam). See no. 2044b.

YEr (migsda’), WR (magqsi'a). See
nos. 2057a, 2056b.

1237 *ppr (madqaq) decay, rot, fester, pine away.

Derivative
1237a 3% (mag) decay, rottenness (Isa
3:24: §:24),

maqaq occurs nine times in the oT, eight
times in the Niphal. once in the Hiphil. The verb
is used most often to describe those who “’per-
ish’ or ‘“‘waste away” because of their sins,
which dehumanize them: Lev 26:39, Ezk 4:17:
24:23: 33:10. Sin sows its own seeds of decay.
Similar to this is the judgment of God meted out
to those who attack Jerusalem in history's great
eschatological struggle (Zech 14:12, three times),
Their flesh will ‘molder’... their eyes will ‘rot’
in their sockets: their tongues will ‘rot’ in their
mouth. Cf. also Isa 34:4.

The basic meaning of the verb is discoverable
in Ps 38:5 (H 6). **My wounds stink and are ‘fes-
tering’ because of my foolishness.

V.P.H.

See no. 2063d.
(nn qareh). See

Sit (migra).
mite (mugreh), MSR

nos. 2068c.f.
map (Cm géra). See no. 2077d.
muita (migsheh), Myre (migsha) 1, I.

‘See nos. 2086b,a: 2083b.

37 (mar), 3% (mor). See nos. [249a,
1248a,b.
38 *809 (mara) I, flap(?). Occurs only in

the Hiphil, in Job 39:18, “*she (the ostrich)
flaps away. she laughs at the horse and his
rider.”

1239 snd (sur') II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1239a

1239b

Te (mri) fatling.
ms (muir'a) crop or alimentary
canal, of bird. Occurs only in Lev

524

1240 392

1:16, ‘*he is to remove the crop with
its contents’ (NIV).

mri’. Fatling. mri’ occurs eight times in the
oT. BDB (p. 597) lists this word under m@ra’ Il,
‘to be fat, well-fed’* but does not document the
verb in the oT. Some have suggested that mri’ in
Isa 11:6 read yimr‘'u; hence the translation of
this verse in JB, “‘The calf and lion cub feed to-
gether. -

In all but one of the eight passages, mri’ is
used of cattle who were intentionally raised and
fed for meat for the purpose of sacrifice to God.
The Hebrew word is not concerned with the
species but rather with the quality of the animal.
The significance is that when one offers a sac-
rifice to his Lord, he offers his best and most
valuable.

Both David (I] Sam 6:13) and Adonijah (I Kgs
1:9, 19, 25) on festive occasions offered ~*fat-
lings’ to the Lord. And yet the Lord rejects the
offerings of these same animals whenever sac-
rifice and external religious performance become
a substitute for personal morality and integrity
(Isa 1:11: Amos 5:22). Ezekiel says that in addi-
tion to human flesh and the meat of other ani-
mals, the birds shall feast on fatlings in the day of
God's judgment upon Israel's enemies (Ezk
39:18: cf. Rev 19:17-18, 21).

The only passage in which mri’ occurs in a
non-sacrificial context is Isa 11:6.

Bibliography: Aharoni, I., “On Some Ani-
mals Mentioned in the Bible,” Osiris 5:461-78.
Bodenheimer, F. S., Animal and Man in Bible
Lands, Leiden: Brill, 1960. Brueggemann, W.
‘*Fatling,’ in IDB, II, p. 246.

V.P.H.

MS Ve (mara),
nos. 2095h,1.
miwswa (méra'ashot). See no. 2097f.

a0’ (marbad). See no. 2102a.
ma3to (marbeh). See no. 2103b.
measta (marbit). See no. 2103d.
yan (marbés). See no. 2109b.
Panta (marbéq). See no. 2110a.
vias (margéa'). See no. 2117b.
mvhasia (marge lot). See no. 2113c.
maista (margéma). See no. 2114b.
myasta (marge’a). See no. 2117c.

msv7a (mar'eh). See

(marad) be rebellious, rebel, revolt.

Derivatives

1240a 5% (mered) rebellion.
1240b MII (mardit) rebellion.

The verb is used twenty-five times in the or, all
in the Qal stem. It appears in Josh more often
than in any other book (five times, 22:16, 18, 19
[twice], 29).

The verb mdrad may indicate either rebellion
against man (twelve times) or rebellion against
God (twelve times). The one passage open to
question in translation ts Josh 22:19 (kiv): “Rebel
not against the Lord. nor rebel against us (tim-
rodi). The rsv reads this: **Rebel not against the
Lord, nor make us rebels’’ (reading timrida for
timrodt). This is certainly possible in light of the
following verse, v. 20, which is a reminder, from
the Achan incident, that the sin of one implicates
many more than just the individual who is the
immediate culprit. Hence, the translation of ss:
‘*Do not rebel... or make us accomplices in re-
bellion.”’

In those instances where midrad signifies man
rebelling against man it is always in reference toa
Judean king or the people of Israel trying to resist
the heavy yoke or the unwelcomed presence of a
royal power. The one exception is Jeroboam |
who is condemned by his contemporary monarch
in southern Judea, Abijah, for ‘‘rebelling™’
against Solomon (II Chr 13:6). In some instances
the Bible describes this rebellion with ap-
probation and sometimes with disapproval. Thus,
the Bible warmly endorses Hezekiah’s actions
against the Assyrians: II Kgs 18:7, 20 (=Isa 36:5).
On the other hand, the actions of Jehoiakim
against the Babylonians (I] Kgs 24:1) and those of
Zedekiah against the same foe (II Kgs 24:20 =Jer
52:3. Ezk 17:15: I] Chr 36:13) are seen as being in
violation of God's will. Whether the rebellion is
being spoken of positively or negatively, it ts,
obvious that what is meant by the term is rebel-
lion in the sense of an attempt to nullify or abro-
gate a covenant, on the part of the vassal. For
similar uses of the term cf. Gen 14:4 and Neh
2:19; 6:6.

If mdrad in an international political context
refers to disloyalty and disunity among nations in
covenant then it is only natural to assume that it
is in this context, 1.e., the context of a broken
covenant, that the term refers to man’s rebellion
against God (the five passages in Josh 22 for
example).

For synonyms we may note the use of mdrad
with: (1) shab: Josh 22:16, 18, 29; I] Kgs 24:1: (2)
pasha’: Ezk 2:3; 20:38: (3) ma‘al: Josh 22:16, 22:
(4) mara: Neh 9:26: (S) gam: I] Chr 13:6: (6) Dan
9:5, parallel to hata’, ‘dwa, rasa‘ (all of which,
see).

mered. Rebellion. Found only once once in
the or, Josh 22:22. parallel to ma‘al ‘‘transgres-
sion, breach of faith.”

mardut. Rebellion. Used only in | Sam 20:30.
Saul, charging his son Jonathan with subversive
activity in aiding David, hurls this approbrium at
him: ‘“‘Thou son of perverse rebellion.” The
phrase has in most cases been emended. As it
Stands, it is written ben-na‘awat hammardit.

124]

525

1241 335% (m°rodak)

The second word, na‘dwat, is a Niphal feminine
participle of ‘dua *‘bend, twist.’” On the basis of
the xx, which for this word has korasi6n, most
scholars have emended na'‘dwat to na‘arat
“girl.” Hence. the translation, *‘son of a rebel-
lious woman, or “son of a wanton” (JB).

Bibliography: Driver, S. R., Notes on the
Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1890. pp. 134-35. THAT. I. pp. 925-
27.

V<P eH:
mast (mirda). See no. 2121a.
mim (mardit). See no. 1240b.
335% (m°rodak) Marduk, the patron

deity of the city of Babylon.

Marduk is mentioned in the Bible only in Jer
50:2, “Babylon is captured, Bel (bé/) is dis-
graced, Merodach (Marduk) is shattered.’ Note
that here the name Marduk is paralleled by the
word bél, a transliteration of the Akkadian at-
tribute of Marduk, belum “lord.” Apart from its
appearance in Jer 50:2, the name of Marduk ap-
pears only in the Bible in personal names such as
Merodach-baladan Mardukapal-iddina, — Evil-
merodach (Awel-Marduk), and Mordecai.

The origin of Marduk’s name is unknown,
though several etymologies have been offered.
The form of his name in Sumerian is “AMAR-UD
and in the earliest syllabic renderings (Old
Babylonian) it is marutuk (ma-ru-tu-uk). The
translation would be, **The young bull/son of Utu
(the sun-god)."’ Another possibility is that his
name means “‘son of the storm,’ the picture
given of Marduk in texts being more akin to a god
of storm, rain, lightning, and thunder, rather than
to a solar figure (Jacobsen).

The vocalization of his name in Hebrew,
mrodak Is interesting (in the Lxx it 1s marodak).
Some have suggested a deliberate likeness to
‘ddonay “my lord.” More likely, it could be a
euphemistic vocalization, akin to mborak *‘ac-
cursed.”

It is commonly asserted that Marduk was
exalted to his position of supremacy in the
Babylonian pantheon when Hammurabi made
Babylon the political capital of southern Meso-
potamia (eighteenth century s.c.), although he
was known as a minor god as early as the third
millenium B.c. A case can be made. however, for
the view that it was not until the reign of
Nebuchadnezzar I (c. 1100 B.c.) that Marduk
actually became “king of the gods” (Lambert:
see bibliography). Marduk was the son of Enki
(Ea) of Endu, the god of wisdom and the patron
of the arts of magic. Marduk himself fathered
Nabu, who, toward the end of the neo-
Babylonian period (sixth century B.c.),
supplanted his father in popularity.

1242

1242 M9 (mara)

Marduk was the city god of Babylon. His tem-
ple there was called E-sag-ila ‘‘the house that
raises high its head.*’ Adjacent to it was the fa-
mous step-tower (ziggurat) E-Temen-an-ki, “the
house of the foundation of heaven and earth,”
approximately ninety-one metres high. The tem-
ple’s great eastern portal, the holy door, bricked
up the whole year, was opened on Marduk’s
principal feast, the AAitu (New Year's) festival.
On this day Marduk’s wedding with his bride.
Sarpanitu. was celebrated by bringing their two
statues together outside the city walls. By means
of simulated sexual intercourse between the two,
the land's fertility would be ensured for the com-
ing year. Also at this feast the Enuma Elish (the
Babylonian creation epic) was recited. Marduk,
the hero of this story, is appointed by the gods to
lead the fight against Tiamat, and after victory
fashions the universe from her body.

Though mentioned specifically by name only in
Jer 50:2, Marduk’'s helplessness as god of Baby-
lon under the name of Bel is ridiculed in Isa 46:1;
Jer 51:44; and especially Dan 14:1-22.

Bibliography: Jacobsen, T., ‘The Battle Be-
tween Marduk and Tiamat,” JAOS 88:104—108.
Lambert, W.G., ‘‘The Reign of Nebuchadnezzar
I: A Turning Point in the History of Ancient
Mesopotamian Religion,” in The Seed of Wis-
dom, ed. W. S. McCullough, University of To-
ronto, 1964, pp. 3-13. Schott, A., **Die Anfange
Marduks als eines assyrischen Gottes, ZAW 43:
318-21.

V.P.H.

HI «(mirdap). See no. 2124a.

myfa (mara) be dis-

obedient towards.

rebellious against,

Derivative
1242a

The verb occurs forty-five times in the oT most
frequently in the (historical) Psalms (ten times)
and eight times in Deut. Twenty-two times the
verb is used in the Qal stem and twenty-three
times in the Hiphil stem. In this latter case the
meaning or translation is something like **to pro-
voke (by defiance). ”

With but five exceptions all uses of marda/meri
refer to rebellion against God. These five excep-
tions are: (1, 2) Deut 21:18, 20, dealing with
disciplinary procedures to be pursued by parents
with a stubborn (sdrér) and ‘rebellious’ son; (3)
Job 17:2. “Are there not mockers with me and
my eye continues in their ‘provocation/spite-
fulness’?** (4) Job 23:2, **My lament is still rebel-
lious’*: (5) Prov 17:11, *“The wicked man thinks
of nothing but rebellion.”

The rebellion to which mara refers is specifi-

“7 (meri) rebellion.

526

cally the rebellion of Israel/Judah against God.
Only on a few occasions is the nation not in-
volved. These would be the five verses noted in
the above paragraph plus the reference to the
anonymous *‘man of God™ who disobeyed God's
orders not to linger or eat at Bethel but to con-
tinue immediately on his way, and as a result was
mauled and killed by a lion (I Kgs 13:21, 26); also,
in the third ‘’suffering-servant’’ song (Isa 50:5),
**l was not rebellious/made no resistance.’ In
Lam 1:18, 20 the confession of the ‘‘I"’ is per-
sonified Jerusalem speaking.

Not only does mard/meri refer to the rebellion
of Israel, but primarily it refers to the rebellion of
Israel in the wilderness as God led her toward
Canaan. Some concurrent references which
document such aberrant behavior are: Num
20:10, 24; 27:14 plus numerous passages in Deut
such as 1:26, 43: 9:7, 24 inter alia. Elsewhere,
there are a number of later books which at points
are recapitulations of early Israelite history and
this sin is cited: Ps 78:8, 17, 40, 56: 106:7, 33, 43;
Isa 63:10; Neh 9:26 (upon entry into the promised
land).

This sin of rebellion may be in word: Num
17:10 [H 25]: 27:14, complaining: Ps 78:17ff.,
challenging and defying God to do the abnormal,
to cater to their tastes and delicacies. Or, it may
be a rebellion in deed: 1 Sam 12:15, obedience to
man over God: | Kgs 13:21, 26, actions contrary
to God's clearly expressed will by a *‘clergy-
man’’; Jer 4:17, ‘‘your own behavior and ac-
tions’’: Isa 3:8, ‘‘their words and their deeds.”
What is most often rebelled against is ‘‘the
commandment/the word of the Lord,” ('et) pi
(literally, “the mouth’’). This is the most fre-
quent direct object of the verb mara: I Kgs 13:21,
26; Lam 1:18; Ps 105:28; Num 20:24: 27:14, inter
alia.

mara ts found in series or parallel with the fol-
lowing Hebrew words: (1) sdérér ‘stubborn’:
Deut 21:18, 20: Jer 5:23: Ps 78:8; (2) ‘dsab “to
hurt, grieve’: Isa 63:10: Ps 78:40; (3) mda'an “‘to
refuse’: Isa 1:20: Neh 9:17: (4) pasha’ “to trans-
gress: Lam 3:42: (5) nd as “to scorn’: Ps
107:11: (6) hata’ “to sin’: Ps 78:17; (7) nasa “to
test’’: Ps 78:56; (8) mdrad **to rebel’*: Neh 9:26;
(9) md'as “‘to reject” and halal ‘to profane”:
Ezk 20:13; (10) meri parallel to hapsar, a Hiphil
infinitive absolute of pasar ‘to press, perhaps
here “arrogance, presumption’: | Sam 15:23.

meri. Rebellion. Of the twenty-three usages of
this noun in the oT, sixteen are in Ezk, and pre-
ponderantly these are in the phrase, “‘house of
rebellion” (in reference to Judah): 2:5, 6. 8: 3:9,
26, 27; 12:2 (twice), 3, 9, 25; 17:12: 24:3: also 2:7
and 44:6 for variations of this phrase.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 928-30.
V.P.H.

Mei ve
“1979 (maréd).
eins (marom).
Prada (méros).
MEI (musa).
PIM (mari).
“179 (maror).
mista. (marzéah).

(marhéba). See no. 2125d.
See no. 2129a.
See no. 2133h.
See no. 2137a.

See no. 2212b.
See no. 1246a.
See no. 1248e.

See no. 2140a.

1243) mata) (marah) rub. Occurs in Isa 38:21,
‘let them take a cake of figs and rub it on
the eruption.”

See no. 2143e.
See no. 21Slc.
See no. 2152a.

sms (merhab).
PMs (merhaq).
nvm (marheshet).

1244 wo

The verb is used fourteen times in the ot ina
variety of contexts. Three times it refers to the
tearing out of one’s hair, either the hair on the
crown of the head or the beard. Once, this action
is indicative of the grief which Ezra felt upon his
discovery that his fellow Israelites had intermar-
ried with foreigners (Ezr 9:3). Two other times
this same action describes not grief but rather an
act of violence (Neh 13:25), something Nehemiah
did to those who intermarried: and Isa 50:6, *"!
(i.e., the suffering servant) gave my back to the
smiters and my cheeks to them that ‘tore’ at my
beard.”’ In connection with these passages we
may note the use of the same verb to describe the
condition of baldness (Lev 13, 40-41) in the con-
text of leprosy diagnosis. Ezekiel 29:18 says that
the heads of the people of Tyre were *‘made
bald’ by Nebuchadnezzar. This does not mean
he tore out their hair: rather, the baldness was the
result of carrying loads on their heads as corvée
labor gangs.

Besides the passage in Ezk 29:18, the verb is
used five times more in that book: 21:9 [H 14];
21:10 [H 15]: 21:11 [H 16]: 21:28 [H 33]. Each
case refers to the Lord’s sword which is
*‘furbished/polished,’* ready to be given into the
hands of the slaughterer, the Babylonians, to
execute judgment upon God's people.

Finally, this verb is used to describe the ves-
sels of ‘burnished’ brass put into the Jerusalem
temple of Solomon (1 Kgs 7:45). It is employed in
Isaiah's oracle against Cush, the name of ancient
Ethiopia, whose people are pictured (Isa 18:2. 7)
as “tall and bronzed.” not “‘scattered and
peeled” as in KJV.

(madrat) make smooth/bald, polish.

V.P.H.

See no. 1242a.
See no. 1239a.
See no. 2159c.
See no. 1248h.

(mer).
ND (mri).
moe (mriba).
S95) (Mm “riri).

$27

1247 27% (mrq)

missy) (mm “rirait). See no. 12481.
m0% (morek). See no. 2164c.
a2 (merkab). See no. 2163e.
moa (markélet). See no. 216Sc.
saa (mirmad). See no. 2169b.
pata (mirmas). See no. 2176a.
yar (méréa'). See no. 2186f.
mya (mir'eh). See no. 2185b.
mya (mar'it). See no. 2185c.

ND (marpé’). See no. 2196c.
wed (marpés). See no. 2199a.
1245 *p3% (maras) belmake sick.

The verb occurs four times in the ot. Three of
these (1 Kgs 2:8; Mic 2:10; Job 6:25) are in the
Niphal, and mean ‘“‘to make sick,”’ i.e. ‘‘sore’’ or
‘*grievous.’’ So, ‘‘a grievous curse’ g“lald nim-
reset, in I Kgs 2:8 and ‘‘grievous pain” hebel
nimras, in Mic 2:10.

The third passage, Job 6:25, is open to question
as to its translation: ‘‘how ‘forcible’ are right
words’ (KJV). This rendering gives to madras an
otherwise unknown meaning. Pope (in AB, Job,
pp. 49, 55) translates, ‘‘how ‘pleasant’ are honest
words,’’ perhaps on the suggested relation of
nimr'sa to niml®sa@ (Ps 119:103), “*smooth,
pleasant.’" A third possibility is to read the
phrase as a question, ‘what is there sick in right-
eous words?’ (Tur-Sinai) or ‘Show are honest
words bitter?’ (Driver). The advantage of these
last two suggestions is that they both retain the
basic idea of mdras as something undesirable.

The fourth use of this root is Job 16:3 (Hiphil):
‘*what ‘emboldeneth’ thee that you answer?’ or
better sB, ‘‘what a plague—you need to have the
last word.”

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., *“Some Hebrew
Words, JTS 29:390-96, esp. pp. 394-95.

V.P.H.

See no. 2209a.
See no. 2210b.

USI =(marséa’).
PLL (marsepet).

1246 p33 (maraq) I, scour, polish.

Derivatives

1246a) = IN) (mariiq) a_ scraping, rub-
bing (Est 2:12).

1246b = ANH «O(famrtiqg) a_ scraping, rub-

bing (Prov 20:30).

1247 px (mrq) HH. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1247a = 9%) (mardq) Juice stewed out of
meat, broth (Jud 6:19; Isa 65:4).

See no. 221 5f.
See no. 2215h.

moat (merqah).
rep (mirqahat).

1248 "9% (marar)

1248 <1 (marar) I, be bitter, strengthen, be

strong.
Derivatives
1248a 3% (mar) bitter.
1248b 23% «(mor) myrrh.
1248c th (morrad) bitterness.
1248d ima (mora) grief.
1248e t359% (marér) bitterness.
1248f 9 tmsin (mrérd) bitter thing.
1248g «oman (m'réra) gall (only Job
16:13)
1248h 5°97 (Cm riri) bitter.
12481 tmssea) (mm rirtt) bitterness.
1248) t3Q% (memer) bitterness.
1248k 3°92 (mamroér) _ bitterness.
12481 9 t35—m (tamrur) bitterness.

The verb marar is used fifteen times, always
with man as subject, never God, unless the verb
describes an interpretation given by man to
God's actions and will. For example, Job (and
this root plus its various derivatives appear more
frequently in Job than in any other oT book [ten
times]) complains: The Almighty has vexed my
soul (27:2), Hiphil of mdrar. Similarly, Naomi
says, *‘Do not call me Naomi, call me ‘Mara’ for
the Almighty has dealt very bitterly with me”
(Ruth 1:20).

It is interesting to note that the Hebrews ex-
pressed tragic, unpleasant experiences in terms
of the sense of taste, the bitter. Actually, we em-
ploy the same figure of speech in our English
language: It was a galling experience; his actions
were not in very good taste, J thought: your wife
is always so tastefully dressed.

For the root mdrar we suggest not only the
traditional translation ‘to be bitter/embitter™’ but
also the translation *‘to be strong/strengthen.”
The reason for this is that in Ugaritic/Arabic/
Aramaic the root mrr may mean one of ‘“‘to
strengthen. bless, commend.” In at least four oT
passages this seems the preferable translation.
Thus, Ex 1:14 might better read not ‘they made
their lives bitter,” but “they strengthened their
lives," i.e. the Egyptians, by imposing hard
labor, only toughened the Hebrews. The context
suggests this. Judges 18:25 refers not to ‘‘embit-
tered men” but ‘‘tough men.” Ecclesiastes 7:26
traditionally reads: *‘I1 found more bitter than
death the woman whose heart is snares and
nets.”’ It will be observed. however, that the au-
thor is not stressing a woman’s bitterness but her
strength: hence, ‘"I found stronger than death’’
(cf. Song 8:6). Finally, Ezk 3:14 reads, *‘I went in
bitterness, in the heat of my spint.” But why
should the prophet be *‘bitter’’ especially in light
of what he saw and heard in vv. 12-13? We
suggest the translation, *‘l went forth streng-
thened by the fervor of my spirit.”

528

mar. Bitter, strong. Thirty-seven times in the
oT. Most frequently the adjective is used in a
figurative sense, as is the verb, to descnbe an
emotion, though a few examples of mar in a lit-
eral sense may be found. The Scriptures speak of
bitter grape clusters (Deut 32:32); bitter water
(Ex 15:23): food in general (Prov 27:7), which,
though bitter, is palatable to the hungry (cf. Isa
5:20).

Of special interest in the literal category is the
phrase ‘water of bitterness’’ in Num 5:18-19,
23-24, 27. Combined with dust and ink, and
hence decidedly unhygienic, it was used in an
instance of investigation to determine whether a
husband’s jealous suspicions of his wife's un-
faithfulness were correct or not. The idea is, of
course, that often consciousness of guilt will pro-
duce somatic symptoms, the principle behind our
modern lie detector testing of suspected crimi-
nals. This investigation is sometimes called trial
by ordeal, but that is not quite accurate. The trial
by ordeal, used in antiquity and up to the Middle
Ages, required the accused to undergo obvious
physical danger like walking through fire or being
thrown bound into the river. The person who was
unharmed was presumed innocent. Tnal by
ordeal was common in Assyria, but the ot used
rather the more sensible rules of evidence we are
accustomed to. The “‘water of bitterness™* is in-
deed more like a lhe detector test as suggested
above. Only a woman who was innocent could
normally undergo this solemn ceremony without
breaking down. The further effect, apart from the
unhygienic water, was caused by the providence
of God punishing the guilty.

As we have indicated, the more frequent use of
mar is a figurative one, to express the emotional
response to a destructive, heart-crushing situa-
tion. Some of these situations are: (1) in the case
of a woman, barrenness and sterility, ] Sam 1:10;
(2) an unfulfilled death-wish, Job 3:20; (3) family
turmoil, Gen 27:34; (4) the exploitation and dep-
rivation of minority peoples, Est 4:1; (5) personal
suffering and hardship, Job 7:11: 10: 1; Isa 38:15;
(6) a hostile and precarious situation, Ps 64:3
{H 4]; grief over the apostasy of believers, Jer
2:19; (7) the Lord's judgment on unbelievers,
Zeph 1:14; (8) discontentment with lacklustre
leadership, I Sam 22:2: (9) the thought of death, I
Sam 15:32; (10) the crumbling of dreams and as-
piration, Ezk 27:30, 31.

morra. Bitterness, grief. Used only in Prov
14:10. ‘Only the heart knows its own grief.’ The
form of the word in Hebrew is unusual, with a
dagesh forte in the resh.

mora. Grief (in the sense of disappointment).
Only in Gen 26:35, expressing Isaac's chagrin at
Esau's decision to marry Hittite women.

maror. Bitterness, bitter herb. According to Ex
12:8 and Num 9:11 the bitter herb was to be eaten
on Passover with the passover meal. At first the
bitter herbs signified the haste with which the
meal was prepared (Ex 12:8) and later Jewish tra-
dition saw in the bitter herb a reminder of the
bitter treatment to which the Jews were subjected
in Egypt. Cf. Lam 3:15.

m‘rora. Bitter thing, herb, poison(ous). In Job
20:14 the word pictorally describes the viper’s
venom. Cf. also Deut 32:32: Job 13:26; 20:25.

m‘riri. Bitter, bitterness. Deuteronomy 32:24.
The reading in Job 3:5 is problematical. Instead
of kaph plus the root mdarar what we most likely
have is the root Admar Il, **to be dark,” and
hence the translation, *‘O “Eclipse” terrify it (i.e.,
the day of my birth).”’

Only in Ezk 21:6 [H 11].

memer. Bitterness, grief. Only Prov 17:25,
parallel to ka‘as ‘‘sorrow.”

Only in Job 9:18.

tamruir. Bitterness. The best known verse in
which this word appears is Jer 31:15 (=Mt 2:18).
Cf. also Jer 6:26 and Hos 12:14 [H 15}.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., “‘Qoheleth and
Recent Discoveries, Bib 39:302-18, esp. pp.
308-10. Gordon, C. H., UT 19: no. 1556.
Michaelis, W., ‘‘Pikros,** in TDNT, VI, pp.
122-25. On mor “‘myrrh’’: Van Beek, G. W.,
‘*Frankincense and Myrrh,’ BA _ 23:70-95.
, ‘Frankincense and Myrrh in Ancient
South Arabia,’ JAOS 78:141-52.

m‘ririt. Bitterness.

mamror. Bitterness.

V.P.H.

1249 =" (mrr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1249a 3% (mar) drop. Occurs only in

Isa 40:15, govim k*mar midd'li
‘‘nations (are) like a drop (hanging)
from a bucket.”

mista (m°réra). See no. 1248g.
mews (mirsha‘at). See no. 22221.
sr (massa’). See nos. 1421d,e.
sw (massd’). See no. 1421f.
ANWI (masse’ét). See no. 142th.
sav (misgab). See no. 2234a.
"372 (massoér). See no. 1423a.
1250 maw = (m° Sura) Derivation
uncertain.

measure.

wit (masds). See no. 2246b.
pmwr (mishaq). See no. 1905f.
mowwrs (mastéma). See no. 225la.
mow (m'sika). See no. 224ta.
ospwr (maskil). See no. 2263b.

529

1254 wr (modsheh)

moawr (maskit). See no. 2257c.
nsavr (maskdret). See no. 2264.1.
maw (misra). See no. 2288a.
mpnwr (masrépad). See no. 2292d.

1251 maw (masrét) pan, dish (11 Sam 13:9).

mw (mashsha). See no. 1424a.
Nsw (mashsha'on). See no. 142Sa.
miswr (mashsha'dt). See no. 1425b.

monwr (mish'ald). See no. 2303b.

1252) maswr (mish'eret) kneading troughibowl.

Flour would be mixed with water in this
household vessel, mish’eret, which already con-
tained fermenting dough. They were small
enough that they could be wrapped in one's cloth-
ing and transported on the shoulders (Ex 12:34)
with even the warmth of the body helping the
process of fermentation. The frogs filled these
vessels in one of the plagues in Egypt, Ex 8:3 [H
7:28). Cf. also Deut 28:5, 17. The word may be
related to §°’or “‘leaven.**

V.P.H.

mixswre (mishb’sot). See no. 2320b.
"swt (mashbér), "38 (mashbar). See
nos. 232Ic,d.
maw (mishbat).
maw (mishgeh),

See no. 2323e.
See no. 2325b.

1253 wr (masha) draw.

This verb appears only three times in the oT.
One is in the passage dealing with the giving of
the name Moses, Ex 2:10. The other reference is
II Sam 22:17 (and its parallel in Ps 18:16 (H 17)):
‘*(the Lord) draws me from deep waters.”

1254 mw (mdsheh) Moses.

The important verse surrounding the naming of
Moses is Ex 2:10. It reads: "She called his name
Moses (mosheh): and she said, because I drew
him (m° shitih#) out of the water.” In Hebrew the
proper name **Moses”™ is a Qal active participle
(masculine/singular) of the verb mdashda “to draw
(out), and hence is to be translated as *‘drawer
out’’ or “*he who draws out.’’ Morphologically.
the form of the name is what one would expect
from a type of verb such as mdshda, variously
descnbed by Hebrew grammanians as ‘'final
weak,” “‘tertia infirma,”’ ‘“‘lamed he’ and so
forth. Thus, one encounters the verb band “‘to
build’’ and bdneh ‘‘builder”’ in the same pattern.

It should be clear that the etymology given in
Ex 2:10 is not intended to be a precise philologi-
cal explanation, as is the case with most of the
onomastica of the Old Testament. If such were
the case, we would expect the name given to the
infant by the daughter of Pharaoh to be, not

1255 mw (mashah)

mosheh “‘he who draws out,’ but mashiuy **He
who is drawn out,’ 1.e., a participle that ts pas-
sive in form.

This does not mean then that the explanation of
the name given in Ex is misleading. Nor should
we go to the extreme of denying the historicity of
the event by suggesting that such a story rose as
an etiology of the name, i.e., that the story was
fabricated to answer someone's query, ‘*why was
our great ancestor called mosheh?’’ The answer
is that the name “‘Moses”’ is like many others a
pun, a word play based on assonance. The name
is explained not because Moses is derived from
masha but because it resembles it in sound.

For further clues some have looked to the
spelling of Moses in the Septuagint. There the
Greek form is moysés. Ancient writers explained
this as either ‘‘saved (ysés) from the water (m0o)™
or “‘taken (sés) from the water (mody).””

The consensus today is that ‘‘Moses** goes
back to an Egyptian root ms ‘‘child,’* mss *‘to be
born.’’ ms appears as a personal name in Egyp-
tian but is better recognized as the second part of
theophoric names: Ahmose: Ah _ is_ born;
Ptahmose: Ptah is born, taking mose as the Egyp-
tian old perfective of the verb mss. This Egyptian
root definitely appears in the Bible in the names
**Rameses’” (ra‘amsés, Ex 1:11) and *‘Ramses”’
(ra‘m®sés, Gen 47:11; Ex 12:37: Num 33:3, 5). In
Egyptian the form is R‘-ms-sw, ‘Re is he that
hath borne him,” the active participle mas fol-
lowed by the pronoun se “*him.”’

Linguistically, the problem is to account for
the relationship between the sibilants s in Egyp-
tian and sh in Hebrew. The problem is removed
by the demonstration that Egyptian writings of
Semitic names show mostly s for Semitic sh (Grif-
fiths, pp. 229-30).

Bibliography: Cassuto, U., A Commentary
on the Book of Exodus, Jerusalem: Magnes
Press, 1967, pp. 20-21. Cole, R., **Exodus,”’ in
Tyndale O.T. Commentaries, Inter-Varsity,
1973, pp. 58-59. Gardiner, A., *‘The Egyptian
Onigin of Some English Personal Names,’* JAOS
56:189-—97 ,esp. pp. 192-94. Griffiths, J. G., **The
Egyptian Derivation of the Name Moses,’ JNES
12: 225-31. TDNT, IV, pp. 848-64.

V.P.H.

mwa (mashsheh). See no. 1427b.

miwt (msho'a). See no. 2339b.
maw (m°shibd). See no. 2340e.
maw (m*shigad). See no. 234la.

iw (mashdt). See no. 2344e.

1255 my (mashah) anoint, spread a liquid.

Derivatives

1255a tamer (mishha)
1255b tAmwI =(moshha)

anointing oil.
portion.

530

1255c tm = (mashiah) anointed one.
1255d mwa «(mimshah) expansion
28:14). Meaning uncertain.

(Ezk

The verb mdashah with its derivatives occurs
about 140 times. It 1s most frequent in the Pen-
tateuch and historical books; in the prophets it is
found as a verb only twice with its religious con-
notation of sacred anointing (Isa 61:1; Dan 9:24).

mashah could refer in everyday usage to such
acts as rubbing (mashah) a shield with oil (Isa
21:5), painting (mashah) a house (Jer 22:14), or
applying (mashah) oil to the body (Amos 6:6).

Used in connection with religious ritual,
mashah involved a ceremonial application of oil
to items such as the tabernacle, altar or laver (Ex
40:9-11), or even the sin offering (Ex 29:36).
More frequently mashah is used for the ceremo-
nial induction into leadership offices, an action
which involved the pouring of oil from a horn
upon the head of an individual. Easily the most
frequent mention of »7ashah is with kings such as
Saul and David of Israel (II Sam 12:7: but note
Hazael, an Aramaean, I Kgs 19:15). The high
priest was anointed (Ex 29:7: Num 35:25) and so
were other priests (Ex 30:30). Twice there is
mention of anointing a prophet (I Kgs 19:16; Isa
61:1).

There is a fourfold theological significance of
mashah. First, to anoint an individual or an ob-
ject indicated an authorized separation for God's
service. Moses anointed Aaron “‘to sanctify him”
(l°gadd° shé, Lev 8:12; cf. Ex 29:36 for the al-
tar). Note the expression “‘anointed to the Lord”
(1 Chr 29:22). madshah, while representing a posi-
tion of honor. also represents increased respon-
sibility. Both Saul and David are called to ac-
count for their sin with the reminder, ‘‘I (the
Lord) anointed (mda@shah) you king’ (I Sam
15:17: I] Sam 12:7). Secondly, though the agent
might be the priest or prophet, writers speak of
anointed ones as those whom the Lord anointed
(e.g. I Sam 10:1: I] Sam 12:7). Such language
underscores that it is God who is the authorizing
agent: that the anointed is tnviolable (1 Sam
24:8ff.); and that the anointed one is to be held in
special regard (cf. | Sam 26:9ff.). Thirdly, one
may infer that divine enablement was understood
as accompanying mdshah. Of both Saul and
David it is said in connection with their anointing
that *‘the Spirit of God came mightily upon him”
(1 Sam 10:6ff; I Sam 16:13ff.). Finally, in the form
mashiah, mashah was associated with the com-
ing promised deliverer, Jesus. Though this as-
sociation with the term madshah is not as preva-
lent in the oT as often supposed, the prospect of a
righteous, Spirit-filled ruler is increasingly dis-
cernible in the ot (cf. Isa 9:1-7: 11:1-5; 61:1).

mashiah. Anointed, anointed one (ASV and RSV
similar). This word used as adjective and noun

occurs about forty times in the oT, primarily in
I-II Sam and Ps. While it may designate an office
such as the high priest (Lev 4:3), mashiah is al-
most exclusively reserved as a synonym for
‘*king’’ (melek, q.v.) as in poetry where it is in
parallel position with king (I Sam 2:10: I] Sam
22:51: cf. Ps 2:2: 18:50 [H 51]; but cf. Ps 28:8
where *‘people’’ is a counterpart term). Striking
are the phrases ‘the Lord’s anointed’ (mashiah
YHWH) or equivalents such as “his anointed”
referring to kings. Certainly a title of honor, the
expressions also emphasize the special relation-
ship between God and the anointed.

A much discussed point is the mention of
Cyrus, a non-Israelite, as the Lord’s anointed
(imshihé, Isa 45:1). If mashiah is envisioned as
an ideal king, godly and upright, then the designa-
tion of ‘‘anointed”’ causes difficulty, for Cyrus
was a worshiper of Marduk and other pagan
deities. Yet Cyrus was the Lord's appointee for a
definite task. The Isaiah passage suggests that
mashiah be understood as one singled out or
**chosen”’ (bdhar q.v.) for a task, characteristi-
cally one of deliverance—a deliverance of Israel
from their Babylonian captors returning them to
their homeland.

As for the king, that task centered on a righ-
teous rule in the context of grace included in
which was deliverance from oppression. Saul,
the first king, in his first major encounter
exemplified the qualities of a mashiah (1 Sam 11).

He was Spirit-endowed, brought victory over
the enemy Amalekites, and extended life to a
group who, because of their action, deserved
death (I Sam 11). Because of Saul’s sin and gen-
eral stance before God, it is David who becomes
the archetype of the mdshiah.

The Psalm literature especially regards
mashiah as God’s agent or vice-regent (as in Ps
2:2). In this much discussed passage the first
level of meaning may be that of an immediate
Israelite king, as the mdshiah against whom,
since he 1s aligned with God, enemies strike in
vain. Even the promise that the ends of the earth
be the possession of the madshiah fit the anticipa-
tions of Israel for their national king (Ps 72:8ff; Ps
18:44-48). But from the NT we learn that the
meaning of mashiah in Ps 2 cannot be limited toa
king about to be enthroned, but ts a reference to
the unique vice-regent, Jesus Christ (Acts
13:32ff; cf. Heb 1:5; 5:5). The so-called royal
psalms, including Ps 2 therefore, may be re-
garded legitimately as messianic, even though
some may refer initially to Israel's monarch. The
Psalm statements underline the just administra-
tion, the saving function and the universal rule of
Jesus Chnist.

(This view of double reference or a typical ful-
filment 1s doubtless applicable in some oT pas-
sages. It 1s widely held, however, that there are

531

1255. mwte (mashah)

some psalms and other prophetic passages which
can not refer to Israel's king or some contempo-
rary situation, but must refer to Christ directly.

Thus the royal psalm 45:6 [H 7] by natural and
Strict translation speaks of the king as divine and
Ps 110:1-S {H 2-6] refers to David's son as
David's Lord—and also says that this king is a
priest, a thing not allowed in Israel. (True, I] Sam
8:18 seems to call David's sons priests in the He-
brew, but there probably is a textual problem
here. The Hebrew strictly seems to call Benaiah
and the Cherethites priests. Actually, the Lxx of
this verse and the Hebrew and Lxx of the parallel
in | Chr 18:17 do not use the word “‘priest.’’)
There is warrant, therefore, for a direct messianic
reference on Ps 2. Indeed, v. 12 as normally
taken would imply that men are exhorted to put
their faith in this anointed son—surely not David.

It is true, however, that the coming Son of
David is seldom called Messiah in the oT, but see
below. Many other designations are used
(Branch, Shoot, Son of David, etc.). Even in the
pss the use of the word **Messiah”’ is ambiguous.
There is mention of a Messiah of Aaron and a
Messiah of Israel, apparently two figures, a king
and a priest, perhaps neither one the Messiah.
But also in the pss there is expressed in the Tes-
timonia and the Florilegium the hope of a coming
great Figure not tdentified with their leader, the
teacher of righteousness, nor called Messiah (ex-
cept once in the quotation of Ps 2:2), but called
the Scion of David, etc. (T. H. Gaster, The Dead
Sea Scriptures, rev. ed., Doubleday, 1964, pp.
297, 329, 334-39). The extensive use of the term
Messiah (Christ) as a title of the coming great
Son of David is primarily a NT phenomenon.
R.L.H.|

Not all who agree that the mdashiah is a refer-
ence to Chnst in Dan 9:26, also interpret
mashiah in the same manner in Dan 9:25, where
the description is of a prince. It should be
stressed, however, that the ot did employ the
term mashiah to designate the coming Savior,
Jesus.

The repeated claim that mdshiah in the otf
never refers to an eschatological figure, the Mes-
siah, hinges also for its validity on the interpreta-
tion of Dan 9:26. While some hold that the
anointed one (mashiah) ‘‘who is to be cut off”
was Onias III (deposed as high priest 175 B.c.),
there is strong warrant on the basis of the context
(v. 24) to regard the ma@shiah as none other than
Jesus Christ.
mishha. Anointing oil; anointment. (ASV and
RSV Similar.)

Found only in Ex, Lev, and Num, mishha re-
fers to the oil used in ritual anointing. The oil,
prepared according to prescription (Ex 30:22ff.),
was sprinkled (ndzd) on officials and their gar-

1256 %wra (meshi)

ments (Ex 29:21) but poured, ydsag. on the head
of the high priest (Ex 29:7; cf. Lev 8:10-12).

Described as holy, its application to tabernacle
and its furnishings sanctified (giddésh) these.
Priests who were anointed were restricted in ac-
tivity (Lev 21:12: cf. Lev 10:7). The setting apart
of men and things to God's service is better un-
derstood and appreciated through the tangible
symbol in this instance, a fragrant oil.

moshha. Portion. A part of some offerings (i.e.
peace offering, Lev 7:28—-35) was reserved as
a consecrated portion (moshhd) to the priest.
ASV, focusing on the priest renders /* moshha “by
reason of the anointing’ (Num 18:8).
Bibliography: Ellison, H. L., The Centrality
of the Messianic Idea for the OT, 1953. Harris,
R. L. ‘*Psalms’* in The Biblical Expositor ed.
C. F. H. Henry, Holman, 1973, pp. 435-452. J.
Jocz, *‘Messiah’’ ZPEB IV pp. 198-207. Payne,
J. B., The Theology of The Older Testament,
Zondervan, 1962, pp. 257-84. Richardson, TWB,
pp. 44-45. TDNT, LX, pp. 496-527.
V.P.H.

“mw (mishhar). See no. 2369b.
memwt (mashhit). See no. 2370a.
mmw (mashhét), mow (mishhat). See

nos. 2370b,c.
mow (misht6ah). See no. 2372b.
mew (mishtah). See no. 2372a.
sew (mishtar). See no. 2374b.

1256 %wr (meshi) a costly material for garment,
perhaps silk (Ezk 16:13).

mw (mashiah). See no. 1255c.

1257 sw (madshak) draw, drag, seize.
Derivatives

1257a tw (meshek) a drawing.

12576 «=onawr = =6(mdsheket) cord. Occurs
only in Job 38:31, modshkot k*sil
“the cords of Orion.”

The verb appears thirty-six times in the oT with
a variety of nuances attached to it.

All but six instances of the verb are in the Qal
stem. Three times the Niphal is used (Isa 13:22:
Ezk 12:25, 28) all with the meaning ** prolonged.”’
This is not, however, a distinctive use in the
Niphal. Thus, Ps 85:5 [H 6], **Will you prolong
your anger to all generations?’’ and Ps 36:10
[H 11], “Continue your loving kindness unto
them that know you” (both in the Qal stem). Cf.
Neh 9:30. Also, there are three uses of the Pual
(Isa 18:2, 7, “‘scattered’’ (kJv) and parallel to
marat, in KJV ‘‘peeled,’’ but better “‘tall and
bronzed*’): also, Prov 13:12, ‘‘Hope ‘deferred’
makes the heart sick.”

532

The following meanings are attached to the
verb mdshak in the Qal: (1) To draw in the sense
of **to raise’’ (Gen 37:28, **They drew, and lifted
(‘ala) up Joseph from the pit.’ Jeremiah 38:13.
‘*So, they hauled up Jeremiah with ropes,’* again
parallel to ‘ald. (2) To draw in the sense of “to
extend,” Ps 36:10 [H 11]: 85:5 [H 6] have already
been noted. Cf. also Ps 109:12 and Jer 31:3, °*For
you have | prolonged kindness.** (3) To draw in
the sense of ‘‘to draw in, associate with’: Ps
28:3, **Do not rank me with the wicked’’: Hos
7:5, *‘He stretched out his hand (mdshak yad6o)
with scorners’’ possibly means, **He associated
with scoffers.’ (See Gordon, UT 19: no. 1582 for
the phrase yd mtkt.) (4) To draw in the sense of
“to entice, allure, woo’: Job 24:22, **He lures
the mighty with his power’; perhaps also Job
21:33, ‘After him (the deceased) all men will fol-
low,’ if the phrase means that the surviving will
seek consciously to imitate the deceased's life
style, rather than simply a reference to a funeral
procession. Into this category we could also
place Hos 11:4, *‘1 drew them with cords of a
man’’; Jud 4:7, and at the level of human love,
Song 1:4. (5) To draw in the sense of to draw ona
weapon, a bow especially, | Kgs 22:34: II Chr
18:33; Isa 66:19: or blow extensively on a musical
instrument, a trumpet: Ex 19:13; Josh 6:5. (6) To
draw in the sense of *’seize’’ or “‘drag away’: Ps
10:9 (possibly): Job 41:1 [H 40:25]. Tur-Sinai in
his commentary on Job, in a footnote on p. 335
says that ‘‘nowhere in the Bible does mdshak
=‘draw’ but always like Arabic maska ‘to take
hold of, to snatch.** The statement is highly de-
batable. (7) To draw, simply as a synonym for
‘*go/march’’ Jud 4:6, or ‘‘take’’ (Ex 12:21). (8)
Finally we may note the phrase in Eccl 2:3, *‘]
sought in my heart ‘to draw’ (limshok) my flesh
with wine.’’ The usual interpretation of this is
seen in the rendering of this by the js, “‘I resolved
to have my body cheered with wine.”’ Appeal.
however, for this translation can only be made to
a passage in the Babylonian Talmud, Hagigah
I4a, b‘ly ’gdh mwskyn lbw $1 dm kmym, **mas-
ters of the Aggada (homiletic discourse) refresh
the heart of men hike water.”’

meshek. A drawing, bag, pouch, price. This
segholate noun occurs only twice. (1) Job 28:18:
‘The ‘price’ (or ‘acquisition’ according to Tur-
Sinai) of wisdom surpasses rubies.” (2) Ps 126:6:
**He that goeth forth and beareth ‘precious’
seed’ (KJV). Though this is a time honored and
traditional translation, a more preferable and
exact one 1s, “though he went forth weeping,
bearing/carrying a ‘bag’ of seed (ndsé’ meshek
hazzadra‘)."’ This Hebrew phrase can be con-
nected with Amos 9:13, “*... the treader of
grapes shall overtake the strewer of seed
(moshék hazzara’).”’ meshek, then, would be the

seed container carried by the sower. In several
related languages the word mshk means *‘skin,
leather,’ perhaps the substance from which such
a pouch would be made. Gordis (see Bibliog-
raphy) translates the phrase in Ps 10:9 bmshkw.,
not “he catches the poor ‘when he draws him’
into his net’’ but, “*he catches the poor in his bag
(b*mashko)” parallel to reshet “‘net, trap.”
Bibliography: Gordis, R., “*Psalm 9-10: A
Textual and Exegetical Study,’ JQR 48: 104-22,
esp. pp. 116-117. On mashak in Eccl 2:3, Corré,
A. D., *‘A Reference to Epispasm in Koheleth,”
VT 4:416-18, vs. Driver, G. R., “*Problems and
Solutions,” VT 4:225-45, esp. pp. 225-26. On
mesek, Kohler, L., **Hebraische Vokabeln II,”
ZAW 55:161-74, esp. pp. 161-62.
V.P.H.

sawn (mishkab). See no. 238ic.
noswi (m¢shakkelet). See no. 2385e.
Tw (mishkan). See no. 2387c.
now (modsheket). See no. 1257b.

1258 *5wr (mashal) I, represent, be like.
Derivatives

1258a toy (madshal) proverb.

I258b thw (mashal) Il, speak in a prov-
erb.

1258¢ tow (moshel) 1, like(ness).

[258d tw (m°shdl) byword.

The verb occurs seven times, five times in the
Niphal (Ps 28:1; 49:12, 20 ([H 13, 21}: 143:7; Isa
14:10). Inevitably the meaning is “to become
like. to be comparable to."’ The root appears
once in the Hiphil (Isa 46:5 parallel to damd)
again with the meaning “to compare.” and once
in the Hithpael (Job 30:19) with similar force in
the translation.

In all of the above passages the two objects
compared assume a contrast that is in its nuance
derogatory and belittling. Thus, ‘**I have become
like those who go down to the pit’ (Ps 28:1). °*To
whom will you liken me and make me equal?”
(Isa 46:5). ‘I have become like dust and ashes”
(Job 30:19).

Exactly what the relationship, if any, of ma-
shal “to be like’’ to mashal ‘to rule’’ is not
clear. As for cognate evidence it is sufficient to
note that the translation “‘to rule’ is unique to
Hebrew, but the translation “to be like’ is com-
mon in most Semitic languages. It has been
suggested that the Hebrew translation “‘to rule”
evolved from the mentality involved in the idea of
sympathetic magic: that is, that symbolic action
(here, ruling action) resembles the effects it
hopes to reproduce (Godbey). This association
has generally been discredited.

533

1258 *9wr (mashal)

mashal. Proverb, parable, allegory, byword,
taunt, discourse. Of great interest ts the wide
number of translations for this word in most En-
glish translations of the Old Testament. The sub-
stantive appears thirty-nine times (eight times in
Ezk).

To translate madshal simply as *‘‘proverb”™
misses the wide sweep of the word, suggested by
the many suggested translations. We are accus-
tomed to think of a proverb as a short, pithy,
epigrammatic saying which assumes the status of
gnomic truth. In the Old Testament, however,
the word mdshal may be synonymous with an
extended parable (and hence the frequent 1xx
translation parabolé) (Ezk 17:2 and vv. 2-24.
20:49 [H 21:5] and vv. 45—49 (H 21:1-5]; 24:3 and
vv. 3—14). It may refer to an extended didactic
discourse (Prov |:8-19 for example). A person
(Saul, | Sam 10:12: Job, Job 17:6) or a group of
persons (Israel, Ps 44:14 [H 15]. may function as
a mashal,

In this last connection notice the verse in] Sam
10:12, **So the saying, “Is Saul also among the
prophets?’ became a proverb.’ What is involved
here is the creation of a public example, in this
case the example of one, a royal figure, whose
public antics were questionable. The “proverb”
would then be applicable to anyone charged with
unorthodox behavior.

In a similar vein, note passages which translate
madshal as “‘byword”’’: Ps 44:14 [H 15]: 69:11
{H 12]: Jer 24:9; Ezk 14:8: Deut 28:37; | Kgs 9:7.
II Chr 7:20; Job 17:6. In each of these verses
some kind of doom has, or will, come upon Israel
or an individual. The result? God has made Israel
a mashal among the nations. Job has become a
mashal to his counselors and acquaintances.
What can this mean”? Much more is involved than
simply scorn or derision. The point ts that God
has made I[srael/Job a public example, an object
lesson to their respective contemporaries.
‘*Look, observe, and see your own life under my
judgment,’ the Lord says.

Analogous to these are the three times
prophets are told to lift a mashal, Isaiah against
the king of Babylon (Isa 14:4f.): Micah against his
own people (Mic 2:4) and stmilarly Habakkuk
(Hab 2:6). One might also add the passages in the
Balaam narratives, "And Balaam took up his
mashal (kjv discourse)’ (Num 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15,
20, 21, 23). In each of these instances there is an
object lesson painted. The haughty are humbled.
Those to be cursed are blessed and vice versa.
The first are last.

A. S. Herbert has well stated that in the Old
Testament the ‘‘proverb’’/madshal had *‘a clearly
recognizable purpose: that of quickening an ap-
prehension of the real as distinct from the wished
for... of compelling the hearer or reader to form
a judgment on himself, his situation or his con-

1259 Swr (mashal)

duct... This usage... comes to its finest ex-
pression in the Parables of Jesus’* (Herbert.
p. 196).

mashal II. To speak in a_ proverb, prov-
erbialize. All of the examples of this verb are in
the Qal stem (nine times) except for one use of
the root in the Piel, Ezk 21:5, ‘‘Is he not a maker
of parables?” (m°mashshél m*shdlim). Or, in
modern idiom, ‘He's always preaching.”

moshel. Like(ness). The noun occurs one time
in the Old Testament, Job 41:33 [H 25], ““Upon
earth there is not his like (the crocodile).”

m‘shol. Byword. This is used only once, Job
17:6 and, in form, is the infinitive construct of the
verb mshal II.

Bibliography: Godbey, A. H., **The Hebrew
MasSsal,’* AJSL 34:89-108. Herbert, A. S., **The
‘Parable’ (MASAL) In the Old Testament,’ SJT
7:180-96. Johnson, A. R., “9wira’ VTS 3:162-69.
McKane, W., Proverbs, Westminster, 1970, pp.
22-33.

V.P.H.

1259 45ers (mashal) III, rule, have dominion,
reign.

Derivatives
1259a town (modshel) II, dominion.
1259b = Syrara (mimshal) dominion.

1259c tm>yrrd (memshala) rule,
dominion.

realm,

mashal occurs about eighty times in Qal, three
times in Hiphil.

mashal usually receives the translation ‘‘to
rule, but the precise nature of the rule is as vari-
ous as the real situations in which the action or
state so designated occur. It seems to be the situ-
ation in all languages and cultures that words for
oversight, rule, government must be defined in
relation to the situation out of which the function
arises.

This will be illustrated by examining in order
the first several appearances of mashal in the
Bible. The sun and moon are said ‘‘to rule over
the day and over the night’* (Gen 1:18). They are
merely the most prominent luminaries over day
and night. Eve, standing for all wives, was given
to understand that in the home the husband
‘*shall rule over thee’’ (Gen 3:16). Such leader-
ship as is appropriate—and it varies greatly—for
a man to give his family ts meant. Cain was told
by God that he ought to master sin in his life, **Do
thou rule over him’’ (Gen 4:7). Management over
all the material goods of a master, as his steward,
and management of all the personnel of the en-
terprise is indicated in the case of Abraham's
‘servant’ (Eliezer of Damascus”? Gen 15:2): ‘his
eldest servant of his house, that ruled over all

534

that he had™ (Gen 24:2). Direction of affairs of a
large family as *‘firstborn-designate™’ is indicated
by Joseph's version of the sheaves—at least so
his angry brothers interpreted the vision: ‘Shalt
thou indeed reign over us’ (Gen 37:8). madshal is
used of Joseph's administration of Egypt as
Pharaoh's prime minister. So Joseph claimed he
had been made *‘a ruler throughout all the land of
Egypt’ (Gen 45:8); and his brothers agreed, “*he
is governor over all the land of Egypt’’ (Gen
45:26). The word occurs only once in Ex and
there of the rule of law [very significant] over
citizens of the Mosaic, Israelite civil common-
wealth “‘to sell her he shall have no power’ (Ex
21:8). The word ts not in Lev or Num, but in Deut
15:6: Moses asserts that the nation Israel shall
reign over other nations, under certain condi-
tions—some sort of national subservience to a
superior nation—and twice he uses mdshal, once
Qal perfect and once Qal imperfect. Context
seems to mean that the rulership is in being the
lending nation rather than the borrowing one.

Other instances, chosen somewhat at random,
show that the supremacy of rich people over poor
ones (Prov 22:7), of a fierce king over oppressed
people (Isa 19:4), oppressive rule of one people
over another (Jud 14:4: 15:11), leadership of a
league or alliance of nations (I Kgs 4:4—21), the
rule of God in providence (Ps 89:10 [H 9]). and
even the power of self-control (Prov 16:32) are
covered by the meaning of this word.

There is no specific theology to be drawn from
the meaning of the word. Yet the passages cited
and the seventy or so others not cited demon-
Strate the importance of the principle of author-
ity, the absolute moral necessity of respect for
proper authority, the value of it for orderly soci-
ety and happy living and the origin of all authority
in God, himself. Authority ts of many degrees
and kinds. It has various theoretical bases. It
originates in God. Man has no authority at all as
man but simply as God’s viceregent.

moshel. Dominion. Derived from mdashal, like
that word it is not always clear when sphere, geo-
graphical area of rule, is indicated and when the
bare fact of authority, sovereignty. It appears
only twice, viz., Zech 9:10, apparently in the
sense of geographical area (‘‘sea to sea... River
to the ends of the earth’’) and Dan 11:4 appar-
ently in the sense of sovereignty (‘dominion
wherewith he ruled"’). Controversies about Mes-
siah’s predicted reign, whether referring to bare
fact of rule (sovereignty) or geographical area
(sphere) will not be settled by the bare meaning of
this and cognate nouns and verbs.

memshala. Rule, realm, dominion. Though
used of God's rule (sovereignty, Ps 145:13) and
realm of rule (Ps 103:22), also of man’s rule
(might, If Chr 32:9; sovereignty, government, Isa

22:21: Mic 4:8), there is no case where it is out-
rightly used of Messiah's memshald. Four of the
seventeen occurrences relate to the prevalence of
the sun's light by day and of the moon's by night
(Gen 1:16; Ps 136:8, 9). A theology of the king-
dom of God,”’ so earnestly sought from this word
and others like it in form and meaning, apparently
cannot be derived from this quarter.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 930-32.
R.D.C.

mows (mishlah). See no. 2394d.
miowr (mishloah). See no. 2394e.
nmowr (mishlahat). See no. 2394f.
mewia (im shamma). See no. 2409f.

ww (mishman), Vetta (mashman). See

nos. 2410e,f.
yw (mishma'). See no. 2412f.
nyrwr (mishma‘at). See no. 2412g.
“wi (mishmar). See no. 2414f.
nsw (mishmeret), See no. 2414g.
mow (mishneh). See no. 242Ic.

sDwrS (mn shissad). See no. 2426a.

1260 pwr (msh‘). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1260a pwr (mish'i) cleansing. Occurs
only in Ezk 16:4, “*you were not
washed for cleansing.”
bipwr (mish'dl). See no. 2432b.

See no. 1260a.

wr (mish‘i).
ww (mash‘én). See

wer (Cmish'an),
nos. 2434a,b.
rapwr (mish'enet). See no. 2434d.
mew (mishpadhad). See no. 2442b.
pew (mnishpat). See no. 2443c.
enpwr (mishp‘tayim). See no. 244Ic.

1261 ;wr (mshq). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
I26la tw (mesheq) acquisition.
1261b = pwd =~ (mimshaq) possession. Oc-
curs only in Zeph 2:9, mimshaq
harul ‘a place possessed by weeds.”

mesheq. Acquisition, possession. (Both transla-
tions are conjectural.) The word appears only in
the difficult verse 15:2, *‘and the ‘heir is Eliezer
of Damascus” (kv). The translation ‘‘heir™ is
based on the hypothesis that the phrase ben-
mesheg 1s “‘the son of acquisition,’ i.e. heir to-
gether, with the reference in v. 3 to the “‘son of
my house’ (likely Eliezer) as his heir. Another
possibility is to connect mesheg with the verb
shaqagq ‘*to rush,”* and translate ‘‘the attacker of
my house’ (Snijders). Still a third possibility is to
relate mesheg to the verb shdaqa *‘to drink’’ and

535

1263 Nl (mat)

translate “the possessor of the goblet of my
house’’ (Gordon).

Bibliography: FEissfeldt, “The Alphabetic
Cuneiform Texts from Ras Shamra Published in
‘Le Palais Royal D’Ugarit’ Vol. II, 1957," JSS
5:1-49, esp. pp. 48-40. Gordon, C. H., **Damas-
cus in Assyrian Sources,” IEQ 2:174-75. Snij-
ders, L. A., ‘Genesis xv—The Covenant with
Abraham,” OTS °‘12:261-79.

See no. 2460a.
See no. 2452c.
See no. 2454b.

pwr (mashshaq).
mew (mashgeh).
pwr (mishgol).
mMipwr (mashqdp). See no. 2458c.
2pwla (mishgal). See no. 2454c.
nepwr (mishgelet). See no. 2454d.
yown (mishqa’). See no. 2456a.
maw (mishrad). See no. 2464a.

1262 ww (mdshash) feel.

The verb is used twelve times in the o7, three
times in the Qal (Gen 27:12, 21, 22), Isaac's *’feel-
ing of Jacob for purposes of identification. In
the Piel tt appears six times with either the mean-
ing “to grope’’ (Deut 28:29 (2 times]; Job 5:14;
12:25) or “‘to search’’ (Gen 31:34, 37). Three
times the verb is used in the Hiphil with the basic
meaning of *‘to feel’ (Ex 10:21; Jud 16:26).

Bibliography: Ruger, H. P., **Zum Text von
Sir 40, 10 und Ex 10, 21,°° ZAW 82:102-9.

mnw (mishteh). See no. 2477c.

1263 MM (mat) man.

One of the five words in Biblical Hebrew for
**man,’’ the other four being ‘a@dam, ‘ish, 'éndsh,
and geber. There seems to be no particular
nuance attached to this word as there is to some
of its synonyms, for example, ‘ddadm ~‘earth-
ling’: geber “hero.” Isaiah 3:25 uses mat paral-
lel with geber. Deuteronomy 2:34 and 3:6 distin-
guish mat from the naéshim *“‘women”™ and tap
‘*‘children”’ all of whom were placed under the
ban by the Israelites in the latter's conquest of
Sihon’s and Og’s kingdoms.

The substantive appears twenty-three times in
the ot, most often in Deut and Job (six times
each). The root is known both from Ugaritic and
Phoenician where the root mt means *‘lord, mas-
ter. The translation ‘lord, master’ is not found
in Biblical Hebrew, but may possibly be
documented in non-Biblical Hebrew (Yadin). Of
the twenty-three occurrences of the root in the
Bible it is not impossible that some of them may
be, in fact, derived from the verb mut *‘to die.”
So Pope (Job in AB) reads Job 24:12 ‘*from the
city the dying groan” instead of the traditional

1264 3M (mtg)

‘from out of the city men groan.’ The emenda-
tion is from m tim to métim. The second half of
the verse would seem to support this, “the gasp
of wounded cry out.”

In the Bible the most interesting uses of mat
are those in which it is fossilized in expressions
like mté mispar “*few” and in personal names
such as **Methushael” (Gen 4:18) and **Methu-
selah”’ (Gen $:21-22, 25-27).

The use of mté mispar “few,” is the most
prevalent use of mat. It describes the minimal
fighting force available to Jacob (Gen 34:30) and
to Reuben his firstborn (Deut 33:6). The phrase
may also refer to the sparse number of Hebrews
in Egypt before the Exodus (Deut 26:5: Ps
105:12=I Chr 16:19). Or. it describes a remnant
of Jews that escape catastrophe (Deut 4:27:
28:62: Jer 44:28). How the phrase mté mispar
comes to mean “few” is obvious. It means liter-
ally, “*men of number,” i.e. numerable, as op-
posed to innumerable. and therefore “few.”

The translation of the name of the Bible's elder
statesman, Methuselah, seems straightforward,
‘*man of the spear/weapon’’ composed of the two
Hebrew words, mat ““man™ and shelah, “‘“wea-
pon’’ (and comparing the second element with
the Hebrew name Shelah in Gen 19:24; 11:14:
I Chr 1:18). It has been suggested (Tsevat) that
shelah has nothing to do with “‘spear’” or any
other weapon but that this represents a divine
name shalah, the god of the infernal river of the
Canaanite population of Palestine and Phoenicia.
Thus Methuselah means ‘‘man of Shalah.** Noth-
ing, however, militates against the traditional
translation.

Finally, we may note that the Hebrew mat de-
scribes disreputable or disadvantaged men. Thus.
Isa 41:14 says, “Fear not you worm Jacob and
you men of Israel.’* The latter part of this verse is
rendered by sb, ‘‘Israel, puny mite.’ In Ps 26:4
the Psalmist expresses his dissociation from
mté-shaw’ **vain persons” KJV, (also Job 11:11).
Similarly, Job 22:15 refers to m‘té-’a@wen **wicked
men.’ On the other hand, Job 19:19 refers to **the
men of my secret’’ who have forsaken Job. The
phrase ‘men of my secret’’ means something like
“bosom friends.** Job (31:31) refers to the **men
of my tent’’ whom he had befriended.

Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., **The Authen-
ticity of the Phoenician Text from Parahyba,”’
Orientalia 37:75-80, esp. p. 76. idem., UT 19: no.
1569. Tsevat. M., **The Canaanite God Salah,”
VT 4:41-49. Yadin, Y., "‘A Hebrew Seal from
Tell Jemneh.” Eretz-Israel 6:53-55.

V.P.H.

wr (matbén). See no. 2493a.
1264 3mm (mtg).
1264a AR

Assumed root of the following.
(meteg) bridle.

rims (matoqg). See no. 1268c.

1265 mit (madtah) spread out. Occurs only in
Isa 40:22, wavvimtahém “‘and he spread
them out.”

Derivative
1265a = AMAS ('amtahat) sack (Gen 42-44).
1266 °nl (mdatay) when.

1267

536

This interrogative particle appears forty-three
times in the oT, most frequently in Ps (thirteen
times) and Jer (seven times). Twenty-one times it
follows the preposition ‘ad to form the expres-
sion ‘ad mdtay “until when” or “how long?”
Such a construction is similar to the Hebrew ‘ad
‘an(a) also meaning ““how long?” In a few in-
stances ma@tay appears in a simple question ask-
ing for an answer with information: Ex 8:5; Neh
2:6: Dan 8:13; 12:6. Preponderantly. however,
the word (or phrase) is used in a rhetorical ques-
tion urging appropriate action by the addressee:
(1) by God himself, I Sam 16:1: Ps 82:2: (2) by
man addressed to God, Ps 6:3 [H 4]: 42:2 |H 3};
74:10; 82:2: 90:13; 94:3: 101:2: 119:82, 84; (3) by
man to his fellow man, Gen 30:30: I Kgs 18:21,
inter alia. Comparable tn the nT is the phrase
heds pote (Mt 17:17: Jn 10:24: Rev 6:10).

Bibliography: Jenni, E.. ““matay” in THAT,
I, 933-36.

mjon (matkonet). See no. 251 Ic.
miven (mrall’6t). See no. 2516d.

anda (mtom). See no. 2522e.
779 (tn). Assumed root of the following.
1267a *O93N (motnayin) loins, hips.

The word appears forty-seven times in the
Bible with perhaps one instance of its use in ques-
tion (see the discussion below on Prov 30:31).
Dahood (in AB, Psalms I, p. 267) changes the
word division (and the vocalization) of the phrase
in Ps 44:19 [H 20]), bint’ gdm tannim “in the
place of the monsters/dragons’* to b'mog mot-
navim, and translates the verse, “‘tho’ you
crushed us with festering of the loins and covered
us with total darkness.’ Like other words in He-
brew for parts of the body motnayim is dual in
form. Compare similarly, ‘oznayim “ears,”
yddavim ‘hands, raglayim “feet.” hdlasayim
‘loins’ (parallel to mornayim in Isa 11:5).

Generally speaking, we may say that mot-
nayim, used in a purely physical or anatomical
sense, refers to the hips or lower part of the back,
i.e. the middle of the body. Some (see Held in
Bibliography) have objected to the translation
*‘loins."" Held argues for something like ‘‘ten-

dons’ or “‘sinews and says that Hebrew
motnavimn “refers to the strong musculature Jink-
ing the upper part of the body with the lower part
and not ‘Loins’ as such. ° For support of this note
that in Job 40:16 b*motnaw “in his loins” is
parallel to bishriré bitnd ‘in the muscles of his
stomach” (not ‘in the navel of his belly” as in
KJV). We also know that Akkadian matnu means
**bowstring’’ and in Ugaritic mtn was used in
making composite bows, and thus a very strong
material. So then, the Ugaritic phrase mfnim
b‘qgbt tr means *‘tendons of the hoofs of a bull.”

In a very few, if any, places 1s motnayim a
symbol of the generative organs of mankind, and
hence a description of one’s descendants. (But
possibly so in Job 40:16.) Thus, in the phrase in
Gen 35:11, “‘And kings shall come out of thy
loins’ the word used 1s hdlds (also I Kgs 8:10;
I] Chr 6:9). Another word used to refer to the
‘loins’ as a seat of procreative power is yareé&,
**Which came out of the loins (va@rék) of Jacob”
(Gen 46:26; also Ex 1:5: Jud 8:30). But to repeat,
motnayim 1s not employed in such a context.

Primarily motnayim is used simply to indicate
the middle of the body. Ezkiel (47:4) saw the
stream flowing from the temple rise, first of all. as
high as his knees, then as high as motnavim “his
waist. (Cf. also Ezk 1:27: 8:2.) Here is where a
belt/linen cloth was fastened: | Kgs 2:5 (Joab and
David): I] Kgs 1:8 (Elyah): Isa 11:5 (used figura-
tively and messianically): Jer 13:1. 11—Jeremiah
is told (in a symbolic vision) to take the linen
loincloth he is wearing around his waist and bury
it in the hole of a rock by the Euphrates. The
intent of this ts to show that Israel, whom the
Lord had fastened as close to himself as a belt,
had now broken away from her Lord and would
decay. From this part of the body a soldier's
sword was hung: II Sam 20:8; Neh 4:18 [H 12}.
When the Lord says (Isa 45:1) that before Cyrus
he will subdue nations ‘and strip the loins of
kings the latter phrase probably means to ren-
der the kings powerless by taking away their
weapons from their belt. Here is where a scribe
hung hts ink horn (Ezk 9:2~3. 11: ‘*side’’ in KJv).

Several times people are told to ‘gird up their
loins” that is, tie up the long lower garments
around the middle of the body in preparation for
running (I Kgs 18:46 with the verb s/dnas): or
quick traveling (Ex 12:11: H Kgs 9:1: 4:29 with
the verb /dgar): and in a figurative sense (Jer
1:17 with the verb ‘dzar. Here “‘to gird up your
loins’* means “‘brace yourself for action. '* Com-
pare in the New Testament the identical phrase in
Lk 12:35: Eph 6:14; I Peter 1:13 (osphys).

The loins are the seat of strength (Job 40:16:
Nah 2:1 {H 2]). especially of male as connected
with virility, but also of the female (Prov 31:17).
To damage the loins is to weaken or render help-
less (Deut 33:11; Ps 69:23 [H 24}).

1268 pn (matdg)

Proverbs 30:30-31 mentions in order (accord-
ing to KJv) the lion, greyhound, he-goat, a king.
The second one, greyhound, in Hebrew ts carzir
motnayim, literally “girt at the loins.”’ Most
modern commentators prefer the identification
“*cock.”

Bibliography: Held, M., “Studies in Com-
parative Semitic Lexicography.”” in Studies in
Honor of Benno Landsberger On His Seventy-

fifth Birthday, University of Chicago. 1965. pp.

395-06, esp. p. 405. On Prov 30:31, Bewer. J. A..
"Two Suggestions on Prov. 30:31 and Zech.
9:16. JBL 67:61-62. McKane, W., Proverbs,
Westminster, 1970. pp. 260, 663-64.

V.P.H.

wr (matian). See no. 1443b.

Bsns (motnayim). See no. 1267a.

1268 SMI (mdtoq) be sweet.
Derivatives
1268a = 3M) (meteq) sweetness (Prov 16:
Zhe 2759).
1268b = BHM = (mdteq) sweetness (Jud 9:11).
1268c = BM (nidtoqg) sweet, sweetness.
1268d = BRD = ( mamtagqqim) sweetness

537

(Neh 8:10: Song 5:16).

A Stative verb (on the pattern of gdton “be
small**) appearing eight times in the oT, all in the
Qal stem except for Job 20:12. ‘If evil gives a
sweet taste in his mouth’ and Ps 55:14 ({H 15},
**We used to take sweet counsel together.’ Both
are Hiphil.

The precise definition of this root is seen in its
frequent juxtaposition, for purposes of contrast,
to one of the Hebrew words for honey or hon-
eycomb, something quite palatable. Thus Ps
19:19 [H fl] asserts God's judgments are
‘*sweeter than honey (d‘bash) and the honey
that drips from the comb (ndpet sapim).” A simi-
lar idea is expressed in Ps 119:103, although the
word there for ‘"sweet™’ is the verb mdlas “be
smooth. agreeable. In response to Samson's
riddle the people say, *“What is sweeter than
honey?” Ezekiel (3:3) says God's word was to
him *‘as honey for sweetness’ (cf. Rev 10:10).
Kindred ideas are found in Prov 16:24: 24:13.

It should be recalled that honey (d° bash) in the
oT not only refers to bee's honey but also to date
syrup. There are at least two references, how-
ever, to bee’s honey: (1) Samson in Jud 14:8ff.;
(2) Jonathan in I Sam 14:24-30. Along with
leaven it was banned in the burnt offering (Lev
2:11). Naturally, its quality of sweetness caused
it to be used figuratively for gracious and pleasant

1268 Dri (matdg)

things including God's Word (Ps 19:10 {H 11]), fruit of an apple tree (Song 2:3): the light of day
the wisdom of the Torah (Prov 24:13), and the (Eccl 7:11).

speech of a friend (Prov 16:24). V.P.H.
Waters also might be sweet (Ex 15:25; Prov
9:17): the lack of insomnia (Eccl 5:12 [H 11]): the mr (mattat). See no. 1443d.

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THEOLOGICAL
WORDBOOK
OF THE
OLD TESTAMENT
Volume 2

R. Laird Harris, Editor
Gleason L. Archer, Jr., Associate Editor

Bruce K. Waltke, Associate Editor

MOODY PRESS
CHICAGO

1269 8)

Particle of entreaty or exhortation (e.g. Gen
12:13; Num 20:10). An interesting example of the
use of this particle is found in Ps 118:25, héshi'a
na’ *‘O Lorp save us” (NIV). This cry was taken
up at the time of the triumphal entry when the
crowd quoted the context also “‘blessed is he who
comes in the name of the Lorp (v. 26: Mt 21:9).
The Greek Adsanna is a transliteration of the He-
brew phrase *‘O save us,” even including the
phonetic doubling of the » of the particle na’. In
Lk 19:39 it is recorded that some of the Pharisees
called on Jesus to rebuke his desciples for this
outburst, but he instead declared that if the disci-
ples were quiet the very stones would speak. One
reason for the Pharisees’ reaction, doubtless, is
that in the oT the cry ‘save us’’ is addressed to
the Lorp (YHWH). In the nT it is addressed to
Jesus, the Son of David. The Pharisees regarded
this ascription of praise to Jesus as high blas-
phemy, though they ascribed it to the ignorance
of the crowds. Jesus accepted it as glorious truth.

R.L.H.

(na@’) I (we) pray; now.

N82 (nd’) II. See no. 1358.
1270 “N83 (nod'd) skin, bottle, skin

4:19: I Sam 16:20).

(e.g. Jud

127}

*NI (na'a) be beautiful, befitting.
Derivative
127la iN? (na’weh) beautiful.

The verb na’da, which occurs only in the Pael,
denotes the state of being beautiful (cf. nad’ weh),
or suitable. It is applied to the hair of a beautiful
woman (Song 1:10; 1:5), and to the messengers
(the feet being pars pro toto) who in the eschaton
bear the gospel (so E. J. Young, The Book of
Isaiah, Eerdmans; Isa 52:7). In Ps 93:5 it would
seem better to translate ‘‘befitting’’ since the
parallel idea is ‘mn ‘*faithful, steady’’). See the
following synonyms: ydpd “‘to be or become
beautiful,’ and nd‘am ‘be pleasant, lovely.”
The word occurs three times.

na’weh. Beautiful, comely, suitable. Feminine
forms are na'wd and ndwé (the latter indistin-
guishable from nawa ‘‘pasture’’; see no. 1322a).
ASV and RSv similar (except Ps 147:1, see below).
This adjective denotes beauty or suitability. Syn-
onyms afe fipda'ra “‘beauty, glory.’ tob ‘good,
beautiful’ (infrequently), sbi ‘‘decoration,
beauty,’ and na‘im “pleasant, delightful, lovely.”
Our adjective occurs ten times.

That our adjective can signify beautiful is evi-
dent from Song 6:4 where it is parallel to vapeh.
This is especially clear since in this same book
our adjective describes one’s countenance (2:14,
parallel to ‘dréb, pleasant, KB: cf. 7:6 [H 7]). The
primary female voice retorts that although tanned
by the sun and toughened by outside work (Song
1:6), yet she is beautiful (Song 1:5; Jer 6:2).

Our adjective obviously means ‘‘suitable, be-
fitting’ in several places. In Prov 17:7 it is said
that it is unbefitting for a senseless foolish man
(KB; opposite to ndgid, a well-bred responsible
man; see ndgad) to make himself ‘‘important and
weighty in a shameless imprudent manner.”’
Similar clarity arises from the parallelism of Prov
19:10 where luxury is said to be unfitting for a
fool (Prov 26:1).

Two passages deserve further consideration.
First, Ps 147:1 where it is said that it is good (165)
to sing praises to God, that it is pleasant (nd‘im,
not ‘‘God is gracious,’ RSv), and that praise is
comely. The parallel with nd‘im moves us toward
“lovely.”

The other passage is Ps 33:1 where rsv rightly
sharpens asv ‘‘comely"’ to ‘‘befits’’ (Prov 17:7;
19:10; 26:1). The translations of both versions re-
veal no parallel in our verse (although the im-
mediately following verses do). The parallelism
can be regained if one recognizes the vocative
lamed before y°sharim (UT, 12:6, p. 109) and
translates, *“O ye upright, praise ts appropriate.”’
(See also Dahood AB ‘‘Psalms”’ I p. 201).

LiJdC.

MIN] (na’weh). See no. 127]a.
M8) (na'a). See no. 1322a.
1272 O82 (na’am) say. (asv and Rsv similar.)
Derivative
I272a TONS (num) utterance.

541

This root is used exclusively of divine speak-
ing. Hence, its appearance calls special attention
to the origin and authority of what is said. The
verb occurs only in Jer 23:31. It is possibly a
denominative verb. Many other words are used
similarly (‘'dmar, dabar, etc.).

n’am. Utterance, oracle. RSV and aSsv similar in
most instances. However, RSV superior in Num
24:3; II Sam 23:1. This noun is patterned after the
Qal passive participle (GKC, 50a). Our noun oc-
curs only as a formula (accompanied by the sub-
ject) declaring the divine (or claim therefor, Jer

1273 S82 (na’ap)

23:31: Ps 36:1 [H 2], etc.) origin and authority of
the message so described. Especially contrast
massa’ referring to a message of judgment.
n° rm occurs 360 times, all but twice in prophetic
contexts (Prov 30:1: Ps 36:1 [H 2]), only twenty
times outside the prophetic books, 167 times in
Jer, 83 times in Ezk. 23 times in Isa, 21 times in
Amos, 20 times in Zech.

The meaning of the noun appears clearly in Jer
23:31 where God declares his opposition to false
prophets who add to their statements "n° '4n7,"
i.e. God said it. This basic meaning is equally
clear in Ezk 13:7 where God denounces the false
prophets, declaring that they saw no true visions.
uttered lying divinations. and claimed divine au-
thority when he had not spoken. In Jer 9:22
[H 21] the prophet is commanded to preface his
oracle with “this is an'a@m of Jehovah’ “‘as a
distinctive word from God to banish all doubt of
the truth of the statement” (KD, Jeremiah, I, in.
loc.). Sometimes this formula is augmented by a
divine oath stressing the seriousness. etc., of the
utterance (Ezk 20:3, 31: 33:11). In the prophets
the last half of this formula usually consists (Isa
56:8) of some divine covenantal appellation, 1.e..
the Lord and King (Jer 46:18). The latter name is
especially significant in view of the arguments of
M. Kline, Treaty of the Great King (Eerdmans,
1963). Many passages are not correctly rendered
by either the rsv or AS¥ (so, KD). The noun ought
to be rendered something like *‘an utterance of”
(Zech 12:1), ‘‘a judgment: words against Israel: a
revelatory utterance of Jehovah.”

The occurrences of our noun outside the pro-
phetic books exhibit many interesting themes.
One of the pivotal passages in the o1 is Gen
22:16. This is the only recorded conjunction of
this term and God's self-oath (cf. Heb 6:13f.) in
patriarchal history. The noun also introduces
Balaam’s “scepter” prophecy (Num 24:1 Sff).
David (11 Sam 23:1) clearly recalls both of these
prophecies in form and substance (cf. KD. in
loc.). The nant was as certain as divine
monergism. Of course, “eternal” attached to
God's covenant is divinely conditioned as to its
application (cf. KD. in loc.. | Sam 2:30). The spe-
cial significance of the divine oath sanctioning a
covenant is seen in the Nt discussion concerning
the difference between the Abrahamic (Gal 3:
Heb 6:16ff.) and the Mosaic covenants (Heb 7).
The 2° ta of Jehovah addressed to “*my Lord
(‘adoni).” in Ps 110:1 contains a covenant sanc-
tioned by an oath (v. 4: cf. Heb 7:21). Interest-
ingly, in Ps 36:1 [H 2} “‘transgression’’ is the
claim of divine revelation. [But cf. Niv, “"An
oracle is within my heart/concerning the trans-
gression of the wicked.” k.L.H.| Proverbs 30:1 is
a problematic passage and is explained by KD as
showing that what comes from the heart (i.e. the
words of Agur) are solemnly earnest. However.

542

perhaps the idea of direct revelation from God
ought to be included, too.
Bibliography: THAT, Il, p. 1.
EsJ-C,

1273 482 (naap) commit adultery.

Derivatives
1273a ANS (nap) adultery (Ezk 23:43,
Jer 13:27).
1273b =IDN2) «6(na'dptiip) adultery (Hos

2:4, only).

This root represents ‘‘sexual intercourse with
the wife or betrothed of another man’ (KB). Our
word should be compared with zdnd, illicit
heterosexual relations but not necessarily in
violation of the marriage vow, and the noun
nokriva, a foreign woman who was generally in a
lowered social position and in Prov 5:20; 6:24,
e.g.. obviously a practitioner of harlotry (cf. Rsv).
Our root occurs thirty-four times.

The importance of this root exceeds appear-
ances since its use in the seventh commandment
constitutes a basic constituent of social law and
its religious theological use unveils a major ele-
ment in Israel's religion.

The seventh commandment (cf. R. J.
Rushdoony. The Institutes of Biblical Law (Nut-
ley:Craig Press. 1973) requires sexual purity.
This contrasts with the infidelity and promiscuity
sanctioned and practiced by the official cultus of
the rest of the ancient near east. The religion of
Jehovah represents adultery as a heinous crime
against God (Job 31:11 where adultery is in view,
though the word nd@'ap is not used), man, and
society: a breach of the marriage contract before
God, a dishonor done to God by placing man’s
will above God's (Gen 2:24), a rebellious act done
with deliberation, needless (1 Cor 7:2), the high-
est sort of theft. i.e. stealing a neighbor's flesh, a
debasing of the adulterer, making him a senseless
wild ass (Jer 5:8), a means of destroying one’s
reputation (Prov 6:32-33), or impairing one’s
mind (Hos 4:11-14), etc. Consequently, under
Moses, adultery (even with an engaged girl, Deut
22:23f.) merited death (Lev 19:20: 20:10) whereas
fornication (cf. z@nd) did not. Even desire for
another man’s wife was wrong (the tenth com-
mandment). The method of death was in some
cases, burning (Gen 38:24), and more generally
stoning (Deut 22:23f.: Ezk 16:38-40: cf. Jn 8:5).
Divorce except for unfaithfulness (Hos 2:5,
11-12; Ezk 16:37-38: 23:29) was hateful to God
(Mal 2:16) and in some circumstances expressly
forbidden (Deut 22:19, 29). However, out of con-
cern for Israel's hardness of heart this was miti-
gated (Deut 24:1; Mt 19:18). A woman suspected
of adultery had to face a trial by ordeal (Num

5:11-31: cf. ganda’ [perhaps not technically an
ordeal like the Assyrian practice of throwing an
accused person into the river to see if he would
survive. There was no current physical danger in
the ot ritual. There was a solemn oath in the holy
place which would be a severe psychological test
for a guilty woman, and there was also threatened
a visitation of God's providence. R.L.H.]). This is
both an act of mercy (she could be vindicated of a
false accusation) and an institutionalization of
woman's commanded submission to man. Im-
modesty, seen as a needless inducement to adul-
tery (II Sam 11:2), was forbidden (Ex 20:26; II
Sam !10:4-5). Godly men sought to discipline their
eyes (Job 31:1: cf. II Pet 2:14), and hence, their
minds (Mt 5:28). Prostitution was forbidden (Lev
19:29). Priests were commanded not to marry a
prostitute (21:7). If their daughters turned prosti-
tutes (temple?) they were to be executed (v. 9).
Sacred prostitution, homosexuality (Lev 18:22:
Deut 23:18), bestiality (Ex 32:19), and transvesti-
ture (Deut 22:5) were all forbidden as violations
of the sanctity of marriage (PTOT, p. 330f.).
Positively, marriage was to be observed both
as an act (J Cor 7:2) and as a structural institution
(Eph 5:23). It was honorable (Heb 13:4). Mates
were to be chosen from the covenant community
(Ex 34:16: cf. Il Cor 6:14ff.; Heb 11:31: Mt 1:5).
Captive women became members of the coven-
ant community by virtue of marriage (Deut
21:13). Polygamy, implicitly forbidden in the cre-
ation covenant, was probably forbidden in Lev
18:18. Marriage was covenantly constituted be-
fore God (Prov 2:17), required the husband's evi-
denced ability to support a family (Prov 24:27),
and love for his wife (Prov 5:15-19: cf. Eph 5:25).
The theological uses add an instructive dimen-
sion to covenantal theology. Contemporary
studies in the covenant demonstrate that biblical
covenants parallel ancient law treaties. Our word
reminds us of the fact that God relates to his
people not only as sovereign king but as husband
(cf. gana’, etc.). This religious symbolical use of
nd'ap is attested in Lev 20: 10ff. (cf. 18:20ff.: Jer
23:14) where it is aligned with Molech worship
and profaning God’s name (cf. Ezk 23:37). The
prophets apply this figure in describing Israel's
sin. Hosea depicts a connection between Israel's
faithlessness to Jehovah and the dissolution of all
social and religious ties: ‘‘where religious union
with Jehovah is not kept sacred, there no human
marriage can be secure. Sensuality produces reli-
gious whoredom and religious whoredom again
issues into physical whoredom (4:11, 14)" (Vos,
BT, p. 298). Sin is the want of conformity to the
ideal of marriage affection and loyalty. Israel is
condemned for disavowing God's claims as the
marriage lord. They have served other gods by
practicing cultic and spiritual prostitution (4:11-
12). Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah (limitedly) also

343

1274 PS? (na’as)

use this figure to depict the sin of God’s people
(Ezk 16:32ff; Jer 3:8f.; Isa 57:3).

Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 729-32.
L.J.C.
AIPN] «=(na’dpup). See no. 1273b.
1274 YR] (na'as) despise, abhor.
Derivatives
1274a iMES8] (n°’asa) contempt (Il Kgs
19:3=Isa 37:3).
1274b TREN] (ne’adsd) contempt, blasphemy

(Neh 9:18, 26: Ezk 35:12).

The aSv and rsv translate nd@’as variously, with
the latter being superior at I Sam 2:17, and in-
ferior at Ps 10:3, 13; 74:10, 18: If Sam 12:14.

Our root signifies the action or attitude
whereby the former recipient of favorable dispo-
sition and/or service is consciously viewed and/or
treated with disdain. Consider the following
synonymous parallels: mara **to rebel against au-
thority’ (Ps 107:11): ‘dba *“‘to be unwilling and
disinclined toward obedience” (Prov 1:30): sdné'
‘to hate’ (Prov 5:12), not believing in the Lord
(Num 14:1), to forsake God (‘dzab, Isa 1:4),
ma'as “to reject,’ Isa 5:24, harap ‘to say sharp
things, reproach, scorn’ (Ps 74:10). For
synonyms see md'as. Cf. Akkadian na’dsu ‘‘be-
little, despise” and Ugaritic n'as (AisWUS
1731). Our root occurs twenty-nine times (Eccl
12:5 1s from ndsas with a pleonastic aleph).

God prophesies Israel’s utter apostasy in the
face of overwhelming blessing (Deut 31:20ff.).
The rejection of the covenant will result in a re-
versal of divine favor (Deut 32:19). The root con-
noting the opposite of covenantal favor was
applied to judgment as a warning (Num 16:30)
and fulfillment (Isa 1:4; Lam 2:6). God's longsuf-
fering (Rom 2:4) overlooked repeated rejections
and scorning of his person (Num 14:11: Ps 10:3),
sanctions (Ps 10:13), counsel (Ps 107:11), and
word (Isa 5:24). To the **despiser’’ nothing that is
God's ts considered holy (Isa 52:5: cf. Isa 1:4:
Deut 31:19). Thus, he not only ‘“‘deprecates
God's power and ability to carry out his threats”
but his contemptuous view of God leads him to
prefer sin to God and to express this contempt in
conscious contempt of God (cf. E. J. Young, Isa
1:4). The eschaton will see the divine conquest of
oppressor and scoffer (cf. Jer 33:24; Isa 60:14).

n°’asa. Contempt. This noun (I] Kgs 19:3: Isa
37:3 only) denotes the effect of divine na@‘as.
Hence, Hezekiah describes Israel's peril as a day
of trouble sara, reproof t6kahat, and contumely.

ne’asa. Contempt. This noun (Ezk 35:12; Neh
9:18, 26 only) denotes the external result of
human na’as against God and/or his elect.

1275 Ps2 (naaq)

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 3-6.

| al Oe
1275 28) (naaq) groan (Ezk 30:24; Job
24:12).
Derivative
1275a = MPN2 (n"'aqd) groan, groaning

(e.g. Ex 2:24; Jud 2:18).

1276 *"983 (na’ar) abhor, spurn (Lam 2:7. Ps
89:40). Occurs only in the Piel.

1277 *832 (naba’) prophesy. Denominative

verb.

Parent Noun

1277a t8°3)) (nabi’)
prophet.

12776 = BRIS2 (n’ bti’a) prophecy.

1277c = ASY32 «(n° bia) prophetess.

spokesman, speaker,

nabi’. Spokesman, prophet. The derivation of
nabi’ is a matter of controversy. The old
Gesenius Lexicon (ed. Tregelles), for example,
derives this noun from the verb ndba‘, ‘the ayin
being softened into aleph,’’ and meaning to bub-
ble up,” “boil forth,’ hence, “‘to pour forth
words, like those who speak with fervour of mind
or under divine inspiration, as prophets and
poets.’ Ewald, Haevernick and Bleek agree (see
Samuel Davidson, Introduction to the OT, Ill,
p. 230) as does also Oehler (OT Theology, p. 363).
For these reasons this group of authors have sup-
posed that to utter revelations from God's spirit
(ecstatic speech) is the function of the nabi’.
The mood is said to be active. Other, older
writers, including S. Davidson (ibid., p. 430),
have employed the same derivation and said
the mood is passive, to receive God’s speech and
then to proclaim it, emphasizing the reception of
divine communication by the nabi’. Most recent
scholarship turns the relationship of nadbda’ and
nabi’ around doubtless rightly, regarding the verb
as denominative (BDB, TDNT, VI, p. 796).

The tendency has been away from regarding
the active idea of speaking ecstatically as the es-
sential meaning of prophesying: ‘‘Rowley...
demonstrates [Harvard Theological Review,
38: 1-38] that the word nab/, though of uncertain
etymology, cannot be used as an argument for the
ecStatic nature of the prophets”’ (Eissfeldt, ‘‘The
Prophetic Literature,” in The OT and Modern
Study, ed. H. H. Rowley, Oxford Press, 1951, p.
142).

Actually the views of the derivation are four.
1) From an Arabic root, naba‘a ‘to announce,”
hence ‘‘spokesman™ (Cornill, Koenig, Eiselen,
G. A. Smith). 2) From a Hebrew root, naba’ sof-
tened from ndba‘* *‘to bubble up,’ hence pour

544

forth words (Gesenius, von Orelli, Kuenen,
Girdlestone, Oehler). 3) From an Akkadian root
nabi ‘to call,’’ hence one who is called [by God]
(Albright, Rowley, Meek, Scott), hence one who
felt called of God; 4) From an unknown Semitic
root (A. B. Davidson, Koehler and Baumgartner,
BDB, E. J. Young, Heinisch.) The latter view is
favored by Hobart E. Freeman in his excellent
book (An Introduction to the OT Prophets,
Moody, 1968, pp. 37-39). This paragraph is a
very brief summary of Freeman's treatment.

The essential idea in the word is that of autho-
rized spokesman. [nterpreters have found the
basic thought, not in the etymology, which is lost
in the dust of antiquity, but in the general usage
of the word and in three Pentateuchal loci.

The first locus follows the last of Moses’ fa-
mous objections to being God's designated
spokesman to the children of Israel and to
Pharaoh (Ex 6:28-30). ‘*‘And the Lorp said unto
Moses, See, | have made thee as God to Pharaoh;
and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet. Thou
shalt speak all that I command thee; and Aaron
thy brother shall speak unto Pharaoh” (Ex 7:1,
2). Whatever the origin of the word, therefore, a
nabi’ is a person authorized to speak for another,
for Aaron, speaking in Moses’ place to Pharaoh,
is Moses’ nabi’.

The second locus follows an incident wherein
Aaron and Miriam had presumed to supplant
Moses as mediator of the divine revelation to
themselves (Num 12:1-2). The Lord himself then
intervened by declaring that Moses only would
hold direct conversation with the Almighty, that
he would, however, communicate with prophets
by dreams and visions (Num 12:4—8). What is left
unstated, but is presumed and stated clearly
elsewhere (e.g. Jer 23), is that a genuine nabi’
could be such a spokesman for God only if God
had genuinely given him a message (however
obscurely) to speak.

The third occurs just before the great legis-
lator's death. In view of the end of *‘face-to-
face’’ communications from God through Moses,
there was a formal announcement of the office of
nabi’ on a continuing basis. In this passage (Deut
18:9-22) Jehovah formally proscribed any traffic
with the bogus pagan mantic practices of Canaan
(Deut 18:9-14). Then having stated that a line of
prophets would speak (or write) with the same
authority that Moses had spoken (and written),
he commanded the Israelites to render the proph-
et the same obedience (Deut 18:15, 18, 19) which
he had commanded them to give to Moses. Five
certifying signs of a prophet (Ps 74:9; cf. Mt
12:38; Acts 2:22) were announced as follows:
1) the prophet must be Israelite, “‘of thy breth-
ren’ (vv. 15, 18); 2) he speaks in Jehovah's
name—‘‘voice of Jehovah’’ (v. 16) ‘the shall
speak in my name” (v. 19; cf. v. 20), death being

the penalty for false claims to so speak (v. 20, cf.
Deut 18:1 ff.; I Kgs 18:20-40); 3) supernatural
knowledge of the near future was to be a sign of
the authenticity of divine appointment (vv.
21-22; cf. I Kgs 22: Jer 28, esp. v. 17); 4) the
prophet might perform some other miraculous
sign (see Deut 13:1 ff.: cf. LE Kgs 18:24; and esp. v.
36) and 5) the final test is strict conformity to
(agreement with) the previously certified revela-
tions, by Moses at first and by the prophets to
follow (Deut 13:1-18). The fifth requirement is
emphatic, the entire thirteenth chapter being de-
voted to it.

Hebrews 1:1-2, clearly declares that the entire
oT is a deposit of written oracles of the n° bi’im.
The word ‘‘prophets”’ is extremely important in
this text, for, “In the LXX nabi’ is always trans-
lated prophetes, there is not a single instance of
any other word’? (TDNT, V1, p. 812). Once ina
text wherein the ages-long work of the line of
authentic prophets is summarized, the oT uses
the word mal'ak ‘‘messenger,”’ ‘‘angel.”’ The
Lxx gives the proper sense by using aggelos
(II Chr 36:15).

There are several questions of special interest
regarding nebi’im in the ot. 1) Who are the
‘‘schools”’ or bands of prophets? 2) Were profes-
sional prophets attached to “‘shrines’’ and the
temple in some manner comparable to the
kohanim (priests) and if so, what were their
functions? 3) Who is the person rarely designated
as the king’s seer Aézeh (11 Sam 24:11) or ré’eh
(II Sam 15:27)? 4) In what sense are musicians
(rarely) designated n°’ bi'im? 5) Who were the
false prophets, usually also called n*bi’im? 6)
How far are we to regard the prophets as enemies
of the Israelite priesthood? Finally, how are the
so called *‘former’’ and ‘‘latter’’ prophets related
to the whole office of prophet and function of
prophecy?

The reader may consult a truly immense recent
and current literature in pursuit of answers. The
81-page article on xeogytyns in TDNT is all rele-
vant. The bibliography alone is about two tightly
filled pages in size. It can be said that after dis-
counting the somewhat chastened oT higher criti-
cism of the four authors (Rendtorff, Kraemer,
Meyer, Friedrich) the residue is exceedingly val-
uable. The extremes of recent authors who have
sought to overturn more traditional, conservative
answers are generally reyected. The same may be
said of the article *‘The Prophetic Literature’ by
Otto Eissfeldt in The OT and Modern Study,
edited by H. H. Rowley and the relevant portions
of Ancient Israel by Roland de Vaux. The excel-
lent and extensive article on “prophets and
prophesy’ by A. A. MacRae in ZPEB, IV, pp.
875-903 should be consulted. The limited space
of this article allows no room for treating these
questions or sifting the extensive materials hinted

545

1278 332 (ndabab)

1280 133

1280 333 (n°bd)

at here. See the articles of this dictionary on
ro’eh, hézeh, hazon, and halam.

Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp.
THAT, Il, p. 7.

798-828.
R.D.C.

hollow out (e.g. Job 11:12;
Jer 52:21).

1279 332 (nbd) I, Nabu.

This hapax legomenon (\sa 46:1) is the Hebrew
spelling of the name of the Babylonian god,
Nabu. Nabu was the protector of the sciences
(which were in the realm of Enki-Ea), the patron
of the scribal art, and a god of wisdom (as was Ea
and Marduk). His spouse was Tashmetum
(‘‘hearing’’) and he was known to be “‘wide of
hearing’’ (ready to hear). His symbol, a wedge on
a pole, represented either the cuneiform script or
a sighting instrument used in astronomy. His
popularity grew steadily until ezidas (his tem-
ples) could be found in every major city of Baby-
lon and Assyria. His major temple, however, was
at Borsippa (Birs Nimrod, ten miles south of
Babylon) to which the king would come yearly
(on the fourth of Nisan) to fetch him (i.e., his
statue) and conduct him to Babylon to deliver
Marduk from the grip of the netherworld (this
ritual was known as the Akitu). The Babylonian
chronicles (c. 990 B.c.) report that Nabu “‘did not
come’’ for nine years. Thus a complete administ-
rative disruption is recorded. The fate of Nabu
parallels the fate of Babylon. Note Nebuchadrez-
zar (Nabu protect the son or the inheritance),
Nebushazban (Nabu save me), Nebuzaradan
(Nabu gave a son), and Abednego (servant of
Nabu?). Cf. n&bé, II.

Bibliography: Roux,G., Ancient Iraq, Cleve-
land: World Publishing, 1964. Saggs, H. W. F.,
The Greatness that was Babylon, New York:
Hawthorne, 1962. Wiseman, D. J., ‘‘Nebo,” in
NBD, p. 872.

L3G:

3 (n*bd) H, Nebo.
same.)

(asv and rsv the

Our word is the name of a mountain located in
Moab (G. T. Manley, *‘Nebo,”* in NBD, p. 872).
It might well be named in honor of the Babylo-
nian deity Nabi (cf. n© 66). Our noun occurs ele-
ven times.

There are two problems related to Mount
Nebo. First, its relationship to Pisgah and the
mountains of Abarim. The first appears to signify
*‘a ridge crowning a hill or mountain’: and hence
represents more than one such prominence
(Pisgah, G. T. Manley, in NBD, p. 1000)—
Mount Nebo in Deut 3:27. The second term rep-
resents the mountain range in which Nebo was

1281 m3 (nabah)

located (Num 27:12; Deut 32:49). The identifica-
tion of Mount Nebo is the second problem. Some
say this represents three different sites (cf. KD).
Others rightly identify it with one place (Manley,
*‘Nebo,”” op. cit.: W. Ewing, ‘“‘Nebo, Mt.,”° in
ISBE, p. 2127). It was from Mount Nebo that
Moses viewed the promised land just before he
died (Deut 34:1). In this area the sons of Reuben
built a city (Num 32:3; cf. NBD, p. 834). Later
the area was reclaimed by the Moabites and
against their treachery Isaiah (15:2) and Jeremiah
pronounced judgment (48:1, 22). The descen-
dants of the Israelite refugees from Nebo are
listed among those who returned from the exile
(Ezr 2:29) and who married non-Israelite women
(Ezr 10:43).

L.J.C.

msisd (n°ba'a). See no. 1277b.

128t maz) (ndbah)
only).

bark (of dogs, Isa 56:10,

1282 *o32 (ndbat) look, regard. Occurs in the
Piel and Hiphil.

Derivative

1282a 3% (mabbat) expectation (Zech
9:5: Isa 20:5-6).

The asv and rsv translate ndbat somewhat dif-
ferently, with the latter inferior at Ps 10:14; 1 Sam
2:32. Our root represents that which one does
with the eye (Ps 94:9) embracing everything from
a mere glance (I Sam 17:42) to a careful, sus-
tained, and favorable contemplation (Isa 5:12: Ps
74:20; 119:6, 15). It is frequently paralleled to
ra’a ‘‘to see,’ and sometimes to hazd ‘‘to see,”
usually of prophetic ‘‘seeing,”’ shar ‘‘to see, re-
gard,’ poetic, pdnd “‘to turn toward, to see,”
and shaqa ‘‘to look down.’ Our verb occurs
sixty-nine times, only in the Piel and Hiphil.

For a fuller treatment of theological themes see
ra’a. Our verb is used, both of man’s looking
to/upon God and God's looking upon man. In Ex
3:6 Moses looks upon what he thought was the
divine essence. Later God says that Moses, un-
like all other true prophets, shall continue to look
upon his form, i.e. he will be able to converse
with him in a unique way (KD, Num 12:8; Jn
6:46, 14:7). No mere man, however, has ever
seen the divine essence (cf. Ex 33:18ff.). Men are
to look, i.e. fix their eyes on and thus guide their
lives according to the will of Jehovah as their
only help (Isa 51:1; 22:11; Ps 34:5 [H 6]}), and on
his means, e.g. the covenantal framework (isa
$1:2; Ps 74:20), and his messiah (Zech 12:10). The
ungodly do not regard God’s working (Isa 5:12),
or appointed leader (Ps 22:17 [H 18]) properly.

546

1283 333 (nébek)

God who observes all (Job 28:24: Ps 33:13) re-

wards the pious (Ps 102:19 [H 20]: 13:3 [H 4]) 84:9

[H 10}]) and wicked (Ps 10:14: Amos 5:22) accord-
ing to his divine power (Ps 104:32).

| Oe Kor

8°33) (nabi'). See no. 1277a.

spring (Job 38:16; 28:11).

1284 %33 (nbl) I. Assumed root of the following.

1284a 32 (nébel) I, skin bottle; jar,
pitcher.
1284b +932 (nébel) I, psaltery.

nébel J, Skin, skin bottle, jar, pitcher. A con-
tainer for liquids. nébel is also used to refer
figuratively to the clouds (Job 38:37).

nébel JI. Psaltry, viol. Because of its bulging
resonance-body at the lower end, it may be re-
lated to nébel **skin, skin-bottle.”’

The nébel is the Greek equivalent of a harp or
lyre. Jt was an instrument of twelve strings which
were plucked with the fingers (Josephus, An-
tiquities 7. 12. 3). It was larger than the Ainnér
‘‘lyre’’ (q.v.), with a deeper tone. The lyre had
two arms with a box-shaped body (a Canaanite
version). David played such an instrument. It
was the main instrument in the second temple
orchestra. The nébel was the number two in-
strument and probably less costly than the kin-
nor. Inthe Mishnah ‘arakim 2:3, it is stated that
there never were less than two harps or more
than six in the orchestra. (Some would equate
nébel with the Egyptian harp, a zither-type in-
strument with a wooden sounding box and with
ten to twenty strings, standing up to four yards
high, and plucked with the fingers.)

According to the Mishnah, the nébel's strings
were made of the large intestines of sheep (Kin-
nim 3:6). There is also mentioned in Scripture the
nébel ‘dsér, a slightly smaller nébel of ten
strings. Since no representations of a nébe/ have
come down from the biblical period, its shape can
only be conjectured.

Three of the twenty-seven usages indicate its
use in godless revelry (Isa 5:12), pagan worship
(Isa 14:11) and the diluted worship which Amos
condemned (Amos 5:23). It was played by the
bands of prophets (J Sam 10:5) and David used it
for worship (I] Sam 6:5). Solomon provided
harps for temple worship (I Kgs 10:12). Oth-
erwise, the nébel (and nébel ‘asér) were always
used in worship (Ps 57:8 [H 9}; 81:2 {H 3]; etal.).

The important place afforded music in the wor-
ship of God shows that God responds favorably
to man’s communication with him in music and
that God communicates to man not only cogni-
tively but also in his emotions.

Bibliography: Blumenkranz, B., °*Music,” in
Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 12, pp. 564-66.
Werner, E., “Jewish Music,” in Dictionary of
Music, vol. 1V, St. Martins Press, pp. 619-21.
Werner, E., ‘‘Musical Instruments,’ in IB, Vol.
II], pp. 474-76. Finesmeyer, S. B., **Musical In-
struments in the Old Testament,” in HUCA III,
pp. 21-27. Sellers, O. R.. **Musical Instruments
of Israel.” BA 4:33-47.

L.G.

1285 %33 (nabal) II, be senseless, foolish.

Derivatives
I285a +93) (nabal) fool.
1285b *m953 (n* bala) folly.
1285c = 9932 (nabliit) immodesty,

shamelessness (Hos 2:12, only).

The verb is used only five times, once to de-
scribe one who exalts himself as foolish. Four
times, in the Piel stem, it expresses disgust or
contempt, by a person who scorns the rock of his
salvation (Deut 32:15), or treats his father con-
temptuously (Mic 7:6). God makes vile the recal-
citrant (Nah 3:6). The prophet prays to fend off
God's wrath so that he will not disgrace the
throne of his glory (Jer 14:21). The derivatives
picture the full significance of the word.

nabal. Fool. The noun nabal is widely used in
the wisdom literature. In Prov, the term nabal
includes the concepts associated with kA‘ sil and
‘wil (q.v.), and also emphasizes being ignoble
and disgraceful, a downright boor. Insensibility
to God, as well as a moral insensibility, close the
mind to reason.

Moses chided his generation, referring to them
as ‘am nabal, a foolish people (Deut 32:6). who
did not appreciate the Lord’s benefits. Heathen
nations are characterized as foolish, spurning or
reviling the very name of the Lord (Ps 74:18).
Therefore, Moses answered his generation’s un-
faithfulness by equating them with pagan
peoples. In fact, if they were to persist in their
foolishness (na@bai), they would be provoked to
anger by an idolatrous, foolish (ndabal) people
(Deut 32:21). The insensitivity of God's people
required that they be shamed and hurt by their
own foolishness.

The prophets have little use for the ndabal.
Isaiah pictured the kingdom where many an up-
side down state of affairs would be rectified. No
longer would respect and homage be paid to the
fool, who speaks nonsense, his heart inclining
toward wickedness (Isa 32:5-6). He is churlish,
lacking spirituality. The man who gathers wealth
unjustly, will lose it in the midst of his life. Such a
person is a fool in the end (Jer 17:11). False

547

1285 933 (nabal)

prophets, seeking the message from their own re-
sources, are foolish. Actually they have no mes-
sage. no vision from God (Ezk 13:3).

The na@bdl has a closed mind, saying in his
heart that there 1s no God (Ps 14:1: 53:1 [H 2]).
He insults God all day long in a continual round
of uproar (Ps 74:22). David prayed to be deliv-
ered from his transgressions lest the foolish. not
discerning his heart, insult the servant of God (Ps
39:8 [H 9]}). The sons of a fool. referring to those
who learn from him, are ignoble. sons without
any name (Job 30:8). Abner’s death was lamented
as possibly that of a fool (I] Sam 3:33). [Or it may
be that David asks if Abner died like a wicked
man—a nabal, implying that Joab, his attacker
had murdered the innocent. R.L.H.|

The ndbal, who should keep himself in retire-
ment because of his impiety. is a boor and makes
himself heard in public (Prov 17:7). The earth
protests when a nabal grows rich: such a one
becomes arrogant and overbearing (Prov 30:22).
The boorishness, a reflection of refusal to listen
to reason or to God (at the moment) is seen in
Nabal of whom his wife Abigail said, “*he is such
a son of Belial that no one can speak to him”
(1 Sam 25:17). He is a n“ bala, because he rejects
the fear of the Lord who could have given him
some wisdom.

n‘bala. Folly, villainy, vile. n° bald carries the
same meaning as nabal, i.e. a disregard for moral
and spiritual claims. In every way, a n°bala is
senseless, impious and a disgrace. and his actions
are sinful folly.

n bald refers to sins of immorality. A request
for homosexual relations was regarded as an act
of folly (Jud 19:23-24). Premeditated rape was
stigmatized as a deed of folly (II Sam 13:12).
Amnon would be known as a nadbal in Israel
(v. 13). In fact, these vile deeds are known as
folly (n° balah, a disgraceful and sinful thing) in
Israel, i.e., violation of moral standard in Israel,
e.g. the violation of Dinah (Gen 34:7) or a brideg-
room's statement regarding his wife's chastity
(Deut 22:21: also Jud 20:6: Jer 29:23).

Achan’'s theft of things under the ban was con-
sidered a bala in Israel (Josh 7:15). Nabal.
even according to his name, committed a sinful
and disgraceful thing because he was a disgrace
(1 Sam 25:25). N“bald can also refer to foolish
and impious language: Isaiah assessed his genera-
tion as the nabal who speaks n° bald, a play on
words to emphasize the state of being producing
the act (Isa 32:6: also 9:17). Job's friend required
atonement for their words and conduct with him.
Their actions against Job were considered folly
(n* bald) against God himself (Job 42:8).

Bibliography: Blanck, S. H., **Folly.” in IB.
pp. 303-4. Harris, R. Laird. “*Proverbs.”’ in
WBC. Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity,

1286 933 (nabél)

1964. Richardson, TWB., pp. 84-85. THAT, Il,
pp. 26-30.
L.G.

1286 932 (nabél) wither.
Derivative
1286a tm932 (n' bela)

The asv and rsv translate this verb variously
with the latter being superior at II Sam 22:46 (Ps
18:45 [H 46]; Job 14:18: Isa 1:30: 24:4: Jer 8:13).
Neither is satisfactory at Isa 34:4 and 40:7-8.

Our word represents a state or condition of
leaves when they are dried but still attached to
the tree—parallel to dry grass (Isa 40:7-8) or a
dry garden (Isa 1:30). For synonyms see ydbésh
‘“*to be dry, wither,” and sdnam *‘to be hard,
barren."’ Compare nb/, the assumed root of the
derivatives nébel **skin-bottle,’ ‘‘jar’* and nébel
‘lute,’ also the root ndbal ‘‘be senseless’ the
root for the derivatives nabal “‘foolish” and
n° bala *‘senselessness.’ KB lists all these de-
rivatives under the one root nabel ‘‘wither.’* Ac-
cording to our analysis, ndbél occurs twenty
times.

The image of withered leaves about to fall
given by this verb or other dried up vegetation
often serves as a figure of judgment. Divine om-
nipotence enervates the mightiest nations of the
earth (Isa 34:4: cf. I! Sam 22:46: Ps 18:45 {H 46}).
The wicked will most certainly face God's judg-
ment (Ps 37:2). God will remove the vitality of
Judah (Isa 1:30: Jer 8:13), and Ephraim (Jsa 28:1).
The godly will be enlivened by rivers of living
waters (Ps 1:3: cf. Ezk 47:12). Our verb also 1s
applied to the transitoriness of human life (Isa
40:7-8) and human strength (Ex 18:18).

n°bela. Corpse, carcass. aASv and RSV similar al-
though the latter is inconsistent at points, e.g.
Josh 8:29/Jer 26:23/Isa 5:25 (especially in view of
Deut 28:26). This noun refers to a human or ani-
mal body devoid of life. Its synonyms are: peger.
usually of human corpses (except Gen 15:11).
g’wiyd (cf. gupd, | Chr 10:12/1 Sam 31:12), of the
body dead or alive (Gen 47:18), mappéla (cf.
napal). Our noun occurs forty-eight times.

Corpses of men and animals are unclean and
priests are forbidden to touch any corpse except
that of near relatives (Lev 21:1-3). The high
priest and Nazirite cannot even do that much
(Lev 21:11; Num 6:6-8—the word here is
nepesh). God prescribes a detailed rite for purifi-
cation if these restrictions are violated, or if one
unwittingly becomes polluted (cf. Num 19). Even
the land can be polluted if the body of an exe-
cuted person is not buried before the day is over
(Deut 21:23). Jeremiah notes that idols, being
“corpses” guilty of sin (?) pollute the land
(16:18).

corpse, carcass.

548

1288 333 (ngb).

Not to be properly buried is a sign of great
disgrace (1] Sam 21:10ff.. | Sam 31:11-13, etc.),
and even of divine judgment (Deut 28:26; cf. Jer
26:23: Isa 5:25: Jer 7:23), etc. Restoration is fig-
ured in terms of a resurrection (Isa 26:19).

L.J.C.

moa: (nablit). See no. 1285c.

1287 32 (ndba‘) pour, gush forth.

Derivative

1287a pista (mabbi'a) spring of water
(Eccl 12:6; Isa 35:7: 49:10).

The asv and rsv translate ndba‘ variously, with
the latter usually superior. Neither 1s adequate at
Eccl 10:1 (‘stink and pour forth’). Our root con-
notes an uncontrollable or uncontrolled gushing
forth as, e.g. the swollen waters of a wadi (Prov
18:4: cf. ndhal), the rush of words from a fool's
mouth (Prov 15:2: antonym, haga, Prov 15:28).
There are many Hebrew words representing
‘flowing’ or ** pouring” of various kinds and di-
rections: mdzal—to flow, as of a river; ndgar—
to run down, as of tears, blood, a sore, etc.:
yadsaqg—to pour or cast, especially of molten
metal: na@sak—to pour out, especially a libation;
natok—to pour out, of fire, judgment, etc.:
skapak—to pour out, perhaps the most general of
these words. Cf. old Aramaic nb‘ (KAI 38), ‘‘to
gush forth,” and Akkadian namba‘u (and nab-
ba‘u) “bubbling spring (KD). The verb occurs
eleven times.

In Ps 19:2 [H 3] ndba’ images the ‘‘unin-
terupted line of transmission’ and ‘“‘inexhaust-
ible spring.” the ‘‘day”’ issuing in declaring
God's glory (KD). The Psalmist prays that he will
declare God's glorious deeds, i.e. parabolical ep-
isodes (KD, Ps 78:2: 119:171). Ultimately the
‘transcendent goodness of God is the object of
universal, overflowing acknowledgment’’ (KD,
Ps 145:7). The wicked *‘‘pour forth” arrogance,
boasting (Ps 94:4), piercing bitterness (Ps 59:7
{H 8]: cf. Prov 15:2, etc.). Of special interest is
Prov 1:23 where wisdom (v. 20) promises to pour
forth its spirit (make known its words) on all will-
ing students. This 1s a spirit-enabling understand-
ing and not a spirit-effecting regeneration, al-
though the NT combines the two ideas (J Cor
2:14). A still greater and qualitatively different
outpouring of the Spirit awaits the coming of the
Messiah (Joel 2:28 (H 3:1], shdpak).

a Ge

Assumed root of the following.
1288a 7333 (negeb) Negeb, south. (asv
and rsv quite different with the lat-
ter correctly rendering *‘Negeb’’ at
the appropriate spots. Rsv less de-

sirable at I Sam 20:41: Ezk 40:2
where it emends.)

That our word represents a geographical area is
clear from Gen 13:1 and Num 13:23 where the
travelers are going north. A secondary meaning
of our word is *‘south’’ (cf. Gen 13:14). Cf. the
following synonyms: yamin (implying the eastern
posture in prayer, KB), témdn (root yadmin), yam
and daré6m. The noun occurs 111 times.

The ancient Negeb was an indefinitely con-
tained region approximately 4,520 square miles in
area. Its northern boundary extended south of
the Gaza-Beersheba road due east of Beersheba
to the Red Sea. Its southern boundary merged
into the highlands of the Sinai Peninsula. It con-
sisted (and still does) of quite broken country
upon which falls little rain (one to eight inches per
year). Its summers are hot and winters cold.
Strong winds batter the terrain during both sea-
sons (cf. Isa 21:1). The occurence of rain rapidly
transforms the wadis into overflooding torrents
and its loess soil resists absorption (cf. Ps 126:4).
A generous and shallow underground water table
underlies the area. The terrain is not a desert
since it is amenable to limited grazing (cf. Gen
13:1-6), and under controlled conditions (a strong
central government to protect farmers from
marauding Beduoins and assist them during the
frequent droughts) can support farming in some
areas.

The Negeb was not always settled. The
twenty-first to nineteenth centuries B.c. attest
many villages whose destruction may well have
resulted from the razzia of Chedolaomer and his
allies (Gen 14). This devastation may also explain
how Hagar lost her way when fleeing—known
land marks (i.e. cities) were destroyed (Gen
21:14). Also, the patriarchs apparently did not
journey into the Negeb after Gen 14, but re-
mained in the area of Gerar, Hebron, and
Beersheba which was unscathed by the invasion.
To date there is little archaeological evidence of
extensive Amalekite occupation at the time of the
Exodus (c. 1445 B.c.: however, cf. G. L. Archer,
A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Moody,
1964), pp. 214-15, 220-21). Israel was repulsed
by these Amalekites (Num 14:44-45; Deut 1:44),
but later Judah and Simeon invaded and occupied
the area. Archaeology confirms extensive occu-
pation during the monarchical period. Saul de-
stroyed the city of King Agag (I Sam. 14-15).
David fought the Amalekites (I Sam 30) and oth-
ers in the various areas of the Negeb. As in the
days of the patriarchs, so also during the early
monarchy the Negeb was occupied by various
ethnic groups (Gen 26:26—33: I Sam 27:10; 30:14).
Under Solomon the Negeb produced copper (re-
fined at Ezion-Geber) and had much trade (it was
crossed by the **way to Shur,’ and several les-

549

1289 *333 (nadgad) tell, make known.

1289 *5]) (nagad)

ser trade routes. Cf. map in Y. Aharoni, The
Land of the Bible, Westminster, 1967, p. 40.
Later when Ezion-Geber became unusable, an
adjacent port, Elath, was re-opened by Uzziah
(1 Kgs 9:26: If Chr 26:2) to facilitate the copper
trade.

The prophets predict a desolation (Jer 13:19:
Ezk 20:46-47 [H 21:2-3]), and ultimate renewal
(Jer 17:26; 32:44; 33:13) of Judah and the Negeb.

Bibliography: Cohen, S., ““The Negeb,”’ in
IDB. Houston, J. M., **‘Negeb,”” in NBD, pp.
874-75. Glueck, N., BA 18: 2-9. McKenzie, J.
L., Dictionary of the Bible, Milwaukee: Bruce,
1965. Baly, P., The Geography of the Bible,
Harper, 1957. Glueck, The Other Side of the Jor-
don, ASOR, 1940.

L.J.C.

Occurs
in the Hiphal and Hophal, only.

Derivatives

1289a 3) (neged) before.
1289b 15°33 (ndgid) ruler, leader, captain.

This root basically denotes *‘to place a matter
high, conspicuous before a person’’ (KB). The
arabic nagada means *‘be conspicuous” and the
noun nagdun means “highland’’ Usually the
‘‘matter’’ was previously unknown or unknow-
able to the object. The verb requires varying
translations depending on the context. The mean-
ing is further enlightened by considering the fol-
lowing synonomous parallels: ‘amar ‘to say”
and shadma‘ “‘to make known” (Hiphil), Jer 4:5
(cf. Ex 19:3; Deut 32:4: Isa 41:22, etc.); sdpar
“‘to report,’ Job 12:7-8; Ps 19:1 [H 2]; bin “‘to
understand,’ Jer 9:12 |H 11]: dibbér **to speak,”
Isa 45:19: and yd‘as “‘to advise,’ Jer 38:15. Also
gala and yadda‘. Cf. Phoenician, ned (KAI,
p. 16). The verb occurs 363 times.

Especially note Jud 14:12, e.g., where the verb
ndgad connotes “telling the solution” of a riddle
(cf. v. 12), and Ezr 2:59 ** prove, give written evi-
dence of.”

Theologically, the verb is used of both God's
and man’s revealings. God brought things to
men’s attention (i.e. revealed) directly, through
dreams (Gen 41:25: cf. Deut 13:1; 18:16; Acts
2:17), prophecies (Gen 49:1), and prophets (espe-
cially Moses, Deut 4:13). Such declarations being
of divine origin, they carried divine authority
(Deut 5:5). A prophet declared the divine purpose
(Isa 19:12) and judgment (Isa 21:2), indeed, what-
ever the mouth of the Lord declared (Jer 9:12
{H 11]). Other spokesmen bore an authority de-
rived from the covenantal revelation (Deut 4:13),
i.e. priests and elders (Deut 17:10—11), fathers
(Ex 13:8; Deut 32:7), and other leaders (cf. Isa
40:21). It is the responsibility (Ps 42:2 [H 3}:

1290 33 (nagah)

71:17; 145:4), and privilege (Ps 9:11 [H 12}; 51:15
{H 17]}) of all men to make God's excellencies
prominent before the ot church (Ps 30:9 (H 10])
and before the world (Ps 22:31 [H 32]). Such an
act constituted praise (Ps 30:9 [H 10]) and
thanksgiving (Ps 92:2 {H 3]) and could be done in
song (Ps 9:11 [H 12]). God’s greatest work, i.e.
the sovereign redemption of his people and the
declaration of justification by the instrument of
faith alone (e.g. Ps 40:6 {H 7]) is to be declared to
all the nations (Ps 22:31 [H 32]: Isa 48:20: 66:19:
cf. Mt 28:18ff.).

Divine glory (Ps 19:1 [H 2]: 97:6) and righte-
ousness (Ps 50:6) are made known and brought to
prominence by the visible creation (cf. Rom
L:18ff.).

God taunts unbelievers, challenging them to
have their ‘‘no-gods”’ reveal the dim past or dis-
tant future, i.e. all things (e.g. Isa 41:22ff.).
Jehovah ts the only eternally existent (Isa 43:10),
omniscient (Isa 44:7) God who had declared (Isa
45:19: cf. Deut 4:29), does declare (Isa 42:9) and
accomplish (Isa 43:12) his sovereign will (Isa
48:20). He reveals to man what he wants to be
known and obeyed (Amos 4:13; Ps 111:6). There-
fore, rebellious man is inexcusable.

neged. Prominently ‘‘before.’’ Asv and RSv
often the same with the rsv usually superior at
points of difference (cf. Ex 10:10; Ezk 40:13:
Num 2:2; Jud 9:17, etc.) and infrequently inferior
(Lam 3:35; Ps 38:17). Both are inadequate at Ps
52:9 [H 11]: 78:12: II Kgs 2:7. Our preposition
retains the basic thrust of the root. It is this con-
notation of prominence (being conspicuous) that
distinguishes the root from its synonyms, e.g.
mul, nokah (straight in front of), ‘and (corre-
sponding to). lipné (cf. panda). N.b. the phrase
“before one’s face’ is paralleled to **in one’s
own eyes’ (Isa 5:21: cf. Ps 90:8), and is opposite
to ‘‘secretly”” (II Sam 12:12; cf. Ps 38:9 [H 10]).

The unique thrust of this preposition illumines
many passages (e.g. I Sam 15:30: cf. II Sam
12:12: Josh 8:11). Our word occurs in covenantal
contexts. God’s law was to be read before (i.e. so
all could hear) Israel (Deut 31:17; cf. Josh 8:35.
Ezr 8:3). Man's public covenants were enunci-
ated (1 Kgs 8:22) and fulfilled openly in that the
entire community could witness the act. So
David (Ps 22:25 [H 26]}), and later the Messiah,
promised the payment of vows. The reference
here is probably to the sh“lamim (the peace of-
fering, the perfected Passover, the Lamb of God
himself.

Public vowing embraces open declaration of
God’s word (Ps 119:46), and praise (Ps 138:1),
and hoping in his name (Ps 52:9 [H 11]}). God's
word and attesting miracles were performed
openly and prominently before Israel. There was
no excuse for unbelief (Ex 34:10; cf. Ps 78:12).

The same holds true for his acts of providence (Ps
31:19 [H 20): cf. Rom 2:4). The word also occurs
in legal (rib, q.v.) contexts. Samuel calls the
people before God as a witness to his steadfast-
ness (I Sam 12:3: cf. I Kgs 21:13). God the om-
niscient judge clearly attests man’s sin (Hos 7:2;
Ps 109:15), his desire (Ps 38:9 {H 10]: cf. Rom
8:27ff.) and all his ways (Ps 39:5 [H 6]: 119:168:
Prov 15:11). His Messiah shall always sit before
him vindicated and rewarded (Ps 89:36 |H 37]; cf.
Isa 24:23; 61:11).

The preposition occurs in the compound
i“neged (used to emphasize neged [Ps 90:8: Jer
16:17, etc.]), i.e. to set before one as that which
determines one's conduct (cf. I] Sam 22:23; Ps
26:3: 36:1 [H 2]). Also, /°neged is used like min-
neged to mean ‘‘opposite’’ (e.g. Josh 5:3: Neh
12:9: cf. neged in Ezk 40:13; Neh 3:16, etc.). It
connotes ‘‘facing, prominently exposed to’’ but
at some distance (near. Gen 21:16, or far, Ps
38:11 {H 12]}). Finally, cf. A’ neged, i.e. ‘‘as that
which corresponds to’ (Gen 2:18, 20: cf. KD).

nagid. Ruler, leader, captain. [It is perhaps in
this derivative that the idea of prominence, which
is in the root, comes to fullest expression. The
word is used almost fifty times and is applied to
leaders in several fields—governmental, military
and religious. The word usually is singular and
refers to the man at the top, the king, the high
priest, etc. But there are references to leaders
and captains in the army. The Messiah is called a
nagid in Dan 9:25. R.L.H.]
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 31-36.

L.J.C.
1290 F220 (nagah) shine.
Derivatives
1290a tm33 (ndgah) brightness.
12906 =ommal (n’gdha) brightness (Isa
59:9, only).

550

Our verb refers to a steady light given off by a
lamp (Ps 18:28 [H 29]), the moon (Isa 13:10), a
spark (Job 18:5), and a light shining in darkness
(Isa 9:2 (H 1]). For synonyms see ‘dhal, halal,
zGhar, q@ran; and especially, ya@pa‘ and zdrah
(cf. Franz Schnutenhaus, *‘Daz Kommen und
Erscheinen in Alten Testament,’ ZAW 76: 10f.).
Ugaritic attests ngh (AisWUS 1743). Our verb
occurs six times.

God's judgment (Joel 2:10; Isa 13:10; cf. Job
18:5) and redemption (Joel 3:15 [H 4:15]) are fig-
ured by the darkening of the celestial bodies (Joel
2:31; Acts 2:20). God's blessing is described as
‘light shining on your path’’ (Job 22:28). God,
David's lamp, will brighten his darkness (Ps 18:28
(H 29]). A good king as an earthly representation
of God also shines brightly (II Sam 23:4). Ezekiel
uses the root nadgah to represent the glory of God

(Ezk 1:4: 10:4). For Isaiah the regenerate who are
in the darkness of temporal suffering (Isa 50:10)
will be visited by a king who will be the source of
true/eternal light (Isa 9:2 [H 1]: Mal 3:20 {H 4:2):
Jn 1:9; 8:12; Lk 1:78-79). The nations will flock
to him as he sits enthroned in the spiritual/eternal
Jerusalem—in the church [or in the millennium or
in heaven itself or all three! R.L.H.] (Isa 60:3: Heb
12:22, Rev 21:23: 22:5). God pledges himself to
make the righteousness of the elect go forth as
brightness (Isa 62:1: paralleled to lappid
““torch’’).

nogah. Brightness, shining. asv and Rsv the
same except Hab 3:11. This noun refers to the
result of nagah. It occurs nineteen times.

Lowe.
1291 ma) (ndgah) push, thrust, gore (e.g. Ex
21:28, 31-32; Deut 33:17).
Derivative
I29la mad (naggadh) addicted to goring
(Ex 21:29, 36).

See no. 1289b.
See no. 1292. la.

Was) (nagid).
m3] (n*ginad).

1292 533 (ngl). Assumed root of the following.
1292a 960937 «~(maggal) sickle (Jer 50:16;
Joel 4:13).
1292.1 132 (nagan) play a stringed instrument.

Derivatives

1292.latmya3 (n°ginad) music (of stringed
instruments), song, taunt song.
1292.1b 13°43 (mangind) mocking
song (Lam 3:63 only).

The verb n@gan occurs in conjunction with
‘song’ or “singers” in Ps 33:3; 68:25 [H 26] and
Isa 23:16. Psalm 68 seems to differentiate be-
tween the singers and the musicians (nog nim)
with the tambourine-playing maidens. The harp
(Ainnor) is the instrument being played in I Sam
16:16, Ps 33:2-3, Isa 23:16. Psalm 33:2 also men-
tions the ten-stringed lyre. David played the harp
before Saul to help soothe the king when an evil
spirit came upon him, but his efforts were some-
times unsuccessful (I Sam 16:16, 18, 23: 18:10:
19:9). Elisha asked for a minstrel to play for him,
so the hand of the Lord would come upon him (II
Kgs 3:15). Hezekiah anticipated that songs would
be played at the temple to give thanks for his
healing (Isa 38:20). In Ps 33:3 the psalmist wanted
to play skillfully and shout for joy as he praised
the Lord.

n‘gina. Music, song, taunt song. This noun re-
fers to pleasant songs in Ps 77:6 (H 7] and joyful

551

1293 Y33 (naga’)

music in Lam 5:14, but elsewhere it has the same
meaning as mangina **mocking song’ (Lam 3:14:
Job 30:9). In Ps 69:12 [H 13] it is the song of the
drunkards. In seven psalms nr“ ginot appears in
the title, indicating that stringed instruments
were to be used (4:1; 6:1: 54:1: 55:1; 61:1: 67:1:
76:1: cf. Hab 3:19). In the ksv the Hebrew is sim-
ply transliterated “on Neginoth.’’ For other such
terms see seld.

H.W.
1293 Y32 (naga‘) touch, reach, strike.
Derivative
1293a ‘Ya (nega') stroke, plague, disease.

The root ng’ denotes that which pertains when
one thing (or person) physically contacts another.
For synonyms, see ndgap. Its many connota-
tions sometimes require different translations:
e.g. reach, strike, etc. The verb occurs 150 times.

The essential meaning of ndga‘ is “‘to touch.”
It can refer to a thing touching. i.e. contacting
another thing (Isa 6:7: 16:8: Hos 4:2), a man con-
tacting a thing (Ex 19:12), or coming into an area
(Est 6:14), and God's touching a man (Dan 8:18)
or a thing (Ps 144:5). Special attention should be
given to Ps 88:3 (H 4] where the Psalmist parallels
a ‘soul full of troubles’ and “life touching
Sheol” (cf. Leonard J. Coppes, ‘Sheol: What is
it?” Covenanter Witness, Feb 4, 1976, p. 14ff.).
Here the Psalmist. recognizing that God brought
about his condition, prays for him to change it
(cf. Ps 107:18). The word is used tn a ritualistic
context, viz. that things holy (belonging to God.
Ex 19:13; Lev 12:4: Num 4:15) are not to be
touched by the unauthorized. Unholy things are
restricted, too (Num 19:16, 22: Isa $2:11).
Perhaps this is because to touch something is to
extend one’s authority over it. Certainly God's
explicit commandments regarding what may and
may not be touched lawfully (Hag 2:12) should
obviate any suspicion of magic or animism. This
raises a question regarding Eve's speech in Gen
3:3. Was she exaggerating (KD) or merely report-
ing?

The root is used hyperbolically in conjunction
with the guilty deserving punishment (Qal. Jer
51:9) and unholy rage (Hiphil, If Chr 28:9). Both
are said to reach to heaven, t.e. to be exceedingly
great (Ps 57:11 [H 12]; 108:5 |H 6]), if not infinite.

Another special use connotes cohabitation. So,
Abimelech states he had not touched Rebekah
(Gen 20:6). Proverbs says that whoever touches
(goes to and has relations with) an adulteress
shall be punished (6:29). Boaz instructs his work-
ers not to ‘‘touch”’ (Rsv, molest) Ruth (2:9).

The verb frequently means to extend authority
over by claiming as one’s own, or inflicting a
blow (fatal?) upon (Jer 4:10. 18: Job 1:19: 5:19).

1294 433 (nagap)

God forbids people so to touch his prophets
(I Chr 16:22), his people (Zech 2:8 [H 12]), or his
inheritance (Jer 12:14). These are holy and belong
to him (cf. ritualistic use). God touches the
wicked with righteous judgment (Gen 12:17:
32:25 (H 26]: I Sam 6:9). However, the Psalmist
(73:14) and Job (19:21) complain against God's
justice. Onlookers will consider the Messiah di-
vinely and justly punished (Isa 53:4). God's touch
often is beneficial, empowering one to service
(Isa 6:7: Dan 10:16: Jer 1:9). Always. God's
touch is authoritative, whether he touches
mountains (Ps 104:32: cf. Amos 9:5), a sacrifice
(Jud 6:21: cf. {11 Sam 23:7), or men (I Kgs 19:7;
1 Sam 10:26).

nega‘. Stroke, plague/disease. This noun refers
to a physical blow, or to the punishment an over-
lord gives a subject. God is usually the one who
metes out punishment and/or disease. The large
majority of the usages occur in Lev 13 and 14 and
concern the contagious diseases there described,
cf sdra’at (kjv leprosy). Our noun has many
synonyms, e.g. negep, maggépa (from ndgap
‘‘to strike/smite’’), emphasizing a more forceful
action and more serious result, deber, a general
word for plague or pestilence, makkd, disease or
wounds resulting from punishment (see J. D.
Douglas, “Plague, Pestilence,’ in NBD. The
noun occurs seventy-eight times.

As for the meaning “‘blow,” this can be that
which is exchanged in a controversy (Deut 17:8:
21:5), or what a father gives his son as proper
punishment. Frequently, God is conceived as the
Father who inflicts punishment. He states his in-
tention so to ‘‘father’’ David (11 Sam 7:14), all his
children (Ps 89:32 |H 33]), and all true believers
(Acts 15:16ff.: Heb 12:3ff.). Adulterers are espe-
cially singled out for divine chastisement (Prov
6:33) as are the kings of Gerar (Gen !2:17) and
Egypt (Ex 11:1). One cannot help thinking that to
God leprosy (sdra‘at, q.v.) was not a ‘‘neutral"
disease, but was a form of punishment (Lev 13:
14: cf. Num 12:10). Men will look on the Messiah
who vicariously bore divine punishment (Isa
53:8). The people who knew of God's promise to
chastise might well avoid those who are so disci-
plined ostensibly for their unrepented sin (Ps
38:11 {H 12]). The chastened person can and
ought to beg God for forgiveness and relief (I Kgs
8:38: Ps 39:10 [H 11]: Jas 5:13ff.). He is both able
and willing to comply (Ps 91:10).

Bibliography: THAT. Il, pp. 37-38.

L.J.C.

1294 a2 (nagap) strike.

Derivatives

1294a a:
12946 tmDID

(negep) blow, plague.
(maggépa) blow, pestilence.

552

Our root denotes a blow, usually divinely
meted, which is fatal or disastrous. For
synonyms see ndga‘. Also note the parallels to
our verb Adtat ‘‘crush fine’ (Ps 89:23 (H 24}),
and its effects, nas “‘flee’’ (Lev 26:17), mit
“die ({I] Chr 13:20), sickness (II Sam 12:15). Our
verb occurs forty-eight times.

The verb is used in Ex 21:22 of a blow deliv-
ered with malice and potentially capable of caus-
ing death (v. 35). If such a blow accidentally
lands on a pregnant woman causing premature
birth and not a miscarriage. no death penalty is
exacted (rSv). This interpretation is supported by
the proximity of “‘her fetus goes out’’ and ‘‘and
there shall be no accident involving death’’ (cf.
KB, used in Gen 42:4 of accidental death), as well
as verses 23-25. So niv: ‘“‘and she gives birth
prematurely, footnote: Or, ‘‘she has a miscar-
riage. This verse figures prominently in the bi-
blical teaching regarding abortion.

In several passages our root is applied to a se-
rious striking of one’s foot on rocks. Wisdom
guides one in walking sure-footedly (Prov 3:23).
Indeed God promises angelic help in so protect-
ing the godly (Ps 91:12). Unfaithful Judah is
summoned to repentance by the threat of the
exile prophetically depicted as constant “‘stum-
bling, across dark mountains” (Jer 13:16). In the
eschaton all God's enemies will *‘stumble”’ over
the Messiah, the stone of stumbling (“‘negep’’ is
used synonomously parallel to mikshdél **stum-
bling’ ’).

negep. Blow, plague, striking. asv and RSv the
same. Our noun usually connotes a mortal blow
or plague inflicted as divine punishment. Espe-
cially note Isa 8:14. negep occurs seven times.

maggepa. Blow, pestilence, defeat, plague. aAsv
and rsv the same except at II Chr 21:14 where the
former has a marginal reading which is clearly
preferable (cf. Ezk 24:16). Our noun is frequently
used of a blow, etc. (the effect of ndgap) result-
ing from divine retribution. However, this is not
necessarily the case (Ezk 24:16). For synonyms
see nega’. Our word occurs twenty-five times.
The plagues of Egypt (termed both negep and
maggeépa, Num 16:46ff., {H 17:11ff.]) intended to
pierce Pharoah’s heart (Ex 9:14) ultimately did so
in the form of the last plague (Ex 12:23). Memory
of that divine judgment on human rebellion was
enshrined in the Passover (Ex 12:27), national
memory (Josh 24:5). and legal system (cf. Lev
26:17: Deut 28:25). Israel, although constantly
warned, went astray repeatedly (e.g. Ex 32:25:
Num 14:42) and ultimately was smitten by God.
This rebellion required atonement for this ever
present sinfulness (Ex 30:12) and sin (Num
16:46ff. (H 17:11ff.]). In the eschaton, however,
God's blows/plagues effect repentance on Egypt

(isa 19:22), indeed, all God’s enemies will either
repent or perish (Zech 14:12ff.).
L.J.C.

1295 *933 (nagar) pour down (Niphal, Hiphil
only). (asv and Rsv similar with the latter
inferior at Lam 3:49. Both are inadequate
at Ps 77:2 [H 3].)

Our verb describes the spilling of water onto
the ground (II Sam 14:14). It is paralleled to gala
(q.v. Job 20:28), ydrad (Lam 3:48—49), and the
melting of wax before fire (Mic 1:4). For
synonyms, see ndba‘, etc. Our verb occurs ten
times.

Our word is used in figures of mourning and
judgment. In II] Sam 14:14 it is the people of Israel
who are said to be poured out (in mourning) like
water upon the ground, i.e. near death. A similar
image occurs in Lam 3:49 of Israel’s mourning
over the exile (nagar and pig, i.e. the weeping
does not cease). Could a proper translation of Ps
77:2 {H 3] be “‘my soul (i.e. yad represents
power, strength, Ps 89:48 [H 49]) is poured out
in the night and it does not cease’’ (Gen 45:26)?
When applied to judgment our root speaks of the
‘pouring down” of the property of the wicked
(Job 20:28, this is their true inheritance, nahala),
and the mountains of the earth (Mic 1:4, 6)—as a
result of God’s wrath (Ps 75:8 [H 9]). Perhaps Ps
63:10 [H 11] connotes ‘pouring over’’ the blade
(yad) of the sword: i.e. the ungodly are to die.
Edom receives judgment for mercilessly, re-
lentlessly killing God's elect (Ezk 35:5), while Is-
rael’s sin evokes Jeremiah’s righteous anger (Jer
18:21).

| pe ie Ge

1296 W323 (ndgas) exact, exert demanding pres-
sure. (ASV and Rsv the same except at |
Sam 13:6, Isa 60:17; Dan 11:20.)

Our root connotes the exertion of demanding
oppressive pressure for payment or labor. A near
synonym Is nashda'/nasha (only the repayment of
money). The participle (taskmaster, slavedriver)
is somewhat parallel to Sar mas (Ex 1:11) the
head of the corvée. The verb occurs twenty-three
times.

The essential meaning of our root is exhibited
in Ex 3:7 where it signifies Egyptian ‘‘over-
seers.’ They were told not to supply straw to
Israel but to maintatn the work output (vv. 10,
13). They beat the Israelite ‘‘foremen’’ when
Pharoah's demand was not met. Similar ‘‘oppres-
sion’’ is seen in the tribute (Isa 14:4; II Kgs 23:35)
forcibly exacted (cf. Dan 11:20). A ‘‘boss”’ could
be equally demanding (Job 3:18; 39:7). Judah's
children would assume such a role (Isa 3:12). The
Messiah would do away with all such oppression
(Isa 9:4 [H 3}: Zech 9:8) although he would

$53

1297 wad (nagash)

quietly endure it himself to accomplish salvation
(Isa 53:7: cf. Ex 3:7). His suffering would elevate
the godly to rulers (oppressors as far as their
enemies are concerned, so KD, Zech 9:8; Isa
14:2). They in turn would answer to peace and
righteousness (Isa 60:17).

The seventh year law directed creditors not to
demand payment during that year (KD, Deut
15:2-3), except from foreigners (cf. Isa 3:5).

| PAE Ge

1297 wa33 (ndgash) draw near, approach. (ASV

and rSv similar, the latter being preferable
at Isa 49:20; Mal 3:3; Ezk 9:6; and ques-
tionable at Jer 46:3 (cf. Joel 3:9 [H 4:9}).

Our root signifies coming into very near prox-
imity to the object. Unlike its near synonym,
garab, it does not usually signify actual contact.
For other synonyms cf. garab. For cognates see
Ugaritic ngt and its by-form ngsh (UT 19: no.
1611). Note ndgas ‘press (burden) upon.’’ The
root occurs 125 times.

The simple use of the root signifies proximity,
1.e. near enough to touch (Gen 27:21; 29:10), eat
(Gen 27:25), kiss (Gen 27:27), embrace (Gen
48:10). When used in a military context (cf.
qarab) it is often accompanied by *’to do battle”
(cf. Jud 20:23: I Chr 19:14). This is not always
true, however. In Joel 3:9 [H 4:9] ndgash by it-
self signifies being arrayed for battle (paralleled
to ‘drak (q.v.), and is in conjunction to bd’ (q.Vv.).
See I Sam 17:16, 40. The root can also represent
the actual engaging in battle and the result. So in
Ezk 9:6 the elect being marked with a faw: are not
to be slain (Adrag parallel to ‘al ndgash). \srael
who proudly boasts that death (the sword) will
not overtake or meet them is condemned by God
(Amos 9:10). The sovereign covenant God, there-
fore, guides and controls the sword Keeping the
elect safe even in the midst of war (Ps 91:7) and
punishing the wicked.

The root can be used of approaching a person
of exalted position with all the respect due his
position (Gen 43:19; 45:4; II Kgs 5:13). God says
that a king from his people would so approach
him in the eschaton (Jer 30:21). Men approach
God through his servants to learn his will (Jer
42:1; cf. the use of the ephod, I Sam 23:9, and the
lot, 1 Sam 14:38). This represents God as king and
judge. Sometimes the line between approaching
the servant and approaching God himself is dif-
ficult to discern (cf. Josh 14:6, 21:1). Yet clear
examples of approaching God the judge are evi-
denced, i.e. coming into a courtroom prepared to
argue a case (Gen 18:23). God summons men to
come and hear his pronouncement (Josh 3:9).
This image of a courtroom is used forcibly by the
prophet Isatah to call Israel and the nations into
account (Isa 41:1, 21: 48:20-21). The servant of

1298 *33 (nada’)

the Lord boldly proclaims God as his advocate
before his enemies. He has no fear of being pro-
ven wrong (Isa 50:8).

God sits as judge over his people (Josh 3:9),
and he designates men to represent him in this
capacity (Ex 24:14; Deut 25:1). Elyah calls the
people into court as witnesses in his controversy
with the prophets of Baal (I Kgs 18:30).

Men also are to approach God the great king
and judge as the great and holy savior. Hence our
word is used cultically. To approach God prop-
erly requires purification (Ex 19:22; 20:21; 28:43;
30:20, Lev 21:21) and appointment (e.g. Num
4:19). Our word is used interchangeably with
qarab | (q.v.), representing both the presentation
of an offering to the priests (Lev 8:14) and their
presenting it before God (Lev 2:8). Like Jeremiah
(12:2, gdrab), Isaiah (29:13) reports God's dis-
pleasure at his people being close to him with
their mouths, and far removed in their hearts.
Malachi uses our word six times and always in
the sense of making an offering (e.g. 1:7-8).

The root, like gdrab 1, is used of sexual rela-
tions in Ex 19:15.

L.J.C.

See no. 1319a.
See no. 130!a.

ap
"3

(ndd).
(néd).

1298 *s3) (nada’) drive away, thrust aside.
Occurs only once, in the Hiphil (JJ Kgs

17:21).

1299 3532 (nadab) make willing, incite.

Derivatives

tra33 (n'daba) freewill offering.
1299b 73°52 (nddib) noble.
1299c tmae (n°diba) noble deed.

The root ndb connotes an uncompelled and
free movement of the will unto divine service or
sacrifice. It occurs in other Northwest Semitic
dialects and in Amorite as a proper name. Cf. the
Arabic nadaba “call,” **1 ncite’’ and ndduba **be
noble, willing.”’ The synonym ‘aba is the
willingness (inclination) to do something under
obligation or upon request: rdsén, a willing
which is pleasurable to the doer; hdpas, a com-
pliance suiting that which is fitting or a favorable
disposition; ya@’al, an exertion of one’s will to do
something. See 'dwd, yd’ab, and ta’ab. Our verb
occurs seventeen times.

The verb nadab occurs three times in the Qal
and each time describes the inner state of those
contributing to the construction of the taberna-
cle. Such offerings were to be one’s own goods
and given voluntarily. The rest of the occurences
are in the Hithpael and, hence, are reflexive. The

1299a

554

building (I Chr 29:5) and rebuilding (1] Chr 35:8;
Ezr 1:6) of the temple elicited abundant voluntary
giving and sacrifice (Ezr 3:5) from God's people.
Interestingly, Deborah commends the people
(Jud 5:2) and leaders (Jud 5:9) of Israel for liber-
ally and voluntarily offering themselves to God in
the holy war. David addresses God concerning
the freewill contributions toward building the
temple, confessing that he owned everything in-
cluding their stewardship, and he was gracious in
accepting them (If Chr 29).

n°daba. Freewill offering. This noun denotes
that which is offered voluntarily. It is used three
times adverbially to describe acts. Other words
translated ‘‘free’’ are hinndm, costing no money;
naqG, having no guilt: and hapash, not being en-
slaved. Our word occurs twenty-six times.

The noun n°dabda represents voluntary con-
tributions (the objects of nddab) toward the
building of the tabernacle and temple. In Ex 36
the people volunteered so much that Moses
asked them to stop giving! Furthermore, this
noun represents sacrifice made ‘‘out of devotion,
not out of precept or promise’ (AI, p. 417). Such
sacrifices are one of the three (the other two are
néder, voluntive, and té6ddé, thanksgiving offer-
ings) types of ‘*peace”’ offerings (sh lamim). The
sh‘lamim ‘*symbolizes the reconciliation with
God that follows upon the atonement’’ (PTOT,
p. 386). As such it celebrates a state of favor and
blessedness arising from a proper relationship
with God. He prescribes and supervises the de-
tails of the entire proceeding, acting as host of the
fellowship dinner. The same beasts are appro-
priate (although birds are excepted) as in the case
of burnt offerings, but both male and female ani-
mals (even those with minor blemishes) are also
allowed (Lev 22:23). The ritual embraces the
same steps as does the burnt offering. In the
n‘ daba part of the animal (all fat around the in-
testines, kidneys, and liver, as well as the sheep's
tail) are to be burnt on the altar. Another part (the
breast or right leg) is symbolically presented to
God and eaten by the pnrests. The rest of the
sacrifice is consumed within two days (Lev 7:16)
by the suppliant, his family, and perhaps some
invited guests (underprivileged of the land), all of
whom must be ritualistically pure (AI, p. 418).

Several passages use our word in noteworthy
ways. In Ps 68:9 [H 10] God Is praised for restor-
ing his heritage by sending rain voluntarily. In-
volved in this confession is the idea that the co-
venant God, Jehovah, gave prosperity but not
because he was in any way bound to do so. The
people had broken his covenant, yet he blessed
them (Hos 14:4 [H 5]). In Ps 110:3 the people are
the willing offering. In Ps 119:108 it 1s prayer that
constitutes such voluntative offerings. This un-
veils the persistent theme that God desires heart-

felt obedience (I Sam 15:22; Hos 6:6) more than a
multitude of sacrifices (Amos 4:5).

nadib. Noble, willing, inclined. This word pat-
terned after the Qal passive participle is used as a
noun and as an adjective. The former denotes one
who is either typified by voluntarily and freely
sacrificing and/or serving the deity, or who Is re-
sponsible for such activity. There are many near
synonyms and most of them have Akkadian or
Persian cognates, e.g. ndgid ‘one who is con-
spicuous,’” nasi’ ‘‘one who is lifted up or pro-
moted,’’ ndsik ‘tone who is anointed” and,
hence, consecrated, sar ‘‘head official, captain.”
The usage of ndadib attributes voluntary cultic
(I Chr 28:21: Ex 35:5, 22: I] Chr 29:31) and/or
religious (Ps 51:12 [H 14]) service to its noun. Our
word occurs twenty-seven times.

The noun nddib can refer both to common
people (Ex 35:5) and overlords (1 Sam 2:8) as
those who do or should voluntarily serve God.
The latter are contrasted to the poverty stricken
(dal and 'ebvon, 1 Sam 2:8). Their responsibility
is emphasized when they are described as righ-
teous (Prov 17:26) and contrasted with the fool
(Prov 17:7). Their exalted material and social po-
sition is dependent on God (Ps 107:40), and,
hence, people are adjured not to trust in them but
in God (Ps 146:3). Even Gentile overlords can be
so described (Ps 47:9 [H 10}).

n°diba. Noble deed, noble bearing. This noun
represents what a nddib does (Isa 32:8) or what is
ty pical of such a one (Job 30:15). It occurs three
times.

L.J.C.
1300 32 (nddad) I, depart, flee, move, wander
abroad.
Derivative
1300a 0 119: (n“did) tossing, as during

periods of sleeplessness (Job 7:4,
only).

Basic to the meaning of the root 1s the concept
of motion, often with a directional sense, i.e. mo-
tion away from a person or object. But that sense
does not obtain in every occurrence of the word.

When used in the sense of ‘motion away
irom’ the word has several modes of expression
depending on the form of the verb or the context
in which it appears. It means ‘‘to flee’’ in the
sense of fleeing from the threat of danger (Isa
10:31; 21:15; 22:3; 33:3; Jer 4:25; 9:9; Ps 68:12
[H 13]). In a metaphorical sense it describes the
departing of sleep from the eyes (Gen 31:40; Est
6:1). The meaning ‘‘depart’’ also obtains in the
Ugaritic cognate (UT 16: Text 52:93; ‘nt 1.8).

In the Hiphil the word means “expel” or
‘chase away’’ (Job 18:18; 20:8). The same con-

555

1302 *m43

1302 *M5) (nada)

cept is inherent in the Qal participial form **fugi-
tive’ (Isa 16:3; 21:14). The word also connotes
the idea of wandering, meandering, or straying
(Job 15:23: Ps 55:7 [H 8]; Isa 16:2: Hos 7:13;
9:17).

The word is also used of the fluttering of the
wings of nestling birds in Isa 10:14 with no clear
reference to flight. In view of the use of nddad in
the sense of flight in Nah 3:17, it may be used in
Isa 10:14 in an associative sense. However this
usage and the usage inherent in the noun form
(n* dad) indicate that directional movement is not
essential to the meaning of the word.

T.E.M.

1301 ‘53 (ndd). Ul. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
130la 2 (néd) heap.

ASV and rSv the same except at Ps 33:7 where
the latter reads **bottle.’” Both emend the vowels
of the text at Isa 17:11 to read the verb nad {root
naddad ‘‘to flee’’] rather than our noun. If this
emendation, which is also followed by the niv, is
valid, then our noun in its other five occurrences
always has reference to restrained or dammed up
waters.

It should be distinguished from gai a pile of
stones, ‘f a heap of stones forming a ruin or
waste, ‘Grémd a gathering, a ruin-heap, and fél a
hill of ruins.

Gesenius-Buhl, BDB, and KB all posit two
Semitic roots for the consonants ndd because in
Arabic the verb nadda meaning “‘to flee’’ corre-
sponds to Hebrew nddad ‘‘to flee, and the
Arabic noun naddun denoting “high hill” its
probably related to our noun.

Our noun is applied to the restrained waters at
the creation (Ps 33:7), to the waters of the yam
sip when they piled up on both sides while the
Israelites crossed through it (Ex 15:8: cf. 14:22,
29), and to the Jordan River which stopped flow-
ing because they became dammed up at Adam, a
town on the Jordan River upstream from Jericho
where the Israelites crossed over at the time of
the Conquest (Josh 3:13, 16). The Jordan episode
is a miracle of divine control of a possible occur-
rence, since the region around Adam has geologi-
cal conditions which could result in a landslide
capable of damming the river. Indeed, such a
thing reportedly occurred in 1227 a.p. (for sixteen
hours), and in 1927 for two and one-half hours
(cf. J. M. Houston, ‘‘Jordan,”’ in NBD, p. 656).

The word is theologically important because it
speaks of the LORD’s sovereign control over the
creation as he achieves his will on earth.

B.K.W.

(nada) I, put away, cast out.

1303 3 (ndh)

Derivatives
1302a tm32 (nidda) filthiness, menstruous,
set apart.
1302b 0 «5°39 (nidd) filthiness. Occurs

only in Lam 1:8.

The verb naddd means “to exclude’”’ (Isa 66:5),
and ‘refuse to think of’ (Amos 6:3). It occurs
only in the Piel. Its synonym garash is more
widely used. The Ugaritic ndy is parallel to grsh
(UT 19:no. 1616; cf. Akkadian nada ‘throw, ne-
glect’’).

nidda. Filthiness, menstruous, put apart, separa-
tion, set apart, unclean thing. (RSV translates
‘*pollutions’’ in Ezra 9:11 and ‘‘filthy thing’’ in
Lam 1:17; asv ‘‘filthy thing’? in Lam 1:17.)

Derived from nddad by BDB but from nada by
KB. In the legal literature the word is used
primarily to describe the ritual uncleanness in-
curred by women during menstruation or child-
birth, two functions generally associated with
impurity incurred from bodily discharges or se-
cretions (Lev 12:2, 5; 15:19-20, 26).

Everything on which a menstruous women
might lie or sit was pronounced ritually unclean
(niddad). The impurity defined by this word also
extended to abnormal menstruation such as pro-
longed or irregular periods (Lev 15:25, 33).

Ezekiel applies the word to the menstrual
period in his description of the righteous man
who, among other things, does not have inter-
course with a woman during the time of her
period (Ezk 18:6; 22:10) (a law dependent on Lev
18:19). See also Ezk 22:10.

Metaphorically, the concept of the ritual im-
purity of the menstrual period was used by
Ezekiel to describe the nature of Israel’s sin
(36:17). Basic to the metaphorical use of the term
is the concept of abhorrence inherent in the phys-
ical ongin of the term. It is used of useless cur-
rency cast into the streets like an abhorred thing
(Ezk 7:19-20). It is applied to Israel's most hein-
ous sins (Zech 13:1: Ezr 9:11; 1] Chr 29:5).

The word is used in the technical expression
‘water of impurity,” a purifying water used in
the ceremony of cleansing from the defilement of
death (Num 19:9, 13, 20-21).

Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, Man—God's
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, p. 143.

T.E.M.

1303 m3. (ndh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1303a SJ (nedeh) gift (Ezk 16:33,
only).
32 (n°dud). See no. 1300a.
1304 ms? (naddah) impel, drive away, banish.

556

Derivative
1304a tmsst2) (maddiiah) enticement (Lam
2:14, only).

The root ndh refers to the action of forcibly
driving or pushing something away. Cf. the
synonyms dahé and dahah which seem to be var-
iant (perhaps dialectical) spellings or derived
roots. There is an Arabic cognate, however, for
both nddah and ddaéha. Other synonyms are:
gdrash ‘to drive out of one’s resting-place or
home,”’ hence, to divorce; nddap *‘to push or
thrust away,’’ i.e. what the wind does to chaff or
smoke; ndhag ‘‘to drive or guide people or ani-
mal(s) to an intended destination’’; pus *‘to scat-
ter, disperse.’’ Some antonyms of our root are:
kinnés, gibbés, and shiib (all of which see). The
root occurs fifty-five times.

The basic meaning of the root emerges in Deut
19:5; 20:19 where it represents the action of
swinging an ax, i.e. impelling something away
from one. David uses this same forceful figure
when he speaks about the disaster Absalom in-
tends to bring upon him (II Sam 15:14), and
which the wicked intend to inflict upon the nght-
eous (Ps 62:4 [H 6]; notice the use of daha, v. 3
[H 4)}).

The root also depicts the force of wind blowing
away a swarm of locusts (Joel 2:20). However,
the image most used with nddah is that of a flock
of sheep. Sometimes the agent which drives the
sheep away is not specified (Deut 22:1); some-
times it is lions (Jer 50:17; men, Isa 13:14; cf. Job
6:13). The agent can also be inept shepherds who
are guilty not of negligence (so that the sheep
wander away) but of doing the opposite of what
they are supposed to do (i.e. they scatter and/or
lead the sheep astray, Ezk 34:4; cf. Prov 7:21).
So, God warns his people against false prophets
who would drive them away from him (Deut 13:5
[H 6]). Such shepherds are to be stoned, indeed,
if a whole city goes after such a one that city 1s to
be destroyed (Deut 13:13 [H 14]). If the whole
nation is so led astray it will be driven off the land
(Deut 30:17) by God. Jeroboam (II Kgs 17:21),
Ahab (II Chr 21:11), and eventually all of Israel's
leaders (Ezk 34:4) are condemned as poor
shepherds. Note the irony of Jer 27:10, 15! Israel
is warned that they are not simply sheep, but are
responsible before God neither to be driven as-
tray by false religion (Deut 4:19) or false religious
leaders.

God is the great shepherd who will disown and
expel the flock if they follow false under-
shepherds (Deut 30:17). They will be driven away
from his presence into the thick darkness (Isa
8:22) of captivity in a foreign land(s) where they
will be a taunt, etc. (Jer 24:9), eat unclean bread
(Ezk 4:13), prefer death, and many will die (Jer
8:3). God promises, however, that he will only

refine them and not completely destroy them (Jer
46:28). The Great Shepherd will return his
purified flock (cf. the forty years of wandering) to
these green fields (Palestine, Jer 16:15; cf. Ps 23)
once more (Deut 30:4) once they repent (cf. Neh
1:9; Ezk 34:16; Jer 29:14). Micah also employs
this image in a clearly messianic context (4:6; cf.
Ps 147:2 [H 3}). God the Great Shepherd gathers
and tends his flock, but he also punishes their
former oppressors (Jer 46:28), establishes his
own forever in his grace (Zeph 3:19; cf. Jer 24:9;
Isa 11:12), and extends his grace beyond the
physical descendants and ritualistically un-
blemished people of Israel (Isa 56:8). This good
shepherd image is well-known from the teachings
of Jesus (Jn 10) and prefigures the function and
goal of the New Testament elder (Acts 20:17,
28ff.; Titus 1:7, etc.).

Lc.

See no. 1299b.
132 (naddan) I, gift. Occurs only in Ezk

16:33. Vocalization uncertain. Probably
related to the root natan.

5°33 (nddib).
1305

1306 132 (nddan) UH, sheath. Only in I Chr
21:27, a Persian loan word.

1307 "32 (nd@dap) drive away. (ASV and RSV
the same except at Prov 21:6.)

Our verb represents what the wind does to
chaff and smoke. It is an action parallel with di-
vine scattering of enemies with the result that
they flee (Ps 68:2 [H 3]; cf. Jer 13:24). For
synonyms see nddah. The word occurs nine
times.

The root usually occurs in figures of judgment.
Especially noteworthy is its appearance in Lev
26:36 where the law is sanctioned with the threat
that Israel’s disobedience would result in rout be-
fore her enemies (cf. nés). The Psalmist employs
a similar image of the fate of the wicked before
divine judgment. Here God himself is the ‘*wind™’
(Ps 1:4). David asks God to drive away his
enemies (Ps 68:2 [H 3}; note the parallel with wax
melting before fire). Isaiah warns Egypt of
impending judgment by depicting the complete
destruction of the Nile and the foliage along its
banks. Here our word appears between ‘‘dry up”’
(yabésh) and *‘is no more’”’ (Isa 19:7). Divine aid
will render Cyrus a formidable sword/bow in
God’s hands (Isa 41:2).

L.J.C.
1308 S33 (nddar) make a vow.
Derivative
1308a +92 (neder), "3 (néder) vow,

votive offering.

557

1308 "3 (naddar)

Our root connotes the act of verbally conse-
crating (devoting to the service) of God, i.e. vow-
ing to perform (Gen 28:20ff.), to make an offering
(Lev 27), or to abstain from something (Ps
132:2ff.). Cf. especially ‘ald, the general uttering
of oaths and curses as part of that larger catagory
(cf. gdlal), ’dsar *‘be bound or joined to or in”
(cf. 'ésdr/issadr ‘‘bond,’*’ Num 30:2 [H 3], etc.),
hrm ‘to devote something to destruction,’ and
shaba‘ *‘make a statement or a promise’”’ (with an
oath invoking God and pledging something valu-
able). Cf. Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1618; AisWUS
1758), and Phoenician (KAI, p. 16) cognates with
the same meaning. The verb occurs thirty-one
times.

néeder. Vow, votive offering. RSV Superior to ASV
at'Lev 7:16; 22:18, etc., where the noun denotes
the thing offered. This noun represents either the
result of nddar, i.e. a vow, or the thing offered to
fulfill a vow. For synonyms see nddab. Cognates
for the noun occur in Ugaritic and Phoenician, as
for the verb (see above). The noun occurs fifty-
nine times.

néder occurs in the lists of sacrifices (e.g. Deut
12:6, 11) as a species of peace offering (Lev 7:16).
A closer description occurs in Num 30:3 [H 4]
where to ndadar a néder is to swear to God with
an oath (hishshaba‘ sh® bia; cf. Ps 132:2) and to
bind one’s self with what proceeds from one's
mouth. A néder is something promised to God
verbally (Num 30:4 [H 5]). If one so promises he
is obliged to fulfill/do his promise (Deut 23:22). In
most cases, the context shows that the vow im-
plies a promised gift for sacrifice, not merely a
course of action as is implied in the English word
‘‘vow.’’ The biblical *“vow”’ is always to deity,
never a promise between man and man. Rash
vows are to be avoided (Prov 20:25: cf. Jud 11:30)
as foolish (Eccl 5:4 (H 3]f.) in the fullest sense of
that word. One ts not bound, however, to make a
vow (contract) with God, for not to do so is no sin
(Deut 23:23 [H 24]). A néder is a species of thank
offering (made even by Gentiles, Nah 1:15
[H 2:1]) vowed (Ps 116:14, 18) in return for God’s
favor (Num 2]:!-3) or as an expression of godly
zeal and devotion and in praise for answered
prayer (Ps 22:25 [H 26]). Happiness results when
a vow is properly fulfilled (Job 22:27).

Almost anything that is not God’s already (Lev
27:26; note the development in the concept of
tithing, Gen 31:13), or an abomination to him
(Deut 23:18 {H 19]—such as the wages of a male
or female harlot: cf. Prov 7:14)—can be vowed. A
person can even vow himself to service, or be
vowed to service, and can be redeemed (or re-
deem himself) thus giving to God a value equal in
worth to his actual service, but being free to pur-
sue his own life (Lev 27:2ff.). Clean beasts which
fulfilled a vow were presented as votive offerings

1309 353 (nahag)

unless they did not fulfill the requirements oth-
erwise specified in the law (Lev 27:9ff.; cf.
22:18ff.; nddab) in which case the offerer can
also present a second acceptable offering. Both
animals, however, are holy (Lev 27:9ff.). One is
sacrificed, the other becomes the possession of
the priesthood. Unclean beasts may be redeemed
(Lev 27:11f.). The regulations governing vowing
a house or houses, and land also appear in Lev
27. During the wilderness wanderings (KD, Num
15:3) the amount of fine flour and drink offering
to accompany the various kinds of animals poten-
tially constituting votive offerings was stipulated.

The néder could be a burnt offering (Lev 22:18)
or a peace-offering, in which case it was to be
eaten on either the first or second day (Lev 7:16).
For more details see naddab and sh‘ lamim.

Both men and women could make vows. This
is tempered by an institutionalization of woman’s
submission to man (Num 30:4 [H 5]). Yet it is
important to note that women could own prop-
erty and be religiously responsible for themselves
(Num 30:9 [H 10]). The submission (Gen 2:21f.)
sanctioned the family institution by emphasizing
the importance of that union and relationship.
After entry into Palestine the néder together with
other stipulated sacrifices were to be consum-
mated only at the designated central sanctuary
(Deut 12:6, 11).

To make vows was not a religious duty (Deut
23:21-23 [H 22-24]). Such vows were acceptable
to God (Ps 50:8). He makes it clear, however,
that he is not being fed or tended (Ps 50:9-13) as
paganism thought (cf. A. Leo Oppenheim, An-
cient Mesopotamia, University of Chicago, 1964,
p. 183ff.). Vows were supererogatory acts of de-
votion and love contracted either preceeding (Ps
50:14) or following divine blessing (Ps 116:17-18).
They were accompanied by joy (Nah 1:5 [H 2:1])
and/or singing (Ps 61:8 [H 9]), and were accepta-
ble only if iniquity was not cherished in the of-
ferer’s heart (Ps 66:18; cf. Prov 7:14).

There are at least two noteworthy special
vows: the Nazirite (Num 6:13ff; ndzar,, q.v.) and
the herem (Num 21:2; hrm, q.v.). Absalom be-
gged leave of David's court to fulfill a vow
(II Sam 15:7-8). The depth of his deceit is shown
by both his having lied and having lied respecting
divine ordinances. Elkanah on the other hand,
both conscientiously fulfilled his own vows
(I Sam 1:21) and concurred with Hannah's (I Sam
1:11, 22-23; Cf. Num 30). Jephthah’s rash prom-
ise of a human sacrifice is inexcusable, however
low the level of his knowledge of divine law.
Thankfully, it was tempered when he dedicated
his only daughter to lifelong service in the taber-
nacle, as seems at least possible (Jud 11:30, 39;
cf. KD).

The néder uniquely and concretely represents
the love which conforms to divine pleasure show-

558

ing that even in the Mosaic era love (Deut 6:4),
and not pure legalism, best described true godli-
ness. The Messiah ts also bound by vow to offer
himself a sacrifice for sin (Ps 22:25 [H 26]; cf.
Lev. 27:2ff.)the only human sacrifice truly
‘acceptable’ to God. All men are to come to
God with their vows (Ps 65:1 [H 2]; cf. Isa 19:21),
and what can they bring as a votive offering other
than God's own lamb (Jn 1:29)?
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 39-42.
L.J.C.

m3. (ndah). See no. 1320a.

1309 372 (nahag) I,lead, drive, guide.

Derivative

1309a 9-337 (minhdg) driving, charioteer-
ing (II Kgs 9:20, only).

nadhag denotes an orderly conducting of an
animal (or group of animals) or people to an in-
tended destination either by forcible driving or
leading. This verb may be applied infrequently to
inanimate objects (cf. Ex 10:13 etc.). For
synonyms see especially, ndhda, ‘‘to lead, guide”
(Ps 77:20 [H 21]; Job 12:23), nahal **to lead with
care’’ (Isa 49:10), nddah ‘‘impel, drive away,
banish,’ 'ashar (in Piel) ‘to lead straight on”
(KB), darak (Hiphil) ‘‘lead in the path of’ (KB),
and ra‘a ‘‘to shepherd’ (including leading and
guiding a flock). The word occurs thirty times.

The word is used for herding cattle, sheep, etc.
This can be the normal activity of a shepherd (Ex
3:1; Gen 31:18) whereby a shepherd *‘leads’’ the
flock by going before them (cf. Isa 40:11; Jn
10:4). It can also refer to herding (driving) away
booty (I Sam 23:5; ] Sam 30:22), or an animal as a
pledge (Job 24:3).

Not only large groups, but a single animal can
be “herded,” i.e. led (II Kgs 4:24), as the instruc-
tion of the Shunamite woman to her servant
makes clear.

People can be ‘‘herded.’’ So Laban accuses
Jacob of driving off his daughters as booty (Gen
31:26; Isa 20:4)—unwillingly and by force. The
verb also can represent the shepherd-like leading
as a figure of the king’s taking his army out to war
(1 Chr 20:1; II Chr 25:11). People are also herded
in a less unwilling and less martial context (I Sam
30:22).

There are some passages where our verb is
applied to driving (i.e. forcible **herding’’) things.
One drives a chariot (Ex 14:25; I] Kgs 9:20) or
cart (II Sam 6:3). The Lord ‘“‘drives”’ the winds
(Ex 10:13; Ps 78:26), his messengers (cf. Ps
104:3-4).

This verb is used of God's activity among his
people. If they disobey, he will lead (drive, herd)
them away to a foreign land (Deut 4:27). This

principle stated in Deut 4:27 envisions all sub-
sequent ‘dispersions’ (KD), as does Deut 28:37.
This was especially fulfilled in the great exile
under Babylon. In the eschaton God's sovereign
power will so establish his kingdom that the
strength of the nations, i.e. their kings, shall be
‘*herded”’ (as booty!) to Jerusalem (Isa 60:1 Iff.).
God, the true shepherd (cf. nddah) herded his
people during the wilderness wanderings (Ps
78:52). Under the monarchy the ptous address
God as he who led Joseph like a flock. The exile
elicited the painful cry ‘‘God led me and caused
me to walk in darkness’ (Lam 3:2). In the escha-
ton the role of ‘“‘herder’’ simultaneously would
embrace carnivorous animals and their most
natural prey and would be filled by a little child
(Isa 11:6). Later, Isaiah records that God himself
would be this mighty herder (Isa 49: 10).
L.J.C.
1310 *352 (ndhag) HH, moan, lament. Occurs
only once, in the Piel (Nah 2:8).

1311 mm) (nahad) wail, lament.
Derivatives
3lla fm (nhi) wailing.
1311b 0 «oYm3) (nihyad) wailing (Mic 2:4,
only).
3lle 3 (ni) wailing (Ezk 27:32, only).
311d om (hi) wailing (Ezk 2:10, only).

This verb refers to the wailing that accom-
panies mourning. Synonyms are ‘dnd ‘‘to la-
ment, mourn.”’ Also see gyn, ‘dbal, and Sapad,
which are used to refer to the various expressions
of formal and professional mourning which was
common in the ancient Near East. naha@ occurs
three times. This wailing was done by women or
other professionals (Jer 9:18 [H 18]; Ezk 32:18;
Amos 5:16).

Divine prescription summons such activity ac-
companying a funeral dirge in anticipation of the
forthcoming judgment on Israel (Jer 9:9-11,
16-21: 31:15). Micah enjoins a similar lamenting
over God’s condemned but rebellious people
(2:4: Amos 5:16). This word is used of the mourn-
ing for the divinely condemned multitudes of
Egypt (Ezk 32:18).

n°hi. Wailing. asv and Rsv the same except at
Jer 31:15 where asv is superior. Both are in-
adequate at Mic 2:4 (‘wail with a bitter wail-
ing’’). Our noun represents the result of nahd. It
is difficult to distinguish this result from that of
‘ana ‘‘lament’*. The noun occurs seven times.
Bibliography: Al, p. 60. Gregory, T. M.,
**Mourning,” in ZPEB, IV, pp. 302-306.
Kitchen, K. A., ‘Burial and Mourning,” in
NBD, p. 170ff.
L.J.C.

559

1315 953 (nahar)

yma. (n®hi). See no. 1311d.
1312 *9m2 (nahal) lead with care.
Derivative
1312a 9%) (nahalol) pasture (Isa 7:19,
only).

Our root, which occurs in the Piel and
Hithpael, denotes a shepherd's loving concerned
leading of his flock, especially those with young
(Isa 40:11). For synonyms see nadhag. The verb
occurs ten times.

The basic meaning of ndhal clearly emerges in
Isa 51:18: Gen 33:14; Isa 40:11. The first passage
parallels this root with “leading someone by the
hand,’ i.e. to lead someone who is helpless (cf.
Jud 16:26; Isa 42:6) or who needs to be guided
aright (cf. Gen 19:16; Isa 45:1). Thus, Jerusalem,
made drunk by God's judgment is helpless. The
second passage (Gen 33:14) records Jacob’s re-
quest to Esau that he be allowed to travel slowly
and leisurely with his herds and children. Finally,
the root is paralleled with rd‘d ‘‘to shepherd,’’
protectively gathering young lambs in one’s
arms, and carrying them in one’s bosom. The
root specifically is connected with what such a
shepherd does in leading pregnant ewes.

It is this loving concerned shepherd-like lead-
ing that typifies God’s conducting his people to
Palestine (paralleled by nahda, Ex 15:13). David
confesses that God gently leads him beside still
waters (parallel to “‘makes me lie down in green
pastures,’ Ps 23:2), and prays God's continued
care (Ps 31:3 (H 4], parallel to ndha). The escha-
ton will attest God's tender leading of his people
(Isa 40:11; 49:10).

The idea of tenderly leading extends to ten-
derly conducting, e.g. feeble ones on asses
(II Chr 28:15), the weak through threatening
enemies (11 Chr 32:22), and the hungry through a
famine (Gen 47:17).

L.J.C.

%%82 (nahalodl). See no. 1312a.

1313 Bm (ndham) growl, groan (e.g. Prov
S:11; Ezk 24:23).
Derivatives
1313a BR (naham) growling (Prov
19:12, only).

1313b 0 «mam? (n° hdmad) growling (Isa
5:30): groaning (Ps 38:9).

1314 m2 (ndhaq) bray, cry (Job 6:5. 30:7).
1315 m2 (nahar) I, flow, stream.
Derivative
I31Sa_ t9%2 (nahar) river.

1316 352 (nahar)

nahar is used only four times and in the Qal. In
the oT it is only used figuratively of the conflu-
ence of nations. The most interesting passages
are the duplicates in Isa 2:2 and Mic 4:1 when in
the last days all nations will stream to God's tem-
ple in Jerusalem.

nahar. River, stream. Used 120 times in the
oT. The noun is found also in Ugaritic (Ais WUS
no. 1762), Aramaic, Arabic, and Akkadian. The
word is used many times to refer to the major
rivers of the Bible lands. The Psalms use it more
generally for torrents of water in various similes.

The rivers of Eden are named and the two
larger ones easily identified. The other two can
be inferred fairly well. Speiser points out that
Gen 2:10 speaks of four river valleys going up
from Eden to their headwaters. The streams ob-
viously flow into Eden and unite to go toward the
Persian Gulf (AB, Genesis, pp. 19-20: cf. also
Harris, R. L., ‘‘The Mist, the Canopy and the
Rivers of Eden,’ JETS 11:177-79).

The Nile does not seem to be called a naéhar
but is named the y° ’6r which is an Egyptian loan
word and is practically the name for the Nile and
its branches. The Euphrates is called the ndhar
p‘rat (the word Euphrates is just Greek for
‘beautiful Parat’’) or merely nahar ‘The
River.’’ The two upper tributaries of the Eu-
phrates, the Balikh and the Khabur are called the
‘two rivers’’ in the expression Aram Naharaim.
The Khabur is probably the river of Gozan
(II Kgs 17:6). The streams of Damascus, Abana
and Pharpar are called rivers. Curiously the word
nahar is never applied to the Jordan. It is just
‘‘The Jordan.”

In the expression for the extent of the promised
land it goes from ‘‘the River (ndhar) of Egypt’’ to
‘the great river, the River Euphrates’? (Gen
15:18. B. Waltke (‘The River of Egypt,”’ in
ZPEB, V, p. 121) argues that this means the Nile
and its branches, for ndhdr could not be applied
to the small stream now called the Wadi el Arish
southwest of the Gaza strip. However, ndadhar
does not seem to be applied to the Nile either.
Perhaps the question like other Near East bound-
ary questions in modern times defies attempts at
settlement.

R.L.H.
1316 "2 (nahar) UH, light, burn (as a lamp).
Derivatives
13l6a t7953 (n*hara) light, daylight.
13166 «A353 «(minhara). Occurs only in

Jud 6:2. Meaning uncertain,
perhaps ‘“‘mountain cleft’ (NIV).

This verb signifies ‘‘to be light,’ ‘*to shine’ as
a lamp. Ugaritic attests mr (root, nyr, AisWUS
no. 1850), and Akkadian nawdru /namdaru ‘‘to

560

light,” naru ‘‘a light.’ Arabic nahdrun ‘‘day-
light.’ nar of the same meaning is a by-form. KB
suggests that nadhar is the Aramaic form. Our
verb occurs three times (so, KB).

n° hara. Light, daylight (Job 3:4 only). rsv and
ASV the same. Our word signifies the first *‘rays”’
of the morning sun.

LJ.C.
1317 *833 (na’) forbid, disallow.
Derivative
1317a «= ASIIR (tna) ~=opposition (Num

14:34: Job 33:10.

ni’ represents a negative reaction to a planned
action. It is parallel to /6’ hdrash (“‘he does not
keep silent,’” Num 30:5 [H 6]), and hépér (Hiphil
of pdrar ‘‘to break, bring to nought’’). A male
head of a house can ‘“‘forbid’’ a woman’s vow
(Num 30:8 [H 9]), and God ‘‘breaks’’ man’s plans
(Ps 33:10). The word occurs nine times, always in

the Hiphil.
L.J.C.

1318 333 (nib) bear fruit (e.g. Ps 62:11; Prov

10:31).
Derivatives
1318a 333 (néb) fruit (Isa 57:19, only).
1318b 03°39 (nib) fruit (Isa 57:19; Mal
1:12).
1318c 9pm «(fniba) fruit, produce (e.g.

Isa 27:6; Ezk 36:30).

1319 33. (nid) wander; have compassion on.

Derivatives

1319a oi3 (néd), 33 (néd) wandering
of aimless fugitive (Ps 59:9).

1319b 3 (nid) quivering motion of lips

(Job 16:5).

Sil) (mdndd) a_ shaking, wag-
ging (Ps 44:15, only).

2119c

nud basically denotes a going back and forth. It
is applied to a physical movement or an attitude.
Cf. Arabaic ndda ‘‘move to and fro”’ (as the head
of one falling asleep). The two connotations of
our word are evidenced by its parallels and
synonyms. First, our word is parallel to nhm (Isa
51:19) *‘to comfort,’’ *“*be sorry for someone or
one’s self,’ and Aml/ (Jer 15:5) **to spare,’ “‘have
compassion on.’’ Secondly, cf. néa‘ **wander
unstably,’’ ‘‘move unsteadily,’’ ‘*wag one’s head
mockingly’’ (Gen 4:12). It is important to note
that the root sometimes equals or is similar to
nadad “‘to flee in disorderly retreat’’; hence, it is
paralleled to nus ‘‘flee’’ (Jer 4:30) and con-

trasted to hasd ‘‘take refuge’’ (Ps 11:1), and cf.
Prov 27:8. Our verb occurs twenty-seven times.

The basic meaning, to wander aimlessly and/or
homelessly, is seen in the curse God placed upon
Cain (Gen 4:12, 14). He was not only driven away
from his parents, but was condemned to be an
unstable person (nua‘) and a homeless wanderer
(nid). That our root connotes aimless to and fro
(wandering) movement is clear from I Kgs 14:15
where it represents the action of a reed moved by
water. Another example is Isa 24:20 where it rep-
resents the unsteady wavering movement of a
drunk man. In Prov 26:2 it parallels a bird’s *‘fly-
ing’ signifying its aimless flitting motion (cf. KD,
Jer 4:1).

This to and fro movement is also typical of the
nodding of one’s head ‘‘as a sign of pity that
sympathizes with one and recognizes the mag-
nitude of the evil’’ (KD; Ps 69:20 [H 21)]).
Whether or not this action was always under-
stood when this root appears is uncertain, but the
attitude so symbolized is. The exile brings righ-
teous and deserved judgment on Judah and, hence,
none should nor would-show them pity (Isa 51:19;
Jer 15:5). Other nations judged by God receive
similar treatment, i.e. God declares that no one
should or would have pity on them (Jer 48:17;
Nah 3:7). Jeremiah says that the magnitude of
Judah’s punishment will be so great that it will be
fruitless to mourn nid for the dead king Josiah in
view of the calamities that will come upon his
successors (Jer 22:10). Individuals in deep trou-
ble are objects of sympathy (Job 2:11; 42:11; Ps
69:20 [H 21}). The nodding of one’s head may
connote astonishment (Jer i8:16); even more
forceful nodding connotes scornful rejection (Jer
48:17; Ps 64:8 [H 9]; cf. 22:8 [H 9}), or deep
mourning (Jer 31:17 [H 18]).

Our verb often signifies “flight away from’’ (cf.
nus, nddad). In Ps 11:1 David asserts that
Jehovah is his refuge and chides his enemies for
advising him to seek another refuge. Jeremiah
clearly uses our verb interchangeably with naddad
(cf. 49:30, 5; 50:3, 8). God tells his people (Lev
26:17, 28; cf. Deut 28:7) that victory and safety
depend on his presence, and that his presence
depends on their obedience (cf. nis). This idea is
reflected in II Kgs 21:8. David reminding God of
the ancient promise prays that the evildoers will
not be allowed to drive him away (into exile, KD;
Ps 36:11 [H 12]).

LC:

1320 m2 (nwh). Assumed root of the following.
1320a 3) (ndah) = eminency, distinction
(Ezk 7:11, only).

1321 *miy (nadwa) I, beautify. This verb oc-
curs only once, in the Hiphil (Ex 15:2).

561

1322 33 (nawa) IL, keep at home.

1322 M32 (nawa)

Denomina-
tive verb.

Parent Noun

1322a tml (naweh) I, pasture, abode of
shepherd, habitation.

1322b «62. (ndweh) HH, dwelling, abid-
ing (Ps 68:13, only).

1322c 83) (nadwa) pasture, meadow.

The verb ndwad (Hab 2:5) signifies the state of
being in a ndweh, from which noun it appears to
have been derived.

naweh I. Pasture, abode of shepherd, habitation,
sheepfold. Neither the asv nor the Rsv
adequately renders Zeph 2:6 where nadwa must
mean ‘‘folds’’ (it is clearly parallel to k*rét
‘‘caves’’ (cf. James A. Pator, in ISBE, p. 2757),
and g‘dérad ‘fenced enclosure’). The noun
naweh appears to be a loanword, hence, it ex-
hibits some unusual spelling variations. With the
exception of Zeph 2:6 (which is not the expected
plural form of ndweh; cf. KD, on Ps 68:12 [H
13}), the plural includes the insertion of an aleph
as a vowel lengthener. The noun ndweh repre-
sents the place a flock is kept, hence, either an
open field or an enclosure. Synonyms are: 1!)
g°déra **fenced/hedged-in place”’ (cf. Zech 2:6);
miqla/miqla’ ‘place of restraint’’; rébes ‘*a place
to lie down’’; 2) kar ‘‘grazing plot’’; mir‘eh ‘‘a
place for feeding sheep”’ (Isa 32:14) or lions (Nah
2:11 [H 12]); mar‘it ‘*pasturage’’ (perhaps a var-
ient spelling of mir‘eh), and r¢‘? ‘“‘pasture’’ (I
Kgs 4:23 (H 5:3] only). Cf. ndw@, (probably from
na@’a ‘‘be beautiful’’) beautiful, comely (Jer 6:2).
Our noun occurs forty-five times (perhaps also in
Ps 69:12 [H 13]).

The noun ndaweh represents an enclosure for
sheep (Zeph 2:6 which could be from ndwa!) This
is where the herd lies down (parallel to rébes, Jer
50:7; Isa 65:10), a place of safety and protection
(Prov 24:15). This secure place of protection can
represent (poetically) the peaceful tent of the
godly (Job 5:24), the resting place of the righteous
(Prov 24:15), the safe dwellings (eschatological)
of God's people (Isa 32:18, note that rébes is
used here also), and the messianic city of sac-
rifices and unmovable tent (Isa 33:20).

Our noun also represents the place where a
shepherd follows sheep (I] Sam 7:8), causes them
to lie down (Jer 33:12; Ps 23:2), where they can
feed (Jer 50:19; Ezk 34:14). This was usually
upon the hilltops (Jer 9:10 [H 9]; Amos 1:2), or in
the steppe (Joel 1:19-20). But in the eschaton
food will be so abundant that farmland will be
used for grazing (Isa 65:10).

God’s special/holy ‘‘pastureland/fold’’ for his
flock is Canaan (Ex 15:13; Ps 79:7; Jer 10:25).
Interestingly, Jerusalem (II Sam 15:25) particu-
larly represents this place of divine provision (cf.

1323 M32 (niiah)

nuah, Deut 12:5). Even Jerusalem, however, is
only a figure of the true place of perfect protec-
tion and provision, God himself (Jer 50:7). Aban-
donment of God results in abandonment by God
and destruction of the prepared *‘ pasturage/fold”
(Isa 27:10; 32:18). Repentance effects restoration
to the blessedness of Canaan (Jer 23:3; 31:23,
note the parallel to ‘‘mountain of holiness"*; cf.
E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah [Eerdmans,
1965] on Isa 33:20). Ultimately, divine sover-
eignty will secure eternal provision for God’s
people.

L.J.C.

1323 mia. (ntiah) rest, settle down.
Derivatives

1323a +mAM2 (nahat) rest, quietness.

1323b tm (ndah) Noah.

1323c mm) (nihdah) quieting, soothing
(e.g. Gen 8:21; Lev 26:31).

mmm (hdndhad) a giving of rest
(Est 2:18, only).

1323e mia (mdndah) resting place.

1323f «tama (mtntiha), mad (m*niha)

resting place, rest.

1323d

Our root signifies not only absence of move-
ment but being settled in a particular place
(whether concrete or abstract) with overtones of
finality, or (when speaking abstractly) of victory,
salvation, etc. For synonyms cf. shdbat, connot-
ing the absence of activity (or, of a particular
activity), shdgat which connotes the absence of
disturbance from external causes, shdlam, con-
noting wholeness, i.e. the state of well being,
and démi ‘‘quiet,’" raga‘ ‘‘to be in repose.’’ The
root should be distinguished from naéha *‘to lead,
guide’ (KB), and nahd, “‘to lean upon’ (KB)
which are often similar in form. Cf. Ugaritic nh
(AisWUS 1772 nwh, UT 19: no 1625); Akk na@hu.
The verb occurs 138 times.

Basically the root niah relates to absence of
Spatial activity and presence of security, as seen,
e.g. in the ark which ‘“‘rested”’ on Mount Ararat
(Gen 8:4), and the locusts ‘‘resting’’ on Egypt
(Ex 10:14). The *‘security’’ has overtones of con-
quest in Josh 3:13. In the Hiphil the root moves in
two directions, the causative and the permissive.
First, in the sense of ‘‘deposit,’* i.e. cause some-
thing (Someone) to nuiah. So, God ‘‘deposits”’
man in the garden (Gen 2:15). Manna (Ex 16:34),
the rods (Num 17:4 [H 19]), and baskets of fruit
(Deut 26:4, 10) are ‘‘deposited’’ before God. The
second use is ‘to allow something (someone) to
be at rest, i.e. to leave alone. So God left the
Canaanites alone (Jud 2:23), and David left
Shimei alone (1 Sam 10:25). Our root is used ina
unique sense of “being confederate with’ (Isa
7:2).

562

The verb has at least four important theological
useS: a uSe pertaining to death; a spiritual, a mar-
tial, and a soteriological use.

The first use relates to rest in death as is seen in
Job 3:13, 17 where Job bemoans his existence
and lauds stillbirth (cf. Prov 21:16). In Dan 12:13
God tells Daniel he is to be dead at the end of
days (KD).

The psychological-spiritual significance emerges
in Job 3:26 where Job complains that he was dis-
quieted (ragaz) and had no ease (shdqat) or
peace (shalwa). Proverbs 29:17 advises correct-
ing one’s son and he will give one psychological
rest, or (as the parallel puts it) delight to one’s
soul. Spiritual rest (the absence of trouble) is
seen in Isa 14:3, 7 (cf. Prov 29:9), and most
clearly in Isa 28:12 (although this has clear
soteriological overtones). The only true place of
spiritual rest is God (manitiah, Ps 116:7).

The martial use entails God’s promise (Deut
12:10) and the fulfillment (Josh 21:44 [H 42}) to
defeat Israel’s enemies and give them rest
(victory and security) in the land. Continued rest
(11 Sam 7:1) was contingent on their obedience
(Num 32:15). David, a man/instrument of war,
was not allowed to make a place of rest for God;
but Solomon, the king who reigned after God had
established peace (i.e. a man of rest), was (I Chr
22:9). God's martial sovereignty extended be-
yond Palestine (ndah, Est 9:16). He was not
localized as other ‘‘gods’’ were. This figurative
use occurs in Ps 125:3 where the ‘‘scepter of
wickedness’* would “‘not rest”’ (i.e. so as to con-
quer and rule) on the righteous. So, too, cf. Prov
14:33; Eccl 7:9; Zech 6:8; especially Num 11:25;
I] Kgs 2:15; Isa 11:2.

The soteriological use forms around the theol-
ogy of the sabbath. In Gen 2:2-3 shdbat (cessa-
tion from labor) describes God's rest, but in Ex
20:11 niiah is used. Hence, man is not only to
cease from his worldly pursuits (Ex 31:12-17: cf.
Isa 58:13-14), but he is to enter into a state of
victory/salvation rest (Josh 1:13; cf. Deut 25:19).
It is only the presence and favor of God that
makes this rest (as well as martial rest) possible
(Ex 33:14; cf. Isa 14:3, 7). True rest/salvation is
to be declared in the messianic age but there will
be an initial and climactic judgment on Israel in
the form of preaching this rest in a foreign lan-
guage(s): cf. Isa 28:12 (cf. Rsv, and Deut 28:49,
Jer 5:15; I Cor 14:21). However, God ultimately
will accomplish true rest for his elect people
through his Messiah (Isa 63:14; cf. Heb 3:7-4:13).

nahat. Rest, quietness. aSv and Rsv_ similar
with the latter superior at Job 17:16 (where it as-
sumes that the root is nahat, Ug nht ‘‘to de-
scend’’ note the different laryngeal of the two
roots in Ug), and inferior at Prov 29:9. This noun
denotes a state either of motionless (Job 36:16) or

of inner peace, i.e. security, etc. (Ecc] 4:6, 6:5).
It occurs seven times. The noun nahat ‘‘rest’’ is
the same as nahat ‘‘descend”’ which however
comes from the root na@hat. Cf. the similar pair
shahat “‘pit’’ from shiiah and shahat **corrup-
tion’ from shéhat.

noah. Noah. The last of the antediluvian pat-
riarchs, he was chosen by God to be an instru-
ment of deliverance. Outside of Gen, the name
occurs in the genealogy of I Chr 1:4 and in con-
nection with the flood as an illustration of the
guaranteed continuance of eschatological bliss
(Isa 54:9); in Ezk 14:14, 20 Noah is an illustration
of an ancient and proverbial righteous man. The
etymology of the name is uncertain. In Gen 5:29
it is associated probably as a word play with the
verb naham (comfort, bring relief), but it appears
to be more directly related to nuah which as we
will see below connotes rest and salvation. For a
fuller discussion of the word, the man, and his
ministry cf. T. C. Mitchell, **Noah,’* in NBD.

mandah. Resting place. asv and Rsv similar
with the latter superior at Ruth 3:1; Gen 8:9
(however, cf. Deut 28:65). This noun denotes a
place of nuah (motionless, security) for animals
or people, i.e. a place to settle down, a home. It
occurs seven times.

mnaha. Resting-place, rest. ASV and RSV simi-
lar with the latter superior at Mic 2:10, inferior at
Ruth 1:9; Isa 11:10; Jud 20:43; Zech 9:1, and both
are inadequate at I] Sam 14:17. The noun may
denote either the place or state of nuah. It occurs
twenty-one times.

mniuha describes the temporary place of rest
God sought out for the people of Israel (Num
10:33), the more permanent place (Deut 12:9;
I Kgs 8:56; Ps 132:14), and the eternal soteriolog-
ical resting place, i.e. heaven (Ps 95:11; cf. Heb
3-4).

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 43-46.

L.J.C.

1324 32 (nut) dangle, shake (Ps 99:1, only).

1325 933 (nim) sleep, slumber, be drowsy. (ASV
and Rsv similar, except for Nah 3:18 where
the rsv translates ‘‘your shepherds are
asleep’ instead of ‘‘thy shepherds slum-

ber.’’)
Derivatives
1325a a2 (numa) drowsiness (used
only in Prov 23:21).
1325b tmp1m (f*numa) slumber, slumber-

ings.

Although the primary meaning of the verb is to
slumber or sleep, only the noun derivative

563

1327 B33 (nits)

t“numa is used in this literal sense. Slumber is
the condition of a man when God speaks to him in
a vision of the night (Job 33:15). The root is paral-
lel to ydshén ‘to sleep’ (Ps 121:4), but here, with
a negative, it is used figuratively of watchfulness.
God does not slumber or sleep. Isaiah 5:27 de-
scribes an invading army in the same way—it
neither slumbers nor sleeps. On the other hand,
the religious leaders of Israel (Isa 56:10) are
characterized as those who love to slumber, i.e.,
they are careless and neglectful of their duties.
Their task is to warn the people of coming
danger, but this they have failed to do.

Twice the verb is used to denote the sleep of
death. In the one instance (Ps 76:5), men have
been rebuked by God and have fallen into sleep.
In the second instance (Nah 3:18), the rulers of
the king of Assyria slumber or are dead. The verb
is parallel to shakan *‘to settle down or abide,”’
which is used here of death.

t*nama. Slumber, slumberings. The basic use
of the noun in Prov is in a figurative sense of
laziness and inactivity (Prov 23:21; 6:10; 24:33),
but the literal sense of sleep or slumber is also
found (Prov 6:4, there similar to Ps 132:4).

R.L.H.
1326 332 (niin) propagate, increase, only in Ps
F217:
Derivative
1326a 8392 «(nin) = offspring, posterity.
1327 pi (nus) flee.
Derivatives
1327a tdi (mands) refuge.
1327b «= TBI (Cm nisa). flight (Isa 52:12:
Lev 26:36).

nus denotes rapid movement away from some-
thing or someone. It usually connotes escape
from real or imagined danger (except Deut 34:7:
Jud 6:11; Song 2:17; 4:6), the basic image being
martial (cf. Lev 26:36). A near synonym is barah
‘to flee, pass through.’ A second synonym is
nadad “‘retreat, wander, flee,” connoting disor-
derly retreat or the result of a rout. nits 1s paral-
leled with malat ‘‘to escape’: (in Niphil, e.g. I
Sam 19:10), the manner of flight, #dpaz in Niphil,
to hurry away in fright (KB, Ps 104:7), and sdbab
l*’a@hér, turn back (Ps 114:3, 5). The root occurs
162 times.

Interestingly, this verb is used in Jud 6:11
(Niphil) to describe what Gideon did to his grain.
The emphasis here is on the idea of ‘‘escape,”
i.e. Gideon beat out grain in hiding to hide it (i.e.
cause it to escape) from the Midianites. Also,
Elisha is told to flee Ahab’s presence as if pur-
sued by the sword (II Kgs 9:3).

1328 ps3 (niia‘)

When God fights, man and nature flee. The
Egyptians seeing that the God of the plagues was
fighting for Israel were routed and fled before the
closing sea (Ex 14:25, 27). God states the princi-
ple clearly in Lev 26:17 (cf. Prov 28:1) noting that
victory depended on obedience (cf. nddah). Dis-
obedience would turn God against them and they
would *‘flee when there is none to pursue”’ (cf. v.
36; Deut 28:7). So, when the ark set forth, Moses
called on God’s help and presence, crying ‘‘rise
up (giém) O Jehovah, let thine enemies be scat-
tered, and let them that hate thee flee before
thee’’ (Num 10:35). This *‘war-cry’’/prayer also
expresses Moses’ joyous confidence and encour-
agement to the people (KD). This principle is
exemplified frequently in Israel’s victory over
her enemies (cf. Jud 7:21-22) and her defeats (cf.
Deut 32:36). Joab recognized this principle and
fled to the altar of the temple, but was killed be-
cause the nature of his crime denied him asylum.
Israel trusts in Egypt, not God, and will go into
exile (Isa 30: 16-17; cf. Lev 26:8). She is reminded
of her impending punishment with the implication
that now God is her pursuer (Isa 24:18; cf. Lev
26:36). Furthermore, Isaiah prophesied the flight
of all nations (the covenant breakers) before
Jehovah (Isa 24:18; cf. Isa 31:8; Jer 46:5; 48:6,
etc.). The war-cry/prayer of Num 10:35 is greatly
expanded in Ps 68:1 [H 2)ff. where Zion is de-
picted as the permanent locus of divine power
and presence (cf. nuah). The condition sought in
this prayer especially will exist in the return (Isa
35:10) and the eschaton (51:11) when God will
put all enemies (esp. ‘‘spiritual,’’ cf. naddah) to
flight.

God’s wisdom is lauded in Ps 104:7 as his creat-
ing words are recounted, especially his dividing
the waters.

manos. Refuge. aAsv and rsv similar with the
latter superior at Job 11:20; Jer 25:35. This noun
denotes the place of escape to which one flees.
Cf. mahseh, a place of shelter, mda‘6z, place of
strength, hence, of safety, and misgdab, inacces-
sible secure place, stronghold. The word occurs
six times.
Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 47-49.
LAG,

1328 ys3 (nia‘) shake, reel, stagger, wander,
move (RSV, ASV ‘‘sway’’). Causative
stem, shake, sift, to make move.

Derivative
vipie (m*na‘dnéa') a kind of rattle
(II Sam 6:5, only).

Primary idea is of a repetitive, to and fro
movement. These movements can be on a rela-

1328a

564

tively small scale expressed by ideas such as
shaking, reeling, or swaying. Or they can be ona
geographic scale calling for meanings such as “to
wander about.”

Examples referring to relatively small scale
movements follow: the visible movement of
Hannah's lips as she silently prayed (1 Sam 1:13),
the staggering walk or the wandering path of the
blind man (Lam 4:14), and the swaying of trees in
the wind (Isa 7:2). The term also applies to the
reeling of the earth under judgment (Isa 24:20)
and to the shaking of buildings (Isa 6:4).

It refers to movement on a geographic scale
when describing the wandering of people as
homeless fugitives or vagabonds (Lam 4:15) or
wandering to seek water in drought (Amos 4:8) or
to seek God’s word (Amos 8:12). It describes
Cain’s punishment (Gen 4:12, 14; cf. also nad).
Included in Cain's punishment, possibly as a part
of the total meaning of the term under discussion,
is the status of the homeless vagabond as a per-
son outside the protection either of the law or of
any fixed social group (v. 14). Sinful rebellion
against God is described as wandering (Jer 14:10).

In Joash’s parable the meaning is unclear, but
the deliberate pun on swaying over the trees and
wandering to and fro among the trees as ruler
may be intended (Jud 9:9, 11, 13).

naa‘ may refer to shaking as a sign of fear. The
shaking or trembling of the Jews at Mount Sinai is
a clear example (Ex 20:18: *‘removed”’ of Kiv is
probably incorrect). Ahaz’s reaction to the
enemy coalition may be another example (Isa 7:2;
ASV ‘‘trembled’’: rsv ‘‘shook’’). However, the al-
lusion could as well be to Ahaz’s inconstant
**wavering”’ of heart rather than to trembling.

Niphal usages are passive, referring to being
shaken in a steve (Amos 9:9) and fig trees being
moved by the wind (Nah 3:12).

The Hiphil expresses the causative of the ideas
discussed above. The causative of small scale
movement is seen when God ‘‘shakes”’ or ‘‘sifts”’
Israel in judgment (Amos 9:9). Wagging, i.e.
shaking, the head is a sign of derision (I] Kgs
19:21; Ps 109:25). Job desires the opportunity to
express such derision at his friends (Job 16:4).
Shaking the hand is also a sign of contempt (Zeph
2:15). In light of general usage of the root, it is
better taken as ‘set to trembling’’ (Rsv) rather
than ‘‘set’’ (kJv, ASV) in Dan 10:10.

The causative of ‘to wander’ expresses both
God’s making his people ‘‘to wander to and fro”’
(asv, Num 32:13) and David's ‘‘making’’ Ittat
wander about as a fugitive with David (II Sam
15:20). This usage gives some support to the
translation ‘‘scatter’’ in Ps 59:11 [H 12] provided
it is construed as “‘scatter as wanderers.’’ On the
other hand the rsv translation, ‘make to totter,”’
is equally good.

Either of the causative ideas discussed above

could yield the translation *“‘move” in II Kgs
23:18.
A.B.

1329 332 (nup) I, to perfume; to send (Hiphil).
nip is used once in the Qal stem for sprin-
kling perfume (Prov 7:17). Hiphil used
once for bringing rain (i.e. causing to
sprinkle; Ps 68:9 (H 10]). Cognate evi-
dence indicates the existence of a distinct
root with the above range of meanings, but
its exact meaning in Hebrew remains un-
clear for lack of evidence.

A.B.
1330 "33 (nip) HI, lift, wave, shake, wield.
Derivatives
1330a mB) (napa) sieve (Isa 30:28,

only). Meaning uncertain.
1330b fmes3m (f*nupad) wave offering.

The Hiphil stem of this verb is used both as a
general verb for such ideas as lifting, waving,
etc., and as a cultic term for presenting the
‘‘wave offering’ (cf. similar usage of rim and
t®*riima). Most of its usages are in poetic, legal, or
ritual contexts.

As a general verb, it refers to wielding tools.
When it describes lifting a sickle to grain (Deut
23:26) the root idea of waving the tool back and
forth is appropriately descriptive. However,
applied to a tool for dressing stone (Ex 20:25;
Deut 27:5), the appropriateness of *“*waving”’ ts
less clear, and ‘‘lift’’ or “‘use’’ is sufficient. It can
describe shaking something in a sieve (Isa 30:28).
A prophet or holy man might wave his hand to
heal (1] Kgs 5:11). The hand might be waved in
judging (Isa 11:15) or as a signal (Isa 13:2). Job's
raising of his hand against the fatherless (Job
31:21) could refer either to raising the hand as a
legal act in court or to taking hostile action. (The
discussion of the cultic use of this term will be
incorporated into the discussion of t*napd be-
low.)

The Hophal is used once to express the passive
idea, ‘‘be waved”’ (Ex 29:27: rsv ‘is offered’’).
The Polel may have intensive meaning; “‘to
shake’’ for ‘‘to wave’’ (Isa 10:32).

(‘napa. Wave offering, offering, shaking. This
noun has two cultic usages: first, as a general
term applied to a variety of gifts and offerings
and, secondly, as a specific term for those parts
of the offerings which are designated for the of-
ficiating priest.

As a general term it is applied to such diverse
things as gold (Ex 35:22), the ‘‘bronze of the
wave offering” (Ex 38:29; literal translation), the
sheaf of the firstfruits (Lev 23:11-15), the two
loaves offered on the Day of Pentecost (Lev

565

1332 *233 (niq) suckle, nurse.

1333 933) (nmwr).

1333 533 (nwr)

23:17), the male lamb of the trespass offering for
cleansing of lepers (Lev 14:12, 21), and, finally,
the entire tribe of Levi (Num 8:11). The verb nip
alone describes the offering of the cereal offering
(asv ‘‘meal offering’’) of jealousy (Num 5:25). In
some cases a ritual act of waving is clearly al-
luded to as when Moses waved the wave offering
in Aaron’s hands (Lev 8:27). In other cases the
literal waving is impossible, as in the *‘waving”’
of the Levites. In such cases the significance of
waving is lost and the terms mean *‘offering’* and
‘*to offer’ respectively.

If these terms have a characteristic, specific
usage, it occurs in repeated references to the
‘breast of the wave offering’ together with the
‘‘thigh of the heave offering” as the priest's por-
tion of the peace offering (Lev 7:30; 10:14; Num
6:19-20; Note: The second ram of Aaron's dedi-
cation ritual—Ex 29:26—-34; Lev 8:22-27, 31-
32—-with its wave breast and heave thigh is also a
peace offering since it, like the peace offering,
was eaten by the offerers). These portions are so
characteristically the priest's that they serve as
the standard to which other priest's portions are
compared (Num 18:18).

However, even in this usage, the terminology
is not exact since the term “wave offering’’ once
includes both the breast and the thigh (Lev 9:21)
and the things burned as the ‘‘offering by fire’
(cf. Lev 3:3-4) and the right thigh may be in-
cluded in the term ‘‘wave offering’* (Ex 29:22-24;
Lev 8:25-27).

t“ntiipaé occurs twice in non-cultic settings: in
the “‘shaking’’ of God's hand in judgment (Isa
19:16) and in ‘‘the battles of shaking™ (Ilsa 30:32)
where it probably refers to brandishing some
weapon.

A.B.

1331 13 (nwp)_ III. Assumed root of the follow-

ing

133la i] (ndp) elevation, height (Ps
48:3, only).

1331b MBI (napa) height (Josh
I Kgs 4:11; Josh 11:2).

1331c MBI (nepet) height (Josh

only).

12:23=

17:11,

m¥i2 (ndsa). See no. 1399a.

This verb oc-
curs only once, in the Hiphil (Ex 2:9).
Probably a by-form of ydanaq.

Assumed root of the following.

1333a t32 (nér) lamp.

1333b t5°3) (nir) lamp.

1333c taste (m'nérd), 3% (m*ndra)
lampstand.

1334 ws (nitsh)

The words nér and nir refer to the small bowl-
like objects which contained oil and a wick to be
lit to provide light (H. Porter, ‘‘Lamp,
Lampstand,’ in ISBE. p. 1825f.; A. R. Millard,
R. E. Nixon, *‘Lamp, Lampstand” in NBD,
p. 708f.). Cf. Ugaritic nr, AisWUS 1850. The
lamp 1s of more than usual archaeological inter-
est, for the changing shapes of the lamps through
the centuries is often a good index to the stratum
being excavated. Our noun in its various spellings
occurs forty-nine times.

m‘nora. Lampstand. Rsv “‘lampstand”’ ts to be
preferred over asv ‘candlestick... This mem-
preformative noun represents the stand upon
which a lamp was placed (special “‘tamp place’’).
It usually signifies the lampstand in the taberna-
cle or temple (exception, I! Kgs 4:10). It occurs
forty-two times.

The Lord directed Moses to put a lampstand
holding seven lamps in the Holy Place. These
seven lamps represent God's perfect (PTOT,
p. 362f.) leadership over his people. These
‘‘lights*” were to burn always being trimmed
morning and evening (Lev 24:2). While they were
being trimmed the attendant was to burn incense
representing the prayers of God's people (Ex
30:7-8: cf. gatar). In I] Sam 21:17 (nér; cf. 1 Kgs
11:36), David's death 1s represented as the
quenching of Israel's lamp. Hence, he is viewed
as the one who leads Israel into a blessed state
(cf. nuah). David. in turn, confessed that
Jehovah was his lamp (1] Sam 22:29), i.e. the one
who enlightened his path through darkness (cf. Jn
3:20-21) and led him into a state of blessedness
nttah; cf. Prov 13:9: Job 29:3). Psalm 119:105 (cf.
Prov 6:23) celebrates the word of God as the lamp
to the feet of the godly. Christian readers will
recognize this “leadership’’ of “‘word’ and
‘‘light’* as a foreshadow of Christ (Jn 1:1-13). As
KD shows, Ps 132:1!7 uses “lamp” as a figure of
the Messiah (it is parallel to the well-known fig-
ure ‘‘branch’’). Thus, “lamp” is a symbol of
God's personal leading (II Sam 22:29). through
his word, through his chosen king and, ulti-
mately. through his messiah. God's leader was to
le ad his people as a priestly nation, 1.e. a nation
which was to lead all nations to God in worship.
In Zech 4 the prophet speaks of a lampstand (1.e.
the ot church: cf. KD) attached to an uninter-
rupted and unceasing supply of oil (1.e. the Holy
Spirit: cf. KD). The interpretation (v. 6ff.) applies
the figure to Zerubbabel (and his followers). but it
seems obvious that the figure extends well be-
yond his day to the messianic era. indeed, cf. Rev
1:20. This symbolism underlies the NT statements
that Christians are the light of the world (Mt 5:14)
whose lamps are always to burn (Lk 12:35: Phil
2:15) and shine before men (Mt 5:16) leading the
ungodly to God and basking in a state of blessed

566

1334) waa (niish)

1335 mt2) (mazda) ZT, sprinkle.

expectation of and preparation for Christ's re-
turn.

(That the lampstand stands for the church also
in the nT must be granted (Rev 1:20). However.
the symbolism of the lampstand apparently is
double. Zechariah 4:6 strongly implies that the
lampstand symbolizes also the Spirit of God.
Revelation 4:5 seems to build on this when it calls
the lamps the “seven spirits of God” (cf. Rev
5:6). That the seven spirits of God are not seven
different spirits, but the one Spirit seven-fold in
his perfection seems to be proved by the position
of the seven spirits of God bracketed between the
Father and the Son as a source of benediction tn
Rev 1:4. R.L.H.]

ee I

be sick (Ps 69:21, only).

See no. 1340b.

SQ (niacin).

(ASV and RSV the
same except at II Kgs 9:33 [Rsv superior])
and Isa 52:15 [asv superior: E. J. Young,
Studies in Isaiah, 11, Eerdmans, 1954, pp.
199-206]).

naza@ signifies a spattering or (Hiphil) sprinkl-
ing of blood, oil, or water either with one's finger
(Lev 4:6) or a *‘sprinkler’’ (Lev 14:7). It is dis-
tinguished from zdraqg, a heavier “sprinkling”
executed with the whole hand (Ex 9:8: 29:20-21.
Lev 4:6: however, Num 19:20-21). The verb oc-
curs twenty-four times.

**Sprinkling’’ has reference to cleansing from
sin (Isa 52:15: I Pet 1:2: Heb 9:13-14) to obtain
ritual purity. Its primary significance derives
from its reference to ‘“‘blood”’ sprinkling. This
particular root is used with blood sprinklings
which are lighter both as to how much blood is
sprinkled and as to what is expiated (e.g. Lev 4:6:
5:9: 14:7, 51: Num 19:4). Expiation for unwitting
sin (Lev 4:6) and original sin (Lev 16:14) are thus
interrelated and yet differentiated (1.e. by the re-
lationship between the ‘sprinkling’ and the
**smearing’ cf. gdran). The prophesied servant
of the Lord although considered “‘impure’’ was
to ‘“‘expiate”’ the sins of the Gentiles (cf. E. J.
Young op. cit., Isa 52:15)—this pronouncement
IS quite important (Acts 8:32-37).

Our root can also be used in contexts of ordina-
tion, 1.e. purification and consecration to divine
service. As such, ‘sprinkling’ can be done with
oil (Lev 8:11). oil and blood (Ex 29:21), and water
(Num 8:7; Mt 3:15).

1336 *m32) (naza) HI, spring, leap (Hiphil, Isa

§2:15).

1337 %t3 (nazal) flow forthidown. (asv and RSV
similar, with the latter better rendering
Prov 5:15: Ps 78:16: Song 4:16; Isa 45:8.
Both are inadequate at Jud 5:5 (‘the
mountains flowed down” [melted]), and
Jer 9:18 [H 17}.

ndzal represents the flowing of water as in a
stream (Song 4:16), or abundant rain (Deut 32:2).
As synonyms see ndgar ‘‘to pour down,” 1.e.
spill water on the ground: ndba‘ ‘‘to pour/gush
forth,” i.e. as a swollen wadi, etc. The verb oc-
curs sixteen times.

The primary meaning of our root “‘to flow as a
stream’ is used of weeping in mourning (Jer 9:18
(H 17): cf. ndgar, Lam 3:49). The presence of
fresh water is a result of divine blessing sover-
eignly dispensed (Ps 147:18). The return (or es-
chaton) will see the land divinely transformed
from a desert wasteland to a land of flowing
streams. This is clearly a figure of divine blessing
(Isa 44:3). A wife (Prov 5:15) or lover (Song 4:15)
is described as a flowing stream, |.e. a source of
blessing. Sovereign control of water is also seen
when Moses’ striking the rock produced a stream
of water (Ps 78:16), to be duplicated in the escha-
ton (Isa 48:21, parallel z7b).

The verb is used of rain which ts sovereignly
controlled (cf. Ps 147:18) as an example of God's
support of Cyrus (Isa 45:8: cf. Job 36:28), Abun-
dant rain is also a result of divine blessing (Num
24:7).

Interestingly, the presence of divine power in
aid of Israel's conquest *‘melted mountains,” i.e.
even the strongholds (perhaps, the gods’ strong-
holds?) of Israel's enemies (Jud 5:5: cf. nagar,
Mic 1:4, 6).

L.J.C.
1338 12 (ncm). Assumed root of the following.
1338a teti (nezem) ring. (ASV and_ RSV

the same except at Hos 2:13 [H 15]).

Our word refers to a ring (usually of gold, Ezk
16:12) which was part of one’s (man, woman, or
idol. Job 42:11: Isa 3:21: T. C. Mitchell, *‘Orna-
ment.” in NBD, p. 913f.) ornamentation worn in
nose or ears. These rings were signs of luxury,
and as personal possessions were sometimes of-
fered (cf. gadrab;) to God (Ex 32:2: 35:22: Jud
8:24). The word occurs seventeen times.

LC.
1339 13 (nezeq) injury, damage (Est 7:4,
only).

1340 “33 (nazar) separate, consecrate (oneself).

Derivatives

(nézer)
crown.

1340a 33 separation, consecration

567

1340 “33 (nazar)

1340b t95%t3 (nazir) Nazirite, a consecrated
person.
1340c t532 (nazar) be a Nazirite. De-

nominative verb, used only in the
Hiphil (Num 6).

1340d = =32%2 (minzar) consecrated ones,
princes (Num 3:17). Meaning un-
certain.

The basic meaning of ndzar is “‘to separate.”
When the word occurs in the Niphal with the
preposition min it has the meaning *‘keep oneself
away from.’ The verb is used in the sense of
separation in Lev 22:2 where Aaron and his sons
were commanded through Moses to keep away
from the holy offerings that were presented to the
Lord. These were portions of the sacrifices which
were Set aside for the use of the priests. But they
could not use them as long as they were ritually
unclean (v. 3). The word is used in the same con-
struction in the sense of separating from idols
(Ezk 14:7). It bears the meaning ‘abstain from”
when used with min in the Hiphil in Num 6:3
where it occurs in connection with the Nazirite
vow of abstinence. The idea of separation is in-
herent in the use of the word without min in Lev
15:31 where the Israelites were to be separated
from uncleanness incurred as a result of certain
physical discharges.

When the word occurs with the preposition /*
in either the Niphal or Hiphil it connotes **sep-
aration to.’ It is used in this way of consecration
to Yahweh on the part of the Nazirités (Num
6:2~3, 5-6, 12) and of the consecration of the Is-
raelites to Baal (Hos 9:10).

nézer. Separation, consecration, crown. The
basic meaning of the verbal root, i.e. separation,
is evident in the noun nézer in a number of con-
texts. It is used of the period of separation or
abstention that was part of the Nazirite vow
(Num 6:4-5, 7-9, 12-13, 18-19, 21). This negative
aspect of votive abstention may be understood
more positively as consecration to God.

In Lev 21:12 the word occurs in the expression
nézer shemen mishhat (consecration of the
anointing oil). This context prohibits defilement
of the priest, for that would not be compatible
with the consecration symbolized by the anoint-
ing oil. The priest was to be separated from all
which defiled. The same concept obtains in Num
6:7 with reference to the Nazirite in the expres-
sion nézer “élohayw ‘al ro'shé (\his] “separation
to God on his head"’). In this context the Nazirite
was not to suffer defilement even for his family,
as long as he was separated ‘‘to the Lord” (v. 6).
The nézer of his head is an evident reference to
his uncut hair which was the outward mark of his
separation (see also v. 9).

The word nézer is used in the. sense of head
gear in Ex 29:6: 39:30: Lev 8:9. Comparison with

1341 mma (naha)

Ex 28:36-38 shows that it was an engraved plate
which the priest wore over his forehead. It desig-
nated him a consecrated person.

The word nézer is used of a royal crown in
I] Sam 1:10: Hf Kgs 11:12: Zech 9:16: Ps 89:39
{H 40}, 132:18: Prov 27:24: II Chr 23:11.

In view of the fact that the long hair of a Nazi-
rite was a néczer denoting his consecration, and
the head plate of a priest was a nézer denoting his
consecration, the word nézer appears not to con-
note ‘crown’ in the primary sense, but crown in
the sense of the sign of one’s consecration. This
could be one’s hair as well as a headpiece. The
nézer was a Sign of the king's consecration to his
office just as it was a sign of the Nazirite’s con-
secration to God.

nazir. Nazirite, a consecrated person, sepa-
rate (RSV “‘prince’’ in Deut 33:16).

The noun nazir occurs most frequently in the
OT in a technical sense referring to the Nazirites.
The exact meaning of the word in its non-
technical uses is somewhat clouded by the pau-
city of significant contexts. The word occurs in
Gen 49:26 and Deut 33:16 in parallel passages
dealing with the blessing of Joseph. In the former
passage, the word ndazir is translated ‘‘separate
In KJV, ASV, RSV, but ‘‘prince’’ in NEB and NIv. In
the latter passage while av and asv translate
“separate, RSV and NEB and Niv translate the
word ‘‘prince.’’ A similar disparity occurs in the
translation of the word ndzir in Lam 4:7 where it
is translated **Nazirites’ (av), ‘“*nobles’’ (asv),
‘princes’ (RSV and Niv), “‘devoted ones’ (NASB)
and ‘‘crowned princes” (NEB). The concept of
**prince’’ ts often derived from the related word
nézer which has the clear connotation of
‘*crown’’ ina number of contexts. But this word
may have undergone a separate development, de-
riving the meaning ‘“‘crown™’ secondarily (see
nézer). It is best to trace the meaning of ndzir
from its verbal root nazar from which the pri-
mary sense is derived.

In Gen 49:26 and Deut 33:16 the concept
“*separate’’ fits well with the experience of
Joseph whose uniqueness was evidenced in his
early relationship with his brothers and his ulti-
mate promotion to the illustrious position he en-
joyed in Egypt. The context then permits some
measure of privilege in the word ndzir. Thus the
word may be similar to the English word *‘dis-
tinction’ which not only bears the connotation of
‘difference’ but also ““eminence.”’ This under-
standing of the word allows for the connotation
‘princes’ or “‘members of the privileged
classes,’ as the context of Lam 4:7 seems to re-
quire (however, the translation **‘Nazirites’’ is
not completely out of the question in that con-
text).

The word is applied to a vine in Lev 25:5, 11.

568

134] =n}

The context indicates that the vine was to be un-
pruned during the sabbatical year and left to grow
of itself. This need not be seen as a metaphorical
extension of the Nazirite practice of letting the
hair grow as an act of special devotion but may be
understood in the hight of the basic connotation of
separation inherent in the verbal root, i.e. the
vine was singled out in the sense that it was not
pruned. kB translates the word “‘singled out,”
**withhold from cultivation.”

The specialized sense of the word, ‘*Nazi-
rites,’ refers to those who took a special vow of
abstention as an act of devotion to God. The spe-
cific aspects of the vow of separation are re-
corded in Num 6:1-21, where the Nazirite is de-
scribed as abstaining from grapes and various
products of the grape, refraining from cutting the
hair, and avoiding the ceremonial defilement in-
curred when one touched a dead body.

Samson was a Nazirite to God (Jud 13:5, 7; 16:
17), i.e. one who was separated to God because
of the votive restrictions placed on him. When he
violated his vow of separation, God left him in his
enemies’ hands.

The Nazirites formed a group of dedicated in-
dividuals, both men and women (cf. Num 6:2),
who were spiritual leaders in their times. Amos
cites the Nazirites in parallelism with prophets in
2:11-12, showing how the benign influence of the
Nazirites was diminished in the context of the
disobedience of eighth-century Israel.

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 50-52.

T.E.M.

m2 (ndah). See no. 1323b.

(na@had) lead, guide. (asv and Rsv
similar with the latter superior at 1 Sam
22:4, I Kgs 10:26 [both of which evidence
a confusion of na@hd and niiah; cf. asv
I] Kgs 18:11], and inferior at Ps 67:4 [H 5].

Our root represents the conducting of one
along the right path. For synonyms see nahag.
Our root occurs thirty-nine times.

The root is sometimes synonymous with
nadhag “to herd” to a predetermined destination:
e.g. lead away captive (Job 12:23), herd/lead a
flock (Ps 78:53, 72). Elsewhere it is equal to
nadhal “to lead/guide tenderly:’’ e.g. Ps 31:3
[H 4], to lead (na@ha), and tenderly lead/guide
(nahal) out of trouble (cf. Job 31:18).

God is often the one who “‘leads.”’ So, Ab-
raham’s servant reported God as his ‘‘guider™
(Gen 24:27). In the Exodus this guidance was
manifested by the pillars of cloud and fire which
preceeded (led) Israel (Ex 13:21). The Psalms
frequently recall how God led his people along
the right path and beseech him to do so again.
This request is for far more than guidance. It is

that God be before them showing the way of
nghteousness (Ps 5:8 |H 9}: 23:3). Moreover, the
pious are to be led by God's commandments
(Prov 6:22) in conjunction with the integrity of his
heart (Prov 11:3). The nations are obligated to
worship God because he will judge and govern
(i.e. graciously guide, Ps 67:4 [H 5]: cf. 31:3
[H 4]) in the messianic kingdom.

L.J.C.
pims (nihtm). See no. 1344b.
wind (nadhush). See no. 1349b.
“M2 (nahir). See no. 1346c.
1342 9m) (nahal) I, inherit, possess. Denomi-

native verb.
Parent Noun

1342a tmonz (nahala) inheritance, heritage,

possession.

moom (nthila) a musical term. Oc-
curs only in the heading of Ps 5.
Perhaps it is connected with hdlil
*‘flute.." May be the name of a
melody.

1342b

The verb nahal basically signifies giving or re-
ceiving property which is part of a permanent
possession and as a result of succession. Some-
times the idea of succession is absent but the
** possessing’ carries with it a connotation of
permanence (e.g. Ex 34:9: Prov 14:18). A close
synonym, ydrash, connotes the idea of posses-
sion apart from succession (KB), but sometimes
may embrace the latter idea. Cf. Ugaritic nhi (UT
10: no. 1633), and Phoenician nhi (KAI, p. 16):
the Arabic nahala means ‘‘give as property.”
Our verb occurs sixty times (including Ezk 7:24,
which consists of parallel stichs and synonym-
ously parallels our root with ydrash; cf. Isa 57:13,
etc.).

nahala. Inheritance, heritage, possession. ASV
and rsv similar with the Rsv superior at e.g. Deut
4:20; 32:9: Mic 2:2: and those many passages
where the idea of possession was conceived of as
permanent and not entailing the idea of succes-
sion (1 Sam 26:19), and inferior at 1 Sam 10:1. Ps
78:55. Ezk 45:1: both are inadequate at Ex 15:17.
Our noun basically connotes that which is or may
be passed on as an inheritance (e.g. Gen 31:14),
that which is one’s by virtue of ancient right, and
that which is one’s permanently. A near synonym
is mérdsha, a possession, an inheritance. Cf.
y*rushsha, sometimes occupied, patrimony,
possession; héleqg, a portion, that which is an al-
loted part: migneh, purchased possession; and
‘GhuzzG, landed property, that which is held in
possession. Cf. Ugaritic nhit ‘inheritance, UT
19: no. 1633. The noun occurs 223 times.
Involved in a study of this root 1s the extensive

569

1342 93 (ndhal)

biblical teaching on **inheritance."’ Our summary
wil] be grouped around the inheritance God gives
the godly, the social and legal regulations govern-
ing the land. Jehovah's possession, and God as
the inheritance/heritage of the godly.

The whole earth belongs to its Creator (Ps 47:4
[H 5]) and he so governs all things that Israel
received his special possession (Deut 32:8f.; Ex
15:17) the land fit for kings flowing with milk and
honey (Deut 31:20), the place representing true
salvation (Deut 12:9: Cf. Heb 3:17—4:13, and
ntah), Thus, the Bible represents God as the
great King (Jud 8:23; 1 Sam 12:12), the feudal
Lord (Deut 32:8) who sovereignly partitions his
land to man (cf. KD; Isa 49:8: 57:13), and obli-
gates his subjects to render personal services. AS
deVaux says, the widely spread ancient near
eastern feudal idea was in Israel transferred to
the theological plane (AI, p. 164). Hence, he
promised (Gen 12:7: Ex 32:13), and gave Pales-
tine (Josh 21:43ff., etc.) to Israel as a perpetual
inheritance (Ex 32:13) contingent upon obedience
to his law (e.g. Num 33:50-54). Little by little
God would drive out the inhabitants of Canaan
(Ex 23:30). This gift, however, was to be con-
quered (Josh) by stages. Once inhabited, the land
was to be recognized as God's, and was to be
preserved as holy by cleansing it (Deut 20:16),
keeping it cleansed (e.g. Deut 21:23), and dedicat-
ing it to God (Deut 26:Iff.). Disobedience was
sovereignly punished (Jer 16:9: 17:4). The escha-
ton will see reoccupation of the land which is
conceived either literally or in its spiritual reality
according to one’s viewpoint about the millen-
nium (KD; Ezk 47:14; Isa 57:13; cf. Heb 12:25-
29).

The division of the land by lot prior to its con-
quest expressed divine sovereignty (Num 26:56)
as was well known in the ancient near east (AI,
p. 165). For a brief summary of the laws govern-
ing the partition and inheritance of the land, cf.
R. E. Nixon, ‘Inheritance,’ in NBD, pp. 562-
63. For a treatment of the theological signifl-
cance, see R. J. Rushdoony, The Institutes of
Biblical Law, Nutley, Craig Press, 1973. He
treats of family economics (p. 174ff.), responsibil-
ity of firstborn including family responsibility to
care for single women (p. 179f.: also D. Leggett,
The Levirate and Goel Institutions, Cherry Hill:
Mack 1974, limited primogeniture (p. 180f.),
landmarks as representative of social, moral, and
spiritual inheritance (p. 328ff.: Hos 5:10), indeed,
representative of life itself (pp. 166, 169; cf. KD;
Deut 19:14; 20:19-20).

God's special created, chosen heritage is the
people of Israel (Deut 4:20: Ex 34:9; cf. Acts
15:16ff.. Eph 1:3-4). This blessed position (Ps
33:12) was the basis for special petitions (Deut
9:26, 29; Ps 28:9) and confidence (Mic 7:14, 18:
Ps 94:14; cf. Ps 37:18). Because God 1s their Lord

1343 5rd (nhl)

they should not own/possess one another as
property (Lev 25:47ff.; cf. KD; Isa 14:2; Zeph
2:9). God also has special permanent rights over
all the nations (Ps 82:8; 2:8—9; cf. KD).

The true spiritual heritage of the godly (Ps
114:6f.; 37:18; KD; Jer 12:14-17) was especially
and figuratively represented by Aaron, the
priests, and the Levites who had no property to
Hass on to their sons (however, note KD on Num
18:20f.), but who really had the greatest heritage
of all—the Lord himself (Josh 18:7: KD; Ezk
47:22).

Bibliography: Cranfield, C. E. B., ‘‘Inherit,”
RTWB, p. 112~—114. Easton, Burton, S., ‘‘Heir,”’
in ISBE, p. 1369. Foester, W., and Herrman, J.,
in TWNT, III, pp. 757-86. Hirsch, F. E.,
‘Inheritance,’ in ISBE, p. 1468. TDNT, III, pp.
769-81.

L.J.C.

1343, m3) (nhl) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1343a t5m3 (nahal) I, wadi, torrent.
1343b «60 9m3 (nahal) H, palm tree (Num
24:6, only). Meaning uncertain.

nahal J. Wadi, torrent, torrent valley, torrent,
river, shaft. This noun usually refers to a dry
river bed or ravine which in the rainy season be-
comes a raging torrent, and/or the resulting tor-
rent (J.B.S.S. Thompson, ‘River, in NBD,
p. 1098). The Uganitic nhl (UT 19: no. 1636) and
Akkadian nahlu have the same meaning. It can
also represent a permanent stream or river (Lev
11:9; I Kgs 18:40). The occurence in Job 28:4 is
apparently hapax in meaning (cf. KB).
Synonyms of “‘torrent, river’ are: nadhar *‘per-
manent watercourse” (KB); y°'dor (Egyptian jrw’)
‘stream or channel,” usually only of Egyptian
waterways; peleg, ‘irrigating canal”; ‘dpig **in-
nermost deepest part of a valley flowing with
water’ (KB). See also yabal, ‘ubdal. Synonyms of
‘*torrent-valley’"’ are gay*’ ‘‘valley'’: ‘émegq
‘vale, **(low-situated) plain’*: big‘ad *‘valley-
plain.’ Our word appears also as nahla (Ps
124:4, torrent; Ezk 47:19; 48:28, brook). It occurs
139 times.

-That our root designates torrents of running
water is clear from Deut 21:4: Amos 5:24; Ps
104:10; 110:7. All the streams mentioned (e.g. in
the Elijah accounts) are these quickly appearing
and disappearing torrents. Among the better
known wadis is the Brook of Egypt, or Wadi el-
‘Arish (M. G. Kyle, “Egypt, the Brook of,” in
ISBE, p. 523). This **brook’* perhaps was the
dividing line between Egypt and Canaan (Num
34:5). A second possible identification is the
Shihor/Pelusaic Nile arm. For a survey of the ar-
guments see K. A. Kitchen, “River of Egypt,’ in
NBD, p. 354. For a list of all n®hdlim, see KB.

570

1344 *on)

Interestingly, the Pentateuch displays a consis-
tent application of nahal (thirteen times) and
nahar (thirteen times) to extra-Egyptian
waterways whereas inter-Egyptian waterways
are consistently termed y° dr (thirty times). This
displays ‘‘not art but experience in the use of a
language which gives such skill as to attend to so
small a thing in so extensive use without a single
mistake.’* Items such as this invalidate the well
known JEDP and variations (M. G. Kyle, ibid.).
Because the nahal suddenly emerges and/or
disappears as raging torrents it symbolizes many
things, e.g. the pride of nations (Isa 66:12), the
strength of the invader (Jer 47:2), and the power
of the foe (Ps 18:4 [H 5]; 124:4). Even torrents of
oil do not please God if unaccompanied by jus-
tice, kindness, and humility (Mic 6:7). The godly,
however, will be sated by the overflooding tor-
rents of God's pleasure (Ps 36:8 [H 9]). Thus, the
sh*lamim (q.v.) truly have a spiritual significance
symbolical of the paradisiacal rivers of delight
(KD; cf. Gen 2:10) whose source is God (Jer
2:13). The returning exiles will find torrents in the
desert (cf. Ex 17:3ff.; Num 20:11). Of course, this
is not fully realized until the messianic age The
Book of Isaiah (Eerdmans, 1965) (Isa 35:6; cf.
KD; Jer 31:9). The Kidron Valley (G. W. Grogan,
**Kidron,” in NBD, p. 691: E. W. G. Master-
man, *‘Kidron, the Brook,” in ISBE, p. 1798)
long associated with graves (II Kgs 23:6, 12: Jer
26:23), and unholy defiled ground (e.g. I Kgs
15:13; I] Chr 29:16; I] Kgs 23:6) will be holy to
God in the eschaton (Jer 31:40). There the life-
giving waters will flow (Ezk 47:5-19: in v. 9 the
‘‘dual”’ either represents *‘strong current’’ (KD)
or the Ugaritic enclitic mem). Then neither the
Nile nor the Euphrates will separate God's
people from salvation (Isa 11:15; cf. nuah).
LJ.C.

(ndham) be sorry, repent, regret, be
comforted, comfort. Not used in the Qal,
nadham occurs chiefly in the Niphal and
Piel.

Derivatives

1344a o8m3 (ndham) _ sorrow,
(Hos 13:14, only).

13445 IM? (nihim) comfort (Isa 57:18),
cgmpassion (Hos 11:8).

1344c 3=— Mama (nehadma) comfort (Ps

119:50: Job 6:10).

Binh (tanhum) consolation (e.g.

Jer 16:7; Isa 66:11).

The origin of the root seems to reflect the idea
of ‘‘breathing deeply,’ hence the physical dis-
play of one’s feelings, usually sorrow, compas-
sion, or comfort. The root occurs in Ugaritic (see
‘“*to console” in UT 19: no. 1230) and is found in

repentance

1344d

OT proper names such as Nehemiah, Nahum, and
Menehem. The txx renders nhm by both
metanoeo and metamelomai.

The kJv translates the Niphal of nhm ‘repent’
thirty-eight times. The majority of these in-
stances refer to God's repentance, not man’s.
The word most frequently employed to indicate
man’s repentance ts shizb -(q.v.), meaning ‘‘to
turn’ (from sin to God). Unlike man, who under
the conviction of sin feels genuine remorse and
sorrow, God is free from sin. Yet the Scriptures
inform us that God repents (Gen 6:6—-7: Ex 32:14;
Jud 2:18: I Sam 15:11 et al.), 1.e. he relents or
changes his dealings with men according to his
sovereign purposes. On the surface, such lan-
guage seems inconsistent, if not contradictory,
with certain passages which affirm God's itm-
mutability: *‘'God is nota man... that he should
repent’ (I Sam 15:29 contra v. 11): "The Lorp
has sworn and will not change his mind™ (Ps
110:4). When nadham is used of God, however,
the expression is anthropopathic and there is not
ultimate tension. From man’s limited, earthly, fi-
nite perspective it only appears that God's pur-
poses have changed. Thus the oT states that God
‘repented’ of the judgments or “‘evil’’ which he
had planned to carry out (1 Chr 21:15: Jer 18:8:
26:3, 19: Amos 7:3, 6; Jon 3:10). Certainly Jer
18:7-10 is a striking reminder that from God's
perspective, most prophecy (excluding messianic
predictions) is conditional upon the response of
men. In this regard, A. J. Heschel (The Prophets,
p. 194) has said, *‘No word is God’s final word.
Judgment, far from being absolute, is conditional.
A change in man’s conduct brings about a change
in God's judgment.”

The second primary meaning of néham is *‘to
comfort” (Piel) or “*to be comforted” (Niphal.
Pual, and Hithpael). This Hebrew word was well
known to every pious Jew living in exile as he
recalled the opening words of Isaiah's **Book of
Consolation, nahadmii nahamia ‘ammi ‘*Com-
fort ye, comfort ye my people’ (Isa 40:1). The
same word occurs in Ps 23:4, where David says
of his heavenly Shepherd, “Thy rod and thy
staff, they comfort me.*’ Many passages, how-
ever, deal with being comforted for the dead
(I Sam 10:2; I Chr 19:2; Isa 61:2; Jer 16:7:
31:15). People were consoled for a death of an
infant child (II Sam 12:24), teenage son (Gen
37:35), mother (Gen 24:67). wife (Gen 38:12) et
al. A mother might comfort her child (Isa 66:13)
but it is God who comforts his people (Ps 71:21:
86:17; 119:82: {sa 12:1; 49:13; $2:9). God's
“compassion (nihiuim, a derivative of nhm) grows
warm and tender’’ for Israel (Hos 11:8).

Bibliography: Girdlestone. Robert B.,
Synonyms of the Old Testament, Eerdmans,
1956, pp. 87-92. Richardson, Alan, *‘Repent,”’ in
A Theological Word Book of the Bible, ed. Alan

1347 wr (nhsh)

Richardson, London: SCM, 1957, pp. 191-192.
Turner, G. A., “Repentance, in ZPEB, V, pp.
62-64. Richardson, TWB, p. 191. THAT, II, pp.
59-65.

M.R.W.
1345) pms (ndhas) urge (I Sam 21:9, only).
1346 m3) (nhr). Assumed root of the following.
1346a M2 (nahar) a snorting (of horse,
Job 39:20, only).
13466 = 5M2 (nahdra) a snorting (Jer
8:16, only).
1346c 309m (nahir) nostril (Job 41:12,
only).
1347 wm: (nhsh) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1347a twmg (ndhash) serpent, snake.
1347b oo mwm. (a huishtan) Nehushtan.
nahash. Serpent, snake. This is the most

571

common word for “snake.” It is found thirty
times in the oT, distributed from Genesis through
the minor prophets. It is also known from the
Ugaritic nhs.

The first five occurrences of ndhdash are in Gen
3 (vv. 1, 2, 4, 13, 14) and of course refer to the
creature that tempted Eve to disobey God. Paul
alludes to this incident in If Cor 11:3 and John in
Rev 12:9ff. In all instances, including the Lxx
translation, the Greek word ts ophis.

Opintons differ as to whether this was a satan-
inspired snake or a name for satan himself (J. O.
Buswell, Systematic Theology of the Christian
Religion, 1, Zondervan, 1962, pp. 264-65). Only
naturalistic theology could hold that it was a mere
snake referred to in myth or legend.

nahadsh occurs in Ex 4:3; 7:15, in connection
with Moses’ rod turning to a ‘‘serpent.”’ During
the wilderness wanderings of the Israelites the
Lord sent “fiery serpents.’ Numbers 21:6. 7, 9;
Deut 8:15. and II Kgs 18:4 refer both to the
plague and the bronze “‘serpent’” nthashtan
which Moses made. Normally the ‘‘serpent™™ ts
something evil. But anyone poisoned with venom
could, by looking at the bronze “‘serpent,’* be
healed. Jesus alluded to this episode in John 3:14.
As the object of faith resembled the curse in the
case of the ‘‘snakes, so Jesus resembled the
cursed in that he took the form of a servant and
was made in the likeness of man (Phil 2:7). There
are at least two more noteworthy features of this
account of Moses’ bronze ‘‘snake.” First, the
word naliash is almost identical to the word for
‘bronze’ or ‘‘copper, Hebrew n¢hoshet (q.v.).
Some scholars think the words are related be-
cause of acommon color of snakes (cf. our **cop-
perhead’*), but others think that they are only
coincidentally similar. From II Kgs 18:4 we can

1348 wn (nahash)

assume that the bronze ‘‘serpent’’ became a relic,
a religious fetish, and that the people of God,
acting like ordinary men, wanted to worship it.
The name given it was *‘Nehushtan,’’ which may
refer to the words na@hdash (snake) and/or
n¢*hoshet (brass).

Both Jeremiah and Amos may be alluding to
this desert incident when they threaten punish-
ment in the form of *‘serpents’’ (Jer 8:17; Amos
5:19; 9:3). Isaiah and Micah may have Gen 3:14 in
mind when they speak of licking the dust like a
‘*serpent’’ (Isa 65:25; Mic 7:17).

Both Job and Isaiah mention the leviathan
(q.v.) or dragon or crooked *‘serpent’’ in connec-
tion with God's power (Job 26:13; Isa 27:1).

Other characteristics of ‘‘snakes’’ receive
mention. Genesis 49:17 seems to refer to a ser-
pent’s stealth; Ps 58:4, 140:3 (H 4}; Prov 23:32,
Eccl 10:8, 11, Jer 8:17, Amos 5:19, and 9:3 to the
poisonous bite; Prov 30:19 to their climbing
ability on a smooth surface; and Jer 46:22 to the
hissing sound they make.

Three passages (Ps 54:4-5; Eccl 10:11; Jer
8:17) may refer to ‘‘snake’’ charming. Again, the
word na@hdsh is similar to the word lahash
(enchantment or divination) in those passages (cf.
nahash).

Three or four people and one city have names
derived from this root: Nahash, the king of
Ammon (I Sam 11:1, et al.); Nahash, the father
of Abigail and Zeruiah (11 Sam 17:25); Nahshon,
the son of Aminadab and brother-in-law of Aaron
(Ex 6:23 et al.); Nehushta, the mother of king
Jehoiakin (IJ Kgs 24:8); and the city of Nahash
(Ir-nahash in most translations, I Chr 4:12). Since
there are several identical roots, these names
may not necessarily mean “‘snake’’ but perhaps
‘‘diviner’’ (nahash) or “‘copper’’ (n‘hoshet).

Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp. 571-79.

R.L.A.

1348 wm (nahash) UH, learn by experience, dili-
gently observe, divine, practice divination or
fortunetelling, take as an omen.

Derivative
1348a twa (nahash) divination.

The verb nahash is found only in the intensive
stem (Piel) and is definitely related to the noun
nahash meaning ‘‘divination’’ or ‘‘enchant-
ment.”’

The first occurrence of ndhash is in Gen 30:27,
where Laban ‘‘learned from the omens’? (1B) that
Jacob’s presence meant his blessing.

Both in Gen 44:5 and 15 the doubly intensive
form (infinitive absolute plus finite verb) occurs.
There we learn that Joseph claimed for his
brothers’ benefit that he could ‘“‘divine’’ with a
special cup and so Knew secret things such as that

572

his brothers, still unaware of who he was, had his
cup in their possession. According to I Kgs 20:33,
the servants of Benhadad ‘‘took as an omen”
Ahab’s use of the word ‘‘brother’’ in reference to
their king.

But divination is outlawed in Lev 19:26 and is
spoken of with condemnation in II Kgs 17:17 and
21:6 (cf. Il Chr 33:6). It is in the list of forbidden
occult practices of Deut 18:10.

nahash. Divination, enchantment, omen, sor-
cery (Berkeley Version) augury (sps). The
noun nahash is obviously related to the cognate
verb nadhash II. Numbers 23:23 has the word in
the singular, parallel to gesem (q.v.), indicating
some variety of the occult. Numbers 24:1, also
part of the Balaam passages, has the only other
occurrence of nahash. Because of the similarity
of nahash to nahash (q.v.) meaning ‘‘snake,"’
some make a connection to snakecharming. More
contend that there is a similarity of hissing
sounds between enchanters and serpents and
hence the similarity of words.

Bibliography: Liefeld, W. L., **Divination,”’
in ZPEB, I], pp. 146-49. Summers, Montague,
The History of Witchcraft and Demonology, New
York: University Books, 1956.

R.L.A.

1349 wma (nhsh) III. Assumed root of the fol-

lowing.
1349a tnwmy (n*hdshet) copper.
1349b owama?) (ndhish) bronze (Job 6:12,
only).
mwim2 (n*hashad) copper, bronze
(e.g. Job 28:2; I] Sam 22:35; Ps
18:35).

n°hoshet. Copper, bronze, brass, brasen, brazen
(steel, KJV Jer 15:12). fetters, chains. This, the
common word for copper and its alloy, bronze,
occurs about 140 times in the ot. ‘‘Copper’’ is
an element rarely found in pure form. ‘*Bronze’”’
is an alloy of copper made with tin. Although
‘‘copper’’ characterized the Bronze Age in Pales-
tine, it by no means disappeared from use during
the Iron Age (beginning in the 12th century B.c.).
Brass (copper alloyed with zinc) did not come
into extensive use until the intertestamental
period so far as our archaeological evidence goes,
but possibly the ‘‘fine copper’’ of Ezk 8:27 was
genuine brass (R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient
Technology, VIII, p. 276).

More than half the references to n*hdoshet are
in the sections describing the construction of the
tabernacle and the temple with the accompanying
furniture and utensils. Made of n*hdshet were
the sockets (Ex 26:37), the vessels (27:3), the
grate and rings of the altar (27:4) and other pieces
of hardware and decoration, as well as the over-
lay of the altar (27:2). Perhaps most notable was

1349c

1350

Solomon's “brazen” sea (I Kgs 7:23-27; cf.
I} Kgs 25:13).

‘‘Chains’’ or ‘‘fetters’’ made of n°hodshet
bound Samson (Jud 16:21), Manasseh (II Chr
33:11), Jehoiakim (II Chr 36:6), and Zedekiah (Jer
52:11). Goliath had a helmet, greaves, and shield
of n*hoshet.

‘*Copper”’ in the natural state is mentioned in
Deut 8:9 and Zech 6:1.

Several times the word is used poetically. The
‘‘brass’’ heaven of Deut 28:23 represents heat
and rainlessness. According to Isa 60:17 its value
is between that of gold and wood. Lamenta-
tions 3:7 describes grief as a heavy “copper
chain.” Various translations have “filthiness” (AV,
ASV); “shame” (RSV); “lust” (NAB); or other para-
phrases for the strange use of n°hdsher in Ezk
16:36.

1351

Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., “Metals and
Metallurgy,’ in ZPEB, IV, pp. 207-12.
R.L.A.
wma (nhsh) IV. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
1350a_ AWM (n*hoshet) lust, harlotry (Ezk
16:36, only). Meaning dubious.
nwm (nthdshet). See nos. 1349a, 1350a.
wmwM (n*hushtan). See no. 1347b.
m2 (nahét) go down, descend.
Derivatives
I3Sla mma (nahat) descent ({sa 30:30,
only).
1351b 4 =ommy (nahét) descending (II Kgs
6:9, only).

Because it is used in several verbal stems,
nahét is rendered several different ways. Ug nht
likewise means ‘‘go down’? (UT 19:170, 1635).
Several passages clearly illustrate the basic
meaning of nadhat or nahét the stative form. As a
military term it means **to march down” (Qal) to
attack a city (Jer 21:13), or ‘‘to lead/bring down”’
(Hiphil) warriors for battle (Joel 3:11 [H 4:11]). It
is the wicked who ‘‘go down to Sheol’’ (Job
21:13). The Psalmist says that God’s hand de-
scended upon him (Ps 38:2 [H 3]). Cf. the **de-
scending (nahat) blow of his arm’’ (Isa 30:30).

The verb nahét is also rendered ‘to penetrate,
sink into.’’ David exclaims in Ps 38:2 [H 3]), ‘thy
arrows have sunk into me’ (cf. the Ugaritic
epithet “‘the archer,’’ for Resheph, the Canaanite
god of plagues. See Dahood, ‘*Psalms,’’ I AB,
p. 235). ‘‘A rebuke penetrates more deeply into
(i.e. makes an impression on) a wise man than a
hundred blows into a fool’’ (Prov 17:10). na@hét is

1352 M3 (nata)
also used of *‘pressing down,”’ i.e. levelling off,
furrows of ground (Ps 65:10 [H 11}).

In two parallel passages (II Sam 22:35; Ps 18:34
[H 35]), we find a rare occurrence of na@hét. It has
been rendered ‘‘so that my arms can bend (i.e.
press down, stretch, or string?) a bow of bronze”’
(Rsv). Ugaritic evidence, however, suggests a
more literal rendering of ‘‘lowering’’ a bow of
bronze into the arms (cf. Kothar, the Canaanite
god of crafts, who ‘brings down” (ynht) two
clubs to Baal, the earthly warrior below, so he
can fight Yamm; see UT 16: no. 68:11).

Biblical Aramaic uses n¢hét in the sense of ‘‘to
come down’”’ (Dan 4:13 [H 10]; 4:23 [H 20]),
‘‘deposit, store’’ (something, Ezr 5:15; 6:1, 5),
and ‘‘depose’’ (from the throne, Dan 5:20).

It is of interest to note that while the noun nahat
I] is derived from nahat, there is another noun
nahat derived from niah ‘‘rest.’’ In the same
way there are two nouns shahat I ‘“‘pit’’ and
shahat II ‘‘corruption’’ from shiah *‘dig’’ and
shahat **corrupt’’ (q.v.) respectively. This latter
noun is not recognized in the lexicons, though
usually so translated in the Lxx.

M.R.W.

mma. (nahat). See no. 1323a, 13Sla.

1352 O23 (natad) extend, stretch out, spread out,
pitch, turn, pervert, incline, bend, bow.
Derivatives
1352a fmee (mata) below.
1352b MBM (matteh) staff.
1352c 0 6tmer (mitta) bed.
1352d TMB (mutta) spreading, outspread-
ing.
1352e «fea (mutteh) that which is warped.

573

The 215 occurrences of this verb, excluding de-
rivatives, are translated some thirty-five different
ways in the ksv alone. The asv and rsv add other
renderings to this wide range of English ex-
pressions.

The root meaning of **extend,’’ “‘stretch out,”
is especially common in the Qal stem. Exodus
records that Moses “‘stretched out’’ his hand
(usually his rod is also mentioned) over the
waters of Egypt (Ex 7:19), over the land of Egypt
(Ex 10:13), toward heaven (Ex 9:23; 10:21-—22)
and over the Red Sea (Ex 14:16, 21, 26-27). A
javelin (Josh 8:18, 26) or a sword (Ezk 30:25) is
‘‘stretched out’’ in the hand. A woman displays
her haughtiness with an ‘‘outstretched neck”’ (Isa
3:16). A measuring line is ‘stretched over’’ a city
(II Kgs 21:13; Zech 1:16; cf. Isa 44:13).

Although a man may defiantly ‘‘stretch forth’
his hand against God (Job 15:25), anthropo-
morphically, it is ultimately God’s hand which
‘‘stretches out’? in judgment against man (Isa

1352 m9 (nata)

5:25; 23:11; 31:3; Jer 6:12; 15:6; $1:25 et al.).
Likewise, it is by an “‘outstretched’’ arm that
God redeems and delivers man (Ex 6:6; Deut
4:34: 5:15; 11:2 et al.).

nataé is often used for both ‘‘spreading out”
(i.e. ‘“pitching’’) one’s own tent (Gen 12:8; 26:25;
35:21; Jud 4:11; II Sam 16:22) and the tabernacle
of the religious community (Ex 33:7; II Sam 6:17;
I Chr 16:1). °*To spread”’ a tent, figuratively, is to
be established as a people (Jer 10:20). ‘To
stretch out’’ the curtains of a tent, is symbolic of
growth (Isa 54:2). natd is also figuratively used of
Yahweh, the Creator, whose hands ‘stretched
out'’ the heavens as a tent (Isa 40:22; 42:5; 44:24;
45:12 et al.). In addition, the root is used of the
‘‘extending’’ (i.e. growing long) of shadows
(II Kgs 20:10; Ps 109:23; 102:11 [H 12}; Jer 6:4)
and the ‘‘stretching out’’ of a valley (Num 24:6).

The root also occurs with the basic meaning of
‘to bend.’’ A wadi “‘bends’’ (t.e. slopes, Num
21:15), the shoulder of an ass *“‘bends down” with
a load (Gen 49:15), and one ‘‘bends down” (i.e.
tilts) a pitcher of water to pour a drink (Gen
24:14). The term is also used figuratively of the
‘‘perverting’’ or ‘‘warping’’ of justice, the con-
demnation of which lies at the heart of Israel's
law code (see Ex 23:6; Deut 16:19; 24:17; 27:19:
I Sam 8:3; Isa 10:2; 29:21; Lam 3:35; Amos 2:7;

5:12; Mal 3:5).
A large number of other references employing
nata carry the nuance of ‘‘turn,’’ “‘incline,”’ or

‘decline.’ It is used in the literal sense of ‘‘turn-
ing aside’ or ‘‘away,’’ or “‘diverting’’ from the
path (Num 20:17; 21:22; 22:23, 26, 33; II Sam
6:10) or “‘turning toward’ something (Gen 38:1,
16).

But most usages are figurative. One's heart
may “‘turn away’ (i.e. shift its loyalty, apos-
tatize; cf. I Kgs 11:2-4, 9) or ‘be swayed”’ (II Sam
19:14 [H 15]). On the other hand, one’s heart
may be “‘inclined’’ to God and his commands
(Josh 24:23; I Kgs 8:58; Ps 119:36). Also common
is the expression *‘to incline the ear’’ (i.e. listen
obediently) in reference to men paying heed to
God (Jer 7:24, 26; 11:8; 17:23 et al.), God toward
men (II Kgs 19:16; Isa 37:17; Dan 9:18), and men
to the words of a sage (Prov 4:20; 5:1, 13; 22:17).
The word natda is used with the meaning ‘‘de-
cline’ in reference to a shadow (II Kgs 20:10),
day (Jud 19:8-9), and figuratively, of one’s rapid
physical decline in life (Ps 102:11 [H 12]; 109:23).

matté&. Below, beneath, downwards. This term
used adverbially, often indicates that which ts
‘below,’ ‘‘beneath,’’ or ‘‘under’’ something, as
opposed to that which is above (cf. Ex 26:24,
36:29; 27:5; 38:4; 28:27; 39:20). Something
planted takes root ‘‘downward”’ but ‘‘bears fruit
upward” (II Kgs 19:30; Isa 37:31). The heavens
are pictured ‘‘above,’’ and the foundations of the

574

earth ‘‘below’’ (Jer 31:37). Sheol is located ‘‘be-
neath”’ (Prov 15:24). mattd is also used of one’s
age, as in I Chr 27:23: ‘‘David did not number
those below twenty years of age.’’ Its connection
with the verb nadta becomes apparent when one
observes that the Hiphil of this verb is sometimes
rendered ‘‘bow down’’ (cf. II Kgs 19:16; Ps 86:1;
Prov 22:17).

matteh. Staff, stick, shaft, branch, tribe. This
derivative is found about 250 times. Although the
term properly means “‘‘staff’ or ‘‘rod,”’ it is usu-
ally rendered (some 180 times) ‘‘tribe.’’ The ref-
erence is usually to one of the twelve tribes by
name. At first, apparently, each tribal ruler led
his group with a staff. This suggests that the
ruler’s staff may have originally been a symbol of
the tribe (cf. Num 17:2-10 {H 17-25]) and eventu-
ally betokened leadership and authority (cf. Ps
110:2; Jer 48:17). It should be noted that mt yd
‘staff of the hand,’’ is well attested in Uganitic
literature (cf. UT 19: no. 1237). In the Lxx, phylé
is most frequently employed to translate the He-
brew matteh.

A matteh was used as a support when travel-
ling (cf. Gen 38:18, 25). The young warrior,
Jonathan, carried a staff (I Sam 14:27, 43). The
staffs of Moses (Ex 4:2, 4, 17; 7:15, 17, 20 et al.)
and Aaron (Ex 7:9-10, 12, 19; Num 17:8 [H 23],
et al.) are best known because of the supernatural
wonders associated with them. An interesting
example, often misused, is the case of Moses
holding up the rod of God in the Amalekite war
(Ex 17:9, 11-12). It ts often supposed that Moses
was holding up his hands in prayer, but the con-
text says nothing of this. The power to prevail
was in the rod of God, the symbol of his power.

Additional uses of matteh include the ‘‘shaft’’
of an arrow (Hab 3:9, 14). Another expression,
mattéh lehem ‘‘staff of bread’’ (cf. Ezk 4:16;
5:16; 14:13; Lev 26:26; Ps 105:16) may not refer
to the ‘‘bread-pole,’’ as is commonly supposed.
Since lehem may mean ‘‘grain’’ or ‘‘wheat,”’
mattéh lehem may simply be taken as ‘‘stem’’ or
‘*stalk of grain’’ (see M. Dahood, Psalms, in AB,
XVIla, p. 56). Ezekiel uses matteh for the branch
of a vine (19:11-12, 14). Especially in Isaiah, the
term is used as a symbol of oppression and judg-
ment (Isa 9:4 [H 3}; 10:5, 24; 14:5; 30:32).

mitté. Bed, couch, litter. This word occurs
twenty-eight times. It is attested in Ugaritic. King
Krt lay weeping on his bed after losing his entire
family (cf. UT 16: Krt, I 30, p. 184). Usually the
mitta was a place for ‘‘stretching out”’ or ‘‘reclin-
ing’’ upon the floor where a mat or cloths were
spread out. The beds of the rich, however, might
be pieces of furniture made of ivory (Amos 6:4)
or gold and silver (Est 1:6), possibly located in
bed chambers (II Kgs 11:2). The mittad was used
for sleeping (II Kgs 4:10), for the sick or injured

(Gen 47:31; 48:2; II Kgs 1:4, 6), as a portable
litter (I Sam 19:15), and as a bier for the dead
(CH Sam 3:31).

{There is debate about Gen 47:31 whether
Jacob leaned upon the top of his staff matteh as
in Lxx and Heb 11:21 or upon the head of his bed
mitta as the MT says. The general picture seems
to favor the former. R.L.H.]

matta. Stretching, spreading out (of wings).
Used only in Isa 8:8 for the invading Assyrian
army ‘‘stretching out’’ its wings over the entire
land of Judah.

mutteh. That which is warped, bent, perverted.
Used only in Ezk 9:9 of the perverseness (i.e.
injustice) of the city of Jerusalem.

Bibliography: Al, pp. 4-13. Girdlestone,
Robert B., Synonyms of the Old Testament,
Eerdmans, 1956, pp. 259-60. TDNT, IX, pp.
245-50. IDB, I, pp. 372-73.

M.R.W.

22 (natil). See no. 1353b.
ye) (ndtia’). See no. 1354b.
mp. (nftipa). See no. 1355c.

1353 92 (natal) lift, bear (e.g. Lam 3:18; Isa
40:15).

Derivatives

1353a = 982 (néfel) burden,
sand, Prov 27:3).

1353b 9°83 (natil) laden (Zeph 1:11,
only).

weight (of

1354 Ye) (nata‘) plant, fasten, fix, establish.
ASV and RSv similar except RSv also uses
‘*stretch out’’ (Isa 51:16); ‘‘replant’’ (Ezk
36:36); and ‘‘pitch’’ (tents) (Dan 11:45).

Derivatives

1354a Yi (neta‘') plant, planting (e.g.
Job 14:6; Isa 5:7).

1354b pS] (natia’) plant (Ps 144:12,
only).
1354c yy (matta’) planting, plantation

(e.g. Ezk 34:29; Isa 60:21).

The root ndta' is used some seventy times.
Most of the references occur in the prophets,
Isaiah and Jeremiah accounting for about thirty
of them. The root is also found in Ugaritic litera-
ture. In ancient Israel where farming was widely
practiced, it is not surprising that the Bible men-
tions about one hundred different varieties of
plants, most of which were economically vital to
that agrarian society. Because the act of planting
was such a familiar scene, about thirty times the
or authors use the root nata‘ figuratively.

$75

1354 yes (nata‘)

Vines and vineyards are most frequently men-
tioned as being planted (Gen 9:20; Deut 20:6;
28:30, 39; Ps 107:37; Prov 31:16; Eccl 2:4; Isa
37:30; 65:21; Jer 31:5; Ezk 28:26; Amos 5:11;
9:14; Mic 1:6; Zeph 1:13). Many of these pas-
sages also emphasize the result of planting, that
of eating, enjoying the fruit, or drinking the wine.
Other objects of ndta‘ include trees (Lev 19:23;
Deut 16:21), fruit trees (Eccl 2:5), olive trees
(Deut 6:11; Josh 24:13), the tamarisk tree (Gen
21:33) the cedar (Isa 44:14; cf. Ezk 31:4), and
gardens (Jer 29:5, 28). Many of these references,
and others below, are included in contexts which
also mention the construction of houses or cities,
thus tying agriculture to Israel’s domestic life.

The verb ndata‘ and its derivatives are often
used metaphorically of Yahweh, the one great‘
Planter (cf. the participle nétéa‘ in Jer 11:17) in
Israel. One of the first anthropomorphic ex-
pressions in the oT is in Gen 2:8; ‘‘And the Lorp
God planted a garden in Eden.”’ He is also pic-
tured planting aloes (Num 24:6) and cedars of
Lebanon (Ps 104:16).

God brought a vine, his people, out of Egypt
(cf. Ex 15:17) and planted it (Ps 80:8 [H 9]) with
his own hand (Ps 80:15 (H 16]); cf. Ps 44:2 [H 3]
among choice vines (Isa 5:2). Indeed, they were
**his pleasant planting’’ (Isa 5:7). Yet with all this
care, God’s vine became a wild vine (Jer 2:21).
He longed once again to call them ‘‘the shoot of
my planting’ (Isa 60:21) for they were meant to
be the ‘‘planting of the Lorp”’ (Isa 61:3). Before
this could be, however, God told Israel that they
must first be uprooted and exiled from their land:
‘*Thus says the Lorp: **What I have planted I am
plucking up, that is, the whole land’’ (Jer 45:4; cf.
24:6). But this would not be a permanent trans-
plant, for God specified in his covenant with
David, *‘I will appoint a place for my people Is-
rael, and will plant them, that they may dwell in
their own place, and be disturbed no more’’
(II Sam 7:10; I Chr 17:9). Later, God’s last word
through Amos reiterated the promise: ‘I will
plant them upon their land, and they shall never
again be plucked up out of the land which I have
given them” (Amos 9:15; cf. Jer 31:28; 32:41).

God not only ‘“‘plants’’ (ndta‘) Israel but he
also ‘‘plants’’ or establishes the nations (Jer 1:10;
18:9), the wicked (Jer 12:2), the heavens (Isa
51:16), the ear (Ps 94:9), and reestablishes the
wasteland (Ezk 36:36).

Other figurative uses of ndta’ include *‘pitch-
ing’’ tents (Dan 11:45) and ‘‘driving’’ nails (Eccl
12:11). The Psalmist prays God's blessing upon
his people by saying, ‘“‘May our sons in their
youth be like plants full grown” (Ps 144:12).

Koheleth uses the figure of planting to illus-
trate the fact there is a time for everything, ‘‘a
time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant,
and a time to pluck up what is planted” (Eccl

1355 "3 (natap)

3:2). This Scripture was read at the funeral of
President John F. Kennedy.
M.R.W.

1355 te) (natap) drop, drip, distil, prophesy,

preach.
Derivatives
1355a M2 (natap) I, drop (Job 36:27,
only).
1355b «M2 «(ndtap) HH, drops of stacte, a

gum resin of a shrub used in in-
cense (Ex 30:34, only).

1355c TMD (n*tipa) drop, i.e. pen-
dant.

The verbal root ndtap occurs eighteen times. It
is found almost exclusively in the poetical sec-
tions of the oT. In two early pieces of Hebrew
poetry (Jud 5; Ps 68), ndtap is used three times of
the clouds or heavens dropping water. In the
Song of Deborah, rain pours down and the earth
quakes as Yahweh, in a mighty theophany, ap-
pears marching across the land, ‘‘Lorp, when
thou didst go forth from Seir, when thou didst
march from the region of Edom, the earth trem-
bled, and the heavens dropped, yea the clouds
dropped water’’ (Jud 5:4). Yahweh, not Baal, is
the real ‘‘Rider of the Clouds” (cf. Ps 68:4 [H 5]).
It is he who causes rain to drop on the parched
desert (cf. Ps 68:8 [H 9]) and who alone is worthy
of Israel’s song of praise.

The prophets describe future earthly blessings
to be bestowed upon the people of God, restored
to their land. It will be a time when ‘the
mountains shall drip sweet wine’’ (Joel 3:18 (H
4:18); Amos 9:13).

The Wisdom Literature of the oT uses natap
five times. Job pictures men who waited for his
words of counsel which *‘dropped’’ upon them as
rain (Job 29:21-23). In Song of Solomon, the
bride’s lips ‘‘drop sweetness like the hon-
eycomb”’ (NEB, Song 4:11), while her lover's lips
‘tare lilies, distilling liquid myrrh’’ (5:13). Her
hands are also said to have ‘dripped with myrrh’’
(5:5). According to Prov 5:3,. ‘the lips of a
strange (i.e. loose or adulterous) woman drip
honey,’ an apparent reference to either kisses or
seductive speech.

In prophetic literature ndtap is sometimes used
of the one who speaks God’s word to the people.
The idea of ‘‘prophesy’’ (Rsv ‘“‘preach’’) is con-
veyed by the Hiphil stem meaning literally to
‘*cause (words) to drop, drip, flow.’’ Hence, in
Mic 2:11, the participle mattip (av ‘‘prophet,”’
RSV ‘‘preacher’') stands as a synonym for nabi’,
the general term for prophet. ndtap is found four
other times in Micah 2 in the sense of *‘proph-
esy” or ‘“‘preach’’ (vv. 6, 11). In this context,
however, the verb seems to carry a nuance of

576

contempt for Micah and his fellow prophets, im-
plying the idea of ‘‘rant’’ (cf. NEB) or ‘‘prate.’’ In
Amos 7:16 ndtap is placed parallel with the verb
naba’, and, as in the passages from Micah above,
appears to connote the idea that a prophet is
merely one who ‘‘goes drivelling on’’ (cf. NEB)
against God’s people. On two occasions Ezekiel
is addressed by the Lord and told to ‘‘drop”’ (Rsv,
‘*preach’’) his message against the south (20:46
[H 21:2]) and against the sanctuaries (21:2 [H 7]).

In what seems to be a derivative of natap, Job
36:27 uses the root for a drop of water.

n‘°tip4. Pendant. This noun is used of drop-
shaped earrings (cf. nattafat, an Arabic word for
earring) in Jud 8:26 and Isa 3:19. In modern He-
brew, the word natép is used of grapes hanging
down from a cluster.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., in Psalms II, pp.
136-39 . Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms of the Old
Testament, Eerdmans, 1956, pp. 239-40. Gor-
don, Cyrus H., UT 19: no. 1763. Gordon, Cyrus
H., Ugaritic Literature, Rome: Pontifical Bib.
Institute, 1949.

M.R.W.

1356 “2 (natar) keep, keep guard, reserve,

maintain. (RSV has ‘‘be angry”’ in Jer 3:5,
12 and ‘‘keep his anger’’ in Ps 103:9; asv
uses ‘‘retain’’ in Jer 3:5.)

Derivative
1356a TRB (mattdra) S78% (mattarda’)

target.

The root ndatar is often used in farming con-
texts of those who keep or guard vineyards (Song
1:6; 8:11-12; cf. Isa 5:1-7 for a description of
caring for a vineyard). It is also used in the sense
of keeping one’s anger or wrath. The Lord
‘*keeps wrath for his enemies*’ (Nah 1:2), yet he
promises not to keep anger forever (Ps 103:9; Jer
3:5, 12; cf. Amos 1:11). In Lev 19:18, a verse
which Jesus considered to be at the heart of the
oT law (cf. Mt 19:19; Mk 12:31), Israel is com-
manded, ‘“‘You shall not... bear any grudge
(natar) toward the children of your people, but
you shall love your neighbor as yourself.’

mattara, mattara’. Target, mark, prison
guard. This derivative sometimes means “‘tar-
get’’ or ‘‘mark.’’ Job, in his suffering, alleges
figuratively that God set him up as his ‘‘target”’
(Job 16:12). The writer of Lamentations com-
plains in a similar vein by saying that God ‘‘bent
his bow and set me as a mark (mattdra’) for his
bow’’ (Lam 3:12). In I Sam 20:20 Jonathan says,
‘IT will shoot three arrows to the side of it, as
though I shot at a mark” (mattdra).

In Jeremiah’s prophecy, mattdra is frequently
used in the expression ‘‘court of the prison/
guard.’’ Located inside the palace grounds of

Zedekiah (Jer 32:2), the guard’s courtyard was
apparently an open area which served as a tem-
porary stockade for confining prisoners during
the Babylonian attack of Jerusalem (Jer 38:28;
39:14). Shut up in the court of the guard,
Jeremiah was given the freedom to receive
visitors (32:8) and settle a legal matter of family
business (32:12). In the courtyard he received
prophetic messages (33:1; 39:15), was given a
daily food allotment (37:21), and was placed in a
miry cistern (38:6). mattdrd also occurs in Neh
3:25 and 12:39. Interestingly, imprisonment is not
a penalty used in the Pentateuchal legislation.
They had no prisons in the wilderness.

M.R.W.

1357 we. (natash) forsake, cast off, cast away,
reject, leave, permit, spread out, spread
abroad. (Other renderings: asv suffer, join,
be loosed; Rsv cease, abandon, quit, hang
loose, cast down, make a raid; ASV and RSV
lie fallow, let fall, forgo, draw.)

Derivative

1357a = MWB] «(n°tishad) tendrils of a vine (as

spread out).

There are forty occurrences of natash in the oT.
About half of these uses carry the idea of forsake
or reject; elsewhere, natash frequently means
leave, let alone or spread, extend. Only in Gen
31:28 does it mean permit (allow).

Often natash is used of God forsaking or cast-
ing off his people (Jud 6:13; I Sam 12:22; 1 Kgs
8:57; I] Kgs 21:14; Ps 94:14; Isa 2:6; Jer 7:29; 12:7;
23:33, 39). On the other hand, God (Deut 32:15;
Jer 15:6), David (Ps 27:9) or Egypt (Ezk 29:5) may
be the object of nadtash. The term is also used of
forsaking the tabernacle at Shiloh (Ps 78:60) and
of rejecting the teaching of one’s mother (Prov
1:8, 6:20).

A person may leave (natash) land by letting it
lie fallow (Ex 23:11) or forgo the harvesting of
crops (Neh 10:31(32)). Animals (asses or sheep)
may be left alone in the sense of ceasing to care
for them (I Sam 10:2; 17:20, 28). Food may be
left, i.e., ‘‘dropped off’ (I Sam 17:22) or a tree cut
down and left behind (Ezk 31:12). This nuance
of dropping, falling, or casting down is used of the
nations Egypt and Israel (Ezk 32:4; Amos 5:2), of
quails (Num 11:31) and in the sense of dropping a
dispute (Prov 17:14).

The meaning of extend, spread out is used in
the context of warriors in battle (Jud 15:9; I Sam
4:2; 30:16; II Sam 5:18, 22); also of an extended,
i.e. drawn sword (Isa 21:15) and of the spreading
of the shoots of a vine (Isa 16:8).

M.R.W.

%)) (ni). See no. 131Ic.

1364 *M>9 (naka)

1358 82) (ny’).
1358a =)

Assumed root of the following.
(na@’) raw (of flesh, Ex 12:9,
only).

See no. 1318b.

3°3. (nid). See no. 1319b.

ms‘y. (nidad). See no. 1302b.
mm) (nihdah). See no. 1323c.
"2 (nin). See no. 1326a.

3°) (nib).

1359 5°93 (nisdn) Nisan, first month (Neh 2:1;
Est 3:7). For other months, see hédesh,

no. 613b.

Piz°3 (nisés). See no. 1405Sa.

1360 9°93 (nir) ZI, break up, freshly plow (Hos
10:12; Jer 4:3).

Derivative

1360a 93 (nir) the tillable, untilled or fal-
low ground (Hos 10:12; Jer 4:3;
Prov 13:23).
1361 3°93 (nyr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
136la 49% (mdndr) beam carrying the
heddles in a loom (e.g. II Sam
21:19=I Chr 20:5). Used in simile of
a heavy spear.
3°) (nir). See no. 1333b.

1362 *N8 93 (nakda’) strike, scourge. Occurs only
once, in the Niphal (Job 30:8).

Derivatives
1362a 9=833 «(nakd') stricken (Isa 16:7,
only).
1362b 83) (naké’) stricken (Prov 15:13;
17:22; 18:14).
1362c =onms32 (n°ko't) a spice (Gen 37:25;
43:11).
AND] (n°ko't). See no. 1362c.
1363 353 (nkd). Assumed root of the following.
1363a “32 (neked) progeny, posterity
(Gen 21:23; Isa 14:22).

1364 *m9) (naka) smite, strike, hit, beat, slay,
kill, Not used in the Qal stem; chiefly
used in the Hiphil.

Derivatives
1364a m2) (nakéh) stricken (11 Sam 4:4;
9:3; Isa 66:2).
1364b «=33 (nékeh) = stricken (Ps 35:15).
1364c 3=— 839 (nakén) blow (Job 12:5,
only).

$77

1364 *m>9 (naka)

1364d tm (makka)
ter.

blow, sound, slaugh-

The root is used about five hundred times. But
one must not hastily infer that since naka is such
a common OT root, society as a whole was satu-
rated with war and violence. That warfare and
bloodshed did occur, sometimes with great fre-
quency. must not be denied. Yet, the wide va-
riety of ways in which the verb ‘‘to smite’ is used
throughout the oT is fitting evidence to warrant a
somewhat different conclusion.

The verb naka is often used for “‘hitting’’ or
‘*smiting an object with one, non-fatal strike. A
man may ‘“‘smite’’ an animal such as an ass (Num
22:23, 25, 27). He may ‘“‘hit’ a person on the
cheek (Ps 3:7 [H 8]: Lam 3:30) or in the eye (Ex
21:26). Exodus records that Moses’ rod *‘struck"*
the river (Ex 7:17), the dust (Ex 8:16 [H 12], 17
(H 13}), and a rock (Ex 17:6). One may be the
target of a flying object such as a stone from a
sling (1 Sam 17:49), an arrow (I Kgs 22:34), ora
spear (I Sam 19:10; cf. 26:8). The root nadkad may
also refer to being ‘smitten in conscience’ (cf.
David, when he cut off Saul's skirt, I Sam 24:5 (H
6]), and to the ‘‘clapping’* of hands before a king
(IJ Kgs 11:12).

naka is also found in passages which describe
the beating of some object. A man may receive a
‘‘beating’’ by another in a fight (Ex 2:11, 13: Deut
25:11). Nehemiah ‘‘beat’’ some of the Jews for

marrying foreign women (Neh 13:25). In Song of.

Solomon, the bride, searching for her lover
through the streets of the city, is beaten by the
watchmen (Song 5:7). The oT law apparently
allowed scourging for certain offenses (Deut
25:2-3: cf. I] Cor 11:24). Jeremiah the prophet,
however, was beaten by authorities although he
was innocent (Jer 20:2; 37:15). So also was the
Suffering Servant who gave his ‘back to the
smiters”’ (Isa 50:6; cf. Mt. 26:67). Proverbs notes
the importance of beating for the sake of acquir-
ing wisdom and discipline (Prov 19:25; 23:13-14).
The idea of ‘beating repetitiously”’ 1s likewise
seen in the plague of hail in Egypt which ‘’struck
down” everything in the open (Ex 9:25).

In a large number of passages ndkad means to
‘slay,’ ‘‘kill,° “‘strike dead** (cf. av “‘slay,”’
some ninety times). It is used of murdering
another man (Ex 21:12: Josh 10:26 et al.) whether
intentionally (1] Sam 2:23) or unintentionally
(Deut 19:4): of a man killing a hon (I Sam 17:35);
of a lion killing a man (I Kgs 20:36): and of a
worm attacking a plant so as to kill it (Jon 4:7).

Another large group of passages uses the root
in the sense of ‘‘attack’’ and/or “‘destroy,'* the
object being a group of people (Gen 32:8 (H 9j, 11
[H 12]: Josh 8:21), a house (Amos 3:15), and a
city (Josh 10:28 et al.).

This usage bears on the large numbers said to

578

be “smitten” (naka) or fallen (ndpal) or
wounded (/dlal) in battle. Thus when in Gideon's
battle 120,000 men ‘‘fell’’ (Jud 7:10), it may only
mean that they were killed, wounded, or missing
in action; 15,000 only were left as a fighting force.
So also in the war of Abijah against Jeroboam,
‘They smote (nakd) them with a great smiting
(makka) and there fell (ndpal) wounded (halal)
500,000.°’ (Cf. R. L. Harris, Man—God's Eter-
nal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 155-56).

Of particular theological importance is the fact
that God is often the subject of naka. It is God
who ‘‘smites™ people with blindness (II Kgs 6:18)
and plagues (Deut 28:22, 27-28, 35). He brings
judgment upon man for his sin (I Kgs 14:15; Lev
26:24), even death (II Sam 6:7). Likewise, nature
is under God's control for he, not Baal, **smote™’
Israel's vines and fig trees (Ps 105:33).

makka. Blow, wound, plague, slaughter, de-
feat (Rsv also has affliction (Deut 28:59, 61;
29:22 [H 21]), sickness (Deut 28:59), and disaster
(Jer 19:8; 49:17). Of the forty-eight occurrences
of makka in the OT, two-thirds of them are trans-
lated in the Lxx by the term plégé (mAnyn), from
which the English term “‘plague™ is derived.

The word is used with four main nuances of
meaning. First, it is used literally of a ‘*blow”* or
‘*stroke’’ received in a beating or whipping (Deut
25:3; Prov 20:30). According to oT law, the
number of strokes received in formal punishment
was limited to forty (Deut 25:3). The synagogue,
however, eventually reduced this to thirty-nine
strokes (cf. II Cor 11:24), thirteen across the
breast and twenty-six across the back (cf. TDNT,
IV, p. 516). The same idea of **scourging’’ is used
figuratively of the Lord of hosts who **smote M1-
dian” (cf. Isa 10:26).

Secondly, makkd, in certain contexts, is trans-
lated *“*wound.”’ It is so used of King Ahab's
death. When the king was fatally struck by an
arrow, the Hebrew historian graphically states,
‘*the blood ran out of the wound into the midst of
the chariot’’ (I Kgs 22:35; cf. the wounds from
God's arrows in Ps 64:7 [H 8]). Another king,
Joram, received battle “‘wounds” from the Sy-
rians (I] Kgs 8:29: 9:15: II Chr 22:6). The
prophets often use ‘‘wound’’ symbolically, de-
scribing that condition of God's people usually
brought about by the “‘blow’™’ of an enemy due to
her sin (Jer 30:14; cf. Isa 1:5-6). Although her
wound is ‘‘grievous’* (Jer 10:19; 14:17; 30:12; cf.
Assyria in Nah 3:19), even ‘“‘incurable’’ (Jer
15:18; Mic 1:9), God will bring healing in his time
(Isa 30:26; Jer 30:17).

makka may also be rendered “plague” or
‘‘affliction.’’ In oT times, plagues seem to have
been a kind of epidemic disease often sent as
punishment for sin. Once the Hebrew people left
Egypt, God demanded obedience of them.

Should they disobey, God solemnly warned, ‘‘I
will bring more plagues upon you, sevenfold as
many as your sins’’ (Lev 26:21). A ‘‘very great
plague’’ (makka) occurred in the wilderness as
the people were gluttonously eating the quails
(Num 11:33). This plague may have been a severe
stomach disorder. On the plains of Moab, just
prior to the Conquest, God’s people are again
threatened with afflictions, ‘‘severe and lasting,’’
if they fail to observe the law and revere God's
name (Deut 28:59, 61). Several generations after
the Exodus, the Philistines were yet impressed
with the reputation of the God of the Hebrews
who ‘smote the Egyptians with every sort of
plague in the wilderness’’ (I Sam 4:8).

Lastly, makkd is used in the sense of ‘‘defeat,”’
as when an army or people ts smitten by “‘slaugh-
ter’ (J Sam 4:10; 14:30). Frequently the verb
naka *‘to smite’ is combined in a cognate con-
struction with makkd, resulting in the expres-
sion, **to make/smite with a very great’’ or ‘‘great
slaughter’ (cf. Josh 10:10, 20; Jud 11:33; 15:8; I
Sam 6:19; 19:8; 23:5; I Kgs 20:21 et al.).

Bibliography: IDB, III, pp. 821-22. Harris, R.
L., Man—God'’s Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971,
pp. 155~56. TDNT, IV, pp. 515~19.

M.R.W.

32 (nakén). See no. 1364c.

1365 m52 (nkh). Assumed root of the following.

1365a tM35) (nadkdah) M33 (ndkah) both
appear to be derivatives of the root
nkh meaning ‘‘be in front of’ (so
BDB).

The word nakoah occurs eight times. It is used
mainly as an adjective (straight, right, plain) and
as a noun (what is straight, right, upright). Most
of the examples cited below illustrate that
nakoah primarily stresses the ethical quality of
life in actions involving both personal and na-
tional morality.

nakoah is used adverbially in one instance (Isa
57:2) meaning “‘straight forwardly.” In this con-
text, the righteous man dies in peace (shalém),
for he has walked a straight path through life.
Several passages employ nakoah adjectivally. In
II Sam 15:3 it stands beside the word ‘‘good’’ in
reference to a legal case. Another occurrence
(Prov 8:9) states that words of wisdom ‘‘are all
straight to him who understands’’; they are not
‘“twisted or crooked”’ (cf. v. 8). To give a ‘‘right”’
answer in a legal matter is to give an honest or
straightforward reply (Prov 24:26).

Other verses treat nadkdah as a noun. In Isa
30:10, the word is used of the *‘true’’ things re-
vealed by God to his prophets in contrast to the
illusions of other so-called prophets. The term
‘land of uprightness’’ (‘eres n®kdhot) charac-

579

1368 *932 (nakar)

terizes a place where the wicked man ‘‘deals per-
versely’’ (Isa 26:10). The term is used in Isa 59:14
as a synonym for ‘‘justice,’’ ‘‘righteousness,”’
and ‘‘truth.’’ Amos, the prophet of social justice,
lashes out at the unethical practices of those in
Samaria by saying, ‘‘They do not know how to do
right’ (3:10). nokah is used about twenty times,
normally in prepositional or adverbial phrases. It
means ‘‘in front of, opposite,’’ and is variously
rendered ‘over against,’’ ‘“‘before,’’ *‘facing,’’ et
al.

M.R.W.

1366 %33 (nakal) be crafty, deceitful, knavish

(e.g. Mal 1:14; Num 25:18).

Derivatives
1366a 932 (nékel) wiliness, craft (Num
25:18, only).
1366b “9D (kilay), “> (kélay) knave
(Isa 32:5, only), with nun elided.

1367 033 (nekes) riches (e.g. Josh 22:8; Eccl

6:2).

1368 *"32 (ndkar) recognize, acknowledge, know,

respect, discern (not in the Qal).

Derivatives
1368a “32 (neker) misfortune, calamity
(Job 31:3).

1368b 1933 (nekar) that which is foreign.

1368c 1552 (nokri) foreign, strange.

1368d +59) (nakar) treat as foreign. De-
moninative verb.

1368e 86om93m (hakkadrd) look (or expres-
sion?). Occurs only in Isa 3:9.

1368f "3% (makkar) acquaintance, friend
(II Kgs 12:6, 8).

The root nkr carries several different mean-
ings. (BDB divides it into two verbs. KB treats as
one, as we do here.) First, it conveys the idea to
‘‘inspect’’ or ‘‘look over’’ something with the in-
tention of recognizing it. Jacob invited Laban to
‘point out’’ (i.e. visually distinguish) his own
possessions from those of Jacob (Gen 31:32).
Likewise, personal items such as Joseph’s robe
(Gen 37:32) and Judah’s signet, cord, and staff
(Gen 38:25) are inspected with a view to identify-
ing the owner of each.

The verb also means to ‘“‘pay attention to’’ or
‘*take notice of’ (someone). Ruth is surprised
that Boaz *‘took notice’’ (nkr) of her when she
was a foreigner (nokriy@; Ruth 2:10, 19; cf.
II] Sam 3:36). In a number of passages nkr carries
the nuance of regarding someone with favor or
for good. Such is God’s regard for the exiles of
Judah (Jer 24:5). The potential danger in **show-
ing attention’’ to someone ts that partiality may

1368 *"932 (nadkar)

result. Proverbs 28:21 states, ‘To show partiality
is not good.’’ Hence judges are solemnly warned
not to be partial (nAr) in their judging (Deut 1:17;
16:19; Prov 24:23).

A third use of nkr is in the sense of ‘‘to recog-
nize’? an object (which one formerly knew). A
man might observe another person and ‘‘recog-
nize’’ him (cf. I Kgs 18:7; 20:41), sometimes only
by the tone of voice (I Sam 26:17). Jacob *‘recog-
nized’’ the blood-dipped robe as belonging to his
son Joseph (Gen 37:33). Judah *‘recognized”’ (i.e.
acknowledged) his own signet, cord and staff
which resulted in his incrimination (Gen 38:26).
On the other hand, a person may fail to ‘*recog-
nize’’ someone because of darkness (Ruth 3:14).
Job's comforters at first failed to ‘*recognize™’
him because of his personal dishevelment (Job
2:12). The aged Isaac did not “‘recognize’’ Jacob
because of the hairy animal skins on his hands
(Gen 27:23). It should especially be noted that in
Gen 42:7, nkr occurs with two opposite mean-
ings: Joseph ‘‘knew”’ (nkr), i.e. ‘‘recognized’* his
brothers, but ‘‘he treated them like strangers”
(Hithpael of nkr), i.e. ‘*he kept his identity from
them’”’ (see n&kr II).

The root nkr is further used in the sense of to
‘acknowledge’ (with honor or recognition). A
father must ‘‘acknowledge”’ the firstborn son by
giving him a double portion (Deut 21:17). Levi
failed to “‘acknowledge,”’ i.e. ‘*he disowned’”’ his
brothers (Deut 33:9). Prophetically, Daniel says
of Antiochus, ‘*Those who acknowledge him he
shall magnify with honor’ (Dan 11:39). Concern-
ing Israel, Isaiah writes, *‘all who see them shall
acknowledge them, that they are a people whom
the Lorp has blessed’’ (Isa 61:9).

In several passages nkr carries the idea of to
**distinguish’’ or *‘understand.’’ When the people
saw the foundation of the postexilic temple being
laid, they could not “‘distinguish’’ the sound of
joyful shouting from the sound of weeping (Ezra
3:13). An aparition appeared to Eliphaz in a vi-
sion but he could not ‘‘distinguish,”* i.e. ‘‘dis-
cern’ its appearance (Job 4:16).

It is significant that nkr is not used in the of as
a euphemism for the act of sexual intercourse as
the root, yadda‘ (q.v.) is often used. In Ugaritic,
however, nkr is used in the sense of ‘‘to know
sexually...’ One text reads, ‘“‘The newlywed
burned to lie again with his wife, to know (his)
beloved’’ (Keret IV. 28; I 1149; cf. G. R. Driver,
Canaanite Myths and Legends, pp. 31, 33, 156).

nékar. That which is foreign. This derivative is
usually rendered **strange’’ or “‘stranger’’ in the
KJV, but ‘‘foreign’* or ‘‘foreigner’’ in the rsv. It is
used of a ‘‘foreign god’’ (Deut 32:12; Ps 81:9
[H 10]; Mal 2:11 et al.), of ‘‘foreign altars’’ (II
Chr 14:3 [H 2]), a ‘‘foreign country’’ (Ps 137:4),
and ‘‘everything foreign’’ (Neh 13:30). Of fre-

580

quent occurrence is the nominal ben (han-) nékar
**foreigner’’ (Gen 17:12, 27; Ex 12:43 et al.), and
b¢né (han-) nékar ‘foreigners’? (11 Sam 22:45-
46; Isa 56:6; 60:10.

nokri. Foreign, strange, alien; often as anoun,
‘‘foreigner,’’ ‘‘stranger.’’ This term occurs over
forty times and has a variety of uses. The Lxx
mainly employs GAAdtoLOc for nokri. Like nékdr
above, nokri is normally translated ‘‘strange’’ or
‘‘stranger’’ in the av, but ‘‘foreign’’ or ‘'‘for-
eigner’’ in the rsv. A non-Israelite is a ‘‘for-
eigner’’ (Jud 19:12; I Kgs 8:41 et al.). The term
applies to a ‘‘foreign land’’ (Ex 2:22; 18:3) and
‘‘foreign (non-Israelite) women’”’ (I Kgs 11:1, 8 et
al.). In the book of Proverbs, ‘“‘foreign (or
strange) woman’’ (nokriyad) becomes a technical
expression for a prostitute or adulteress (Prov
2:16; 5:20; 6:24 et al.). Sometimes nokri carries
the idea of *‘unknown,”’ ‘‘unfamiliar’’ (Job 19:15;
Ps 69:8 [H 9]), or even *‘odd’’ or “‘surprising”’
(Isa 28:21). In modern Hebrew, nokri may stand
for *‘gentile.”’

nakar. Act or treat as strange, foreign, new; mis-
construe, disguise, make unrecognizable. A\l-
though BDB (pp. 648-49) lists this as a denomina-
tive verb under nkr II, this root is probably not to
be distinguished from nkr I, ‘‘recognize, know.”’
It is likely, as KB (p. 617) posits, that the original
meaning of *‘be strange, new, conspicuous”’ de-
veloped to *‘be remarked, known.”’

In several passages nkr carries the idea of
shielding one’s true identity from another. In
Egypt, Joseph ‘‘acted as a stranger’’ to his
brothers, pretending not to know them (Gen
42:7). Jeroboam’s wife disguised herself, conceal-
ing her identity to Ahijah the prophet, thus *‘she
pretended to be another woman”’ (I Kgs 14:5-6,
RSV). Proverbs 26:24 says, ‘*A man filled with
hate disguises it in his words” (cf. Scott, Prov-
erbs, in AB, p. 158). Here ts a different kind of
disguise. It comes from the lips as a man speaks
things ‘*foreign’’ to his mind.

The root nkr may also be translated ‘‘mis-
construe, misrepresent, judge amiss’’ as in Deut
32:27 (RSV), ‘‘Had I not feared provocation by the
enemy, lest their adversaries should judge
amiss.”

This verb also may carry the idea of ‘‘disfigur-
ing, making unrecognizable, treating (a place) as
foreign or profane,’’ a charge which Jeremiah
makes of the valley of the son of Hinnom in
Jerusalem (Jer 19:4).

Bibliography: Barabas, S., ‘*Foreigner,’* in
ZPEB, II, p. S90. Driver, G. R., Canaanite
Myths and Legends, Edinburgh: T & T Clark,
1956. TDNT, I, pp. 264-67. THAT, II, pp. 66-68.

M.R.W.

932 (nokri). See no. 1368c.

1369 m33 (n¢két) treasure (II Kgs 20:13; Isa
39:2). Meaning and derivation uncertain.

1370 3: (nth). Assumed root of the following.
1370a = M939 «(minleh) gain, acquisition
(Job 15:29, only).

1371 52 (nmi). Assumed root of the following.
137la M92 (n’mala) ant (Prov 6:6;
30:35 only).

1372 332 (nmr). Assumed root of the following.
1372a “ty (ndmér) leopard (e.g. Hos
13:7; Hab 1:8).

B2 (nés). See no. 1379a.

1373 Me (nasa) test, try, prove, tempt, assay, put
to the proof, put to the test. (Other render-
ings infrequently found: asv adventure,
proveth; RSV make a test, attempt, venture, be
used to; aSv and RSV make trial.)

Derivative

1373a mg (massah) trial, test, proving.
Used also as a place name (Massah)
where the ‘‘trial’’ over water hap-
pened in the wilderness (cf. Ex
17:1-7).

In most contexts nasa has the idea of testing
or proving the quality of someone or something,
often through adversity or hardship. The render-
ing tempt, used frequently by the av and asv,
generally means prove, test, put to the test, rather
than the current English idea of ‘‘entice to do
wrong.”’ The verb nasa occurs 36 times in the oT.

In a number of passages nasa means to at-
tempt to do something. It is used of attempting
or venturing a word which might offend the hearer
(Job 4:2), of venturing to touch one’s foot to the
ground (Deut 28:56), and of trying to take a nation
(Israel) from another nation (Egypt) (Deut 4:34).
In other contexts, nasa is used of testing various
things such as armor and weapons (I Sam 17:39)
and pleasure (Ecc! 2:1; cf. 7:23).

The largest number of references, however,
deal with situations where a person or a nation is
undergoing a trial or difficult time brought about
by another. Though man is forbidden to put God
to the test (Deut 6:16), the oT records that he did
so. The wilderness place of Massah (‘‘trial’’) be-
comes a byword in this regard, often combined
ina play on words with nas, “‘totry’’ (Ex 17:2, 7;
Deut 6:16; 33:8; Ps 95:8, 9; cf. Deut 9:22). Those
who put God to the proof in the wilderness would
not see Canaan (Num 14:22-23). The hymns of
Israel reflect this defiant attitude (see Ps 78:18,
41, 56; 106:14).

On occasion, one man would try or put another
man to the test. Thus, the Queen of Sheba tested

581

1375 3B} (ndsak)

Solomon with hard questions (] Kgs 10:1: IJ Chr
9:1); the chief of the eunuchs tested the appear-
ance of Daniel and his friends after they ate vege-
tables for ten days (Dan 1:12, 14); false prophets
sometimes were the instrument for testing a man’s
faith (Deut 13:3 [H 4]). Often, however, God is
the One responsible for bringing testings and trials
upon man. God delivered Israel by sending *‘ great
trials’ upon the Egyptians (Deut 7:19; 29:3 [{H 2]):
but he later tested Israel by the Canaanite nations
(Jud 2:22; 3:1, 4). Likewise, nasa is used when
God tested both Abraham (Gen 22:1) and Heze-
kiah (IJ Chr 32:31). Such testing by God, how-
ever, was not without intent. It was to refine the
character of man that he might walk more closely
in God’s ways (Ex 16:4; Deut 8:2; Jud 2:22; II Chr
32:31; Ps 26: 1-3).

M.R.W.

1374 mO2 (ndsah) pull or tear away (e.g. Prov

15:25; Deut 28:63).
Derivative

1374a =MB% «(massah) by turns, alternately.
Meaning uncertain.

NO] (nasik). See nos. 1375b, 1377a.

1375 352 (ndsak) I, pour out, pour, offer, cast.

Derivatives

1375a 302 (nések) drink offering, libation,
molten image.

1375b 3°B2_) (nasik) libation (Deut 32:38),
molten image (Dan 11:8).

1375c = MBI (masséka) libation, drink of-
fering, molten metal, cast image.

The root nsk is mainly used for the ‘*pouring
out’’ of a drink offering or libation, and for the
‘‘casting’’ of metal images. It would appear (cf.
BDB) that this root should probably be distin-
guished from ndsak **to weave,’’ and ndsak *‘to
set, install.’’ nadsak ‘‘to pour out’’ occurs about
twenty times.

ndsak is primarily used in connection with the
oT drink offering or libation. (Correspondingly
the word ‘‘libation’’ comes from the Latin term
libare ‘pour out a drink offering.’’) The drink
offering was originally established in the coven-
ant community as an appropriate form of wor-
ship, although it might also be perverted through
the influence of heathen cultic ritual.

Before Israel settled in her land, the Canaan-
ites were accustomed to pour out drink offerings
to their gods. Pagan fertility religion thought of
deities as resembling men in their need of both
food and drink. The Ugaritic root nsk is well at-
tested in Canaanite literature (see G. R. Driver,
Canaanite Myths and Legends, p. 157). Thus on

1376 302 (ndsak)

one occasion, Baal, the Canaanite god of fertility
and nature, commands, *‘Pour a peace-offering in
the heart of the earth, honey from a pot in the
heart of the fields’’ (Baal v. iii. 31-32; in Driver,
p. 87). The influence of these pagan libations
upon the purity of Israelite worship was met head
on by the prophets. They sternly rebuked Israel’s
corrupt practice of pouring out drink offerings to
idols (Isa $7:6; cf. 65:11; Ezk 20:28). Just before
the fall of the Southern Kingdom, God warned
through Jeremiah, ‘‘drink offerings (nések) have
been poured out to other gods, to provoke me to
anger’ (Jer 32:29; cf. 7:18 and 19:13). Even after
captivity, the Jewish refugees in Egypt continued
to follow their old heathen practices, countering
Jeremiah’s rebuke by insisting, “But we will do
everything that we have vowed, burning incense
to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations
to her as we did... in the cities of Judah and in
the streets of Jerusalem’”’ (Jer 44:17; cf. 44:18-19,
25).

Jacob was the first to be referred to as present-
ing a drink offering (cf. Gen 35:14). But it was not
until after the Exodus from Egypt that the laws
governing the nések were established. As a rule,
a drink offering was to be presented along with
burnt offerings and cereal offerings (Ex 29:40;
Lev 23:13; Num 15:1-10). The amount of wine
was specified at one-fourth hin for each lamb
(Num 15:5), one-third hin for each ram (15:6-7)
and one-half hin for each bul! (15:8-10). Although
King Ahaz built a new altar according to a pagan
design, he seems to have conformed to pen-
tateuchal legislation by pouring out his drink of-
fering at the time he offered his burnt offering and
cereal offering (II Kgs 16:10-16).

Daily, at the time of the morning and evening
burnt offering, a drink offering was to be poured
out to the Lord (Num 28:7-8). A similar practice
was to be observed at each of the following
feasts: Sabbath (Num 28:9), New Moon (Num
28:14), Unleavened Bread (Num 28:24), First
Fruits (Lev 23:13; Num 28:31), Trumpets (Num
29:6), Day of Atonement (Num 29:11), and
Tabernacles (Num 29:12-39). In addition, the
nések was a part of the religious ceremony which
ended the vow of the Nazirite (Num 6:15, 17).
The intertestamental work, Ecclesiasticus, has
left us a description of the conclusion of the daily
temple ritual of the high priest: ‘He held out his
hand for the libation cup and poured out the
blood of the grape, poured its fragrance at the
foot (themelias—base) of the altar to the Most
High, the King of all’’ (Sir 50:15, NEB). But some
verses suggest that the libation was poured out on
the altar, presumably over the sacrifice (cf. Gen
35:14—0on the pillar; Ex 30:9 not on the altar of
incense).

The liquid normally used for a ‘‘drink offering’’
was wine (yayin, Ex 29:40; Num 15:5, 7, 10 et

582

al.), or other fermented drink (shékar Num 28:7).
On at least one occasion water was ‘‘poured out
to the Lord’’ (II Sam 23:16; I Chr 11:18). The
phrase ‘‘ten thousands of rivers of oil’’ (Mic 6:7),
coming in a context of priestly ritualism and
burnt offerings, may also suggest the occasional
use of oil for the nesek. ‘Libations of blood’’ (Ps
16:4) were a heathen practice, nowhere condoned
in the oT.

During the time of Jesus, in accord with oT law,
the weeklong Feast of Tabernacles included a
daily drink offering (cf. Num 29:12 ff.). A priest
would fill a golden pitcher at the pool of Siloam,
walk in solemn priestly procession to the temple,
and there pour out the water at the altar (cf.
W. Hendriksen, NIT Commentary: Gospel Ac-
cording to John, II, pp. 21-26). It was in this
context that Jesus proclaimed on the last day of
the feast, ‘‘If any one thirst, let him come to me
and drink”’ (Jn 7:37).

In the NT, Paul employs the oT imagery of the
‘drink offering’’ in using the term spendomai
(Phil 2:17; II Tim 4:6). In both passages, Paul,
writing while imprisoned, literally states, “I am
being poured out (as a drink offering)’’ for the
sake of Christ. Just as the drink offering was
‘*poured out’’ at the altar, so the apostle is pre-
pared joyfully to “‘pour out” sacrificially his own
blood tn martyrdom.

The second (and far less frequent) use of the
root ndsak is to ‘pour out’’ or ‘‘cast’’ molten
images. Whereas the derivative nések is trans-
lated ‘‘drink offering’? almost exclusively (c. 60
times), the derivative massékad normally carries
the meaning ‘‘molten image”’ (c. 25 times). Such
images were cast by pouring molten metal into a
mold or over a frame (Isa 40: 18-20). Images were
cast of gold (Isa 30:22), the most noteworthy
examples being Aaron’s molten calf (Ex 32:4, 8)
and Jeroboam’s molten calves set up at Dan and
Bethel (I Kgs 14:9). Other images were of silver
(cf. Ugaritic nsk ksp, ‘‘silversmiths’’ UT 19:
1253), bronze, and iron. The worship of images
cast of metal is roundly denounced in both the
law (Ex 34:17; Lev 19:4; Deut 27:15) and the
prophets (Isa 41:29; 42:17; 44:10; Jer 10:14;
51:17; Hos 13:2; Hab 2:18).

' Bibliography: Driver, G. R., Canaanite
Myths and Legends, Edinburgh: Clark, 1956.
TDNT, VII, pp. 528-536. Woudstra, S., ‘“Molten
Image,’’ ZPEB, IV, p. 270. Wright, G. E., Bibli-
cal Archaeology, Westminster, 1957, pp. 107-20.

M.R.W.

1376 "02 (ndsak) I, weave (Isa 25:7; 30:1).

Derivative

Mp0! (masséka) woven stuff, web
(Isa 25:7; 28:20; 30:1).

1376a

13766 §=38% «6(masseket) web of unfinished
stuff, on loom (Jud 16:13-14).

1377 30) (ndsak) II, set, install (Ps 2:6; Prov
8:23).

Derivative

1377a = 3°]. (nadsik) prince (e.g. Josh
13:21; Ezk 32:30).

1378 8D (ndsas) I, be sick (Isa 10:18, only).

1379 *d83 (nadsas) HT. Occurs only in_ the
Hithpoel, in Ps 60:6, ‘‘that it may be dis-
played,’ and in Zech 9:16, ‘‘raised,”’
‘*prominent.’’ Meaning dubious in each
occurrence.

Derivative

1379a +tb3 (nés)_ signal pole, standard, en-
sign, banner, sign, sail. (asv and
RSV similar except RSV uses warning
in Num 26:10.)

In the oT, nés generally means a rallying point
or standard which drew people together for some
common action or for the communication of im-

portant information. This usually happened on a.

high or conspicuous place within the camp or
community. There, a signal pole, sometimes with
an ensign attached, could be raised as a point of
focus or object of hope. The term occurs
twenty-one times. In Ex 17:15, however, in the
AV and ASv, nés remains untranslated, occurring
in the title, ‘‘Jehovah-nissi.”’

People would rally together around a nés for
various purposes, one of the most important
being the gathering of troops for war. The pro-
phetic materials particularly emphasize this use
of the standard. Isaiah 5:26 pictures God raising a
standard among the nations, signaling Assynan
warriors for muster against sinful Israel. The
trumpet was often used as a war alarm to sum-
mon soldiers around the nés. Jeremiah says,
‘*Set up a standard on the earth, blow the trumpet
among the nations for war against her’’ (51:27;
see also 4:21; Isa 18:3). The standard was usually
raised on a mountain or other high place (Isa
13:2; 18:3; 30:17). There, public proclamations
could be made (Jer 50:2). Soldiers deserting the
standard in panic (Isa 31:9) signaled defeat. When
a standard was raised toward a city, it was a sign
for its residents to ‘‘flee for safety’’ before the
attack (cf. Jer 4:6).

On two occasions nés is used in the sense of
‘*sail.’’ In Isa 33:23 (cf. Mishna, Baba Bathra Sa)
the prophet addressed Zion as a ship, ‘‘Your
tackle hangs loose; it cannot hold the mast firm in
its place, or keep the sail (més) spread out.’”’ In
Ezk 27:7, Tyre is pictured as a sturdy ship whose

583

1380 yd? (nasa‘) I,

1380 YO) (nasa‘)

sail (made of ‘‘fine embroidered linen from
Egypt’’) served as its ensign (nés). Possibly the
heraldic symbol of the city was actually embroi-
dered on the sail. The Encyclopedia Judaica (VI,
p. 1335) points out that murals on tombs indicate
Jewish ships bore emblems. In addition, the Tar-
gum speaks of colorful flags made of silk.

The word nés is also used in the prophets in
connection with the return to Zion. An ensign Is
to be raised over the nations (Isa 62:10) and they
will bring the sons and daughters of Zion back to
her (Isa 49:22).

It is not surprising that Isaiah, the Christologi-
cal prophet par excellence, personifies nés. He
says ‘‘in that day the root of Jesse shall stand as
an ensign to the peoples; him shall the nations
seek’’ (11:10; cf. 11:12). So Israel's messianic
king will be lifted up (cf. Jn 3:14; Phil 2:9) that all
men might rally around him.

The Pentateuch employs nés four times. When
the Amalekites were defeated (Ex 17:15), Moses
built an altar to commemorate the victory.
Realizing that the Lord was the Banner around
which Israel had rallied, he called the altar
**Jehovah nissi’’ (the Lorp is my banner). Later
on in the wilderness, Moses lifted up among the
people a bronze serpent set upon a pole (és)
(Num 21:8-9). This rallying point of healing and
life became a fitting object-lesson of something
greater to some (cf. Jn 3:14-15). nés is also em-
ployed in Numbers in the sense of “‘sign’’ or
‘*warning’’ (26:10).

Bibliography: Encyclopedia Judaica, VI,
New York: Macmillan, 1971, pp. 1334-38. Vaux,
Roland R. de, AI pp. 227, 251. ZPEB, I, pp.
461-63. Yadin, Yigael, The Art of Warfare in Bi-
blical Lands, 2 vols., McGraw-Hill, 1963.

M.R.W.

chiefly used in the Qal
stem, translated pull out, remove, set out,
set forward, depart, journey. (asv often
prefers journey; RSV also uses pluck up,
move, migrate.)

Derivatives

1380a Yet (massa‘) pulling up, breaking
camp.

Ye (massa') breaking out, quarry-
ing (of stones).

1380b

The root meaning ‘‘to pull out tent-pegs,”* i.e.
to break camp (cf. Isa 33:20; also note Jud 16:3
where Samson ‘‘pulls up’’ two gateposts from the
ground), gave rise to the derived meaning of ‘‘to
set out,” or ‘‘journey’’—the usual meaning of
this frequent verb. Ugaritic literature also attests
this root (cf. UT 19: no. 1254; AisWUS no. 1803
herausreisen *‘journey forth’’).

The verb ndsa‘ with its derivatives occurs

1381 pos (ns‘)

about 160 times. More than 80 percent of these
occurrences, however, are found in the Pen-
tateuch, with nearly a hundred references in the
book of Numbers alone. Considering the nature
of the verbal idea, nasa‘ fits well into the histori-
cal life setting of the Hebrews of this early
period. Before the conquest, they were a primar-
ily semi-nomadic, itinerant, tentdwelling people.
As desert travellers, each morning they pulled up
their tent-pegs, folded their tents, and set out
with flocks and herds on the next stage of their
journey. Thus for the wandering Hebrews, the
idea of ‘‘pulling up’’ or ‘‘breaking camp’’ (cf.
massa‘ in Num 10:2) led to the more common
meaning of *‘setting out’’ (Num 10:6). In this re-
gard it is of note that Numbers 33 (rsv) renders
nasa‘ ‘‘to set out’’ forty-two times in its list of the
various Stages of Israel’s journey from Egypt to
the border of Canaan.

In oT times, ‘‘to set out’’ was normally to jour-
ney and go travel somewhere. This then gave rise
to such expressions of hendiadys as ‘‘take your
journey, and go” (Deut 1:7; 2:24). The patriarch
Jacob *‘journeyed'’ about Canaan (cf. Gen 35:16;
46:1). The Israelites *‘set out’’ from Elim, jour-
neying to the wilderness of Sin (Ex 16:1). From
Rephidim they ‘‘set out’’ for Sinai (Ex 19:2).
Forty years later, *‘the people set out from their
tents, to pass over the Jordan’”’ (Josh 3:14). Occa-
sionally ndsa‘ carries the nuance of ‘‘setting out’’
in the sense of to ‘‘go forward’’ or to *‘go on-
ward.’’ When Israel fled Egypt and was suddenly
halted by the Red Sea, the Lord said to Moses,
‘*Tell the people of Israel to go forward (ndsa‘)”’
(Ex 14:15). Later, Israel was instructed to ‘‘go
onward’ (ndsa‘) only when the cloud was taken
up from over the tabernacle (Ex 40:36~-37).
People are not the only subject of ndsa‘; other
things also are said to ‘‘set out’ such as the stan-
dard of a tribe (Num 10:18, 22, 25), the ark (Num
10:35), the tabernacle (Num 1:51), and the tent of
meeting (Num 2:17).

In a number of passages, ndsa‘ means to *‘de-
part,’’ ‘‘leave,”’ or *‘go back.”’ It 1s used of those
who have ‘‘gone away’’ to a nearby town (Gen
37:17) and of a king who had ‘‘left’’ one city to
fight at another (IJ Kgs 19:8). Sennacherib ‘‘de-
parted,’ i.e. retreated, from Jerusalem to
Nineveh when he saw that his army was miracu-
lously decimated (II Kgs 19:36). Likewise, King
Jehoram and his forces ‘‘withdrew,”’ 1.e. re-
treated, from attacking Moab and returned to
their own land (II Kgs 3:27). The rendering
‘struck camp’’ (NEB) for ndsa‘ in this verse
seems open to question.

nasa‘ is also used in the sense of to ‘journey
by stages."’ Headed for Sinai, the Israelites
‘*moved on from the wilderness of Sin by stages”’
(pl. of massa‘; Ex 17:1). Later they ‘set out by
stages from the wilderness of Sinai’? (Num

584

1382 3503 (nisrék) Nisroch. The

10:12). Moses recorded the itinerary of Israel's
journeys ‘‘stage by stage... according to their
starting places’’ (Num 33:1-2). The same nuance
of journeying gradually, stopping from place to
place, is conveyed by ndsa‘ in Gen 12:9 where
Abram, having left Haran, *‘journeyed on, still
going toward the Negeb’”’ (cf. Gen 11:2 where the
term ‘‘migrate’’ seems to be an appropriate ren-
dering of ndsa‘). ndsa‘ is likewise used of
shepherds who ‘‘wander’’ from place to place
with their flocks (Jer 31:24).

The Hiphil stem of ndsa‘ sometimes means to
‘“‘cause to set out’’ or *‘make start out.’’ It was
Moses who “‘brought Israel from the Red sea’”’
(Ex 15:22; cf. Lxx); but it was the Lord who
‘‘caused the east wind to blow’”’ (Ps 78:26; cf. Ex
14:21) and who ‘‘led forth his people like sheep,
and guided them in the wilderness’’ (Ps 78:52).
The Hiphil is also employed with the nuance of
to ‘‘remove’’ or *‘take (something) from its place.”’
A jug Is ‘*set aside’’ when it has been filled (II Kgs
4:4). Hope may be ‘‘pulled up,”’ i.e. removed, like
a tree (Job 19:10). When stones are quarried, they
are ‘‘removed from their place’ (cf. I Kgs 5:17
[H 31]; Eccl 10:9). Hence the derivative massa’,
the ‘‘breaking (of stones)’’ or *‘quarrying’’ (I Kgs
6:7).

M.R.W.

1381 yor (ns‘) Hl. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1381a yer (massa')

41:18, only).

missile, dart (Job

2B (nasaq). A form of salaq, no. 1511.
Assyrian
god worshiped by Sennachenb.

Nisroch is mentioned twice in Scripture,
II Kgs 19:37 and Isa 37:38. These parallel ac-
counts indicate that after Sennachenb withdrew
to his own land from Jerusalem he was slain by
his sons as he worshiped in the temple of Nisroch
his god (also cf. ANET, p. 288).

The precise identity of the name nisrdk has
long been a problem. It is unknown in ancient
Assyro-Babylonian literature. The Lxx readings
are varied (Esdrach, Esthrach, Asrach) provid-
ing little clarification of the matter.

It would appear that nisrok resulted from a
scribal corruption of the name of some other de-
ity. The exact location where Sennacherib was
slain is not clearly stated, but one possibility is
that it may have been the city of Assur, the spell-
ing nisrok being derived from the Assyrian god,
Ashur.

More likely, however, Nisroch 1s a corruption
of either the name Marduk or Nusku. Although
Marduk was a deity of Babylon, the Nabonidus

inscription says that Sennacherib led **Marduk
away and brought (him) into Ashur”’ (ANET,
p. 309). Thus Sennacherib may have been assas-

sinated in a temple of Marduk in his own land.
Nisroch may also be understood as a misspell-
ing of Nusku, the name of the fire god of Babylon
found in Assyrian inscriptions (see John Gray,
1 & Il Kings, pp. 694, 95); and IDB, III, p. 554.
M.R.W.

AIM.
ovniy)
ny)

(n©‘ardét). See no. 1389e.
(n®‘arim). See no. 1389d.
(na‘im). See nos. 1384b, 1385a.

1383 5y3 (nd‘al) bar, bolt, lock
13:18; Jud 3:23).

Derivatives

1383a %y3 (na‘al) sandal,
Gen 14:23; Deut 25:10).

(e.g. I] Sam

Shoe (e.g.

1383b 0 9Y) (nd‘al) furnish with sandals.
Denominative verb (Ezk 16:10; II
Chr 28:15).
1383c 80 8p392 (mani) bolt (Song 5:5;
Neh 3:8).
1383d = 9pata (min‘al) bolt (Deut 33:25).
1384 Sy2 (na‘ém) I, be pleasant, sweet, delight-
ful, beautiful.
Derivatives
1384a pps (nd‘am) pleasantness, beauty,
kindness, favor.
1384b = BY «(nda‘im) pleasant, sweet, love-
ly, agreeable.
1384c = Wav (na‘dman)_ pleasantness_ (Isa
17:10).
1384d ByD~I (man'ammim) delicacies,
dainties (Ps 141:4).

The root with its derivatives is found twenty-
eight times in the ot. In Ugaritic literature the
root is also well attested, being the normal word
for ‘‘good.*’ As a noun it is rendered ‘‘goodness,
charm, loveliness’’ (see UT 19: no. 1256).

The root is used to describe people such as
Saul and Jonathan (II Sam 1:23), David (the
‘“sweet’’ psalmist of Israel, II Sam 23:1), and his
friendship with Jonathan (II Sam 1:26). It is used
of the physical beauty of two lovers (Song 1:16;
7:6 [H 7)), of the nation of Egypt (Ezk 32:19), and
of Issachar’s portion in the land of Canaan (Gen
49:15).

The otf also uses na‘ém and its derivatives to
characterize various concrete terms as, for
example, the taste of bread (Prov 9:17), location
of ground (Ps 16:6), and music of the lyre (Ps 81:2
(H 3}). In Zech (11:7, 10), nd‘am (av ‘‘Beauty’’;
rsvV ‘“‘Grace’’) is the name given to one of the
staffs.

1389 3Y3 (n'r)

In other contexts the root is used to describe
words (Ps 141:6; Prov 15:26; 16:24; 23:8), knowl-
edge (Prov 2:10; 22:18), good fortune or wealth
(Job 36:11; Ps 16:11; Prov 24:4), the ways of
people (Ps 133:1), and wisdom (Prov 3:17).

Of special note are those passages where the
root is used to describe God or his name. Psalm
135:3 (av) declares, **‘Sing praises unto his name;
for it is pleasant (nd‘im; cf. RSv “‘sing to his
name, for he is gracious!’’). See also Ps 147:1
[H 2]. Note that the Arabic cognate, na‘ima
means ‘‘be pleasant,’ and its derived noun
ni‘matun means “‘‘grace, favor.’’ The Psalms
(27:4; 90:17) also speak of the ‘‘beauty”’ (ndé‘am)
of the Lord (cf. asv and rsv “‘favor’’). It is signifi-
cant that this root is found as an epithet of Is-
rael’s God, in the light of Canaanite mythological
texts. Literature from Ugarit likewise uses the
root n‘m to describe the loveliness of two of its
leading deities, Anath and Baal (cf. Dahood, in
AB, Psalms, vol. I, p. 167; vol. II, p. 327).

M.R.W.

1385 oy (n‘m)_ II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1385a 82 (nd‘im) singing, sweetly
sounding, musical (Ps 81:3).
ev] (na‘dman). See no. 1384c.
1386 Ya (n‘s). Assumed root of the following.
1386a = P8¥P2 (na‘dsiis) thorn bush (Isa
7:19; 55:13).
PISP2 (na‘dsais). See no. 1386a.

1387 “yl (nd‘ar) I, growl (Isa 51:38, only).
1388 “3y) (nd‘ar) II, shake, shake out or
off (e.g. Neh 5:13; Isa 33:9, 15).
Derivatives
1388a “P23 (na‘ar) a_ shaking, _ scatter-

ing (Zech 11:16).
1388b mSb2 (n°‘oret) tow (as shaken

from the flax when beaten, Jud
16:9; Isa 1:31).

1389 Sys (n‘r) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1389a tY2 (na‘ar) boy, youth, servant.

1389b “Y3 (nd‘ar) youth, early life (e.g.
Job 33:25; Prov 29:21).
1389c TAsy? (na‘dra) girl.
1389d foniys (n‘urim) youth, early life.
1389e = =omissy? (n&‘urdt) youth, early life
(Jer 32:30, only).
na‘ar. Boy, lad, youth, servant, attendant. (KJV

also young man, child, babe [once]; asv and Rsv

585

1390 MB3 (ndpah)

same ranges, with servant more widely employed
in latter.)

While not all lexicographers agree, nd‘ar likely
derives from nd‘ar I, ‘‘growl.’’ An Arabic cog-
nate covers the range, “grunt, cry, scream, roar,
bellow, plus more active connotations, ‘*gush
forth, agitate.’ South Arabic derivative Tigré
language of Ethiopia yields a verb: “‘instigate re-
bellion,’’ noun: ‘‘mischief, revolt,’’ which sheds
helpful light on the incident of Elisha’s tormen-
tors who were attacked by bears (II Kgs 2:23-24).
Assuming it likely that this large band of boys (42
were gashed by the bears, while still others must
have escaped!) were teenage rowdies, the asv
translation, *‘young lads,’ would be more appro-
priate than either Kv ‘‘little children’’ or Rsv
‘*small boys."

That na‘ar affords a wide range of usage is
evident from a sampling of its over two hundred
occurrences. Whereas in Ex 2:6 it refers to the
infant of few months, Moses (kJv ‘‘the babe
wept’’), and in II Sam 12:16 to Bathsheba’s baby,
the mature Absalom is called na‘ar by his father
in IJ Sam 14:21 and 18:5. For the more technical
or titular use, ‘“‘servant, retainer,’’ see II Sam
16:1, where Zibah is called the ‘‘servant of
Mephibosheth.’* Thus, while reference to a
youngster of ages between weaning and (espe-
cially) marriageable young manhood is primary
(puberty is implied in Gen 34:19, etc and early
childhood in I Sam 1:24 hanna‘ar na‘ar *‘the boy
was a child”’), the titular use of II Kgs 19:6, ‘‘the
servants of the king of Assyna’* (=officials), and
‘*soldier’’ (I Kgs 20:15ff.) must also be recog-
nized. For Ugaritic meanings: guild members,
servitors, and soldiers, see UT 19: no. 445.

na‘ara4. Girl, maiden, young woman. This noun
usually refers to a marriageable but unmarried
girl, emphasizing the youthfulness of the girl
(II Kgs 5:2). Yet the young widow Ruth is so
designated (Ruth 2:6; 4:12) as is the Levite's
concubine (Jud 19:3ff.) and a prostitute (Amos
2:7). Marriageableness is implied in Gen 24:14ff.;
34:3, 12; Deut 22:15ff, etc., virginity in Jud 21:12;
Deut 22:23, 28, and elsewhere, and betrothal in
Deut 22:25, 27. Parallel to the masculine ‘‘ser-
vant'’ we find ‘‘maid’’ (female attendant) in Gen
24:61; Ex 2:5, etc., and “‘gleaners”’ in Ruth 2:5,
etc.

n“‘Grim. Youth (‘‘childhood’’ once in kJv
only). This abstract (pluralized) noun lays stress
on the early, immature but vigorous, trainable
stage of life, most often in the phrase ‘‘from one’s
youth up.’ (See Gen 8:21; I Sam 17:33; I Kgs
18:12; Job 31:18, the last instance denoting ex-
treme youth, in parallel with ‘‘from my mother’s
womb.’') Also used figuratively of Babylon (Isa
47:12, 18) and Judah and Moab (Jer 22:21: 48:11).

M.C.F.

586

maya (n“‘dret). See no. 1388b.
mp] (napa). See nos. 1330a, 1331b.

1390 mb] (napah) blow, breathe, sniff at; give

up or lose (life); seethe.

Derivatives

mel (mappah) breathing out, expir-
ing (Job 11:20).

1390b imp (mappuah)
6:29).

TBM (tappuah) apple.

1390a
bellows (Jer

1390c

The concept of blowing forcefully is the most
natural sense of this root, commonly used of
force ventilation for a fire, hence indicative of a
seething or boiling hot caldron in Job 41:20 [H 12]
and Jer 1:13.

Perhaps the most significant use (of fifteen oc-
currences) is the giving of life—creation of man
(Gen 2:7) and revitalization of dry bones (Ezk
37:9). By contrast, however, loss of life is tndi-
cated in Job 31:39 and Jer 15:9. A more dramatic
sense 1S found in Mal 1:13, where ‘‘sniffing’’ at
the name of God signifies a profaning of the name
by offering invalid, unacceptable sacrifices.

mappuah. Bellows. The noun occurs once,
denoting an instrumental derivative, ** bellows.”’
In Jer 6:29 a strong figure for the smelting and
refining of metal is employed, wherein bellows
are used to fan the fire to an intense heat. (‘‘The
bellows blow fiercely to burn away the lead with
fire,’ NIV.)

tappuah. Apple. Relationship seems at first
semantically strained, but the ideas of ‘‘breathe”’
and ‘‘exhale an odor’ are related. The by-form
puah means both *‘blow”’ (of wind) and *‘exhalea
pleasant odor, be fragrant.’’ As for the ‘‘apple,”’
while admittedly the word ‘‘apricot’’ would be
more suitable in Prov 25:11, ‘‘like apples of gold
in a network of silver,’ the true apple (Pyrus
malus) may be reasonably accepted in Song of
Solomon and elsewhere (see New Bible Dictio-
nary, p. 50).

M.C.F.

pop? (népilim). See no. 1393a.

1391 B32 (ndpek) a precious stone in priest’s

breastplate (Ex 22:18) and in Tyre’s mer-
chandise (Ezk 27:16). RSv *‘emerald,’’ Niv
‘‘turquois.”’

1392 Sp (napal) I, fall, lie, be cast down, fail.

Derivatives
1392a 095) «(népel) untimely birth, abor-
tion (Job 3:16; Eccl 6:3).

1392b 5% (mappal) refuse.

1392c =9bI «(mappala) a ruin (Isa 17:1).

1392d «M95 «(mappeéela) a ruin (Isa 23:13;
D2):

1392e nope (mappelet) a carcass (Jud
14:8), ruin (Ezk 31:13), overthrow

(Ezk 32:10).

Besides the common physical action or occur-
rence, a violent or accidental circumstance is
often indicated, as well as expanded range of
meanings by combination with prepositional
specifiers.

Occurring in verbal usage 365 times in the oT,
this word displays rich variety of connotation.
Though something as simple as a falling wall may
be described (Isa 30:13) or as literal as reporting
that “‘Ahaziah fell down through the lattice,”
more often a much more specific or idiomatic use
is involved. One may fall in battle (Jud 20:44), fall
into the hands of another (Lam 1:7), or fall by the
hand of an opponent (1 Chr 20:8). Damage, death,
or destruction are often designated by ndapal, but
far from exclusively so. A listing of some facets
of meaning with examples of occurrence would
serve to demonstrate the range of usage. (Transi-
tive force is expressed by the Hiphil stem.)

Observation of denotations of the verb root
makes the rationale of the noun derivatives self
evident. Twice occurring mappal speaks of
droppings or refuse of wheat (Amos 8:6) and the
hanging, fleshy paunch of the crocodile (Job
41:15). mappalad or mappeélad (Isa 17:1; 23:13;
25:2 only) means ruin of a devastated or decayed
city, while mappelet, besides *‘‘ruin, overthrow’’
(Ezk 26:15, 18 and elsewhere), designates a cut
down tree trunk (Ezk 31:13) and animal carcass
(Jud 14:8).

M.C.F.

1393 5b) (npl) II. Assumed root of the follow-
_ing.
1393a tex9%E2 (n°pilim) giants, the Ne-
philim (Gen 6:4; Num = 13:33,
only).

While some scholars attempt to relate this term
etymologically to ndpal I via the noun népel **un-
timely birth’ or “‘miscarriage’’ (as productive of
superhuman monstrosities), a more likely recon-
struction is the proposal of a root ndpal II, akin
to other weak verbs, pal II ‘‘be wonderful,
strong, mighty,’’ pala’ ‘‘be wonderful,’ and
even pala ‘‘separate, distinguish,’ pdlal ‘‘dis-
criminate.’’ This pattern of semantically related
groups of weak verbs with two strong consonants
in common is a notably recurrent phenomenon in
Hebrew lexicography. Actually, the translation
‘‘giants’’ is supported mainly by the Lxx and may
be quite misleading. The word may be of un-
known origin and mean “‘heroes”’ or ‘fierce war-
riors’’ etc. The rsv and NIV transliteration

587

1395 *Wb] (napash) take

1395 *wb3 (napash)

‘*Nephilim’’ is safer and may be correct in refer-
ring the noun to a race or nation.
M.C.F.

1394 YD] (napas) break, dash, beat in pieces;

overspread, scatter, disperse.

Derivatives
1394a TPB] (nepes) driving storm (Isa
30:30, only).
13946 =YER (mappas) shattering (Ezk
9:2, only).
1394c =n «6 (mappeés) war club (Jer
51:20, only).

Both etymologically and interpretively it is bet-
ter to maintain that only one root is involved here
(so KB). (The semantic overlap becomes obvious
to the English speaker when he realizes that in his
own language the words ‘‘scatter’’ and ‘‘shatter’’
both derive from a common etymology.) For
example, where, in Dan 12:7, kJv says, ‘‘to scat-
ter the power of the holy people,” aAsv has
‘‘breaking in pieces’’ and rsv, ‘‘shattering of."" A
similar translation variance occurs in I Kgs 5:9
[H 23], with KJv’s ‘‘cause them (rafts of logs in
shipment) to be discharged”’ being rendered in
both asv and Rsv, ‘‘have them broken up."

One may thus be satisfied to see these as tran-
sitive and intransitive senses, respectively, of the
one verb root, but at the same time it is evident
that in the latter case a semantic relationship may
exist with the middle-weak root pis ‘be dis-
persed, overflow; disperse’.

nepes. Tempest, driving storm (Isa 30:30, KJV
‘“*scattering,’’ asv “‘blast,”” Rsv **cloudburst’’).
This noun fails to afford a ready solution since,
again, the storm described can picture either a
bursting of clouds or a scattering (and dashing to
pieces!) of things on earth.

M.C.F.

breath, refresh
oneself. This denominative verb occurs
only in the Niphal (Ex 23:12; II Sam 16:14:
Ex 31:17).

Parent Noun

1395a twp] (nepesh) life, soul, creature,
person, appetite, and mind are the
more common of the twenty-some
varieties of meaning utilized in KJv.

(asv conforms with these uses in a majority of
cases, while rSv deviates freely, sometimes re-
verting to ‘‘soul’’ where kJv has another ex-
pression but more often replacing “*soul’’ with
words like ‘‘being,’* ‘*person,’’ any ‘‘one,’* ‘‘he’’
who, ‘'‘self,”’ *’I/me,"’ etc., and ‘‘appetite.”’ Both
revisions, in fact, make substitutions by using

1395 *wp3 (napash)

terms found in other passages in KJv.) The Ugarit-
ic and Akkadian have cognates with somewhat
similar breadth of meaning but both include the
meaning ‘‘throat.’* Arabic nafs includes ‘‘soul,
mind, life, person, inclination, self (as a reflexive
pronoun)’ but does not mean ‘'‘throat.’’ For
Phoenician-Punic and Olid Aramaic npsh/nbsh
see Jean, C. F. and Hoftijzer, F. Dictionnaire des
Inscriptions Sémitiques de l’ ouest (Leiden 1965).
It is common in language for a bodily part or
organ to take on emotional or spiritual meanings,
cf. ‘‘heart’’ in both Hebrew and English.

Most of the kJv variants referred to above are a
matter of closely related concepts, as synonyms
for creature, ‘‘living thing, beast, fish,’* for appe-
tite, ‘heart, pleasure, desire, lust, discontent,”’
and ‘‘will.’’ While ‘‘any(one), man,’’ and “‘self
(myself, etc.)’’ occur in KJv, the rendering of
nepesh by the simple personal pronoun (often re-
flexive) is common only in rsv and other recent
translations. The seemingly contradictory mean-
ing, ‘‘the dead, dead body,’’ found a few times in
all three versions, will be analyzed in what fol-
lows.

The treatment of nepesh by C. Westermann
(THAT, I: 71-95) is valuable and should be com-
pared.

The original, concrete meaning of the word
was probably ‘‘to breathe.’ The verb occurs
three times in the medio-passive Niphal stem
with the meaning ‘‘to refresh oneself’ (Ex 23:12;
31:17; II Sam 16:14). The verb may be a de-
nominative from the substantive, but both an-
cient and modern Semitic cognates do have a
verbal form signifying ‘‘to breathe’’ (cf. Akka-
dian napashu ‘‘to blow, to breathe out’’; (see
D. W. Thomas, **A Study in Hebrew Synonyms;
Verbs Signifying ‘To Breathe’ Zeitschrift fiir
Semitistik 10:311-14). The noun appears to de-
note ‘‘breath’’ in Gen 1:30: ‘‘in which [i.e. the
land creatures] is the breath of life.’* The connec-
tion between nepesh and breath is also suggested
by such statements as: ‘‘and [the Lord] breathed
[mph] into his [man’s] nostrils the breath of life;
and man became a living soul’’ (Gen 2:7); and
“the nepesh [life/breath/soul] of the child re-
turned and he revived"’ (1 Kgs 21:22).

The case for an original, concrete meaning of
‘‘breath’’ is also suggested by the use of nepesh
to denote ‘“‘throat’’ in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and
Hebrew; e.g., ‘‘therefore Sheol had enlarged its
throat [NASB; ‘‘appetite’’ in Niv] and opened its
mouth without measure’ (Isa 5:14; cf. Hab 2:5);
‘*the waters have come up to my neck [Niv]"* (Ps
69:2; cf. Jon 2:6).

As in the cognate languages (cf. especially
Arabic) nepesh can refer to the appetite. Thus it
may denote hunger for food: *‘You may eat
grapes according to your appetite, until you are
satisfied’ (Deut 23:24; [H 25]; cf. Ps 78:18); ‘‘this

588

bread will be for their hunger’? (Hos 9:4); ‘‘a
righteous man cares for the needs of his animals’’
(Prov 12:10; cf. 10:3; 16:26). So also it can refer
to one’s spiritual/volitional appetite, that is, ‘‘de-
sire’’ or ‘‘will’’; e.g. ‘‘the enemy said,... ‘my
desire shall be gratified against them’ ’’ (Ex 15:9;
cf. Ezk 16:27; Ps 27:12; 41:3); **then you shall let
her go according to her desire’ (Deut 21:14; cf.
I Sam 2:35 [of God’s will) 105:22). Abraham says
to Ephron: ‘“‘if it is your wish...’’ (Gen 23:8).
The desire of the wicked is condemned (Prov
13:2; 19:2),

About twenty times, however, nepesh is the
subject of ’dwa@ ‘‘to desire,’’ ‘‘to crave.” Here it
is not the hunger/appetite/desire itself but that
which possesses the appetite, ‘‘the soul.’’ A per-
son, a soul, may crave physical food: *‘and you
say, ‘I will eat meat,’ because you desire [f* ’aw-
weh] to eat meat, then you may eat meat, accord-
ing to the desire of your soul [b¢kol-'awwat nap-
sh¢ka| (Deut 12:20; cf. 14:26; I Sam 2:16). The
compound can also speak of the sexual drive: *‘a
wild donkey accustomed to the wilderness, that
sniffs the wind has passion [b*’awwat napshah|
[Qere and Lxx], in the time of her heat who can
turn her away** (Jer 2:24). So also it may denote
one’s spiritual/volitional desire for something.
Abner said to David: ‘‘that you may be king over
all that your soul desires’’ (IJ Sam 3:21; I Kgs
11:37). **‘The desire of the wicked soul is evil’’
(Prov 21:10). ‘*[what} his soul desires [w* napshé
‘Iww° ta] that he does’’ (Job 23:13).

The people of Judah desire God's justice:
‘Yes, Lorp, walking in the way of your laws, we
wait for you; your name and renown are the de-
sire of our hearts [fa’dwat ndpesh]|. My soul
yearns for you [napshi ’iwwitika] for you in the
night; in the morning my spirit longs for you.
When your judgments came upon the earth, the
people of the world learn righteousness"’ (Isa
26:8-9; cf. Ps 119:20 and below for numerous
passages where nepesh is used to express per-
sonal yearning for someone and its inclination
and disinclination for someone).

One can also speak of the hungry or thirsty
soul: *‘For he has satisfied the thirsty soul, and
the hungry soul he has filled with good things (Ps
107:9; cf. Prov 19:15; 25:25; 27:7).

Accordingly verb sdba‘ ‘‘to satisfy’’ occurs
often with nepesh: ‘‘The dogs are greedy
{‘azzé-nepesh = ‘‘strong of appetite’’], they are
not satisfied’’ (Isa 56:11; cf. 58:10; Jer 50:19).
Especially in Ecclesiastes, the soul ‘‘craves,
lacks,”’ or is *‘filled with good things’’ (Eccl 2:24;
4:8; 6:2, 3, 7, 9, and 7:28).

As Isa 26:8-9 suggests, the object of that which
the soul craves may be a person. The soul’s thirst
or language may be directed toward God. The
psalmist brings the two notions together thus:
‘*As the deer pants for the water-courses, so my

soul pants for you, O God. My soul thirsts for
God, for the living God. When can I go and ap-
pear before God" (Ps 42:!, 2 [H 2, 3]; cf. Ps 63:2).
In addition to God’s presence the soul may long
for the law (Ps 119:20), salvation (Ps 119:81); his
courts (Ps 84:3); etc.

Thus nepesh occurs with many verbs denoting
‘‘yearning’’; cf. the idiom he set his soul ‘‘to long
after, yearn’’ for someone, something (Deut
24:15; Hos 4:8; Prov 19:18; Jer 22:27; 44:14; etc.).
The soul waits for [gwh] the Lorp (Ps 130:5),
seeks (drsh] him (Lam 3:25); etc.

Thus in numerous passages reference is made
to the inclination or disinclination of the soul. It is
frequently used in connection with ‘‘love.’’ The
maiden says to her lover: ‘‘Tell me, O you whom
my soul loves” (Song 1:7; and repeatedly in Song
3:1-4; cf. Jer 12:7; Gen 34:3). It is used not only
of the man-woman relationship, but also of the
closest human friendships; e.g. of David and
Jonathan: *‘The soul of Jonathan was bound
{gashar] with the soul of David, and he loved him
as his own soul.’ So also it speaks of man’s love
for God. The psalmist says: ‘“‘My soul clings
[dabagq] to you”’ (Ps 63:9).

Here too belongs the important exhortation
‘‘to love’’ and ‘‘to serve’’ God with the whole
heart and soul (Deut 6:5; 30:6; cf. 4:29; 10:12;
11:13; 13:4; 26:16; 30:2, 6, 10; Josh 22:5; 23:14:
I] Kgs 2:4; 8:48=II Chr 6:38; etc.). Commenting
on Deut 6:5, J. McBride noted: **The three parts
of Deuteronomy 6:5: /lébdb (heart), nephesh
(soul or life), and me’déd (muchness) rather than
signifying different spheres of biblical psychology
seem to be semantically concentric. They were
chosen to reinforce the absolute singularity of
personal devotion to God. Thus, /ébab denotes
the intention or will of the whole man; nepesh
means the whole self, a unity of flesh, will and
vitality; and m*’déd accents the superlative de-
gree of total commitment to Yahweh.’’ While
agreeing that these terms were chosen to denote
the singularity of devotion, we would now under-
score nepesh as pertaining to the personal desire
or inclination.

For the turning away of the soul from
someone/something. nepesh occurs with such
words as Sdné’ “to hate’ (II Sam 5:8; Isa 1:14 (of
God's hatred]; Ps 11:5); gd‘al ‘abhor’ (Lev
26:11, 15, 30, 43=of a fractured God—man rela-
tionship); gus “‘loathe’*’ (Num 21:5); etc.

Thus nepesh is frequently used tn connection
with the emotional states of joy and bliss. The
Psalmist suggests the relationship between these
ideas when he prays: *‘Bring joy to the soul of
your servant, for I long (I lift up my soul, napshi
'eS$@’) for you, O Lord (Ps 86:4). Not only can
the soul be joyful because its desires are met but
also because of its appreciation for the inherent
worth of something which delights its tastes:

589

1395 *wp2 (nadpash)

‘*Pleasant words are... Sweet to the soul’’ (Prov
16:23). When filled with the sayings of the wise,
the son will find that ‘‘Knowledge will be pleas-
ant to [his] soul’? (Prov 2:10). A disciplined son
‘*will delight your soul’’ (Prov 29:17). Fully satis-
fied in the Lorp the soul praises him [Ps 103:1, 2,
22; 104:1, 35; etc.). But the wicked, having de-
pended upon themselves, praise themselves (Ps
49:19).

It also follows that the soul can be bitter. Fif-
teen times it occurs with the root marar. With his
health and well-being broken, Job complained:
‘‘The Almighty has embittered my soul’’ (Job
27:2). Provoked by her rival on account of her
barrenness, Hannah was one “‘bitter of soul’
(marat nepesh) (1 Sam 1:10; cf. Jud 18:25; etc.).
Related to mdrar are many different expressions
of sorrow with the soul. Jeremiah says to his
people: **But if you will not listen to it {the word
of God], my soul will sob in secret...°° (Jer
13:17; cf. passim).

In Isa 10:18 nepesh is employed alongside of
basar, *‘flesh’’=physical body as a merism to
denote the whole person. It is also used in paral-
lel with basdar. Niv interprets this as a figure for
totality: “‘completely,”’ ‘‘flesh’’ in Ps 63:1 [H 2]
for the same reason.

Since personal existence by its very nature in-
volves drives, appetites, desires, will, nepesh
denotes the ‘‘life’’ of an individual. As the object
of the verb shub ‘‘to revive’’ ‘‘to restore’’
nepesh moves between the notion of ‘*soul’’ and
‘‘hfe.’’ Jerusalem laments: *‘Because far from me
is a comforter, One who restores my soul/life’’
(Lam 1:16). The women of Bethlehem pray for
Naomi: ‘**May he [Obed] be to you a restorer of
life {nepesh], and a sustainer of your old age
(Ruth 4:15; Ps 23:3; Lam 1:11; Ps 18:8; Prov
25:13). What is meant in these pasSages is life
which consists of emotions, passions, drives, ap-
petites.

It also moves between these two notions with
the word hdyd ‘‘to live.’’ Abraham instructs
Sarah to say she is his sister ‘‘so that it may go
well with me on account of you and my soul may
continue in life’* (Gen 12:13; cf. Gen 19:20; 20:32;
Isa 55:3; etc.). But here it is also equivalent to
‘*self.”’ nepesh with the notion of *‘life’’ refers to
the ‘‘I’’ that hungers and is filled, loves and
hates, is joyful and sorrowful, etc. It adds an in-
tensely personal element to the notion of self.
Indeed nepesh could be substituted with the per-
sonal pronoun in these passages, but the intensity
of feeling would be fost.

Accordingly, in some passages nepesh is best
translated by ‘‘life,’’ but ‘‘life’’ here denotes the
living self with all its drives, not the abstract no-
tion ‘‘life’’ which is conveyed by hayyim, nor the
other meaning of hayyim which refers to a quality
of existence as well as the temporal notion of

1395 *wel (napash)

being (cf. the use of hayyim in Deut and Prov).
Westermann noted that when nepesh occurs as
the subject of the verb it is usually rendered
‘*soul’’—desires, inclinations, etc.; as the object
of the verb it is frequently rendered by ‘‘life’’—
the state of personal existence as over against
death.

Many passages refer to the ‘‘saving’’ of a
man’s nepesh ‘‘life™’. In fact, almost all the verbs
within this semantic notion take nepesh as their
object: with ndsal *‘and deliver our lives from
death’ (Josh 2:13; Isa 44:20; passim), with
malat: ‘if you do not save your life tonight, to-
morrow you will be put to death’’ (I Sam 19:11):
cf. I] Sam 19:6; passim); with hdlas, ‘‘rescue my
life’’ (Ps 6:5); with ydsha‘, ‘‘he will save the lives
of the needy’’ (Ps 72:13); etc. The psalmist is
confident that God will even ‘‘redeem’”’ (pada)
his life out of the grave (Ps 49:15 [H 16}). In all
these passages “‘life’’ is equivalent to the person.

It has also this notion of saving the
*‘life’*=*‘individual’’ in certain prepositional
phrases. Thus Elijah “‘ran for his life [’e/ napshd|
I Kgs 19:3); **take heed for your lives (Jer 17:21);
etc. When one risks his life it is said that he takes
his nepesh into his hands (Judg 12:3: passim).

Then too, it is usually rendered ‘'‘life’’ after
verbs denoting ‘‘keeping’’ ‘“‘preserving’’ ‘‘sus-
taining’’ etc. Thus it occurs: with shdmar ‘‘to
keep’’ (Deut 4:9); with sa@mak ‘‘to sustain” (Ps
54:6); with hdsaq ‘to hold back {from the
grave] (Ps 78:50); etc.

The nepesh *‘life’’ is most precious. Thus the
captain prays to Elijah: ‘‘O man of God, please
let my life and the lives of these fifty servants of
yours be precious in your sight”’ (II Kgs 1:13; cf.
] Sam 26:21); etc. In some situations a monetary
payment can be given for the life (cf. Ex 21:30:
30:12).

In the /fex talionis formula ‘‘life for life”
nepesh denotes the precious individual, the living
self (Ex 21:23; Lev 24:18; Deut 19:21; cf. I Kgs
20:39, 42; II Kgs 10:24; etc.).

Here too belongs Lev 17:11, one of the most
decidedly theological and distinctively meaning-
ful passages where the word nepesh is of major
significance, and one which certainly defines the
term as meaning life ‘for the life (nepesh) of the
flesh (baSGr) is in the blood.’’ Here it is the
vitality, the passionate existence of an individual
which is denoted.

Then too it is frequently said that the enemy
threatens the individual's life. Thus it occurs as
the objects of: bdgash ‘‘to seek’ (Ex 4:19;
passim), ‘drab ‘‘to lie in ambush for’’ (Ps 59:3
[H 4]) etc. Sometimes God’s destruction of the
life, the individual is in view: ‘‘Do not take away
my life with sinners’’ (Ps 26:9).

It comes as no surprise, then, that in some con-
texts nepesh is best rendered by ‘‘person,’’

590

‘*self,’ or more simply by the personal pronoun.
Westermann says that it is best rendered by such
English equivalents in casuistic law, in the enum-
eration of people, in the general designation of
people and as a substitute for a pronoun. An
example of its use in legal contexts with such
particles as ‘asher or ki is: ‘“Now when anyone
[nepesh ki] presents a grain offering’* (Lev 2:1;
cf. 4:2; 5:1, 2; passim). Again, ‘‘But the person
who [w’hannepesh ’asher| eats the flesh...”
(Lev 7:20; passim). Similarly it has this notion in
enumerations: “‘These are the people whom
Nebuchadnezzar carried away captive... in the
eighteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar 832 persons
[nepesh]...°’ (Jer 52:28, 29; Ex 12:4, passim). So
also with reference to ‘‘people’’ “‘he [shall be
valued] according to the valuation of persons
belonging to the Lorp”™’ (Lev 27:2; passim). Asa
substitute for a pronoun it frequently occurs with
the pronominal suffix. Thus Lot said to the Lorp:
‘That I [napshi = ‘‘my soul’’] may live’’ (Gen
19:19; passim). Although it appears to be an
equivalent of the personal pronoun, its intensive,
passionate sense peculiar to the word is always
present. A. R. Johnson speaks of it as ‘‘a pathetic
(i.e. in the sense of deeply emotional) periphrasis
for a pronoun” (The Vitality of the Individual in
the Thought of Ancient Israel, 1964, p. 22).

A total of 755 occurrences of the noun nepesh
have been counted in the oT, and of these it is
rendered in the Greek translation (Lxx) some 600
times by the psyche (wvuyn). Of the 144 times it is
used in the Psalms, over 100 of them have the
first person suffix, ‘“my soul.’’ Thus in its most
synthetic use nepesh stands for the entire person.
In Gen 2:7 ‘man became a living creature”
[nepesh|—the substantive must not be taken in
the metaphysical, theological sense in which we
tend to use the term “‘soul’’ today. Precisely the
same Hebrew expression (nepesh hayyad)—
traditionally rendered “‘living soul’’ occurs also
in Gen 1:20, 21, and 24. In other words, man is
here being associated with the other creatures as
sharing in the passionate experience of life and is
not being defined as distinct from them. It is true,
however, as Oehler points out that the source of
the nepesh of animals is the ground, whereas the
source of the nepesh of Adam is God.

Particular note should be taken of the an-
tonymous translation, ‘‘the dead, dead body”’
found in Lev 19:28; 21:1, 11; Num 5:2; 6:6, 11;
9:6, 7, 10; etc. In these citations, ‘‘the dead”’
stands for nepesh by itself, while *‘dead body”’
renders nepesh/napshot mét. The latter indicates
‘‘a person (persons) who has died,’’ the emphasis
being on the personal identity of an ‘individual,’
so that in context the term nepesh by itself refers
to a dead individual, ‘‘one who has died,”* and
the word itself does not really mean physical
‘body.’

The use of nepesh with reference to God is rare
since God does not have the cravings and appe-
tites common to man nor is his life limited by
death. In addition to the passages already noted,
we cite several more where the word is used to
express forcefully his passionate disinclination or
inclination toward someone. The former is more
frequent. Thus he threatens: ““Be warned, O
Jerusalem, lest I/My soul be alienated from you”
(Jer 6:8); cf. Jer 5:9, 29; 9:8; 15:1; passim). On
the other hand his passionate love, delight and
inclination toward his servant is spoken of thus:
‘*My chosen one in whom my soul delights’’ (Isa
42:1).

It must not be concluded from this study of
nepesh that the oT presents man as physical only.
There are other oT ideas to be considered in this
connection: (1) the or teaching concerning the
‘‘spirit’’ of man; (2) the ot teaching concerning
the heart (/éb) of man; (3) the subject of the image
of God (see selem) in man; and (4) the picture as
given of man’s relation to God.

Bibliography: Briggs, C. A., ‘‘The Use of
npsh in the OT,’’ JBL 16. 17-30. Becker, J. H.,
Het Begrip Nefesj in het Oude Testament, 1942.
Buswell, J. O., A Systematic Theology of the
Christian Religion, Zondervan, 1962, vol. II, pp.
237-41. Seligson, M., The Meaning of npsh mt in
the Old Testament, 1951; cf. Widengren, G.,
VT 4: 97-102. Murtonen, A., The Living Soul,
1958. Lys, D., Nepésh, 1959. Johnson, A. R.,
The Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of
Ancient Israel, 1949. Wolff, H. W., Anthropol-
ogy of the Old Testament. Westermann, C.,
‘*Naefaes’’ in THAT, II, pp. 71-95. Richardson,
TWB, pp. 144-45. TDOT, IX, pp. 617-37.

B.K.W.

1396 MBI (ndpet) flowing honey, honey from the
comb (e.g. Prov 5:3; Ps 19:11).

np) (nepet). See no. 133lc.
evind) (naptilim). See no. 1857c.
Y) (nes). See nos. 1405b, 1406a.

1397 N}) (ndsa’) fly (Jer 48:9, only). Prob-
ably a by-form of nasa I.

1398 *3%) (nasab) stand (upright), be set (over),
establish.

Derivatives

1398a = 382) (nissab) hilt of sword (Jud
3:22, only). An identical form, oc-
curring in I Kgs 4:5, 7; 22:47 [H 48]
is considered to be a Niphal partici-
ple used as a substantive, meaning
‘officer,’ **deputy.””

591

1398 *3%3 (nasab)

1398b f5°X) (nn sib) pillar.

1398c f3k%2 (massab) | station.

1398d {38% (miassab) post.

1398e {M3¥% (massaba) garrison.

1398f tm3x% (missdba) army.

1398g fm3¥ (masséba), N3a¥3 (massebet)
pillar.

Since this root never occurs in the Qal, it has
transitive force only in the Hiphil, ‘‘to set, sta-
tion, erect, fix, establish.’°The passive is ex-
pressed by the Hophal, “‘be fixed, determined.”’
The broadest senses occur in the Niphal, ‘‘take
one’s stand, stand firm’ (the latter by appoint-
ment to a Station).

The basic sense of the Niphal stem of nasab is
well illustrated in God’s order to Moses to ‘stand
(i.e. station himself) by the river's brink”’ to meet
Pharaoh (Ex 7:15). Moses was also to ‘‘present
himself’ before God on Mount Sinai (Ex 34:2). In
Ps 82:1 God is described as ‘‘standing in the con-
gregation’’ for administration of judgment. The
Niphal ptc. with the article occurs in Ruth 2:5,
designating a certain servant “‘that was set over’’
the reapers. The Niphal is also used for stand
where the emphasis on straight up and firm
(statuesque) is intended, whether of men (Gen
18:2), sheaves (Gen 37:7), or backed-up water
(Ex 15:8). A firmness which implies health and
strength is expressed by this ptc. in descnbing
sheep that are normal, in contrast to those ‘‘cut
off’ from the flock or injured (Zech 11:16). Simi-
larly, in Ps 39:5 [H 6} ‘‘every man at his best state
is altogether vanity’’ implies physical fitness,
wholeness, soundness.

The passive sense of the Niphal is more evi-
dent in those cases where stand is equivalent to
‘*be stationed’? by appointment or in fulfillment
of duty. Hence we find Samuel ‘‘standing as ap-
pointed over’ (‘6méd nissadb) the company of
prophets, in I Sam 19:20. The participle is used as
substantive, ‘‘deputy, prefect,’ in I Kgs 4:5, 7,
and 27 (H 5:7]; 5:16 [H 30]; 9:23; II Chr 8:10. The
usage in I Sam 19 indicates that the verb nadsab
has a more specific, technical connotation than
its synonym ‘admad.

The Hiphil yields a transitive force, as in Ps
78:13, ‘‘he made the waters to stand as an heap,”’
Gen 33:20, ‘“‘he erected there an altar’’; I Chr
18:3, ‘‘to establish his dominion by the river
Euphrates.’’ Setting or fixing a boundary, gate,
or even trap is also within the range of the Hiphil
as well as is an extended specialization—to set or
sharpen a goad (I Sam 13:21), apparently in the
sense of making it right. Correspondingly, the
Hophal participle is used of the ladder of Jacob,
‘set up on the earth,’’ and in Nah 2:7 [H 8] the
mistress (queen) of Nineveh is given the title or
epithet hussab.

In considering thts root, one must also take

1399 M¥2 (nasa)

into account the closely allied ydsab ‘station
oneself, present oneself before’ (used only in the
Hithpael).

n’sib. Pillar (once), garrison (nine times), of-
ficer (twice) in all three versions, with RSv giving
in margin: ‘‘Prefect’’ at II Sam 8:6.

The one place where the noun n*sib is trans-
lated ‘‘pillar’’ is in reference to Lot’s wife (Gen
19:26). The obvious intent here is to depict her as
stopped, trapped, transformed as and where she
was, in a still upmght posture, whether we as-
sume the transformation into salt as instantane-
ous or subsequent. (See Robert Boyd’s interest-
ing analysis in his Tells, Tombs and Treasure,
Baker, 1969, pp. 85-86). Elsewhere this expres-
sion 1s rendered ‘‘garrison’’ (RSV using *‘prefect”’
in one instance), aS mentioned above, or ‘‘offi-
cer’’ (I Kgs 4:19; II Chr 8:10).

massab. Station, garrison (ASV and RSV replace
‘*station’’ with ‘‘office,’’ in Isa 22:19). Note that
in this and several other derivatives from the root
nsb, the doubling of s indicates the loss of the
first radical, n, by way of assimilation to the sec-
ond consonant.

mussab. Post. This term occurs in Isa 29:3
(KJV mount, ASV posted troops, RSV tower) and
also in Jud 9:6 (pillar, ASv mg: garrison), but the
latter instance is taken as a Hophal participle
form by most lexicons.

massaba. Garrison. Occurs once only, in
I Sam 14:12. (Koehler conjectures that this
should be read in Zech 9:8 also, but see missdbd,
below.)

missaba. Occurs only in Zech 9:8. kJv and asv
follow Masoretic note (hé has replaced onginal
aleph), and so translate ‘‘army’’ (host), though
asv has ‘‘garrison’’ as alternative. RSV gives
‘‘guard’’ as translation, from the suggestion of
BDB, ‘‘watch.”’

masséba. Pillar. The lexicons distinguish be-
tween the meanings “‘‘pillar,’’ or ‘‘column,’’ and
(standing) ‘“‘image,’’ but both asv and Rsv trans-
late the word as ‘‘pillar’’ almost exclusively. (The
KJV rendering ‘‘garnson”’ in Ezk 26:11 is **pillar’’
in the other two versions, for example.)

Some light has been shed, not yet clearly
enough, on the interesting term massébda ‘*pil-
lar,’ by archaeological discoveries. It has an ap-
parent pmmary reference to cultic objects, though
Absalom’s memorial monument (massebet) to
himself (II Sam 18:18) may not have been for a
specifically religious purpose, as also that set up
for Rachel’s grave (Gen 35:20). Many massébot
have been found in Palestinian excavations.
While the famous ones at Hazor (BA 19, 22) and
at Byblos are clearly monumental and cultic,

592

1399 my;

other standing stones were for a time wrongly
indentified. It 1s now known that many rough
stone columns, initially interpreted as cultic ob-
jects, were actually a normal feature of Middle
Iron Age Israelite house construction. A sug-
gested relationship or possible development of
cultic pillars into actual imagery and idols is also
inconclusive.

While the two biblical occurrences cited above
do refer to simple memorials, more often the
masséba has religious significance. In Gen 28:18
Jacob’s pillow becomes a ‘‘pillar,’’ which he
anoints with oil, naming the place Beth-el, ‘the
House of God.’’ On his return to that place (Gen
35:14) he set up another pillar, pouring out botha
drink offering and oil, because God talked with
him there and changed his name to “‘Israel.’’
Previous to that, at the time of his agreement with
Laban (Gen 31:45), Jacob set up a stone pillar in
addition to the ‘‘heap of witness’ directly as-
sociated with their agreement. In Ex 24:4 Moses,
besides the altar he built, erected twelve stones
(pillars) representing the twelve tribes of Israel.

The above were legitimate uses of this object.
It must be recognized that quite often the mas-
sébot mentioned in the Bible were of pagan cultic
significance and as such were not only forbidden
to Israel but called for destruction when found. In
Ex 23:24 the expansion upon the Decalogue—
near the conclusion of the so-called Book of the
Covenant—calls for action: Israel must ‘‘not bow
down to their gods,... but... break down their
images’’ (ASv and Rsv, ‘‘pillars,’’ with a margin
‘‘obelisks’’ in the former). So too, in Deut
16:21-22, they are told, ‘‘Thou shalt not plant
thee a grove (‘dshérad)... neither shalt thou set
thee up any image.’’ Nevertheless, later on in
Israel's history we read of Judah's sin, descnbed
in such terms as, ‘“‘they also built them high
places, and images, and groves’’ (I Kgs 14:23).

The Lxx uses stélé to translate massébda in all
the cited instances, with the exception of Ex
24:4, where lithos is employed. Other Hebrew
nouns rendered ‘‘pillar’’ in kjv, such as mis‘dd,
masuq, and ‘amid, are completely free of the
religious or cultic associations described above.

Two instances where the Hebrew text notice-
ably avoids use of massébda are Joshua's ‘‘great
stone’ placed as a witness to reaffirmation of the
covenant between Israel and her God (Josh
24:26-27) and Samuel’s 'eben hda‘ézer, ‘‘Stone of
Help,’’ which he erected in commemoration of
deliverance from the Philistines.

Bibliography: Burrows, M., What Mean
These Stones? New Haven: ASOR, 1941, pp.
210-12.

M.C.F.

(nasa) I, fly (Lam 4:15, only).

Derivative

1399a B12. (ndésd) plumage (e.g. Ezk
17:3; Job 39:13).

1400 *R¥2 (nasa) II, struggle. This verb oc-
curs only in the Niphal (e.g. Ex 21:22) and
Hiphil (e.g. Num 26:9).

Derivatives

1400a -M¥D «0(massa) strife, contention
(Isa 58:4: Prov 13:10; 17:19).

1400b =AIN% «6(massit) strife, contention
(Isa 41:12).

1401 my2 (ndsa) MU, fallin ruins (e.g. Jer 4:7;
II Kgs 19:25=Isa 37:26.

1402 *m¥3 (nasah) I, be perpetual, excel; be
overseer. Occurs in the Niphal and Piel
stems.

Derivative

1402a tmy¥3 (nésah) I, strength, victory, per-
petuity.

In contemplating a rationale for the wide range
in meaning for this verbal root, and consequently
for its nominal derivative, it is perhaps suggestive
to observe how the sun, source of earth’s energy,
embraces and conveys the dual notions, light and
durability. For these would seem to be the same
two qualities involved in our word, especially
since its Arabic cognate means both “‘pure’’ (as
also in Ethiopic) and ‘‘reliable.”

Hence, ndsah denotes both ‘‘brilliance™’
(yielding the connotations ‘‘preeminence, sur-
passing, glory, victory, leadership’’) and **endur-
ance’ (supplying ‘‘longlasting, perpetual’’). BDB
basically defines the verb as ‘“‘be pre-eminent,
enduring’’ and details distinctive usages from
there.

Returning to the noun form for the moment,
then, one can grasp the difficulty of choice be-
tween ‘‘strength’’ or ‘glory’ (the problem being
in the English distinctives, since the Hebrew ob-
viously embraces both at once) in references to
divine attribute or Person, as in I Sam 15:29,
‘and also the nésah of Israel will not lie nor re-
pent,’ or Lam 3:18 (where the referent is human,
however), ‘““my nésah and my hope is perished
from the Lorp.”’ The significance of the musi-
cians’ title will be treated below. The various ren-
derings of the adverbial concepts, perpetual,
forever, constantly, etc., are simple and obvious
derivatives of the ‘endurance’ concept, rendered
adverbial by the prefixing of the Hebrew preposi-
tion, /- ‘‘to (the).”’

Verbally, the one occurrence of the Niphal
stem, in Jer 8:5, speaks of ‘‘a perpetual backslid-
ing,’ an enduring apostasy. It is the Piel stem

593

1403 MA¥2 (nsh)

which fixes upon the sense of ‘“‘outshine’’ or
‘excel greatly, leading to the usage ‘‘take a
lead, preside, and thence on to “‘act as over-
seer, superintendent, director.’’ Such activity is
expressed by Piel inf. five times in Chr and Ezr
(e.g. I Chr 15:21), and the agent by the participle
as in Hab 3:19 and fifty-five times in titles to
psalms. With reference to the I] Chr verse just
cited, while the asv and rsv use of ‘‘to lead”
seems preferable to kjv's ‘“‘excel,”” it is not dif-
ficult to recognize the logic of the older trans-
lators, as the very next verse specifies another
individual as being the chief (Sar,) of the Levites
and as the one who leads (ydsor,) in the music
‘‘because he is the one who understands (or is
skillful-av).**

The interpretation ‘“‘chief musician’ or
‘*choirmaster’’ for the expression m‘nasséah in
the psalm superscriptions cannot be far from cor-
rect, especially since its translation in Lxx (telos
‘*end’’) has a use in classical Greek of *‘the last,
highest station’ in civil life: a magistracy, high
office. Some scholars have proposed an earlier
pSalter called the **Director’s Collection,’ from
which thirty-nine Davidic, nine Korahite, five
Asaphic, and two anonymous selections were
made for the full Psalter (plus that found as
Habakkuk 3), but this is only one of several
theories proposed as explanation for the ter-
minology. For other such terms see se/a.

nésah. A noun derivative, but often adverbial in
force, translated in the kJv by ‘“‘strength,”’
‘victory,’ “perpetual,” “‘forever’’ (also *‘al-
ways,’” ‘‘constantly,’’) “‘never,’’ “‘to the end.”’
ASV follows much the same pattern, with marginal
alternates ‘‘victory, glory” for ‘‘strength”’ (Rsv
settles for ‘‘glory’’). For **perpetual,’’ **everlast-
ing’’ is sometimes substituted by asv, ‘‘unceas-
ing’ by rsv. The verb ‘‘endure”™ ts an asv and RSV
variant for “‘constantly.”’

This double nuance of the root may help ex-
plain the relation of Isa 25:8 with I Cor 16:9. The
OT is Sometimes rendered, *‘He will swallow up
death forever’’ (RSV, NIV). The Lxx is *‘death has
prevailed and will swallow men up." If nésah can
mean ‘“‘eminence’’ as well as ‘‘forever,’’ then the
meaning ‘“‘victory’’ can be defended. Indeed the
new Hebrew meaning of the root is ‘conquer,
prevail.”

Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, p. 274.

M.C.F.

1403 m¥3 (nsh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1403a M$2 (nésah) II, juice of grapes (Isa
63:3, 6).

3%) (n°sib). See no. 1398b.
"°¥2 (n“sir). See no. 1407a.

1404 *9¥) (nasal)

1404 *9$3 (nasal) deliver, rescue, save. Does
not occur in the Qal.
Derivative
1404a moxm (hassala) deliverance (Est
4:14, only).

The Qal stem of this verb does not occur in
biblical Hebrew, but an Arabic cognate confirms
the judgment that its basic physical sense 1s one
of drawing out or pulling out. While the Niphal is
invariably used with the force of ‘be delivered,
saved’’ or ‘‘to escape’ (i.e. “‘deliver oneself’;
literally, “‘tear oneself away’’), the Piel may ex-
press ‘strip off’ (a garment), as in IJ Chr 20:25
(where the context indicates this sense) and in Ex
3:22, where the Hebrew women are ordered to
spoil the Egyptians by ‘‘borrowing™’ really *‘ask-
ing for’ jewelry and raiment. The Piel also sig-

_nals ‘‘deliver’’ in Ezk 14:14, **Noah, Daniel, and
Job... should deliver but their own souls.”

The predominant occurrence of this verb is in
the various aspects and moods of the Hiphil
(causative: ‘‘make separate’’) and that generally
with the sense of deliver or rescue. Nevertheless,
here too a physical snatching away or separating
can be involved, as in the obvious instance of two
sons fighting with “none to part them’: (II Sam
14:6). An interesting tdiom occurs in I] Sam 20:6,
where ‘‘escape us’ 1s, literally, ‘‘cause to re-
move our eye (from him).*’ And stripping or
snatching away overlaps the meaning ‘‘recover ”
or *‘deliver’* in ] Sam 30:22, since the reference Is
to spoil taken from the enemy, some of which
was likely their own property originally.

Quite often, however, a literal personal salva-
tion or deliverance (often physical but not with-
out spiritual overtones or application) is in-
volved. The Hiphil imperative, not surprisingly,
yields numerous prayer petitions such as, ~*De-
liver me, I pray thee, from the hand of my
brother.”’ (Cf. Jud 10:15: ] Sam 12:10; I Chr
16:35.) In Ps 7:1 [H 2] hassiléni ‘‘deliver me,” is
in direct parallel with héshi'éni “‘save me.”
Spiritual salvation through forgiveness of sins is
certainly intended in Ps 39:8 [H 9], “Deliver me
from all my transgressions’ (cf. **... from
bloodguiltiness, Ps 51:14 [H 16], °°... and
purge away our sins, Ps 79:9) and figuratively
implied by ‘‘deliver me out of the mire’ in Ps
69:14 [H 15].

A comparison of the distinctives of other He-
brew synonyms of the concepts ‘‘deliver, save,
preserve, escape’’ will better delineate the
semantic range of our root ns/. (The one Ugaritic
occurrence cited in UT 19: no. 1688, means ‘‘to
get gifts from [someone].’*) Very close in basic
concept are the three verbs (q.v.): gd’al ‘‘re-
deem, release, set free,’ hdlas ‘“‘break away,
withdraw; deliver, set free,’’ and pddd ‘‘redeem,

deliver, rescue, ransom.” Two closely related
roots are mdlat “be smooth, slip away,’ and
palat “‘slip out, drop, escape, set free.”’ Also
used with the sense of “‘rescue’’ are yvdsha’,
Hiphil, ‘‘save’’: shib “‘return’’; haya Piel and
Hiphil: **make alive, revive,” and yd@tar, Hiphil,
‘*cause to surpass, Survive.”

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 96-98. TDOT,
VI, pp. 999-1002.

M.C.F.
182 (nissan). See no. 1405d.
1405 v8] (ndsas) I, shine, sparkle (Ezk 1:7,
only).
Derivatives
140Sa = PS¥92)s (nisds) spark (Isa 1:31,
only).
1405b v2 (nés) blossom (Gen 40:10,
only).
1405c =m] (nissa) blossom Isa 18:5; Job
15:33: Gen 40:10).
1405Sd = 182) (nissan) blossom (Song 2:12,
only).
140Se *P%2 (ndsas) bloom, blossom. This

denominative verb occurs only in
the Hiphil (Song 6:11; 7:13: Eccl

12:5).
1406 pk (nss) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1406a 2 (nés) bird of prey (hawk or
falcon: Lev 11:16; Deut 14:15; Job
39:26).
1407 “32 (nasar) I, watch, guard, keep. The

etymology of this root is illustrated in the
Akkadian nasdaru ‘“‘watch over, protect.”
The Arabic cognate nazara means ‘keep

in view, “look at.”
Derivative
1407a 99) (nsyr) preserved (Isa 49:6,

Kethib only).

This verb appears approximately sixty times.

Examination of the objects protected assists in
assigning to it a proper semantical range. First
material things such as agricultural or military in-
stallations (e.g. a vineyard, Job 27:18: a fig tree,
Prov 27:18; fortifications, Nah 2:2) are guarded.
Those who are employed in these functions are
called watchmen (Qal active plural participle
nos‘rim, Jer 31:6; Il Kgs 17:9: 18:8). The Lord
himself is regarded as a keeper or watchman over
his vineyard [Israel and over all men in general
(Isa 27:3; Job 7:20).

Secondly in an ethical sense, the mouth (Prov
13:3; Ps 141:3), one’s path in life (Prov 16:17), the

594

heart (Prov 4:23), and the tongue (Ps 34:14) are
guarded.

Thirdly, there is the concept of ** guarding with
fidelity.’ It usually centers around observing the
covenant or the law of the Lord. The Lord him-
self is the one keeping loyal love (hesed) to
thousands of generations (Ex 34:7). But mortal
men are also responsible for observing the cov-
enant (Deut 33:9; Ps 25:10) and the precepts or
law of God (Ps 78:7: 105:45; 119:2, 22, 33, 34, 56,
69, 100, 115, 129, 145). Even the commands of
parents (Prov 6:20; 28:7) and the discipline of
wisdom (Prov 3:1, 21: 4:13: 5:2) require the same
kind of faithful observance.

God is spoken of as guarding from danger or
preserving a man’s life (Ps 25:20; 40:12: Prov
24:12), the king (Ps 61:8), peace (Isa 26:3), Israel
(Deut 32:10; Isa 42:6: 49:8), the faithful and their
lives (Ps 31:24; Prov 2:8), and knowledge (Prov
22:12). The Lord also protects the righteous from
this generation (Ps 12:8), trouble (Ps 32:7), the
secret plots of the wicked (Ps 64:2), and violent
men (Ps 140:2, 5).

Wisdom keeps those who do not forsake her
(Prov 4:6). So discretion watches over her chil-
dren (Prov 2:11) and righteousness watches over
her (Prov 13:6).

In three instances, ndsar is used of guarding in
the sense of “keeping secret."’ In Isa 48:6 it re-
fers to hidden things previously not revealed by
God. In two other passages the meaning is nega-
tive. The ‘‘secret places” of sin where rebellious
Israel spends her nights incubating (i.e. sleeping
with the idols in order to receive dreams about
the future, Isa 65:4) and the secret or crafty
mindedness of a seductress (Prov 7:10).

Another meaning is of keeping closed or block-
aded cities under attack. In Jer 4:16, the Qal
plural active participle seems to refer to the
blockaders themselves, while in Ezk 6:12(?) and
Isa 1:8 it points to the besieged or blockaded city.

Taken altogether, it is no wonder that Isaiah
calls the revived tribes of Israel in that es-
chatological era the preserved of Israel (49:6), for
they surely have experienced the constant pro-
tection and preservation of the Lord.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 99-100.

W.C.K.

1408 “2 (sr) HI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1408a i532 (néser) branch, shoot, sprout.

This noun, coming from an Arabic root mean-
ing ‘to be fresh, bright, grown green,’ appears
only four times.

In Isa 11:1, méser is used in parallelism with
another technical term (in the messianic promise
doctrine), hdter ‘‘shoot.’’ Since both are said to
go forth from the shdéresh ‘‘root™ or line of Jesse,

595

1409 332 (naqab)

obviously the prophet intends to refer to a key
descendant of David who epitomizes all that the
Lord has promised to David (II Sam 7:1 ff.). The
messianic character of this title ts recognized in
the Targum, rabbinical literature, and the Qum-
ran material (cited in The Nezer and the Submis-
sion in Suffering Hymn from the Dead Sea
Scrolls’? edited by M. Wallenstein [Istanbul,
1957]). The use made of this title by Matthew tin
2:23 to indicate why Jesus was called a Nazarene
is similar. Gundry sees for Matthew's use a dou-
ble reason: the phonetic correspondence of this
title in Isa 11:1 with the town of Nazareth as a
play on words and the lowliness motif of Isa ]}:1.

In keeping with the concept of corporate sol-
idarity evidenced in other technical terms in this
Same mesSianic promise doctrine such as “'ser-
vant, *‘seed, semah “branch,” etc., it is not
unusual to see a uSe of néser which includes the
believing remnant of Israel in Isa 60:21. The
fulfillment of the Abrahamic-Davidic-New Cove-
nant finds all the people righteous, the land pos-
sessed forever and the “‘shoot’’ of God's plant-
ing, the work of his hands, glorified (cf. Isa 61:3).
Thus the many can be called by the name of the
One who epitomizes that group.

The other two references (Isa 14:19 and Dan
11:7) are unrelated to the previous passages. In
Isa 14:19, Babylon is called a ‘discarded
branch'’ (rsv guesses poorly with ‘‘untimely
birth’ but includes in the margin ‘‘a loathed
branch’’). The Daniel passage uses our word to
refer to a royal power, here one of the Ptolemies,
not of the messianic royal person to come from
the line of David. The idiom is also connected
with the word ‘‘root”’ as in Isa 11:1, “‘from a
branch of her roots shall one stand up.”

Bibliography: Gundry, Robert H., The Use of
the OT in St. Matthew's Gospel, Leiden: Brill,
1967, pp. 97-104. Schraeder, H. H., in TDNT,
IV, pp. 878-79.

W.C.K.

1409 333 (ndaqab) pierce, bore; blaspheme; ap-

point.
Derivatives

1409a 4322 (neqeb) technical term relating
to jeweller’s work.

1409b «A383 (n*géeba) female.

1409c tm3pte (magqqgebet) 1, hammer.

1409d tm3ap% (magqgqebet) UH, hole.

The basic physical sense of the verb naqab is
demonstrated in the context of Joash’s temple
repair project. The priest Jehoida bored a hole in
the lid of a chest for contributions. Elsewhere,
Haggai (1:6) speaks figuratively of the futility of
work which fails to honor the Lord, saying that

1410 593 (ngd)

the wages earned have been placed into a bag
with holes.

The other senses attributed to this verb in pas-
sages which themselves indicate different usage
constitute a striking demonstration of the seman-
tic flexibility of Semitic languages. The ingenuity
of modern lexicographers is indeed taxed. Does
the verb “‘pterce’’ mean, secondanily, appoint,
designate, name by way of the physical notion of
ticking or marking an individual as distinctive (a
cognate Arabic noun means ‘leader, chief’), or is
the select individual the one who ‘scrutinizes’
and thereby distinguishes himself? The former
explanation seems the more satisfactory. But this
verb also translates curse, blaspheme. Is this so
because one is thereby distinguishing another as
bad (so Koehler), or is there not a closer tie with
piercing, striking through? Some lexicographers
(BDB) consider this last sense of ndgab to be a
different root nagab II, a by-form of the root
qabab ‘curse,’ found only in Num 22 and 23,
but the reverse relationship could as likely be the
case.

Interestingly, this word is used in the Siloam
inscription for ‘‘piercing through,” i.e. digging
the tunnel.

negqeb. The meaning of this noun, which occurs
in Ezk 28:13, is uncertain. Suggestions include
‘*pipes”’ (KJV), ““engravings’’ (RSV), and **mines”’
(Holliday’s lexicon, following W. F. Albnght in
BASOR, No. 110).

n‘qéba. Female, female child, woman. Both
the human (Gen 1:27 and elsewhere) and the ani-
mal (Gen 6:19 and elsewhere) female is denoted
by n‘qgéba for descriptive reasons. (A different
suggestion was offered, however, in ZAW 11, by
Schwally.) While in one case (Jer 31:22 [(H 21])
the term n‘*qébd is used in contrast to geber
‘*man, hero,” it chiefly stands, whether with
human or animal referent, in contrast to za@kar
‘**male.”’

maqgqebet J. Hammer. The meaning ‘‘ham-
mer’ is uncontested: Jud 4:21 (Jael), I Kgs 6:7
(noise being absent from temple's construction),
Isa 44:12 and Jer 10:4. For plural forms some
lexicons suggest a noun variant, magyaba. Opin-
ions vary as to derivation of the name Maccabee.

maqqebet JI. Hole, excavation, quarry. Occurs
only in Isaiah's call to Israel to consider their
humble origins (Isa 51:1).

M.C.F.

1410 “333 (ngd) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1410a

33 (ndqod) speckled (Gen 30:32;

31:8).

596

1410b 333 (niggid) what is crumbled or
easily crumbles, crumbs (Josh 9:5);
hard biscuit or cake (I Kgs 14:3).

1410c mp2 (n*qiuddad) point or drop

(Song 1:11, only).

141] 3 (ngd) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
I41la “93 (ndgéd) sheepraiser,—dealer,
or —tender (II Kgs 3:4; Amos

1:1).

1412 M22 (ndqa) be clear, free, innocent, deso-

late, cut off.
Derivatives

1412a 9) (ndki)

1412b tN°32) (naqi’)
Jon 1:14).

1412c 1122 (niggadydon) innocency.

1412d tM (Mm naqqiya) — sacrificial
cups, bowls.

clear, innocent.
innocent (Joel 4:19;

The derivative m°nagqggiya may provide the
key to the basic sense of the verb naga. GB and
KB tie it to Akkadian naga “offer a libation”’
(plus Syriac noun “‘libation’’) and BDB cites the
Syriac verb ‘“‘pour out, make a libation’’ and
suggests that while the Arabic cognate means
‘cleanse,’ the original sense was _ probably
‘“empty out,’’ hence the uses ‘*pour’’ and “‘be
empty, clean.”

The root naga with the meaning ‘‘to be clean,
pure, spotless” is found in Akkadian, Arabic and
Aramaic. In Dan 7:9 [Aramaic] the Ancient of
Days is described as having hair “‘like pure
(n€qgé') wool.’’ The derived juridical notion “to
be acquitted,”* ‘‘to go unpunished”’ is found only
in Hebrew.

From the basic notion *‘to be poured out" the
word may derive notions with either favorable or
unfavorable connotations. It has an unfavorable
connotation in Isa 3:26 **deserted she [the daugh-
ter of Zion] will sit on the ground.’’ The rsv
change of the poetic figure from ‘‘deserted’’/
**desolate’’ to “‘ravaged’* is an overtranslation
and destroys the imagery. The reference is to a
city having been emptied of its inhabitants. (See
also Amos 4:6 where the substantive nigydn is
used for ‘‘cleanness of teeth,’ a figure for lacking
food.) Here too we should discuss Joel 3:21
{H 4:21]. Surprisingly the Nass, which otherwise
slavishly follows MT, emends this passage
against G.R. Driver and C. van Leeuwen. Driver
renders the verse: ‘And I will pour out its blood,
which until now [ have not poured out’’ (JThSt
39:402). Niv: *‘Blood which I have not pardoned |
will pardon.’’ After considering other options

C. van Leeuwen concluded: ‘In any case the
text ought not to be emended to niggamti [I will
be avenged] (against BHS and KBL 632b), a
reading, not presupposed by the Lxx** (THAT, II,
p. 102).

Otherwise the word evokes favorable connota-
tions. It may be used to denote freedom from an
oath. Thus Abraham says to Eliezer: **But if the
woman is not willing to follow you, then you will
be free from this my oath” (Gen 24:8; cf. Josh
2:17, 20 where the adjective is used with the same
notion).

Of the forty occurrences of this verb the vast
majority have an ethical, moral, or forensic con-
notation. The fact that in the Piel (transitivizing)
stem it is synonymous with sddagq Piel or Hiphil
(which see) should bear adequate testimony to its
significance. ndqd is found only once in the Qal
stem (an infinitive absolute modifying a Niphal),
otherwise it is exclusively in the Niphal or Piel.
This tends to reenforce the analysis: ‘*poured
out, emptied” yields ‘be freed, cleared,
cleansed, innocent.”

A political use of this word, namely, freedom
or exemption from some obligation such as mili-
tary service (Deut 24:5), serves to sharpen its
forensic sense of being freed from punishment.
A husband is declared free from iniquity if, in
declaring his wife unfaithful, he follows the legal
procedures before the priest (Num 5:31).

This passage is instructive for it shows that
ngh is the opposite of ‘@wdn (q.v. ‘*guilty’’). The
passage reads: “‘He shall be free from guilt
(weniqqa... mé‘awon) but that woman will bear
her guilt.”’ In other passages, however, ‘aw6n is
omitted. Thus Samson says after his father-in-
law has given his wife away to another man: **This
time I will be blameless [niggéti}’’ (Judg 15:3).

Just as ‘@won may refer to the act of sin, the
punishment for the sin, or the state between the
act and the punishment *‘guilt,”’ so also ndqg@ can
refer to the release from the state between the
implied wrong and punishment=‘ ‘guiltless, inno-
cent’ or to the release from punishment=“'go
unpunished.”’ As an example of the first, in addi-
tion to Num 5:31 and Judg 15:3, we may cite II
Sam 14:9: *‘And the woman of Tekoa said, ‘'O
Lord, the king, the iniquity [he‘dwon| is on me
and my father’s house, but the king and his
throne are guiltless [adj. ndgi]. As an example of
the latter note: ‘‘whoever touches her [a
neighbor's wife) will not go unpunished [yin-
nageh| (Prov 6:29; cf. 19:5, 9; 28:20). Likewise
Ex 21:19 legislates—*‘that when two men fight
and the one struck is still able to walk, then he
who struck him shall go unpunished |w nigga.”
(The adjective may have this same force: cf. ‘the
owner of the ox shall go unpunished |ndgqi|"’ (Ex
21:28). The word is sometimes negativized, of
course, yielding a strong reprimand: ‘‘the wicked

597

1412 M2) (naga)

shall not be unpunished” (Prov 11:21), or used in
interrogation: ‘“‘should ye be utterly un-
punished?”’ (Jer 25:29).

The release from obligation or from guilt/
punishment [adjective or Niphal of ndq@] is often
presented as determined by [min] the Lorp.
Thus, the release of the Transjordanian tribes
from military service after the Conquest is said to
be ‘free of obligation before the Lorp”™
(wih*yitem n&qivyim méYHWH)” (Num 32:22).
So also the Lorp alone is able to free one from an
oath made in His name (Josh 2:17-19). With re-
spect to the blood of Abner, David declares: °*'I
and my kingdom are innocent before the Lorp
[ndgi... mé‘im YHWH) (iI Sam 3:28: cf. | Sam
26:9). In many passages the min is omitted but
the thought remains the same. In Prov 16:5 “he
{the proud] will not go unpunished” is parallel to
‘‘an abomination to the Lorp”’ (cf. Prov 11:21:
17:5). The point is underscored in Jer 2:35 where
Judah claimed innocence {niggéti}, but since this
was not God's verdict he will enter into judgment
with her. In all these passages the verdict belongs
to the Lorp and he works out the course of judg-
ment in the destiny of those under his jurisdic-
tion.

In the case of the Piel ngh it is always (with the
exception of I Kgs 2:9) the Lorp who is the
subject. Thus he is the one addressed in petitions
for acquittal (e.g. “*Acquit me of hidden faults”
(Ps 19:12 [H 13], or the One who does not leave
the sinner unpunished (Ex 20:7; 34:7: Jer 30:11;
46:28; Job 9:28).

Likewise, in the case of the adjective when it
means “‘innocent’’ it is God who assumes re-
sponsibility for the guiltless. Thus he holds him-
self responsible for innocent blood (Deut 19:10,
13; II Kgs 24:4; Jer 2:34f; 19:3f; 22:3ff; passim).
Job, however, in a trough of pessimism, observes
that God destroys the innocent with the guilty
(Job 9:23).

Not only may the sinner himself be cleansed,
freed of guilt, acquitted or held innocent, but a
place may be purged of the evil found in it. The
‘cutting off of liars and perjurers from the land
spoken of in the vision of the flying roll (Zech 5:3)
would amount to a purging or cleansing of the
land from evil.

Perhaps the most highly technical of all uses of
this expression is in regard to freedom or exemp-
tion from the obligations of an oath (Gen 24:8, 41)
or from the effects of the curse inherent in the
trial of an accused woman, in which she is re-
quired to drink the bitter water offered by the
priest (Num 5:19).

naqi, naqi’. Blameless, innocent, guiltless, free,
exempted, clean (of hands). (Both asv and Rsv
use “‘guiltless’’ three times in Josh 2 for kJv se-
quence *‘blameless, guiltless, quit.’” Rsv also em-

1413 833 (nagqam)

ploys ‘free’ for ‘‘clear’’ and ‘‘free of obligation
to’ for “guiltless before’* in Num 32:22.

The adjective ndgqi and its variant ndagqi’ refer to
persons declared innocent, free, or exempt from
charges or obligations, or to innocent blood (that
is. shed blood of an unoffending or innocent
party), as well as ‘clean hands,’ a figure for inno-
cent behavior. (See the familiar Ps 24:4.)

It has the notion of freedom/exemption from an
obligation in the legislation for the newly married
man: **He will be free from military service”
(Deut 24:5). Regarding Asa’s proclamation that
Ramah must be dismantled none was exempt
from the labor (1 Kgs 15:22). It denotes freedom
from slavery in Gen 44:10 where Joseph warned:
‘**With whom [the stolen cup] is found shall be my
slave, and the rest of you shall be free or inno-
cent. (The technical term for freedom from slav-
ery is hopshi.)

Otherwise the adjective has the juridical notion
of “guiltless, blameless, innocent’ (Job 4:7;
27:14; passim). Its use alongside of the ‘‘right-
eous’’ is especially effective in Ex 23:7: °°... the
innocent and righteous slay thou not: for I will
not justify the wicked.” Cf. the great declaration
of God's character in similar terms in Ex 34:7.
One speaks of “the blood of the innocent”* [dam
hannaqi| or (mostly) of ‘*innocent blood** [dam
nadqi | where a guiltless people are threatened with
intentional homicide or murder (Deut 27:25;
I Sam 19:5) or in cases where their life is actually
taken (Deut 19:13; I] Kgs 21:16; 24:4; passim).
Sometimes it is not clear whether the innocent
are being threatened or have been killed (Deut
19:10). (For bloodguilt see dam).

naqi in contrast to tahar ‘to be pure” is not a
cultic term; e.g. it is never found in the book of
Leviticus. The ‘‘clean hands” in Ps 24:4 speak of
ethical purity and hence juridical acquittal. The
Nominal form niggdyén may have a cultic sense
in Ps 26:6 because of the parallel line “*I will go
about Thine altar, O Lorp.** But the same ex-
pression in Ps 73:13 denotes ethical purity.

niqqayon. Innocency, cleanness (of teeth).
Strongest of the five occurrences is Hos 8:5. God
taunts the rulers of idolatrous Israel
(*‘Samarta’’), asking when and how they will ever
manage innocency. The figurative ‘‘cleanness of
teeth’ (Amos 4:6) implies a want of food to eat.
Remaining instances speak of ‘‘innocency of
hands” or of ‘‘washing hands in innocency’’—
ceremonial purification representative of a pure
heart and honest conduct.

m*naqgiya. The m°naqqgiyad was apparently a
golden bowl (some say ‘‘dipper’’ or ‘‘tube’’)
placed on the table of showbread and used for the
drink offering. It was important enough to be
listed tn Jer 52:19 as being taken to Babylon. For
this last item, see James L. Kelso, The Ceramic

598

1413 O53 (nagam) take

Vocabulary of the O T, New Haven: ASOR, 1948
(section 54, p. 24).
Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, pp. 114,
127. THAT, II, pp. 101-105.
M.C.F. and B.K.W.

"322 (niqqgid). See no. 1410b.
wp] (naqat). See qgaét no. 1996.
492 (ndqi). See no. 141 2a.

N°] (ndqi'). See no. 1412b.
WPI (niggadyon). See no. 1412d.
922 (naqiq). See no. 1417a.

vengeance, revenge,
avenge oneself, be avenged, be punished (cf.
go'él as the “avenger of blood’’).

Derivatives

l413a tap (ndqam)
1413b tMI22 (n’qama)

vengeance.
vengeance.

Although this root, including its derivatives, is
only used about seventy times in the oT, tt ex-
presses a truth that is theologically important, but
greatly misunderstood. Vengeance and revenge
are ideas that would appear to have no good ethi-
cal validity whether coming from God or man.
But such is not the case when the use of this root
is properly understood in its oT setting and NT
application.

The concept of divine vengeance must be un-
derstood in the light of oT teaching about the
holiness and justice of God and its effect on man
as a sinner. In terms of the presuppositions of
some modern “‘Christian”’ theologies, such a God
of vengeance will be labeled unchristian and un-
ethical. Understood in the full orb of biblical re-
velation, balanced as it is by the mercy of God,
divine vengeance is seen to be a necessary aspect
of the history of redemption.

Study of the use of this root reveals that there
are comparatively few cases where man is con-
sidered a proper source of vengeance. Often man
is a Secondary cause while God is the source (Ezk
25:14). This is normally the case where the Israel-
ites avenge themselves on their enemies (Josh
10:13). In Num 31:2-3, the Israelites’ wreaking
vengeance on the Midianites (v. 2) is equivalent
to the Lord’s doing so (v. 3). In some instances
God instructs his people when such vengeance is
called for in his behalf (e.g. Num 31). Other pas-
sages warm men not to take vengeance in their
own hands (Lev 19:18; Deut 32:35). Even though
ndqam is not used in Gen 9:6, capital punishment
is required for murder because man is made in the
image of God, and to take his life without divine
permission is considered to be an offense against
God as well as man.

Most of the uses of ndgam involve God as the
source of vengeance. The classical passage 1s

Deut 32:35, 41, *“Vengeance is mine... I will
recompense them who hate me.*’ God cannot be
true to his character of holiness and justice if he
allows sin and rebellion to go unpunished. The
prophets stressed ‘the day of the Lord’s ven-
geance’ (Isa 38:8: 61:2: 63:4) as times in history
when the Lord sets the record straight. This was
Jeremiah’s view of the fall of Jerusalem. Since in
the course of history the record can never be to-
tally straight the prophetic eschaton or final day
of the Lord’s vengeance is called for. Such a day
is in mind in Isa 63:1-6. Here God treads out the
winepress alone and tramples his enemies in his
wrath (Rev 19:75). Likewise in the NT retribution,
a notion essential to its message, belongs essen-
tially to the future world rather than the present.

The Bible balances the fury of God's ven-
geance against the sinner with greatness of his
mercy on those whom he redeems from sin.
God’s vengeance must never be viewed apart
from his purpose to show mercy. He ts not galy
the God of wrath, but must be the God of wrath in
order for his mercy to have meaning. Apart from
God himself the focus of the oT is not on the
objects of his vengeance but on the objects of
his mercy, his special possession (s‘gié/d), his
very own people with whom he has an eternal
covenant.

There are two ways in which God takes ven-
geance with regard to his people. First he
avenges his people in the sense that he becomes
their champion against the common enemy (Ps
94). Secondly, as the covenant God, he punishes
those who break covenant with him. **I will smite
you seven times, even I for your sins. And I will
bring a sword upon you, that shall execute the
vengeance of the covenant’’ (Lev 26:24—-25).

The oT people are reminded that it is only God
who can champion his own cause without error
(Deut 32:35). This verse is echoed by Paul in Rom
12:19 as he warns against a vindictive spirit on
the part of God's people. It is also used by the
author of Hebrews to warn of the horror of com-
ing under the avenging wrath of God (10:28-31).

Because of the oT expressions of just hatred
against God's enemies who also sought to de-
stroy his people (Ps 54) we tend to feel that the or
teaches one must always hate his enemies. That
this is not true may be seen from Paul's quotation
of Prov 25:21-22 in Rom 12:20. “‘But if thine
enemy hunger feed him,” etc. The ancient He-
brews, like many modern Christians, misapplied
the doctrine of divine vengeance and used it as an
excuse for harboring vengeful feelings against
each other. In Mt 5:43ff. Jesus was rebuking this
misapplication and in such places as Mt 19:19 (cf.
Mk 12:31) he is really quoting Lev 19:18. **You
shall not avenge or bear a grudge against the chil-
dren of your people but love your neighbor as
yourself, I am the Lorp.”™

599

1416 "D2 (nagap)

The or institution of blood revenge was strictly
a legal matter to meet the need for justice in a
tribal community where no central government
existed to create a society where people could
live together without confusion. Governments
have always avowed that their purpose is to ren-
der justice and punish wrongdoers (cf. The Pro-
logue to Hammurabi's Code in ANET). Blood
revenge is still a pattern which exists in the minds
of bedouin-oriented people in the Near East. The
government of Jordan makes allowances for this
frame of mind in its judicial processes. Under
such a system justice is to be meted out by the
closest relative of a murder victim. The cities of
refuge were a refinement of this common law
practice, to provide justice in cases of man-
slaughter (Num 35:9-28, etc.). These legal in-
stitutions are based on that principle of absolute
and equal justice summarized in “‘the law of the
tooth’* (lex talionis). But the eye for an eye and
tooth for a tooth principle (Ex 21:23-25: Lev
24:19-20: Deut 19:21) was not meant to be
applied privately. It was a judicial process under
divine sanction. Jesus is not rejecting the oT doc-
trine of just punishment when he teaches that this
law was not meant as a rule for interpersonal rela-
tionships. The latter was a misapplication of it by
the Jews of his day.

naqam, n‘qama. Vengeance. These nouns
have no difference in meaning and are both used
with a variety of verbs. God is said **to take ven-
geance’ (Isa 47:3), “‘to return vengeance’ (Deut
32:41, 43), “‘to do (execute) vengeance” (Mic
5:14), ‘“‘to come with vengeance” (Isa 35:4), and
“to give out (execute) this vengeance’’ (Ezk
25:14). This action often involves the shedding of
blood because blood has been shed (Ps 79:10).
Bibliography: THAT. II, pp. 106-108.
E.B.S.

1414 YdI (ndqa‘') be alienated, estranged (Ezk

23:18, only).

1415 *"2) (nagap) I, strike off. Occurs in the

Niphal (Isa 10:34) and Piel (Job 19:26).

Derivative
141Sa = AP2 (ndgep) striking off (Isa 17:6:
24:13).

1416 S22 (nagap) I, go around, compass, to

round.

Derivative

1416a bP (nigpa) encircling rope (of
captive, Isa 3:24).

naqap is used primarily in the Hiphil, ‘**make
or let go around. Days “‘run their course’ (Job
1:5), with men “taking turns’’ at hosting ban-

1417 (333 (nqq)

quets. In the sense of surround, encircle, our
verb is often paralleled with the more common
sdbab (see, for example, Ps 22:16 [17]). Hunting
nets are cast, drawn around (Job 19:6) and Israel-
ites are forbidden to shave or trim around the
head (leaving a tuft of hair on top, emulating
pagan cultists—Lev 19:27), in some of the more
specific or technical uses of naqap.

At the other extreme, a broad connotation re-
sults from the occurrence of this verb in Isa 15:8,
where a cry going around the borders of Moab
would imply *‘everywhere.”™’

M.C.F.

1417 32 (nqgq). Assumed root of the following.
1417a 9%) (ndqiq) cleft of a rock. Only
used with sela‘ ‘‘rock’’ (Isa 7:19

and Jer 13:4; 16:16).

1418 “D2] (naqar) bore, pick, dig (e.g. Prov
30:17; Num 16:14).

Derivative

1418a ma22 (n*qgara) hole, crevice (Ex
33:22: Isa 2:21).

1419 wp? (ndqash) knock, strike (e.g. Ps
9:17; Deut 12:30).

"3 (ner). See no. 1333a.

1420 352 (nérd) spikenard.

This noun, occurring only three times in the
Old Testament (all in Song, verses 1:12, 4:13-14)
denotes the fragrant oily essence of the North
Indiatt Nardostachys jatamansi, a perennial re-
lated to valerian. The name derives from a
Sanskrit verb, naladad ‘exhaling a scent’, and
likely came into both Hebrew and Greek usage
via Persian nadrdin.

In Solomon's Song descriptions of both the
king and the bride are embellished by reference
to this highly regarded scent, still used in India as
a perfume for the hair. Imported into the Holy
Land in biblical times in sealed alabaster boxes, it
was reserved for very special occasions. Such an
occasion was Mary's anointing of Jesus’ feet at
the dinner given to celebrate the resurrection and
restoration to the family circle of her brother
Lazarus. Its worth is evidenced in the same ac-
count (see John 12:3-5) by Judas’ complaint that
a pound of the ointment when sold could have
added some seventy-five dollars to his fund for
the poor.

Bibliography: W.E.S. Cooper, *‘Spikenard,”’
in ZPEB.

M.C.F.

1421 NWI (nasa’) lift, carry, take.

600

Derivatives
1421a ANIWs (n'si'ad) what is carried
about (isa 46:1, only).
1421b tN%w2 (nasi) I, prince, captain,

leader.

1421c oN wa (nasi) HI, rising mist, vapor
(e.g. Jer 10:13: 51:16).

1421d tswr (massa’) I, load, burden, lift-
ing.

1421e tw (massa’) II, burden, oracle.

1421f sw (mass’) lifting up (partial-
ity, II Chr 19:7).
1421g mNYyI2 (massa'a) the uplifted

(cloud, Isa 30:27).

1421h tmswr (mas'ét) uprising, uplifting,
burden, portion.

14211 sw (si) loftiness (figurative of
pride, Job 20:6).

1421) mew (s¢'ér) exaltation, dignity
(Gen 49:3), swelling (Lev 13:2),
uprising (Job 41:17).

The Qal form of this root is used almost six
hundred times with basically three separate
meanings: ‘‘to lift up’’; “‘to bear, carry, sup-
port’’: and “‘to take, take away.” The root ap-
pears in Ugaritic as nS’ ‘lift, rise’ and in Akka-
dian as nasu. An additional sixty occurrences use
the Niphal, Piel, and Hithpael stems. There are
only two instances of the Hiphil stem, Lev 22:16
and II Sam 17:13, the latter being textually dubi-
ous. The total for all stems of this verb is 655.

The meaning ‘‘to lift up’’ is used both literally
and figuratively in many phrases. *’To lift up the
hand”’ in taking an oath (Deut 32:40: Ezk 20:5, 6,
1S etc.), in doing violence (JI Sam 18:28), as a
signal (Isa 49:22) and in punishment (Ps 10:12).
‘‘To lift up one’s head’’ in restoration to honor
(Gen 40:13, 20), in showing cheerfulness and in-
dependence (Job 10:15; Zech 2:4; Ps 83:3), and as
a figurative expression for the lintels of the gates
of the city (Ps 24:7, 9). ‘To lift up one’s face or
countenance’ as an indication of a good con-
science, confidence, favor, or acceptance
(II Sam 2:22). “‘To lift up the eyes’ often
pleonastically before verbs of looking or seeing
(Gen 13:10, 14), in love or desire to men (Gen
39:7), towards God (Ps 123:1), and to an idol (Ezk
18:6, 12, 15). **To lift up the voice,’ also used
pleonastically before verbs of weeping and crying
(Gen 27:38; I Sam 30:4), and to indicate rejoicing
(Isa 24:14). *°To lift (anything) with the voice”
such as the name of the Lord, (Ex 20:7), prayer
(II 19:4; Jer 7:16; 11:14), a song (Num 23:7), and
reproaches (Ps 15:3). The heart “lifts one up"
thus inciting action (Ex 35:21, 26; 36:2), or pre-
sumption and pride (II Kgs 14:10). It is also in
this category of lifting up or taking up that the
first of three important meanings appears con-
necting this word with sin. Men can take up, in-

cur, or contract iniquity and sin by profaning the
Tabernacle (Ex 28:43; Num 18:22), by hating
their neighbors (Lev 19:17), by touching animal
carcasses (Lev 22:9), or by profaning the offer-
ings of the Lord (Num 18:32).

The second semantical category, of bearing or
carrying, is used especially of bearing the guilt or
punishment of sin. Thus Cain complains in Gen
4:13, *‘My punishment ts greater than | can
bear.’ The expression “‘he shall bear his in-
iquity'’ occurs frequently (Lev S:1, 17: 7:18:
Num 5:31: 14:34, etc.). This leads easily into the
idea of bearing the guilt of another by representa-
tion or substitution (Lev 10:17) or of the
scapegoat (Lev 16:22). The root s@bal, ‘to beara
burden” in Isa 53:1! is paralleled in the next
verse by nasa “the Servant bore the sins of
many, as in Isa 53:4. Such debits could also be
passed from father to son on a temporal basis
affecting one's earthly existence (Num 14:31, 33).
But Israel was wrong in fatalistically applying it
to a continuing and necessary state of affairs,
especially on into eternity, as they had argued
(Ezk 18:19-20), for the opposite is clearly stated
in Deut 24:16.

The third category stressed the taking away.
forgiveness, or pardon of sin, iniquity, and trans-
gression. So characteristic is this action of taking
away sin, that it is listed as one of God's attrib-
utes (Ex 34:7: Num 14:18; Mic 7:18). Often this
form of nasa’ is used in prayers of intercession,
e.g. by the messenger of Joseph's brothers (Gen
50:17), by Pharaoh (Ex 10:17), by Moses for Is-
rael (Ex 32:32: Num 14:19), by Abigail for
Naboth (I Sam 25:28), and by Saul to Samuel (1
Sam 15:25). It is used by Joshua in his farewell
address (Josh 24:19). No doubt the classical ex-
pression of this meaning is to be found in Ps 32:1,
5. Sin can be forgiven and forgotten, because it is
taken up and carried away.

The passive, intensive, reflexive, and causa-
tive ideas of the three basic categories are often
seen in the other stems listed but without applica-
tion to the doctrine of sin except perhaps for such
unusual instances as the Hiphil in Lev 22:16,
cause one to bear iniquity.

nasi’ /. Prince, captain, leader, chief, ruler. It
is used 128 times, 60 times to denote various
leaders of Israel (Num 1:16, 44; chapters 2, 7, 34).

The same word denotes the non-Israelite chief-
tains of Ishmael (Gen 17:20; 25:16), the Midianite
leaders (Num 25:18: Josh 13:21), the Canaanite
prince of Shechem (Gen 34:2), the prince of
Egypt (Ezk 30:13), Meshech and Tubal (Ezk
38:2-3; 39:1), and the princes of the earth (Ezk
39:18).

Some, including Ephraim Speiser, (AB
Genesis, p. 170) argue that nasi’ designates an
official who has been ‘‘elevated”’ or “‘lifted up”

601

1421 Nw? (nasa')

in or by the local assembly. Hence it means
“lifted up, and thus ‘‘elected.”” Usually the
phrase “these are the ones chosen (or called)”
(Num 1:16) is cited in support of this etymology.

The term applies to any ruler of God's people
(Ex 22:28 [H 27]), to the leaders of the congrega-
tion (Ex 16:22: Josh 9:15, 18: 22:30 etc.), and to
Solomon (I Kgs 11:34).

But the most sigmificant use of the term Is
found in the writings of the prophet Ezekiel. Of
its thirty-six usages, no less than twenty refer to
the future Davidic prince, the Messiah. While
Ezk 34:24 and 37:25 are clear. the remaining ref-
erences to the eschatological prince in Ezk 44,
45, 46, 48 are debated because he is portrayed as
having no priestly rights. offering a sin offering
for himself (45:22), and having sons (46:16).
Charles Feinberg believes that he is a “future
scion of David's dynasty who will represent the
Messiah governmentally in the affairs of the
earth.”

massa’ JI. Load, burden, lifting, bearing, trib-
ute. The word occurs thirty-nine times and in its
most natural setting refers to the load or burden
upon the backs of such animals as the ass (Ex
23:5), mule (II Kgs 5:17), and camels (II Kgs 8:9}.
Isaiah identifies one such load as the dumb and
ineffective tdols of the Babylonians, which were
carted away as part of the captivity (Isa 46: 1-2).
Perhaps I] Chr 17:11 belongs in this category,
‘*silver by the load.” i.e. in great quantities, or
‘‘cartied or brought silver as tribute.”

One of the most common usages of this noun is
found in Num 4:15. 19.24, 27, 31. 32, 47, 49 where
the Kohathites. Gershonites, and the sons of
Merari are assigned to carry various parts of the
Tabernacle.

A debated passage is | Chr 15:22, 27. The trans-
lation of sar hammmassa’ as the leader of the
music 1s indefensible. The root meaning is *‘to
lift.” not “to utter.” Keil notes that the Lxx,.
Vulgate, and Luther (and we might add the Rsv,
NEB, NAB, NASB. NIV and partially the js) were
wrong in connecting the word for “burden” with
singing: rather the context deals with bearing the
ark and massa’ is the normal word in that con-
text. This passage is to be equated with Num 4:
I] Chr 20:25; 35:3.

In the class of figurative usages is the interest-
ing Ezk 24:25 which uses a nominal verb, *‘the
uplifting of their soul,” to mean “‘their heart's
desire. 1.e. that to which they are lifting up their
soul. Isa 22:25 contains a debated Messianic ref-
erence to the “peg” or “nail.” varéd. The bur-
den placed upon this “* peg’ will be cut down and
will fall. Whether that burden is Shebna (David
Baron) or Eliakim (E. J. Young) is at issue, but
certainly it is a figurative reference to some
crooked Israelite official. This is similar to the

1422 *3w3 (nasag)

people being a burden (Num 11:11, 17; Deut 1:12;
II Sam 15:33; Job 7:20). The Psalmist even refers
to his iniquities as a weighty burden (Ps 38:4
[H 5)).

massa’ II. A burden, i.e. a prophetical speech
of a threatening or minatory character (RSv ora-
cle). The word appears twenty-seven times, only
in prophetic contexts, with the exceptions of
Prov 30:1: 31:1.

Two different translations have been given to
this word from pre-Christian days. The earliest to
be commonly received was ‘‘burden.”’ This was
the view of the Targum of Jonathan, Aquila, the
Syriac version, Jerome (on Nah 1:1), Luther,
Calvin Hengstenberg, and J. A. Alexander.
However, others took it to mean ‘‘oracle,”* ‘‘ut-
terance,' or ‘prophecy,’ positing a hypothetical
root nasa *‘to utter’ or “to receive.’ In this
camp can be listed the txx, Cocceius, J. D.
Michaelis, Lowth, and E. J. Young.

The most definitive argument supporting the
former translation is found in E. W. Hengsten-
berg’s Christology of the OT on Zech 9:1 (II, pp.
339-43). The argument correctly notes that:
1. The contents of these prophecies consist ex-
clusively of threatenings; 2. The word massa’ is
never followed by the genitive of the speaker,
such as n*’am of YHWH, but is always con-
nected with the genitive of the object, e.g. the
massa’ of Babylon, of Moab, etc. Unless there
intervenes an additional item such as in Zech 9:1;
12:1: Mal 3:1 (‘the massa’ of the Word of the
Lord’*); 3. The word massa’ exhibits no exam-
ples of a noun derived from nasa’ in the sense of
‘to utter’’; and 4. even the so-called exceptions
of 1 Chr 15:22, 27 (see massa’ 1), Lam 2:14: Zech
12:1; and Jer 23:33ff. are proofs of this view
rather than evidences to the contrary.

The proper rendering of Lam 2:14 is that the
false prophets ‘have seen vain burdens and cap-
tivities for thee’; not “‘vain and misleading
prophecies. The predicted burdens and threats
of dispersion directed against the imperial powers
never materialized. The word maddihim, can
only mean “‘dispersions’’ or ‘‘captivities,"* so
therefore mas'ot must relate to the enemy.

Neither is Zech 12:1 a passage of cheer. A simi-
lar point can be made in the Jer 23:33, 34, 36, 38
passage. The offense of the scoffers was not that
they imputed the negative meaning of burden to
massa’ by which Jeremiah meant a cheerful
prophecy, but rather that they poked fun at these
severe announcements of judgment from the
Lord. They asked, in a mocking tone, what new
burdensome word he had for the fine folks of
Jerusalem. But this all proves that they caught
the point: it was a burden, not just a prophecy or
utterance!

Isaiah uses this burden form for his messages
against the foreign nations. It occurs ot 13:1

602

(Babylon), 14:28 (Philistia), 15:1 (Moab), 17:1
(Damascus); 19:1 (Egypt), 21:1 (Babylon), 21:11
(Dumah), 21:13 (Arabia), 22:1 (Valley of Vision),
and 23:1 (Tyre). He also uses it in the midst of his
six woes in 30:6 (the beasts of the Negeb). These
messages are all minatory in nature, although oc-
casionally there is subjoined a rose-tinted prom-
ise such as the one in Isa 19: 16-25.

Additional burdens deal with Nineveh (Nah
1:1), Judah (Hab 1:1), Damascus (Zech 9:1),
Jerusalem (Zech 12:1), Israel (Mal 1:1), Zabad
who murdered King Joash (II Chr 24:27), and
King Joram (II Kgs 9:25).

Even the two passages in Proverbs are not ex-
ceptions. Agur’s words in Prov 30:1 are a heavy
burden laid upon reason, which quickly turns to
exalting itself. This speech is mainly a rebuke,
hence it is described as a “‘burden.’” Lemuel’s
word in Prov 31:1 likewise is a **burden in which
his mother corrected him.”’

mas’ét. Uprising, uplifting, burden, por-
tion. There are seventeen occurrences of this
word.

Basically it refers to smoke which rises (Jud
20:38, 40) or a signal which ts lifted up (Jer 6:1).
(Cf. the Lachish letter no. 4 line 10). The same
basic motion is found in the lifting up of hands in
prayer (Ps 141:2).

In line with the argument of massa’ (prophetic
speech, see above), it refers to the burden of re-
proach in Zeph 3:18. The same thought is found
in Lam 2:14. The predicted burden or calamity
aimed at the imperial powers by the false
prophets never materialized.

The most interesting meaning Is a portion, gift,
present, or contribution which is carried to
someone else. In Gen 43:34 it refers to the por-
tions given to Joseph's brothers from his table,
but in If Sam 11:8 it is David's present given toa
loyal and unsuspecting Uriah. The ten tribes of
Israel claim ten shares in King David as opposed
to the two shares of Judah and Benjamin (II Sam
19:43 (the relative word nissé't). Jeremiah is also
released and given a present or largess (Jer 40:5).

Amos 5:11 uses it for a forced gift or an unjust
exaction or taxation. This is exactly what the late
Phoenician use of the word means, payment or
tax. Therefore, it was also applied to sacred
payments or contributions (I] Chr 24:6, 9; Ezk
20:40).

Bibliography: Feinberg, Charles, The Proph-
ecy of Ezekiel, Moody, p. 258. Hengstenberg, E.
W., Christology of the Old Testament, Clark,
1875, pp. 339-43. Richardson, TWB, pp. 85-86.
THAT, II, pp. 109-16.

W.C.K.

1422 *3¥3 (ndSag) overtake, reach, take hold

upon. Occurs only in the Hiphil.

In all the translations, “‘overtake™’ is the most
common rendering for ndsag, which is found
only in the Hiphil stem, often occurring as a
complement to rddap “pursue.” The lexicons
Suggest an etymological association with the con-
cepts ‘attach, affix, entangle, seize.’ Its seman-
tic range in Hebrew, however, lays stress on at-
tainment, achievement, procurement. The ac-
quiring of wealth or possessions is in view, for
example, in several legal stipulations in Lev (see
14:21, 25:47), and possession of joy ts in view in
Isa 35:10.

Reaching a place is indicated in Gen 31:25,
where Laban catches up with the fleeing Jacob,
but attainment of a good age is the point of Gen
47:9. Physical threat is implied by David's warn-
ing concerning Absalom (II Sam 15:14), while a
somewhat figurative adaptation occurs in refer-
ence to blessings and curses, Deut 28:2 and 15.

M.C.F.

mews (n'si'a). See no. 1421a.
mwa (nasi). See nos. 1421b, 142Ic.
*5¥3 (ndsaq). See sdalaq no. 2266.

1423 “ws (nsr). Assumed root of the following.
1423a os5W «(massor) saw (Isa 10:15,
only).

1424 ewe (nasha) I, lend on interest or usury,
be a creditor.

Derivatives

1424a tewr (mashsha') lending on interest
(Neh 5:7, only).
1424b TANWR (mashsha'a) loan.

According to the context in which the verb
form occurs, a man either has a creditor or he
acts aS a creditor against another. He “‘makes
exactions’ of the person indebted to him, often
in the heartless manner implied in the old term
“usury, the modern ‘“‘loan shark.’ So serious a
matter was this reckoned to be that in a psalm
celebrating God's choice and care of David the
latter is characterized as one having divine pro-
tection against this abuse (Ps 89:22 [H 23]). See
also the verb ndshak **bite’’ which has a usage
nearly synonymous to ndsha’.

Psalm 55:15 [H 16] presents a problem as to
whether to take the sense from this root, render-
ing it “let death exact upon them” (i.e. their
“debt to nature’) or from na@sha’ “‘deceive,™
“let death come upon them suddenly, or un-
awares.”’ That these two roots are distinguished
from one another in biblical Hebrew is clear, and
nasha’ | relates to an Arabic verb “postpone, sell
on credit'’ while ndsha’ II relates to Arabic “‘re-
move. The second root is also apparently
kindred with shaw *‘wickedness, falsehood, van-
ity.’ Nevertheless a sort of morpho-semantic

603

1425 *8wa (nasha’)

conflation may be involved in the case of this
homonymic pair.

An interesting parallel to this latter suggestion
is afforded by the common Semitic root badal,
which in biblical Hebrew means “‘separate.””
Whatever its connection with biblical Hebrew,
the relationship of Ugaritic bd! “merchant” to
Ethiopic (Tigre branch) badla *‘change, ex-
change, barter’ can easily be seen. Yet in
Ethiopic Tigrinya and Amharic baddala means to
““wrong someone, commit a sin,” an apparent
semantic tie being found in the Tigre expression
Akanfar badla “‘change the lip’ (= to break a
promise), with an interesting Iranian Arabic cog-
nate meaning to lie or deceive. Some such rela-
tionship between the two nashda' roots in Hebrew
may have existed historically though now hidden
from our eye by lack of inscriptional evidence.

(For still other approaches to the perplexities
of this root, reference should be made to the Col-
lected Writings of E. A. Speiser, Oriental and
Biblical Studies, p. 140, as well as KB, where a
relationship is seen to Akkadian rdsha *cred-
itor’ and Aramaic dialects where rsfhy and rsh
have such meanings as “‘lay claim, take a loan.”
Speiser elucidates the ancient practice of usury
by showing that loans were discounted with a
normal interest, the “"usury’’ consisted of a sec-
ond interest exacted after a defaulting debtor was
taken into servitude. (Cf. neshek.)

In the Qal, the sense of the participial form can
be either debtor or creditor by context, the
former also by use of a prepositional object, as bi
“on, against me.** In the Hiphil, the meaning is
regularly “‘to exact, act as creditor.”

mashsha’. Usury, debt (Rsv interest).

mashsha’a. Loan, debt. Both noun derivatives
can refer to either the loan, the debt incurred. or
the interest (usury) charged. Nehemiah 10:31
[H 32] adds an interesting procedural note, refer-
ring to the loan as ‘*pledged by the hand.”
M.C.F.

1425 *sw2 (nasha’) UH, beguile, deceive. Oc-

curs in the Niphal and Hiphil only.

Derivatives

1425a SWI (mashsha'én) guile, dis-
simulation (Prov 26:26, only).

misww (mashshi'ot) deceptions
(Ps 73:18: 74:3).

Occurring just once in the Niphal stem, this
verb is usee mainly in the Hiphil in the sense of
‘lead astray, seduce, mislead, deceive,’ even
for self-deception, as indicated in Jer 37:9 by
addition of “‘your souls.”

The debate as to how to translate Ps 55:15 [H
16] and the possible historic relationship in usage

1425b

1426 32 (ndshab)

between this and the preceding verb (which see)
has already been discussed.

The best known occurrence of this verb, of
course, is in the famous passage in Gen 3 (at
v. 13), where Eve makes her defense by shunting
the blame for her offense off to the deceptive
serpent. In all, this verb is employed little more
than a dozen times in the oT, the concept of mis-
leading or deception being conveyed also by sev-
eral other verbs or special idioms. An example of
the latter is the use of ganab *‘steal’’ in the sense
of stealing away hearts or persons. pata ‘‘flatter,
entice, deceive,’ rdmda “‘beguile, deceive,’’ and
shdqar “lie, deal falsely,” given in decreasing
order of occurrences, are the other most fre-
quently found synonyms.

M.C.F.

1426 3W 2 (ndshab) blow (Isa 40:7; Ps 147:18;
Gen 15:11).

1427 mw (nasha) I, lend, be a creditor.

Derivatives
1427a 0 8wa (nn shi) debt (11 Kgs 4:7,
only).
14276 «MW = (mashsheh) loan (Deut
15:2, only).

1428 mw) (nasha) UL, forget, deprive.
Derivative

1428a) mW) (n*shiyad) forgetfulness, obliv-
ion (Ps 88:13).

Because of the phenomenon of homonyms we
have a translation problem in Job 11:6. Asv trans-
lates it, “God exacteth of thee,’ with marginal
note, ‘‘or, remitteth (Hebrew “‘causeth to be for-
gotten’’).’’ There is a probable Ugaritic cognate,
given in UT 19: no. 1661 nsy (2) and a sure
Ethiopic (Tigre branch) one, nasa **vanish from
memory, (fundasa ‘forsake, forget.”

Interestingly also, in Jer 23:39 there is the em-
ploying of an absolute infinitive of a root nashda’
as modifier of our final-he root. Here the rsv
reads, rather, nasa’ ‘*surely lift you up,’ perhaps
on the strength of finding sin as the middle radical
in several of the cognate languages. But since this
is a normal variant between Hebrew and Arabic
(plus Ugaritic and Ethiopic), only some Aramaic
dialect occurrences would lend support to such
an emendation.

A rendering of the verb as *‘deprive’’ occurs in
Job 39:17, where in reference to strange behavior
by the ostrich the idea ‘‘deprived of her wisdom”
is expressed under the figure, *‘caused her to
forget wisdom, as though she really ought to
know better.

604

1429 mwa (nasheh)

n’shiya. Forgetfulness. Occurs ina description

of Sheol or Destruction (Abaddon), ‘‘the land of

forgetfulness,’ i.e. oblivion (Ps 88:12 [H 13]).
M.C.F.

a vein or nerve in the thigh
(Gen 32:33). Relation to above roots un-
certain.

wd (n°shi). See no. 1427a.
mwa (n*shiyad). See no. 1428a.
mews (n°shiqa). See no. 1435a.

1430 3W3 (nashak) bite.

Derivatives

1430a t5w3 (neshek) interest, usury.
1430b t3W2) (nadshak) lend for interest, us-
ury. Denominative verb.

Wherever the verb ‘“‘to bite’’ occurs in its lit-
eral physical sense in biblical Heb, it has a snake
or serpent as its subject. In the one case where
men (false prophets) are the “‘biters,’’ the Rsv
translates paraphrastically, ‘‘when they have
something to eat,’’ as mentioned above (in Mic
3:5). The Hab 2:7 reference ts a similar case in
point. It is in the context of the famous state-
ment, ‘the just shall live by his faith’’ that the
unjust in Israel are asked, “‘shall they not rise up
suddenly that shall bite thee,’’ paralleled by *‘and
awake that shall vex thee.’’ But the asv gives an
alternate in the margin which suggests ‘‘exact
usury of thee’’ for “‘bite,’’ with rsv settling, quite
simply, for “‘will not your debtors suddenly
arise?”

Interestingly, the modern Amharic cognate is
used not only of snakes but of dogs and other
mammals, and even of the bee. (While classical
Ethiopic has nasaka, the Amharic verb has a
consonantal metathesis to nakkassa.) One Is led
to suspect that the broader usage of this verb is
the more primitive, since the noun ‘‘interest”’
preserves a sense of “‘biting off’ a portion,
whereas this is not the impression given by a
snake’s bite.

Synonyms for ‘‘bite’’ tn Hebrew are such
verbs as qgdras ‘‘pinch, snip, tear’ (the Ethiopic
cognate of which has a noun derivative ‘‘tanff,
customs’), bdla’' ‘‘swallow, eat greedily, de-
vour’’ (with a beast as subject in Ex 7:12), and
the common term for ‘‘eat,’’ ‘akal, also ‘‘con-
sume.’ Samson calls the lion ‘‘the eater’? (Jud
14:14). Arabic writers employ the same epithet
for lion.

For other means of expressing the concepts as-
sociated with payment or collection of **interest”’
(usury’’ in Kjv) see verbs ndsha’ and nasha

with related derivatives. [With regard to the
usage of the noun usury or interest, new study
has clarified the situation as expressed in Lev
25:35-54. It is often supposed that this passage
and the one in Deut 23: 19-20 forbids one Israelite
loaning on interest to another. Indeed, Israel was
constantly reminded to give to the poor, but, as
pointed out by Speiser, Lev 25 cannot oppose the
charging of interest for the passage speaks of
enslavement of the debtor (Lev 25:39; Oriental
and Biblical Studies, Collected Writings of E. A.
Speiser, ed. by Finkelstein and Greenberg, pp.
131-135, 140-141). He shows the terms neshek
‘“‘usury’’ and marbit ‘‘increase,’’ find excellent
parallels in tablets from Alalakh and Nuzi. There
the arrangement is more fully known. Loans
were made with the interest discounted at the
start. A debtor might get only 80 shekels on a 100
shekel loan. This is the old use of the word
neshek. When the loan came due, the man, if he
could not pay, was seized (Lev 25:35
wheh®zaqta b6é ‘‘and you shall seize him’’).
However, according to the surrounding practice
and also according to Lev, no further interest or
increase (neshek or marbit) could be charged. If
a second interest as well as slavery were exacted,
the debtor could likely never work off the loan.
The Levitical code further enjoins humane treat-
ment of the brother thus enslaved. This was not a
feature of the legislation of the surrounding coun-
tries. In short, interest was allowed, but unrea-
sonable interest (usury) was not. R.L.H.]

In the prohibatory statement in Deut 23:19-20
is the stipulation, not only ‘‘usury of money” but
of food or ‘‘anything that is lent upon usury”’ as
well. In the simplest of terms, what is denoted by
either the verb or nominal form is any excessive
increase made in the repayment of a debt,
whether the thing borrowed was money or oth-
erwise. Remembering that the coinage of cash
money as we know it was unknown until the
seventh century B.c., this imprecision in meaning
is readily understandable.

neshek. Usury (ASv, RSV ‘‘interest’’). Relation-
ship of this noun to the basic verb ‘‘bite’’ is sus-
tained by evident Ugaritic usage: ntk verb ‘‘bite’’
(of serpent), noun ‘‘interest.”’

nashak. Denominative verb, favored as correct
sense by asv (margin) and Rsv in some cases (e.g.
Hab 2:7) where kJv has ‘‘bite.’’ Translations are:
KJV “‘lend upon usury,’’ asv and rsv “‘lend upon/
for interest.”’

Bibliography:
208.

Richardson, TWB, pp. 206—

M.C.F.

1431 m2w2 (nishka) chamber, room, a rare by-
form of lishka (q.v.).

605

1432 ys

1434 Awd) (ndshap)

1434 Mw) (nashap)

(nadshal) slip or drop off (Deut 19:5),
draw off (Ex 3:5), clear away (Deut 7:1,
22).

1433 By? (nadsham) pant (Isa 42:14, only).

Derivatives

1433a tmews (n*shama)
1433b tmewan (tinshemet)

breath.
an animal.

n’shama. Breath (asv, RSV both employ
‘‘breath’’ for ‘‘blast’’ and ‘‘inspiration,’’ while
the former one replaces “‘breath’’ with ‘‘life.’’)

This noun, when used in reference to man,
generally signifies the breath of life. It is fre-
quently found in combination with riah ‘‘spint’’
and seems synonymous with nepesh (q.v.). In
KJV it is twice translated ‘‘spirit’’ (Job 26:4; Prov
20:27). For Prov 20:27 some feel the mind or in-
tellect is denoted. In Isa 2:22 the reference to
man, whose ‘‘breath is in his nostrils,”* is a figure
of man’s frailty. Life itself is a fragile existence.
The *‘breath of God’’ may refer to his creative
activity (as in Gen 2:7), but it can also be a hot
wind which kindles flame (Isa 30:33), a destruc-
tive wind (II Sam 22:16=Ps 18:15 [H 16]; Job
4:9), or even a wind cold enough to produce ice
(Job 37:10).

The fact that precise translation of this noun
must fluctuate in accordance with its contextual
usage is aptly demonstrated by the following in-
stances. In the poetic expression of I] Sam 22:16
(paralleled by Ps. 18:15 [H 16)) nishmat riiah sig-
nifies ‘“‘blast of his breath,’’ while in Gen 7:22
nishmat-riah hayim means ‘‘the breath of life,”
breath here expressed by the combination **breath-
ing of breath.’’ The concrete concept ‘‘breath-
ing (that is, living) beings’’ is expressed by
n® shama in either the singular form (as in Josh
10:40) or the plural (Isa 57:16).

tinshemet. An animal. Swan and mole in kv;
ASV “‘horned owl”’ and ‘‘chameleon’’; rsv has lat-
ter, but *‘water hen’’ elsewhere.

Used only three times, and that in connection
with dietary prohibitions, tinshemet denotes
probably two members of the animal kingdom,
apparently so named for breathing or hissing
characteristics. Bible dictionaries should be con-
sulted under the English names given above, as
well as Flora and Fauna of the Bible (United
Bible Societies).

M.C.F.

blow (Isa 40:24; Ex

15:10).
Derivatives

1434a AW (neshep)
3:8; Jer 13:16).

twilight (e.g. Gen

1435 pw (nashaq)

1434b ASW (yanship) a bird (Isa 34:11;
Lev 11:17: Deut 14:16). A kind of
owl?

1435 pwa (ndshaq) I, kiss.
Derivative

1435a «mp Ww. (n’shiqad) kiss (Song 1:2;
Prov 27:6).

The three places where a denominative (it is
assumed) homonym of this verb is used, it is ren-
dered ‘“‘armed’” (RSV once ‘‘be bowmen’’) and
must be distinguished as a separate verb al-
together (ndshaq). Nevertheless, one can detect
some association of the Arabic cognate nasaga
‘‘fasten together, be in array’’ with either or both
the Hebrew verbs. It may, in fact, be a clue toa
common origin.

The expression *‘on your mouth all my people
will kiss’’ in Pharaoh’s elevation of Joseph to a
position of high authority has occasioned various
translations and explanations. kjv renders the
phrase, ‘‘according unto thy word shall all my
people be ruled,’’ with asv suggesting *‘order
themselves’’ in the margin and rsv adopting the
latter in the text. Citing I Sam 10:! (mentioned
above) and Ps 2:!2 as examples of the kiss of
homage, S. R. Driver rejects ‘‘be ruled,’* but he
prefers ‘“‘order themselves,’’ since not all the
people could literally kiss Joseph. When we take
into account, however, that orientals would kiss
any object received from a superior as a sign of
respect and submission, it seems preferable that
we see this as an indication of the respect and
obedience to be accorded the commands of
Joseph. **Mouth’’ does often indicate the actual
commands or orders in biblical Hebrew. We can
also view Ps 2:12 in this light and thereby reject
the conjectural emendation involved in the rsv
translation, ‘‘with trembling kiss his feet.’’ Also
the command to ‘‘kiss the son’’ may be under-
stood to mean to ‘‘kiss the feet of the son’’ being
derived from the custom of kissing a king’s feet
as an act of homage, ‘‘a custom which is well
known to us from Babylonian and Egyptian
documents’’ (Artur Weiser, The Psalms, West-
minster, 1962, p. 115).

Stahlin notes: *‘The oT has nothing comparable
to the cultic kissing of paganism’’ TDNT, IX; p.
127. (See discussion under ben.)

We find in its two occurrences portrayal of one
genuine and one superficial sign of affection. The
former is in the context of romantic love (Song
1:2), while the latter speaks of the abuse of a
convention by one who has evil intent. ** Faithful
are the wounds of a friend; but the kisses of an
enemy are deceitful (asv “*profuse’’),’’ says Prov
27:6.

As for the verb, it is best to deal with the most

606

restricted use first. The concept of ‘‘touch’’ oc-
curs where, in Ezk 3:13, the prophet describes
the touching (‘kissing’) of the wings of living
creatures in his vision, quite evidently the
cherubim whose wings touched as they stood
under the platform on which rested the throne of
God.

The kiss was a very common convention in the
ancient near east, yet always of special signifi-
cance. Kisses are given, for example, to the
father, the mother, the son, the brother, the wife,
the father or mother-in-law, wives of one’s sons
(Ruth {:9), and fellow countrymen (II Sam 15:5),
as well as a lover (Song 8:1, Prov 7:13). The im-
portance of a kiss in expressing love is seen in the
Proverb ‘‘an honest answer is like a kiss on the
lips’’ (Prov 24:26). But the kiss of a prostitute
should be rejected (Prov 7:13; cf. Lk 7:38).

Along with a kiss of affection there was a kiss
of respect: Worthy of particular note are
Samuel's kissing of Saul upon anointing him (1
Sam 10:1) and David’s farewell to a loyal subject
as he returned from his brief exile across Jordan
(11 Sam 19:39 [H 40]). A use of the kiss in false
worship is indicated in I Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2; Job
31:27. The latter case (moon-worship) is unique
in its reference to a kiss on the worshipper’s
hand: literally, *‘If I have kissed my hand to my
mouth.”’

Bibliography: DOT, IX, pp. 124-27.

M.C.F.

1436 pw2 (ndshaq) I, handle, be equipped with

(e.g. I Chr 12:2; I] Chr 17:17). Exact mean-
ing uncertain.

Derivative

1436a = Wa (nesheq), PW (nésheg)
equipment, weapons (e.g. Ezk
39:9; Job 20:24).

1437 SW (nesher) eagle.

The kJv rendering of this noun in all twenty-six
occurrences (plus the two times in Aramaic
{n° shar] in Daniel). While asv adds the margin
‘*preat vulture’ in Lev 11:13 and ‘‘vulture’”’ in
Prov 30:17 and Mic 1:16, rsv “‘vulture’” in the
text once only, for the Heb expression ‘‘sons of
the eagle’ (Prov 30:17).

The translators have been satisfied that the
term ‘‘eagle’’ is acceptable in the majonity of ref-
erences, wherein the finer traits of strength,
swiftness, and care of the young are cited, but
where the eating of carrion or ‘“‘baldness’’ (see
Mic 1:16) is involved, a lesser breed of bird seems
to be in order.

Actually, not only did the Semitic languages
tend to lump the large soaring birds into one fam-
ily but the Encyclopedia Britannica defines

‘“eagle’’ as inclusive of several day-flying birds of
prey comprising, along with hawks, harriers and
old world vultures, the family Acciptridae.

The references to a renewing of youth by the
eagle (Ps 103:5: Isa 40:31) may stem simply from
the fact of its longevity, but it is seen by some in
relation to its fresh appearance in new plumage
following moulting. It is also said that the old
eagle breaks off an overgrown beak and grows a
new one, moulting also during this process, and
the ancients held a popular belief that an eagle
could fly up to the sun, singe its feathers, then
plunge into the sea to revive itself.

See ‘Birds of the Bible’? in NBD and Flora
and Fauna of the Bible (United Bible Societies).

The superb protection and care of the Lord for
Israel is appropriately likened to that of a nesher
(Ex 19:4-6; Deut 32:11-13). Their nests are built
on inaccessible ledges with great skill, and the
parent bird guards it with great ferocity some-
times by using its talons and beak. It also takes
care of its young by shielding the nestlings from
too much sun and warming them when a cold
wind blows, and feeding them until they are large
enough to fly. Then the parent stirs up the nest
and lures the fledglings out of it for their first
flight. Sometimes the adult birds hover over them
and flutter encouragingly around them. When the
poet, however, speaks of the nesher bearing the
young, he is speaking phenomenologically, for
the fledglings only appear to be carried at times
on a parent's wings but there is no reliable report
of any bird actually flying with a smaller bird on
its back.

David likened the speed of Saul and Jonathan
to the nesher and may have had in mind the gol-
den eagle which pressing its wings against its
sides, power dives from great heights upon its
victim usually taking it by surprise and stnking it
dead in an instant with its powerful, sharp talons
(if Sam 1:23). Jeremiah warned of a foe that
would approach with the speed of an eagle (Jer
4:13; cf. Hab 1:8) and Job lamented that his days
go by like an eagle swooping on its prey (Job
9:25-26). Timed by a stop watch a golden eagle
chased by peregrine falcons achieved a speed of
120 miles per hour (A. Parmelee, All the Birds of
the Bible, 1969, p. 200).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., ‘Birds in the
Old Testament,’ PEQ 68: 5-20. ‘Once Again:
Birds in the Bible,’ PEQ 90: S56ff. Parmelee, A.,
All the Birds of the Bible, 1969. Candale, G. S., in
NBD, pp. 154-57.

M.C.F.

1438 mw) (nashat) be dry, parched (e.g. Isa
41:17; 19:5; Jer 18:14).

1439 WAW) (nisht*wdn) letter (Ezra 4:7. 7:11,
only). Probably a loan word from Persian.

607

1441 *nna (natah)

1440 sma (nth). Assumed root of the following.
1440a tan) (natib) path.
1440b 9 ma°m2 (n‘tiba) path, pathway,
traveller.

natib. Path, way. Some lexicographers have
taken ndatib as an adjective, perhaps meaning
‘trodden’ (though a possibly cognate Arabic
verb means *‘swell, be prominent or protrude’’),
used also substantively for a beaten path. In tak-
ing such an approach, said lexicons then consider
the feminine form which occurs in Prov 12:28 to
modify ‘‘way’ (derek), 1.e., ‘‘a well-trodden
way. Highly noteworthy is the fact that these
two terms occur only in poetic (including the
prophetic writings) passages. All five (or six—see
above) occurrences of the shorter word are lim-
ited to Job and Ps, and the more widespread
n“tiba is found only in the Song of Deborah (Jud
5), Job, Ps, Prov, and the writings of three
prophets.

The path or track referred to by natib in Job
28:7 and 41:32 [H 24] is a physical one, though in
the latter case it is produced on the surface of
water. A more figurative usage is found in Job
18:10, where a trap is set in the path of the
wicked, and in Ps 78:50, which describes God as
smoothing a way for his anger to stnke the Egyp-
tians. Psalm 119:35 affords an excellent example
of the use of this term, with a patently self-
evident sense, ‘*Make me to go in the path of thy
commandments; for therein do | delight.”

Similarly, a n‘tibd is a (foot-) path or way
which one travels physically or morally. This
noun is often used in parallel with the more com-
mon and prosaic derek (q.v.) in the sense of a
course of life, especially one which is of God's
appointment, as in Isa 42:16. It speaks of moral
character or action, either good (of wisdom, Prov
3:17; justice, Prov 8:20; light, Job 24:13) or
wicked (Prov 1:15: Isa 59:8, such as that of the
adulteress, in (Prov 7:25). *‘Bypath”’ definitely
captures the sense of Jer 18:15.

The closest synonym to these two terms would
be ‘orah, also poetic for path or way, while much
more distinctive would be ma‘gal ‘track, rut™
and m®silla ‘‘highway, embankment.”’

M.C.F.
1441 *mB] (natah) cut, cut in pieces, divide.
Derivative
144la tmm2 (nétah) piece.

Found only nine times in the oT, always in the
Piel (intensive) stem, this verb occurs with its
cognate noun (see derivative, immediately be-
low) in each of the cases where it is rendered,
simply, cut or divide. Conversely, wherever the
noun does not occur in the Heb text the transla-

1442 *3n] (natak)

tion of the verb is expanded to ‘‘cut into pieces”
as being its full intent.

nétah. Piece. asv and rsv have “piece” in
every instance, and they employ for the over-
specific ‘his pieces’ (passim), ‘its pieces, piece
by piece,’ or simply drop the possessive. These
two versions also express piece by piece (Ezk
24:6) more vividly, ‘‘piece after piece.”

Mainly used of animal (in only one case of hu-
man) carcasses, the notion of these words is
clearly that of dismemberment. Thus the account
of the Levite’s dividing the corpse of his abused
concubine into twelve parts for notification of the
tribes is rendered by the asv, rSv ‘he divided her,
limb by limb” for the expression *‘he divided her
according to her bones” in the original (Jud
19:29). Sacrificial procedure ts involved in the
more common use of the term, as in Elijah’s
preparations on Mount Carmel (I Kgs 18:33) and
in a few references in Ex and Lev, but Saul also
sent a message throughout the tribes, accom-
panied by the pieces of a slaughtered pair of
oxen, while Ezekiel presents a vivid picture of
the doom of Jerusalem by describing meat in a
caldron (Ezk 24:4, 6).

M.C.F.

See no. 1440a.
See no. 1443a.

38m) (ndtib).
pend (n° tinim).

1442 tm (natak) be poured, drop (of rain), be
melted or molten.
Derivative

Tans (Aittuk) a melting (Ezk 22:22,
only).

1442a

The passage mentioning rain (II Sam 21:10),
ASV renders **be poured” and rsv ‘‘fall upon,”
with both of them changing “‘gather’* to ‘‘empty
out’’ (money from a cash box, in II Kgs 22:9).

Etymologically, the most revealing cognates
are the Akkadian verb natadku ‘‘flow, drip’ and
the Ugaritic ntk “‘pour’’ (UT 19: no. 1716). The
Hebrew usage Is basically **pour forth, be poured
out, with a specialized sense found in the tran-
sitivizing force of the Hiphil stem, where context
calls for it, of ‘‘melt.’* (Twice, also due to de-
mand of context, the passive Niphal is so ren-
dered, in Ezk 22:2] and 24:11.)

Such things as water (above), groans (Job
3:24), divine wrath (II Chr 12:7; 34:25, etc.), and
curses (Dan 9:11) are poured forth, and in an in-
teresting figure for death Job asks God if he has
not indeed “poured me out as milk?” (Job 10:10).

hittak. Occurring only once (Ezk 22:22), this
noun *‘a melting’ is translated ‘‘(As silver) is
melted** in all three versions.

Ezekiel’s choice of words in the verse just

608

cited affords a marvelous play on sounds and
meanings. The repetitive, ‘As... melted in the
midst... so... melted in the midst’’ has an
added impressiveness because of the similarity of
the Hebrew terms for ‘‘melted’’ and ‘'midst,”’
though they are etymologically unrelated. Yet
when he goes on to say, *"| the Lorp have poured
out my fury upon you,”’ he apparently intends to
strike the attention of the listener by not employ-
ing the cognate verb natak (elsewhere used many
times for the pouring out of fury, wrath, or a
curse), but rather the synonym shdpak.

M.C.F.

1443 *IM] (natan) give.

Derivatives

1443a teyeny (n*tinim) Nethinim.
1443b TR (matidan) gift.

1443c «TMA «(mattana) gift.
1443d TAH (mattat) gift, reward.

Considering the extensive use of this verb,
some 2,000 times (mostly in the Qal stem), it 1s
not surprising to find a great variety of meanings
given in translation. In addition to its basic and
most frequent sense of give, we find in the Kjv
such renderings as set, commit, put, lay, fasten,
hang, make (to be something), appoint, suffer
(=allow), bestow, deliver, send, pay, turn,
thrust, strike, cast (lots); passive uses adding be
taken/gotten. asv largely concurs with KJV but
with a tendency to simplify, replacing terms like
‘*commit, strike, fasten’ with ‘“‘put’’ and ‘‘de-
liver’’ with “‘give.’’ rSv, besides following the
last example cited under asv, adds further variety
by using ‘‘permit™’ for *‘suffer,”’ *‘place’’ for **de-
liver, ‘‘store’’ for ‘lay up,’’ “‘attach’’ for *‘fas-
ten,’ and ‘‘spend”’ for ‘‘bestow (money),” etc.

Phonetically speaking, this verb is unstable or
weak, in the sense of its frequent loss by outright
elimination or by assimilation to an adjacent con-
sonant of either one or both n’s. An infinitive
form is rét, for example, while the Ugaritic cog-
nate is yfn. This means that only the t is constant,
and even that is replaced by its voiced counter-
part in the Akkadian cognate, nadanu. This d (cf.
Egyptian [r]di ‘‘give’’?) suggests a possible link
between this verb and the noun ydd ‘‘hand,’’ to
which can be compared Ethiopic ‘id, Arabic yad
and perhaps Egyptian djrt (in which language the
familiar hieroglyphic symbol of a mitt-like hand
represents the letter d). Every meaning given this
verb can in fact be seen as a literal or figurative
action of the hand.

The three broad areas of meaning of the verb
natan are 1) give, 2) put or set, and 3) make or
constitute. The other terms used in translation
are extensions or variations of these. For exam-
ple, give may be anything from physically hand-
ing a present, reward, person, or document to

another to the less tangible granting or bestowal
of blessing, compassion, permission, and the
like. Inanimate objects may also ‘give’ '—as tree
or land yielding fruit; birds, lions, and clouds *‘ut-
ter’ their appropriate sounds; even the wine
‘*sparkles’’ in the cup (lit., ‘“gives its eye’). God
himself is often the giver: of rain (Lev 26:4, Deut
11:14), of grass for cattle (Deut 11:15), as well as
granting preservation of life (as a ‘‘prize of war’’
Jer 45:5, rsv) or sending the plague of hail on
Egypt (Ex 9:23). The infrequent synonym yaéhab
means ‘‘give, but it too connotes ‘‘place,”
‘‘put’” when used of David's orders concerning
Uriah (IJ Sam 11:15). In Hebrew this verb yahab
is only used in the Qal impv., more broadly in
Aram.

In its sense of put, place, set, appoint, ndtan is
in close parallel to the more specific terms sim
and shit. This putting may be literal, as placing a
ring on the hand, a helmet on the head, or a pris-
oner into the stocks. It is so used in Deut 15:17,
for putting the awl into (i.e. through) the ear into
the door, thus pinning the ear temporarily to the
door. More figurative uses include God's putting
his spirit ‘‘upon’* the Servant (Isa 42:1), reproach
upon sinful people (Jer 23:40), curses on enemies
(Deut 30:7), or his majesty above the heavens (Ps
8:1 [H 2]). Imposition of the temple tax is treated
in Neh 10:32 {H 33], laying a siege against a
(model) city in Ezk 4:2.

As for the third usage of this versatile verb, Isa
3:4 speaks of installing boys as their princes, Ex
23:27 of making enemies *‘backs,’’ and Jer 9:10
[H 10] of Jerusalem’s being made ruinheaps.

n‘tinim. Nethinims (corrected to ‘*‘Nethinim”’
in ASV, but uniformly translated ‘‘temple ser-
vants’’ by rsv, with occasional footnote: Hebrew
nethinim). Meaning, properly, *‘those given’ (to
service of the sanctuary), either the ASV or RSV
rendering is acceptable.

In the Lxx n‘tinim is translated literally, ‘*the
given (ones), but Josephus employed a Greek
term meaning ‘‘sacred slaves.’’ That they were
rather numerous is indicated by the fact that they
helped comprise a group of 392 servants who ac-
companied Zerubbabel to Jerusalem in 538 B.c.
(Ezr 2:58), and then later, at the request of Ezra,
220 Nethinim accompanied 38 Levites from the
Jewish colony at Casiphia (Ezr 8:16—20). Though,
as mentioned above, Nethinim are carefully dis-
tinguished from the Levites (being quite likely
aliens who became incorporated into the congre-
gation of Israel), Ezra 7:24 shows they shared in
the tax exemption enjoyed by all priests and Le-
vites.

The fact of their living in a special quarter on
Ophel near the water gate, which led to the Gihon
spring, may indicate that they carried water up to
the temple mount (Neh 3:26). Not all Nethinim of
Jerusalem lived in that quarter, however (cf. Neh

609

1445 *pn (nata’)

1446 PQ (natas)

3:31), and still others lived in other cities, proba-
bly Levitical ones (Neh 7:72).

The term n‘tinim is a variant of n‘tunim, the
latter used of the Levites as ‘‘given over’’ (both
by God and by the Israelites) to the service of the
tabernacle (Num 3:9; 8:16, 19). But not only ts
the vocalization of the word modified (apparently
a simple matter of vowel harmony in common
utterance), the class designated by n‘tinim is
often specified as distinct from priests, Levites,
and porters (see Neh 10:28 [H 29]).

Ezra 8:20 tells of the appointment of the
Nethinim by David and the princes of Israel for
service of the Levites. They were assigned me-
nial tasks about the temple precincts, with only
the *‘descendants of Solomon's servants’’ com-
ing lower on the social scale among returnees
from exile, according to Ezra’s listing (see 2:58).
The precedent, at least, for such perpetual con-
signment to religious servitude dates very early.
Moses gave orders concerning the captive
Midianites, that of the half designated for the
people in general, one in fifty was to be given
‘‘unto the Levites, that keep the charge of the
tabernacle of Yahweh’ (Num 31:30). And soon
after, Joshua punished the wily Gibeonites by
making them ‘‘hewers of wood and drawers of
water for the congregation, and for the altar of
Jehovah”™’ (Josh 9:27).

mattan. Gift,

mattana. This word also is nearly invariably
gift, with both asv and rsv substituting bribe in
Prov 15:27 and Eccl 7:7 for contextual reasons.

mattat. Gift, reward, with idiom ‘‘gift of his
hand’’ being rendered *‘able to give,’ similarly in
all the versions.

An interesting passage using mattat is Prov
25:14, in the rsv, ‘(boasts of) a gift he does not
give.’ This could imply that either he has failed
to keep a promise or has made a false claim to
generosity. (Somewhat similarly, the apocryphal
Ecclesiasticus contains a reference to mattdn as
‘‘{life of] a beggar,’’ a parasite, in 40:28.) Several
names including Matthew, are derived from this
root.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 117-41.

in its five occurrences.

1444 OF] (ndtas) tear or break down (Job

30:13, only).

break, break down or out
(Job 4:10, Niphal, only).

1446 PRI (natas) break | cast / throw / pull /

beat down; destroy, overthrow; break out
(teeth). Since these equivalents are actu-
ally so close in significance, there is a
rather free fluctuation of variants when it
comes to comparing the other English ver-

1447 3n2 (nataq)

sions. Typical is the substitution of **break
down” by asv and “‘tear down” by rsv for
the *‘overthrow’’ of Deut 12:3.

Since this root is found mostly in the Qal stem
and only rarely in the Piel (intensive), it can be
assumed that the force ts a strong one even in the
former. The verb is generally employed quite lit-
erally, for pulling down of a structure such as an
altar, a house, a city wall, or a tower, but it lends
itself well to figurative use also—for the breaking
of the power of a nation or destruction of the life
of an individual (Job 19:10).

Ideally suited to demonstrate contextually the
use of this verb is the familiar statement in the
commissioning of Jeremiah (in 1:10) that he was
to ‘root out, and to pull down, and to destroy,
and to throw down.”

M.C.F.

1447 }P2 (nataq) draw out, pluck up, break, lift,
root out.

Derivative

1447a tpml (neteq) scall (of leprosy).

This forceful word paints the action in quite a
few narratives and also furnishes some vivid fig-
ures. Its Arabic cognate, in addition to the equiv-
alent meanings ‘‘pull off, draw out,” has an
added sense, ‘‘shake.’’ The noun derivative of
this verb (below) is both limited and unpleasant in
use.

A vividly literal usage of the verb nadtag occurs
in the account of the attack of the Israelites on
the Benjaminites at Gibeah. The troops of the
former decided to pretend to flee in order to draw
them out from the city into the highways, where
they would be vulnerable (Jud 20:32). A simple
withdrawal of the soles of the feet onto dry land is
described in Josh 4:18, while the motion of draw-
ing a ring off the finger is involved in Jer 22:24, a
figure of God’s rejection of the King of Judah. A
favorite figurative expression among the proph-
ets, portraying the uprooting of the people for
captivity, is the snapping of the tent cords (Isa
33:20; Jer 10:20), and the picture of a relentless
army is enhanced by the mention of sandal
thongs which hold fast (unbroken) in Isa 5:27.
Similarly, Eccl 4:12 reminds us that a threefold
cord is not easily broken. Other figurative refer-
ences to broken bonds occur in Nah 1:13; Jer 2:20
and 5:5, as well as in the very famous context,
PS 225.

There are still other places where this term af-
fords an extremely vivid figure. ‘‘Pull them out
like sheep for the slaughter,’’ crys Jeremiah
(12:3) of the wicked in Israel, while Ezekiel de-
scribes Jerusalem as a drunken harlot tearing at
her breasts (23:34). The concept of separation en-
ters into Jeremiah’s use of the smelting process

610

1448 9m2 (natar)

as an attempt to purify God's people (6:29), while
Bildad the Shuhite speaks of the confidence of
the wicked man being *‘rooted out”’ from his tent,
in Job 18:14.

neteq. Scall (of leprosy) of the ksv and asv is
replaced by “‘itch”’ or ‘‘itching disease” in the
RSV. Its occurrences in the Bible are limited to
Lev 13:30-37 and 14:54. Designated as the major
symptom of *‘leprosy,”’ its use here derives from
the idea of something which a sufferer desires to
scratch or tear away. Needless to say, this is
highly indicative of the likelihood that ot *‘lep-
rosy’ was a condition distinct from the Hansen's
Disease that generally goes by that name today
(see sara‘at). It refers to any infectious disease
with symptoms of rash or itching such as
measles, smallpox, etc., some of which were se-
rious, some not. For all, isolation was prescribed.

M.C.F.

I, spring or startup (e.g. Job
37:1; Lev 11:21, Hab 3:6).

1449 * sm) (natar) HL, loose, let loose (hand), undo.

While BDB and other lexicons in the Gesenius
tradition distinguish this verb root from a natar
‘spring / start up,’ KB treats the two senses
under one listing. Since the root II isolated for
treatment here occurs only tn the Hiphil (causa-
tive or transitivizing) stem, however, a once
common term may have with time become di-
vided into two senses. A possible Arabic cognate
natara ‘‘rend’’ (garment), ‘‘break’’ (bowstring)
could relate to either a loosing or springing
(snapping?).

Setting free a captive (compare the semantic
development in the American colloquial ‘*spring-
ing a prisoner’’.) is involved in Ps 105:20 and
146:7, while Isa 58:6 speaks of unfastening thongs
of a yoke, in parallel with patah *‘open, loosen,
free’’ wicked bonds. The parallelism is farther
extended and reenforced in the latter verse by the
use of a couplet—‘‘send’’ the oppressed free and
‘‘break’’ (see ndtag, above) every yoke. A dra-
matically figurative force is found in Job 6:9,
where he prays thus for death, ‘‘that he would let
loose his hand and cut me off.”’

M.C.F.

1450 “hl (neter) soda.

This word is a loan word from Egyptian and
not related to a root natar. It was the name for
the material collected from the alkaline lakes of
Egypt. This valuable ancient chemical was widely
used and its name borrowed into Akk. as nitiru,
into Gk. as natron, into Latin as nitrum. From
this word comes the chemical symbol Na for so-
dium. Egypt was the source of soda for the world

until Napoleon saw its value and offered a prize
which resulted in modern methods of synthesis.
In Old English two kinds of “‘niter’’ were dis-
tinguished, soda niter and gun powder niter (po-
tassium nitrate, a totally different chemical).
Modern English has changed the soda niter to
plain soda. The av “‘niter’’ was doubtless intended
to mean the soda niter used widely as a cleanser
(washing soda, sodium carbonate).

Natron was used in ancient times in the em-
balming process, as a cleansing agent and as an
ingredient in ceramic pastes, where powdered
quartz paste of the faience combined with the
soda solution to make an attractive glazed surface
(sodium silicate with other silicates makes glass).
It is as a cleansing agent that Jeremiah mentions
it (2:22), in parallel with bérit, a vegetable alkali.
Although the rsv prefers the Lxx translation
‘‘wound’’ in Prov 25:22 (possibly reading neteg,
q.v. above), the reference to vinegar on soda with
its violent effervescence and release of carbon
dioxide is a perfectly reasonable figure of incom-
patibility. Some suggest lye in this verse, but vine-
gar on lye would have no visible result unless the
lye were more pure than would be expected in
ancient times. Vinegar would have no more visi-
ble effect on lye than ordinary water would have.

R.L.H.

1451 Wl (natash) root out, pluck up (by the
roots), destroy. (The last expression,
found only once in KJV, with cities as ob-
ject, is rendered ‘‘overthrow,’’ in aAsv,
‘root out’ in RSV.)

611

1451 wna (natash)

Not included in the above catalog are the ren-
derings of ndtash in Jer 18:14, where the verb
appears in the Niphal (passive) stem. The asv
says, ‘‘shall the cold flowing waters that come
from another place be forsaken.’ (So translated
due to parallel verb ‘azab, q.v. at the beginning
of the verse.) aAsv has ‘‘dried up,’ and Rsv ‘‘run
dry.’ Such a translation assumes a textual cor-
ruption by metathesis from ndashat ‘‘fail™ (i.e. be
dry, parched), a verb used in Isa 19:5 in parallel
with hAdrab and ydbash, both ‘dry up.’ The
‘plucking up’” of a river is a possible figure,
though a very strong one.

It is the idolatrous Ashernm (kKJv “groves °) that
are to be plucked up in Mic 5:14 (H 13], but the
term is mainly used with God as subject and na-
tions or peoples as object: Deut 29:28 [H 27]:
I Kgs 14:15; I] Chr 7:20; Jer 12:14. The twelfth
chapter of Jeremiah provides the key passage
(vv. 14-17) for the study of this verb, occurring
here five of the thirteen times it is used by this
prophet. (Jeremiah employs ndatash more than all
its other occurrences combined.) In Jer 1:10 the
usage is in parallel with ndtas *‘break / throw
down’”’ (q.v.).

The verb is used frequently with reference to
the Lord’s work of destroying evil nations: of
Israel (Deut 29:28 (H 27]; II Chr 7:20) and of her
neighbors (Jer 12:14-15, 17). In the case of Israel,
however, he promises that after judgment he will
pluck them up no more (Jer 31:28: Amos 9:15):
and in the case of the nations, he promises not to
carry out his threat if they repent (Jer 18:7).

M.C.F.

1452 ASB (s‘'G) a measure of flour, grain,
probably one-third ephah (q.v.; II Kgs 7:1,
18). For the evidence see AI, p. 200. See
also Huey, F. B., ‘‘Weights and Mea-
sures’’ in ZPEB, V, p. 917.

1453 18D (sa’an) tread, tramp. This de-
nominative verb occurs only in Isa 9:4.

Parent Noun

MND (s°'6n) sandal,
soldier (sa 9:4, only).

1453a boot of

ND (s¢'dn). See no. 1453a.

1454 *8OND (sé'sé') drive away. This verb

occurs only once, in the Pilpel (Isa 27:8).

1455 S3D (saba’)
verb.

imbibe. Denominative

Parent Noun

1455a t83D (sdbe') wine, drink.
14556 835 (sadba’) drunkard.

This denominative verb connotes the act of
heavy drinking, even of drunkenness. It occurs in
only four contexts. Deuteronomy 21:20 involves
the case of an incorrigibly disobedient son who is
brought to the town elders at the city gates for
stoning. The charges against the man are that he
is stubborn, rebellious, debased, and drunken.
The parallel with zd/él (q.v.) implies that he is
one who is contemptibly vile in his riotous be-
havior.

Isaiah (56:12) laments that the supposed
shepherds of the sheep, the leaders of Israel, are
given over to open debauchery, thereby exposing
their flocks to grave danger from the enemy.

Nahum (1:10) reports that the Assynians of his
day were so satiated with their successes that
they gave themselves to being like drunkards
(note that sdbe’ also occurs in this passage). The
warning against riotous living (zd/é/) and drun-
kenness (s6bé’) as leading to sloth and poverty
seems well taken (Prov 23:20-21).

sdbe’. Wine, drink.
‘“drunkards.**)

The noun, sdbe’ meaning ‘fermented drink,”’
is probably cognate with Akkadian sabu, sibu
‘wheat beer’ (cf. Arabic siba’ ‘‘wine’’).

sébe’ describes the spiritual adultery of
Jerusalem (Isa 1:21ff.). Isaiah's earlier contem-
porary, Hosea (4:18), likewise reports that the
northern kingdom ts characterized by total

(So aSv; RSV in Hos 4:18,

spiritual bankruptcy and harlotry, involving both
priests and people.

saba’. Drunkard. The much debated crux
(Ezk 23:42) involving the nominal derivative
saba’ seems best understood as *‘drunkards”™’ (so
ASV, RSV: 1.e. foreign idolators and revellers who
taught Israel further spiritual whoredom, rather
than the k)v ‘‘Sabeans’’).

R.D.P.

1456 330 (sdbab) turn (around, aside, back,
towards), go (about, around), encircle, sur-
round, change direction.

Derivatives
1456a tm3_ (sibba), 3B] (n*sibba)
turn (of affairs).
1456b f3°93D (sabib), 301 surrounding,
round about.
1456c t35D0% (mésab) round about.

The basic meaning of the root seems to involve
the idea of turning or going around; as such, it is
found also in Ugaritic and Aramaic (cf. Arabic
sababun ‘‘rope’’). A perhaps kindred root seems
to have been productive in Southeast Semitic (cf.
Tigre Sadbaba@ “‘plait’’) and Akkadian (Sabdabu
‘‘encircle’’).

The root occurs over 150 times, usually as a
simple verb of motion, whether of an individual
(I Sam 7:16), a people (Josh 6:3), a door turning
on its hinges (Prov 26:14), or the cycle of the
wind (Eccl 1:6).

Several figurative expressions occur, espe-
cially in ethical or judicio-legal contexts. Thus, it
is employed of the transferral of the kingdom to
another (I Kgs 2:15: I Chr 10:14) or of the non-
transferability of inherited property between
tribes in ancient Israel (Num 36:7, 9).

It depicts God's judgment against sin, whether
sins of the heathen (Hab 2:16) or of his own
people. Hosea (7:2) laments that Israel had gone
so far as to surround herself with wickedness in
the very presence of the God who keeps ac-
counts. Jeremiah (6:12) foresees the severity of
God's judgment on an equally wicked and unre-
pentant Judah.

sdbab also characterizes the turning of one’s
mind so as to give attention to thorough investi-
gation (Eccl 7:25). It describes a changed mind or
attitude, occasionally in great sorrow (I Kgs 21:4:
II Kgs 20:2). This changed mind can involve a
changed condition before God, whether for evil
(II Chr 29:6) or good (Ezr 6:22). From this, it

615

1457 330 (sabak)

becomes associated with repentance and restora-
tion to favor after apostasy (I Kgs 18:37).

Closely following, is the idea of a change of
conditions or circumstanees (11 Sam 3:12: 14:20,
24: Jer 31:22), often indicated by changing the
name of a person (II Kgs 23:34; 24:17) or place
(Num 32:38).

Whatever the conditions, even in the direst of
circumstances, the most desperate ‘‘turn of af-
fairs,’ there can be seen the guiding control of a
sovereign God. No one but the believer can
understand this. Although he may be completely
surrounded by enemies (Ps 17:11; 109:3: 118:10—
12) or encompassed by sorrow or trials (II Sam
22:6), yet the believer who is pure of heart can be
confident that God will turn to comfort him (Ps
71:20-21) so that God's lovingkindness surrounds
him with songs of deliverance (Ps 32:7, 10).

All of the foregoing finds its fullest expression
and climax in the work of Messiah. Though his
enemies would surround him like strong bulls and
snarling dogs (Ps 22:12, 16 [H 13, 17}), yet he
would triumph over all the enemies of God and
man, redeeming his own and ruling over a
changed and revitalized earth (Zech 14:9-11).

sibba, n‘sibba. Turn of — affairs. These
synonyms (n*sibba, I] Chr 10:15), sibbad 1 Kgs
12:15) designate a turn of affairs arranged by
God's sovereign disposition.

sabib, musab. Surrounding. sabib occurs in
several interesting contexts. The ritual of priestly
consecration involved sprinkling blood round
about the altar (Ex 29:16, 20) as did the sacrifice
of the Levitical offerings (Lev 1:5, 11 etc.). It
figures in Israel's future when she will look
around at her God-given glory (Isa 60:1-4). Until
then, she is to live as in the land of promise,
resting in her deliverance (Deut [2:10).

musab. Perhaps refers to the side building sur-
rounding the temple (Ezk 41:7).

meéesab. Round about. mésab refers to the
carved walls of the temple (I Kgs 6:29) and a
round table (Song 1:12). Its most interesting oc-
currence is in Ps 140:9[H 10] which Dahood (AB,
Psalms Il, pp. 303-304) translates, ‘The mis-
chief maker who surrounds me, may the poison
of their lips drown them!”

R.D.P.

See no. 1456a.
See no. 1456b.

MDD (sibba).
33D (sahib).
(Nah 1:10: Job

1457 330 (sdbak) interweave

8:17).
Derivatives

l457a 938 (s°bak) thicket (Gen 22:13:
Isa 9:17, 10:34),

616

1457b «6330 0 (s°bdk) thicket (Ps 74:5: Jer
4:7).
1458 53D (sdabal) bear (Qal), drag oneself along
(Hithpael).
Derivatives
1458a t93_B (sébel), 930 (sdbel) load,
burden.
1458b 93D (sabbal) burden bearer.
1458c m93D (sibla) compulsory _ service,
burden bearing.
1458d tn93D (sibbdlet) ear of grain.

The primary meaning of this root is to “‘bear,”’
‘*transport™ (i.e. a heavy load). The root is also
particularly productive in Aramaic/Syraic. Since
the Akkadian zabdlu is semantically equivalent
with sabalu and since the phonetic change sb>zb
is known in the Semitic languages, it may be that
the two roots are derived from the same proto-
Semitic root.

In contrast to the synonymous nasa’ “lift up,”
‘*bear/carry (away),’’ sdbal lays stress on the
process of bearing or transporting a load (Isa
46:7), hence, becomes a figure of servitude (Gen
49:15).

The root is also utilized in contexts which deal
with the bearing of punishments or penalties.
Jeremiah laments that the Jerusalemites have
sinned as had their fathers, hence must bear the
penalty for violating God's covenant with them
(Lam 5:7). The most important context in which
this root occurs is Isa 53:4-11. Here the coming
servant, Messiah, lifts up and takes upon himself
man's sicknesses and bears the weight of hts wor-
risome sorrows. Nothing could more graphically
portray the vicarious sacrificial work of Christ
who bore the penalty for man’s sin so that man
may receive God's righteousness and stand jus-
tified before him.

sebel. Load, burden, compulsory Ser-
vice. Maybe denoting a laborer’s basket, sébel
is always used of corveé labor (e.g. I Kgs 11:28).
sébel details those things which rested upon Is-
rael s shoulders like a heavy burden: her sin (isa
9:3) and her oppressor, Assyria (Isa 10:27; 14:25).

sabbal. Burden bearer (a name of a function).
Denotes either a basket carrier (Neh 4:10 (H 4:4])
or corveé master (II Chr 34:13).

sibla. Compulsory service, burden _ bear-
ing. Used of compulsory burdensome toil, such
as was laid upon the Hebrews in Egypt (Ex 1:11,
etc.).

sibbolet. An Ephraimite pronunciation of the

common Semitic sibbdlet ‘‘ear of grain’’ (Job

24:24), or ‘flowing stream” (Ps 69:2 [H 3]).
The test given by Jepthah's soldiers (Jud 12:6)

probably hinges on the pronunciation of sh (shin)
vs. §, (sin) here written s (samekh) the next
nearest phoneme. Speiser suggested also that in
the days of Judges, the phoneme sh was pro-
nounced as a soft t (t) so the difference then
would have been the lisping pronunciation of s as
th (E. A. Speiser, ‘‘The Shibboleth Incident
(Judges 12:6),"° in Oriental and Biblical Studies,
Univ of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 143-50).
R.D.P.
noap (sibbdlet). See no. 1458d.
1459 “348 (sdgad) prostrate oneself in
worship (Used only in Isa 44:15, 17, 19;
46:6).

A common verb in Aramaic and possibly a loan
word in Hebrew. It seems to indicate a position
of prostration in prayer. The Arabic masgid
means ‘‘mosque.”’ For other words on bowing
down see kara‘.

“ian (s*gdr). See no. 1462a.
1460 43D (sgl). Assumed root of the following.
1460a m?aD (s*giulla) property, possession.
(KJV *‘special/peculiar (treasure].’’)

The basic meaning of this noun is ‘‘personal
property.’’ Well attested in Hebrew, Ugaritic,
and Aramaic, the Akkadian sakdlu, ‘‘to acquire
property’? and sikiltum ‘‘(personal) property”
are also doubtless related. While the word occurs
only eight times, it is filled with theological and
spiritual treasures. Qoheleth reports that the ac-
cumulation of the finest of personal possessions
is sheer vanity. Those who fear the Lord become
his peculiar possessions whom he will never
forget, even in that time of great judgment (Mal
3:16-18).

Israel was God's personal possession (Ps
135:4). Moses reminded Israel that God chose her
and redeemed her from bondage not because of
her goodness, but solely because he loved her
and was faithful to the promises given to the pa-
tniarchs. Israel should reflect God's holiness and
live out his commandments (Deut 14:2ff.), re-
flecting his standards in a life of wholehearted
compliance with the terms of the covenant made
at Sinai (Ex 19:5-6) and renewed at their entrance
into Canaan. Then would they have good success
(Deut 26:16—19). So it should be with all believ-
ers. These verses from Deut are doubtless al-
luded to in Tit 2:14 and I Pet 2:9.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 142-43.

R.D.P

1461 338 (sagan) 338 (segen) prefect, a sub-
ordinate ruler (e.g. Ezk 23:6; Jer 51:23).
Probably a loan word from Akkadian.

617

1462 "230 (sdgar)

1462 125 (sdgar) I, shut, close.

Derivatives
1462a i145 (s*gdr) enclosure.
1462b “31D (siégar) cage with hooks.
1462c 335% (masgér) enclosure, dun-

geon, builder of bulwarks.
1462d tmsao% (misgeret) border, rim.

The primary meaning of the root, found in the
basic stem, is also known in Ugaritic, Biblical
Aramaic, and Ethiopic. The ideas ‘‘deliver up,’
‘hand over,’’ ‘abandon,’ found in the derived
stems, are known in other West Semitic dialects
(e.g. Syriac, Phoenician). The root has been re-
lated to Akkadian sekéru ‘‘stop,” “‘dam up,”
‘‘shut up/off,’’ a word found with similar mean-
ings also in Hebrew. While J. V. K. Wilson
(‘Hebrew and Akkadian Philological Notes,”
Journal of Semitic Studies 7:179-80) may be right
in insisting that the East Semitic skr ‘‘dam up”’ is
to be separated from West Semitic sgr ‘‘close
up,’ it ts interesting to note that in ancient
Aramaic skr carries a similar range of meanings
to Hebrew sgr and that Arabic sakara can be
used both of shutting doors and damming
streams. This root is to be distinguished from
another sgr known in Arabic and lying behind the
Hebrew sagrir ‘‘steady rain.”

The root sgr is often employed for the act of
shutting doors or gates (e.g. Gen 19:6, 10; Josh
6:1) or closing up a breach ina wall (1 Kgs 11:27).
It also has many specialized uses. Thus, the shut-
ting of the womb pictures non-conception (I Sam
1:5-6; cf. Job 3:10). At times, it can portray a
hostile, arrogant, greedy, or indifferent attitude.
The Psalmist (Ps 17:10) prays for deliverance
from his enemies whose insensitivity has shut
them up to an arrogance that is bent on the de-
struction of others.

An individual or group of people can be shut up
to unfortunate circumstances. For example, Saul
believes that David has shut himself up within the
easily besieged Judean town of Keilah (1 Sam
23:7). The root then depicts the conditions or re-
sult of a siege (Isa 24:10; Jer 13:19).

The derived stems carry the idea of shutting
someone or something into the hand of someone/
thing else (1 Sam 23:20: Ps 78:48, 50). Even God's
own can, because of sin, be delivered over to the
enemy (Ps 78:62; Lam 2:7; Amos 6:8).

The word ts utilized in contexts which make it
clear that God himself is in sovereign control of
the circumstances of life (Job 11:10; 12:14), guid-
ing the events of history (Isa 45:1) to their proper
end, when his enemies will be judged (Isa 24:22)
and a glonfied and prosperous Zion will stand
serenely secure with unclosed gates.

Accordingly, men ought to shut themselves up
to God’s will and plan for their lives (Isa 26:20;
Ezk 3:24).

1463 53D (sgr)

s‘gor. Enclosure. Occurs validly only in Hos
13:8, where it is used of Israel’s heart enclosure
(KJV caul in the Old English sense of ‘‘cap,”’
‘‘cover,’’ or ‘‘surrounding membrane’’) torn
open and devoured by the divine displeasure.
The other proposed occurrence, Job 28:15,
should be related to the Akkadian sag/kru, He-
brew sagur (q.v.) the shortened form of Akk.
hurasu sakru *‘pure gold.’’

sigar. Cage with hooks. (Cf. Akkadian Sigaru
‘‘cage."’) Depicts a “‘cage with hooks’’ with
which Jehoiachin like a caged lion was brought to
Nebuchadnezzar (Ezk 19:9).

masger. Enclosure, dungeon, builder of bul-
warks. This noun hides two roots: (1) From Ak-
kadian Sigaru, a loan word from Sumerian sigar
‘‘door with a bar’’ (cf. Egyptian tikar *‘fortified
gateway; (2) From Akkadian sekéru (see
above); the former is (masgér) is used figura-
tively to depict the imprisonment of God’s
enemies (Isa 24:22) and the release of his people
from spiritual bondage (Isa 42:7 cf. Ps 142:7
(H 8]). The latter denotes the artisans or en-
gineers, who were carried off into exile, who
could have provided defense bulwarks against
the captors (II Kgs 24:14, 16; Jer 24:1; 29:2).

misgeret. Border, rim, fortress. misgeret 1s
also employed with two meanings: (1) ‘‘for-
tress,’ ‘“‘bulwark’’ (II Sam 22:46; Mic 7:17) and
(2) ‘‘border,’’ ‘‘rim,’’ forming some part of the
table of showbread (Ex 25:25, 27: 37:12, 14) and
of the wheeled vessels of Solomon's temple
(I Kgs 7:28ff.; II Kgs 16:17).

Bibliography: Marrassini, Paolo, Formazione
del lessico dell'edilizia militare nel semitico di
Siria, Florence: University Press, 1971, pp.
68-70.

R.D.P.

1463 "2D (sgr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1463a “9938 (sagrir) steady,

rain (Prov 27:15).

persistent

"48 (sagrir). See no. 1463a.

1464 "% (sad) stocks, for confining feet of
culprits (Job 13:27; 33:11). Probably
these were not wooden blocks in the form
of stocks of colonial days, but more gener-
ally shackles around the ankles.

1465 e5b (s*dém): Sodom.

A city on the southern end of the Dead Sea, it
marked the southeastern geographical limits of
the Canaanites on a boundary which started from
Gaza on the southwest.

618

1466 58 (sadin)

1467 “5b (sdr).

Sodom was apparently located in a fertile area,
as evidenced by Lot’s choice of it as his dwelling
place (Gen 13:10ff.). It no doubt became an 1tm-
portant commercial center and therefore the
coveted object of powerful kings, a factor which
may lie behind the famous battle described in
Gen 14. Its precise location 1s quite uncertain.
Some have held that it is covered by the shallow
waters in the southern embayment of the Dead
Sea (J. P. Harland, ‘‘Sodom and Gomorrah,’’ BA
VI, 1943, pp. 41-52). The view that the hill site
Bab ed Dhr& was a shmine of the cities of the
plain 1s defended by Paul Lapp (**B4b ed Dhra’
Tomb A 76,’’ BASOR 189: p. 14). See Smick,
Archaeology of the Jordan Valley, pp. 48-51. For
Sodom in the Ebla Tablets, see Freedman, D.N.,
BA 41:149-159.

Sodom is best remembered, however (together
with Gomorrah), as a standing example of God’s
judgment against unbridled sin (Gen 18-19; cf.
II Pet 2:6; Jude 7). Accordingly, Moses warned
Israel that apostasy can bring on destructions ofa
like intensity (Deut 29:22; cf. 32:32). The
prophets repeatedly compared Israel’s wanton
sin and apostasy to the sin of Sodom (Isa 1:19ff.;
3:9; Jer 23:14; Lam 4:6; Ezk 16:46ff.; Amos 4:11).
Had not the Lord left a remnant in Israel, they
would have utterly penshed as Sodom and
Gomorrah (Isa 1:9). But only in two places is the
destruction of Admah and Zeboim the smaller
cities of the plain mentioned—Deut 29:23 [H 22]
and Hosea 11:8. It would seem that Hosea was
referring to the book of Deuteronomy!

Jesus similarly characterized his hearers (Lk
10:12) and predicted that at his return the world
would be as in the days of Sodom and Gomorrah
(Lk 17:29f.).

Sodom and Gomorrah are mentioned in the re-
cently found Ebla tablets according to prelimi
nary reports. Apparently they were at various
times in alliance with the great kingdom to the
north. This may give a logical reason for the raid
of the eastern kings against the southern cities in
the somewhat later times of Abraham.

Bibliography: Smick, E. B., Archaeology of
the Jordon Valley, Baker, 1973.

R.D.P

linen wrapper, cloak (Prov
31:24; Jud 14:12-13; Isa 3:23).

Assumed root of the following.

1467a “5D (séder) arrangement, order
(Job 10:22).

1467b masw (s&déra) tow, rank of sol-
diers (II Kgs 11:15=II Chr 23:14),
architectural term (I Kgs 6:9).

1467c }3=9ons%e% (misd*rén) porch, — colon-

nade (Jud 3:23), meaning uncertain.

1468 “m2 (shr). Assumed root of the following.
1468a “8S (sahar) roundness (Song
7:3).
1468b "8D (sdhar) roundness. Occurs
only in phrase bét-hassohar ‘the
roundhouse,” name of a prison.

1469 3D (sig) I, move, go, turn back.

Derivative

1469a T33D (sig), 3° (sig) dross. (Note
by-form 3°’ (sig) ‘“‘movement.’’)

The primary meaning of the root is ‘‘turn
back.’’ It may be cognate with Arabic sdja ‘‘go
and come.’’ A second root (cf. the by-form sig
(Isa 17:11) is probably to be distinguished in Song
7:3, meaning ‘‘to fence,’’ a root known also in
Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic.

The root is usually employed in hostile con-
texts. Thus, Jeremiah predicts that Zedekiah’s
fnends will ultimately turn back from him (38:22)
and that Egypt, far from being a help to him, will
itself fall back before the forces of Nebuchadnez-
zar (46:5). Isaiah (42:17) and Zephaniah (1:6)
prophesy that the apostate idolators will be
turned back and thoroughly shamed.

The Psalmist (Ps 53:3 [H 4]) avows that the
natural heart condition of the unregenerate man
is one of turning aside from God. Like an apos-
tate Israel, it is in need of divine intervention, tf it
is to be saved (Ps 80:14-19).

sig, sig. Dross. Usually refer to that which ts
turned away or skimmed off in the refining pro-
cess (i.e. “‘dross”’ or ‘‘oxide’’; e.g. Isa 1:22, 25).
kesep sigim (Prov 26:23) ‘‘silver dross,’ can be
read k* sapsigi with enclitic mem, ‘‘as glaze,’ as
in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1792). The by-form Sig is
used euphemistically in | Kgs 18:27.

R.D.P.

1470 31D (sag) UI, fence about (Song 7:3; Isa
17:11).

321D (sugar). See no. 1462b.

1471 1D (swd). Assumed root of the following.

1471a tip (sdd) counsel, council,

assembly.(RSV occasionally reads
“gatherings,” “*company.’’)

The primary meaning of the word is ‘‘confiden-
tial speech’’ (cf. Arabic sd@'wada ‘‘speak se-
cretly’’), hence, ‘‘counsel.’’ The emphasis on
confidentiality marks a distinction between this
word and the more general ‘és@ (q.v.) *‘advice,”’
‘“counsel.”’

The word stresses that intelligent counsel can
be a key to good success (Prov 15:22). It is ex-
tended to indicate a circle of trusted intimates

619

1474 335 (sak)

who give their advice (Ps 55:14 [H 15]: 83:3
{H 4]). Hopefully, such friends will never stand
against a man (Job 19:19) or reveal confidences
(Prov 11:13; 20:19; 25:9).

The wise and upright man who walks in the
fear of the Lord will have God’s secret counsel
(Ps 25:14; Prov 3:32; Amos 3:7; cf. Job 15:8:
29:4). He will associate himself with others who
likewise fear God (Ps 89:7 [H 8]) and sing his
praises (Ps 111:1). He will disassociate himself
from evildoers (Gen 49:6; Jer 15:17) and pray for
deliverance from their evil machinations (Ps 64:2
[H 3}). God himself will oppose wicked councils
(Jer 23:18-22) and pour out his wrath upon their
members (Jer 6:11) so that they have no place
among the assembly of the righteous (Ezk 13:9).

Bibliography: Thomas, D. W., ‘*The Interpre-
tation of b*séd in Job 29:4," JBL 65:63-66.
THAT, II, pp. 144-47.

1472 ™D (swh). Assumed root of the following.

1472a MD (sit) vesture (Gen 49:11,
only).

1472b MIO «= (masweh) veil (Ex 34:33,
only).

1473 mid (swh). Assumed root of the following.

1473a ommp (siha) offal (Isa 5:25.
only).

1474 33D (suk) IJ, anoint.

Derivative
1474a TON (asuk) small oil jug.

The root means primarily ‘anoint,’ **pour, in
anointing,’ a meaning found also in Akkadian
sak. AS a pouring, it differs from its most com-
mon synonym m@asah which includes the tdea of
‘*smearing’’ or ‘‘spreading.”’

This root is to be distinguished from the
homonymic sik II, ‘“‘hedge in,”’ (q.v.) and prob-
ably from still a third root (only Pilpel) meaning
‘instigate,’ ‘‘incite’’ (cf. Tigrinya sdasdaka,
‘*move unceasingly,” *‘stir’’), found in Isa 9: 11
[H 10]; 19:2.

suk may be used of the ordinary physical pro-
cess of anointing the body with olive oil, particu-
larly after bathing (I] Sam 12:20), for especially
fragrant effect (Ruth 3:3). It was often used for
medicinal needs (Ezk 16:9; cf. Lk 10:34). A sym-
bol of gladness, it could be mark of hospitality
and consideration (II Chr 28:15; cf. Lk 7:46).

suk also designates the pouring of the purest
and most fragrant anointing oils, specially mixed
for holy use. This holy oil was reserved for Aaron
and his sons and for the sacred precincts where
they ministered. The entire set of regulations is
replete with spiritual lessons for the New Testa-
ment priesthood of believers (see II Cor 2:14—16:
I Pet 2:5-9).

1475 330 (sitk)

’asuk. Small oil jug. The derivative ‘dsiak is
found only with regard to the cruse which the
widow gave to Elisha (II Kgs 4:2).

R.D.P.

1475 30 (suk) I, hedge, fence about.
Derivative

147Sa tram (m<stuka) hedge.

The primary meaning of the word conveys the
idea of putting up a hedge or a fence. It is to be
differentiated from two homonyms, one meaning
‘incite,’ ‘instigate,’ found only in Isa 9:10; 19:2
and the more common word ‘‘anoint”’ (see sik I).
suk Il is probably a by-form of sak I “*hedge in”
(cf. m* suka, hedge).

The twin roots sak and sak are found but four
times in the oT (Job 1:10; 3:23; 38:8: Hos 2:6
[H 8]). They describe Job’s being hedged about
with good and God's control of the bounds of life
and history.

m‘saka. Hedge. The derivative occurs only
once, as does m‘ suka. The writer of Proverbs
(15:19) distinguishes between the way of the
righteous (hence industrious) man (which ts like a
good highway where progress can be made) and
that of the lazy man, which is as a thorn hedge
(m suka). Micah (7:4) laments the sinful corrup-
tion of God's people, noting that the best of them
is no better than a thorn hedge (m‘ sika).

R.D.P.
1476 DID (sus) I, swallow or swift (Isa 38:14:
Jer 8:7).
1477 oD (sas) HH, horse. (When feminine,
mpid RSV = “‘mare’’; ASV = ‘‘steed.’’)

This word for horse, which appears throughout
the Semitic family, ts commonly taken to be of
Indo-European origin (cf. padrdsh *‘horse(man),**
‘*(war)-horse’’ and Egyptian ssmt ‘‘horse’’).

Though attested in the Fertile Crescent about
the beginning of the second millennium s.c., the
horse’s frequency increased with its employment
in the war chariots of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni
during the Middle Bronze Period. From Syria-
Palestine in this period the horse and chariot
were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos.

The horse was commonly utilized for military
purposes (Ex 15:19). Trade also flourshed with
horses (Gen 47:17; Ezk 27:14), Solomon, in par-
ticular, being a middleman in the horse and
chariot business (I Kgs 10:28-29).

Theologically, horses figure in the prophecies
of eschatological times when the Davidic king
will ride on horse and chant before an obedient
and righteous people (Jer 17:25; 22:4). The es-
chatological battles are depicted in terms of the

620

1478 *MID (sap)

war horse (Ezk 38:4, 15; 39:20); yet Israel will no
longer trust in horses (Hos 14:3 [H 4]), but in God
himself, for in the Day of the Lord all weaponry
will be useless (Zech 12:4).

The horse’s characteristics become examples
to the believer to put away stubbornness (Jer
8:6), lust (Jer 5:8), and insubmissiveness (Prov
26:3) and to put their trust in the Lord (Ps 20:7
[H 8}).

R.D.P.

come to an end, cease.

Derivatives

AID «~(sép) end (synonymous with
gés, Eccl 3:11; Joel 2:20).

1478b =MbIO (sipa) storm wind (e.g. Isa

5:28; Hos 8:7).

The basic meaning of this verb is reflected in
ASV, RSV, whereas KJv has ‘‘be consumed.’’ It is
used of God's judgment (Ps 73:19; Jer 8:13; Amos
3:15), especially in the end of things (Isa 66:17;
Zeph 1:2f.), and of the unending annual obser-
vation of Purim (Est 9:28).

1478a

R.D.P.
1479 3D (sap) reed, water plant. (kjv ‘flags,’
‘*weeds’’: aSv, RSV ‘‘reeds,’” '‘weeds.’’)

This noun is primarily a general term for marsh
plants. It can also designate rushes (Isa 19:6),
seaweed (Jon 2:5 [H 6]) or marsh reeds (Ex 2:3,
5). Etymologically, it is related to Egyptian twfi
**marsh plant,’’ ‘‘papyrus.”’

The word enters prominently into the problem
of the route of the Exodus in the territory of yam
sip ‘‘sea of reeds.’’ In a narrow sense, this term
refers to the area of the Exodus crossing, possi-
bly either the Bitter Lakes (southern crossing) or
Lake Timsah (central crossing). More broadly, it
refers to the area including the modern Gulf of
Suez (Num 33:10-11) and the Gulf of Aqaba
(I Kgs 9:26). The ksv ‘‘Red Sea’’ stems from the
Lxx which included a still wider area. There is no
warrant for the idea that because Israel crossed
the Sea of Reeds that the water was shallow and
no miracle was involved. Any deep sea may have
reeds on its edge and both the Bitter Lakes and
Lake Timsah are large and deep bodies of water.

Theologically, yam sip reminds the believer of
the goodness of God (Neh 9:9) who has loosed his
people from bondage (Josh 24:6), leads his people
in triumph over their enemies (Ex 15:4, 22),
guides them through the wilderness experiences
of life (Deut 2:1) and has placed them in the land
of promised inheritance (Josh 4:23ff.).

R.D.P.

1480 "35 (sur) turn aside, depart.

Derivative
1480a t85D (sara) turning aside, defection.

The primary meaning of the root is ‘‘to turn
aside.’ It appears to be a distinctively Northwest
Semitic word, being attested particularly in He-
brew and Phoenician. Intransitive in the basic
stem, it 1s accordingly frequently found with
many prepositions, yielding such ideas as ‘‘turn
aside from/into,’ and ‘‘withdraw from.”’

The verbal root occurs 191 times. In many
cases it is a simple verb of motion, the act of
turning aside (Ex 3:3-4; Jud 4:18: Ruth 4:1) or
departing (Num 12:10).

The idea of departing could also involve
spiritual issues. Thus, Samson ‘‘*knew not that
the Lord had departed from him’* (Jud 16:20).
The Lord departed from Saul"’ ( I Sam 16:14;
28:16). Tragically, it was said repeatedly of Israel
and its leaders that they did not depart ‘‘from the
sins of Jeroboam’’ (II Kgs 10:31; 13:2, 6, 11;
14:24: 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:22: cf. 3:3). God com-
plained against Jerusalem that the heart of his
people had departed from him (Ezk 6:9). Unfor-
tunately, those who had ‘‘departed not from fol-
lowing the Lord’’ (II Kgs 18:6) were all too few.

The root is often used of Israel's apostasy. In
many cases it is translated ‘‘turn aside/away”’
(e.g. Ex 32:8; Deut 9:12; 11:16). Conversely,
‘‘not to turn aside’’ was a way of affirming a
man’s steadfastness before the Lord (I Kgs
22:43). Such a course of following strictly the will
of God is frequently depicted by wedding the root
to the familiar right hand—left hand motif. Thus,
it was said of Josiah that he ‘‘did not turn aside to
the nght hand, nor to the left’’ (II Kgs 22:2; cf.
Deut 2:27; 5:32 [H 29]: Josh 1:7).

In the Hiphil stem, the meaning *“‘remove’’ is
most common. Asa removes Maacah for her con-
tinued idolatry (II Chr 15:16). Hezekiah removes
the places and cult objects of idolatry (II Kgs
18:4; II Chr 30:14). God's people are urged to
remove or ‘‘put away’’ those things that will do
spiritual harm to them: strange gods (Gen 35:2),
all evil (Isa 1:16), wine (I Sam 1:14), false ways
(Ps 119:29), and false worship (Amos 5:21-23).

The root is also found frequently in the wisdom
literature, being used of the most basic spiritual
issues. Job (15:30) is reminded that the wicked
will ultimately perish at God’s command. Godly
wisdom and the fear of the Lord, however, turn
one aside from the snares of death (Prov 13:14;
14:27). This is to be learned thoroughly in one’s
youth so that it will become a pattern throughout
life (Prov 22:6).

Rather than turning aside from God's com-
mands and will for the life, the wise course of
action is ever to ‘‘fear the Lord and turn away
from evil’ (Prov 3:7, cf. 16:6, 17; Job 28:28; Ps
34:14 (H 15]; 37:27).

621

1481 *mID (sat) entice,

1483 nnd (saha)

sara. Turning aside, defection, rebellion. The
derivative sara also deals with man’s relation to
God and is used in two ways: (1) of any moral or
legal defection (Deut 19:16) and (2) of distinct
defection from God (Deut 13:5 [H 6]; Isa 31:6;
59:13; Jer 28:16; 29:32).
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 148-49.
R.D.P.

allure,
incite. (ASV, RSV similarly.)

instigate,

Etymological identifications with other Semitic
roots are doubtful. As opposed to pata ‘‘be sim-
ple,’ ‘‘deceive,’’ there is also the underlying idea
of cunningness in this root.

Most commonly the verb has an evil connota-
tion. David, who desired self-glorfication, was
easily enticed to number the people (I Chr 21:1).
The Assyrian officer besieging Jerusalem warns
the people that Hezekiah’s instruction to depend
solely on God is a false allurement (II Kgs 18:32).
Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, was labeled an inciter
and a political agitator, whose ulterior aim was
the enslavement and death of all the refugees of
Jerusalem (Jer 43:3).

Jezebel so ‘‘incites’’ Ahab to evil that his clos-
ing epitaph is that he surpassed everyone in doing
sin (I Kgs 21:25). Ahab learned well from
Jezebel, for he enticed Jehoshaphat, to whom he
was related by marriage, to go to war with him
against Ramoth-Gilead (II Chr 18:2). Jehoshaphat
should have heeded the scriptural warning
against being misdirected by family ties (Deut
13:6 [H 7]) or close friends (Jer 38:22). Despite
Jehoshaphat's folly, God had arranged to ‘“‘lure
away’ the enemy chariot captains who were on
the point of taking his life. He had learned what
the believer is ever to bear in mind. Although
God may allow him to be enticed, whenever the
righteous truly cries to God (II Chr 18:31), God
diverts him ‘‘from the mouth of distress’ (Job
36:16).

R.D.P.

MID (sat). See no. 1472a.

1482 sme (sdhab) drag (e.g. [1 Sam 17:13; Jer

49:20).
Derivative

mama (s‘haba) rag (Jer
12).

1482a 38:11-

1483 me (sdhad) serape (Ezk 26:4, only).

Derivative
1483a md (s*hi) offscouring (Lam
3:45).

mo (sfhi). See no. 1483a.

1484 wend (sahish)

1484 wend (sahish) grain that shoots up of itself
in the second year (II Kgs 19:29). Deriva-
tion uncertain.

1485 ANS (sdhap) prostrate (Prov 28:3; Jer
46:15).

1486 "MS (sahar) to about in trade.

Derivatives

1486a tame (sahar), Mp (sdhar) gain
from merchandise.

1486b fmamD (s*hord) merchandise (cf.
Akkadian sahirtu).

1486c imme (sdhéra) buckler.

1486d “me (mishar) merchandise.

1486e tnaMD (sdheret) stone used (with
marble) in paving (Est 1:6).

The root in its primary meaning ‘‘go around,”
‘“‘turn about/away’’ (cf. Akkadian sahdru and
Old Akkadian sihrum *‘rim’’) occurs infrequently
in the oT: more common is the participle séhér
‘*trader.”’

Etymological considerations comprise the
major problem with this root, as Speiser (see bib-
liography) has shown. Although the meanings of
the participial form and the verbal root are
thoroughly established, controversy exists as to
whether the primary meaning ‘‘to go around”’ is
to be understood in the five verbal occurrences
(Gen 34:10, 21; 42:34; Ps 38:10 [H 11]; Jer 14:18)
or whether the specialized meaning of the parti-
ciple *‘to trade’’ is to be felt. Speiser decides for
the former, Albright (see bibliography) and most
modern translations, for the latter.

A look at the contexts involved shows the
complexity of the problem. In the case of the
Jeremianic reference, it can be noted that al-
though one could argue the case for a debased
and exiled priesthood and prophetic class which
would ‘‘peddle their wares,’’ the primary mean-
ing makes as good or better sense. In either
understanding, the physical drought of Jere-
miah’s day was an outward sign of Judah’s
spiritual condition, a condition whose only end
could be the judgment of going off into captivity
and exile.

neither does the fact that the ancient Greek (sec-
ond century B.c.), Syriac (second century A.D.)
and Latin (fourth century A.D.) versions translat-
ing sdhar by the meaning ‘‘to trade’ argue for
their understanding, since by their time the root
meaning had fallen into disuse. Indeed, Speiser’s
conclusion that the primary meaning ts to be un-
derstood seems etymologically, syntactically,
and contextually more adequate. He 1s probably
right in suggesting that the infrequency of the
verbal root is due to the productiveness of sdbab
(q.v.) with similar basic meaning.

sahar, sahar. Gain from merchandise. s‘hora.
Merchandise. These three derivatives accord
with the later specialized nominal idea, usages
well established by comparison with the other
Semitic languages.

sohéra. Buckler. sodheret. Colored stones.
These two derivatives are rare. sdhéra ‘‘buck-
ler’’ (only in Ps 91:4), is usually understood as the
small shield used in closest combat or some type
of armor (cf. Akkadian sihirtu, tashirdtu ‘‘sur-
roundings’’), and is clearly related to the verbal
root. The origin of sdheret (only in Est 1:6)
‘‘precious/colored stones’’ of the *‘pavement’’ of
the palace like its Akkadian cognate sihru, 1s
obscure. Both may derive from the idea of
roundness. Perhaps the best evidence on the
meaning of sdheret in Est 1:6 would come from
the excavation of the Persian palaces of Susa.
The ‘‘pavement’’ if that is the precise meaning
included colored stones and sdheret according to
Esther. Excavations show much multicolored
glazed bricks used in the pavement and walls of
the palace of Darius (A. T. Olmstead, History of
the Persian Empire, Univ. of Chicago, 1948, pp.
169-71).

Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., ‘*‘The Verb
SHR in Genesis and Early Hebrew Movements,”
BASOR 163:36—54. Albright, W. F., *‘Some Re-
marks on the Meaning of the Verb Shr in
Genesis,» BASOR 164:28.

R.D.P.

name (sdheret). See no. 1486e.
0 (sig). See no. 1469a.

The Psalmist’s penitential plea can scarcely be = 1487 10 (siwan) Siwan, the third month. For

reconciled with any economic concept. The Pelal
stem used here must mean ‘‘my heart palpitates

(throbs),’” as almost all versions agree (note 1488

especially, Italian ‘I! mio cuore palpita’’). GKC,
p. 151 holds that the Pelal stem characteristically
refers to quick succession in time, thus ‘‘to go
quickly.”’

While the fact that the root meaning was not
lost sight of as late as the tenth and seventh cen-
turies B.c. does not prove the necessity of adopt-
ing it for the three earlier occurrences in Genesis,

622

the names of other months, see 613b.

39D (siinai) Sinai.

The name of the mountain before which Israel
encamped as God through Moses entered into
covenant with them (Ex 19-24). Sinai is tra-
ditionally located at Jebel Musa in the rugged
mountains in the southern part of the Sinai Pen-
nisula. Jebel Musa rises to 7500 feet, its neighbor
Jebel Katherina to 8500 feet. *‘In winter, the high-

lands have relatively abundant rainfall and are
frequently snowclad, seeding the northward flow-
ing wadis and underground channels” (E. M.
Blaiklock, Zondervan Pictorial Bible Atlas, Zon-
dervan, 1969, p. 28).

At Sinai the people were given instructions
concerning the tabernacle and priesthood (Ex
25-31, 34-40) and the Levitical regulations. Here,
too, Israel’s first great spiritual failure took place
(Ex 32-33; Lev 10).

Theologically, Sinai has been of great signifi-
cance to Judaism as the place where both the oral
and written law were given. More important still,
is what Sinai teaches about the person of God.
The One of Sinai (Jud 5:5; Ps 68:8 [H 9}), is seen
to be the omnipotent and holy God who leads
forth his redeemed people (Deut 33:2) from Sinai,
his holy abode (Ps 68:17 {H 18]) in great splendor
and triumph to the land of promise (Hab 3:2-9).

The New Testament enlarges upon the place of
Sinai by stressing that it symbolized the bondage
of the old covenant, a bondage taken away by the
work of Christ who has effected the new coven-
ant of liberty and promise through his blood (Gal
4:25ff.; Heb 12:18ff.).

R.D.P.

1489 “9D (sir) I, pot (e.g. Ex 16:3; 1 Kgs
7:45),

1490 “*D (sir) II, thorn (Isa 34:13), hook
(Amos 4:2).

3@ (sak), 30 (sdk). See nos. 1492c,d.

1491 msao (sikkiat) Tabernacle. (asv_ similar,
RSV sakkuth.)

This word occurs once in the Old Testament, in
Amos 5:26, along with kiyyién (q.v.). Although
the consonants skt may be those of *‘taberna-
cle,’’ as both ksv and asv render it, the presence
of this word with Ayn in certain Mesopotamian
texts, both referring to the star god, Saturn,
makes it seem likely that sikkut here is a proper
name referring to such a deity.

Both sikkat and kiyin have apparently been
revocalized with the vowels from shigqis
abomination. Whether the words were actually
pronounced as revocalized, or were simply read
as shiqqus iS a moot question. The fact that
YHWH vocalized with the vowels from 'adonai
is pronounced as ‘adonai gives some weight to
the latter view. (See a similar treatment of the
vowels of bdshet.)

It is clear from Mesopotamian myths that the
stars represented the pantheon of gods [the
cuneiform sign for Ishtar, the queen of heaven
(Jer 7:18, etc.) was a star]. Thus to become a
vassal of Assyria and later, of Babylon, meant to

623

1492 390 (sakak)

serve the ‘‘host of heaven’’ as gods. This is made
clear in the accounts of Manasseh (II Kgs 21:3, 5)
who worshiped these deities as a part of his sub-
servience, and Josiah, who repudiated them as a
part of his revolt against such subservience
(I] Kgs 23:4—5).

Amos is saying that the result of the Israelites’
forsaking their trust in God for a political and
religious deal with their oppressors will result not
in deliverance, but destruction.

[The nT refers to this difficult verse (Acts 7:43)
taking it a bit differently from the Hebrew of
Amos 5:26. It parallels the ‘‘ sikkar of your king”
(or Molech) and *‘the star of your god,”’ interpret-
ing the latter deity as Remphan which is appar-
ently a title of the star god Saturn. Then it refers
to both the sikkat and kiyan as *‘figures’’ or **im-
ages’’ which the Jews had worshiped. In this
formulation, the *‘sikkat of Molech’’ may indeed
be a ‘‘tabernacle’’ or ‘shrine’ a ‘‘sukkat of
Molech,’’ but the word for ‘‘shrine,”’ sukkar,
may have been chosen as a word play on a
Babylonian name of the star god Saturn, sikkat.
R.L.H.]

J.N.O.

miod (sukk6ét). See no. 1492e.

1492 398 (sakak) block, stop the approach, shut

off, cover.
Derivatives

1492a 30% 8 (masak), "90% (m*suka)
covering.

1492b TID «(masak) covered structure.

1492c tao (sak) multitude.

1492d +30 (sdk), MDD (sakka) covert,
thicket, booth. See also no. 1491.

1492e 3 tmiaD (sakkot) Succoth (place
name).

1492f 3305 (sdkék) covered structure,

only used in Nah 2:6.

The basic meaning of the root is that of block-
ing, or stopping up something. Cognates exist in
Akkadian (sakdku ‘*(be) choke(d) up’’) and
Arabic (sakka ‘choke up’’). A by-form, sdkak
‘cover,’ occurs in Ex 33:22. A homophonic
root, ‘‘weave,’’ ‘‘shape,’’ may possibly underlie
Job 10:11 and Psalm 139:13. (But cf. Dahood,
AB, Psalms II who derives it from sd@kak
‘cover’ with b meaning ‘‘from’’ ‘protected
from birth.’’)

This important root is productive in both a
physical and figurative sense, particularly with
the idea of ‘‘covering.”’ In the former sense, it
was frequently used in the building activities rela-
tive to the sacred places of worship. The
cherubim’s wings were to cover the mercy seat in
the tabernacle (Ex 37:9) and the temple (I Chr

1493 *930 (sakal)

28:18). A veil screened off the ark and the mercy
seat which were located within the holy of holies
(Ex 40:3, 21). The participial form yields the de-
nominative sdkék, a covering erected to protect
besiegers from the defenders’ missiles (Nah 2:5
(H 6)).

In a figurative sense, it pictures God’s protec-
tion for the one who comes to him for refuge (Ps
5:11 [H 12}; cf. 91:4; 140:7 [H 8]).

masak. Covering. Used most notably in con-
nection with the several entrance screens in the
tabernacle complex (Ex 39:34—40).

m°suka. Covering. Refers to the prince of
Tyre’s jeweled surroundings, a description that
finds ultimate understanding in the events of
Eden and the person and work of Satan (Ezk
28: 13ff.).

masak. Covered way (or place). Found in
II Kgs 16:18 where it designates ‘the covered
way for the sabbath’ which was removed in the
remodeling that followed Ahaz’s apostasy.
Another view is that shabbat is to be vocalized
shebet (from yashab) and read as *‘throne,’* ‘the
covered place of the throne.”

sak. Multitude (Ps 42:4 (H 5]). This word is
difficult. The renderings of the various English
versions (KJV “‘multitude,” ASv, RSV ‘‘throng’’)
are by no means certain. Dahood’s ‘*barrier’’
(i.e. Separating the temple enclosure from the
court of the gentiles) is not without merit (see
AB, Psalms I, p. 257).

sok. Covert. Occurs four times with the idea of
a protective covering, whether in the natural
world (Ps 10:9; Jer 25:38) or figuratively, of the
person and work of God (Ps 27:5; 76:2 [H 3)).

suka. Covert. Designates a temporary abode
(II Sam 11:11; Job 36:20; 38:40). In a context of
judgment Isaiah (1:8) employs the word to picture
the devastation and depopulation of Israel, be-
cause he foresees God’s people reduced to living
in temporary shelters. Figuratively, God pro-
vides shelter for the believer's temporary afflic-
tions (Ps 31:20 [H 21]).

Most commonly, it is used in connection with
the Feast of Tabernacles. Once a year the Israel-
ite left his home to tabernacle in a ‘‘booth,’* made
from tree branches (Lev 23:34ff.). The feast
marked not only the joy and thankfulness of a
grateful people for God’s provision at the end of
the agricultural season (Lev 23:39-41), but was to
be a perpetual reminder (Deut 16:13ff.) to the
people of God's care for his own whom he had
rescued from Egypt during those long years in the
wilderness (Lev 23:42-43). The feast was closed
by a day of rest, featured by a holy convocation,
marking not only the climax of the religious year
but symbolizing the rest of the believer in his God

624

1493 *935 (sakal) be foolish.

(Lev 23:39). Prophetically, the feast finds final
fulfillment in that grand day when God will raise
up the fallen booth of David (Amos 9:11) and give
shelter to his repentant, redeemed, and re-
gathered people (Isa 4:6).

sukkéot. Succoth. Marks the name of two im-
portant biblical sites. The first was located in Gad
(Josh 13:27) near the Jordan Valley, usually iden-
tified with Tell Deir ‘Alla, two miles north of the
Jabbok River. Succoth also names the site where
the Hebrews first stopped in their Exodus from
Egypt after leaving Ramses (Ex 12:37—13:20),
usually equated with Tell el-Maskhutah in the
Wadi Tumilat.
Bibliography: TDOT, VII, pp. 369-74.
R.D.P.

Does not occur
in the Qal.
Derivatives

1493a +539 (sakal) fool.

1493b 9950 (sekel) folly (only in Eccl
10:6).

1493c tms93D (siklat) folly, foolishness.

1493d moo (siklar) folly (only in Eccl

1:17).

The verb is used in the Niphal, Piel, and
Hiphil. It must be distinguished from the root
Sadkal *‘to be wise” (q.v.). Robert Gordis has
noted a considerable number of words possessing
mutually contradictory meanings (‘‘Studies in
Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Meanings,’ JQR
27:33-58.

The verb usually expresses lack in a moral or
spiritual sense. Thus Saul acted as a fool when he
usurped the Levitical prerogative in offering sac-
rifices. There is more involved than simply being
an intellectual fool—Saul displayed his utter lack
of spiritual comprehension (I Sam 13:13).

[The verb is mostly used in contexts where a
man acts out of fear and thus behaves rashly,
rather than acting wisely out of a confidence
based in God. Thus David recognizes that he
acted foolishly in taking the census of Israel in
order to determine his military strength. It was a
foolish act because he sought his security apart
from God (II Sam 24:10; I Chr 21:8). This practi-
cal atheism the Babylonians used to call “‘living
in a ramanishu,”’ i.e. living by oneself, on one’s
own resources, without dependence on God. But
this is the essence of sin. Saul recognizes his own
foolish behavior toward David, which was
caused by his unfounded fear of him (I Sam
26:21). Laban accuses Jacob of acting foolish by
slipping off at night rather than giving Laban op-
portunity to give them a proper send-off. Of
course Jacob acted out of fear (Gen 31:28). Ha-

nani, the seer, accuses Asa of playing the fool
because out of fear he bribed the Syrians to at-
tack Israel instead of relying on the Lord (1 Chr
16:9-10).

David prays that Ahithophel’s counsel will lead
to the dire consequences that come from hasty,
rash behavior. His prayer was answered when
Ahithophel committed suicide (II Sam 15:31ff).
God likewise turned the knowledge of pagan di-
viners into the calamity that stems from such be-
havior when he sent Cyrus to destroy Babylon
(Isa 44:25). B.K.w.]

sakal. Fool, foolish. Jeremiah’s generation
was foolish and without understanding, and yet it
was more than a mere lack of understanding
(5:21). Spiritual apostasy is foolishness. This ts
apparent when people are wise to evil but devoid
of the knowledge to do good (Jer 4:22). Eccl un-
derscores the spiritual and particularly moral
misfit who demonstrates to all that he is a fool
(10:3, et al.).

sekel. Folly. It is a moral perversion when
folly is dignified and those of no account are ele-
vated to leadership while those to whom honor is
due are demeaned (Eccl 10:6).

siklat. Folly, foolishness. Consideration of the
way of wisdom and the way of folly raises
philosophic questions (Eccl 2:3, 12-13). In vv.
1-11 folly appears as an unrestricted accumula-
tion of pleasures and things. But, as gdhelet
gained maturity, he found the answer, **Wisdom
excels folly as light excels darkness.’* Wisdom is
the way of the moral and spiritual man while folly
is the way of a man with twisted values. One
other association of siklit (foolishness) with
madness (Eccl 7:25f.) is pictured by the sinner
who allows himself to be entrapped by an im-
moral woman. The one who would be wise and
pleasing to God escapes from her clutches.
Bibliography: Blanck, H. S., ‘*Folly,” in IB,
vol. I], pp. 303-4. Harris, R. L., **Proverbs,”
Wycliffe Bible Commentary, Moody, 1962, pp.
553-4. Walker, W. L., ‘*Fool, Folly,” in ISBE,
vol. II, pp. 1124-25.
L.G.

myosp (siklt). See no. 1493c.

1494 395 (sakan) I, be of use, service, profit.

Derivative
1494a tnigapI «(misk*ndt) storage house.

The root means basically **be of use.”’ The par-
ticipial form sokén **steward,’’ marking the name
of an important governmental office (Isa 22:15),
is known predominantly in Northwest Semitic.

The root meaning can be well seen in the dis-
courses of Job. Eliphaz (15:3) accuses him of

625

1496 *135 (sakan) I, be poor.

1499 *m3D (sakat) be silent.

1503 *mbe (sala) H,

1503 *90 (sala)

speaking words that are of no use. He reminds
Job (22:2) that the wisest of men can not ulti-
mately benefit God, so that God really has no
ulterior motive in testing Job: nevertheless, the
wise course of action for a good and peaceful life
is to place oneself at God's service (22:21). Elihu
(34:9ff.) corrects Job’s attitude that it is of no use
to attempt to be pleasing to God (cf. 35:3).

The root also allows various shades of mean-
ing, such as : God's superintending care of the
believer (Ps 139:3), the woodsman’'s endangering
of himself in the hewing of trees (Eccl 10:9), or
Balaam’s donkey’s protest that he has never been
accustomed to mocking his master (Num 22:30).

misk'nét. Storage house, magazine. Designates
a place of service, particularly storage cities,
whether for Pharaoh (Ex 1:11) or Solomon (I Kgs
9:19), whether in Napthali (II Chr 16:4) or Judah
(II Chr 17:12).

R.D.P.
1495 *190 (sakan) H, incur, danger. This
verb occurs only once, in the Niphal (Eccl

10:9).

Occurs only
in Isa 40:20, in the Pual stem. Perhaps arti-
fically derived from misken (q.v.).

1497 *"336 (sakar) I, shut up, stop up. This

verb occurs in the Niphal (Ps 63:12; Gen
8:2) and the Piel (Isa 19:4). Apparently re-
lated to sdgar (q.v.).

1498 "35 (sakar) Hl, hire (Ezra 4:5, only).

The much more common form is sdkar
(q.v.).

Occurs only in
the Hiphil (Deut 27:9, only).

"p> (sal). See no. 1507a.

1500 *89D (sala’) weigh. This verb occurs

only once, in the Pual (Lam 4:2).

1501 *895 (salad) spring, leap for joy. This

verb occurs only once, in the Piel stem
(Job 6:10).

1502 "95 (sala) I, make light of, toss aside (Ps

119:118; Lam 1:15).
mop (sela). See no. 1506a.
weigh, balance. This

verb occurs only once, in the Pual (Job
28:16).

1504 989D (sallén)
1504 39D (sall6n) obrier. Root uncertain.

1505S m95 (salah) forgive, pardon.

Derivatives
1505a tmp (sallah) ready to forgive, for-
giving.

1505b tam%D «(s‘lihad) forgiveness.

This verb, together with a few others, such as
bara’ *‘to create,’’ is used in Scripture solely of
God. salah is used of God's offer of pardon and
forgiveness to the sinner. Never does this word in
any of its forms refer to people forgiving each
other.

The same root appears in Uganitic (UT 19: no.
1757) and Akkadian, but without any apparent
connection to the form under consideration. The
Akkadian saldhu means ‘sprinkle’ in cultic and
medical contexts.

One of the greatest evangelical notes in the ot
is struck by this word: forgiveness and pardon
from the very God of forgiveness. It also raises
the greatest problem as well: What was the na-
ture of this forgiveness? Hebrews seems to state
just as categorically that oT forgiveness was inef-
fective and impossible (Heb 9:9; 10:4).

The resolution is clear. In the first place,
Jehovah himself announces, in response to
Moses’ prayers for Israel, that he has forgiven
Israel at two of their darkest moments, the golden
calf incident and the murmuring at Kadesh
Barnea (Ex 34:9: Num 14:19-20).

In the second place, on the basis of Mosaic
legislation, real atonement and forgiveness were
available for all sins except those of the defiant
and unrepentant sinner (Num _ 15:30-31) who
‘despised the word of the Lord.’’ The claim is
made repeatedly (Lev 4:20, 26, 31, 35; 5:10, 13,
16, 18, 26; 19:22) that when atonement was made,
the sinner’s sins were forgiven. For all such sins
as lying, theft, perjury, fraud (Lev 6:1-7
[H 5;20-26}), or those “‘against any of the Com-
mandments of the Lord” (Lev 4:2), it was possi-
ble to obtain divine pardon. Rather than being
excluded, these sins were specifically included in
God's provision for the oT believer along with
‘*sins of ignorance’’ (Num 15:25, 26, 28). As if to
emphasize the point, it is stated repeatedly that
on the Day of Atonement, “‘all the iniquities’’ and
sins of Israel were atoned (Lev 16:21, 30, 32, 34).
But the individual Israelites had to properly
‘‘humble themselves’’ in true confession (Lev
16:29, 31). This is the kind of forgiveness which
Solomon prayed would be available to all as he
led a prayer of dedication for the temple (I Kgs
8:30, 34, 39, 50, and its parallel in II Chr 6). Amos
requested it for Judah (7:2) as did Daniel (9:19).
However, at times Israel was not pardoned (Deut
29:19; Lam 3:42).

626

So exciting was the openness of this offer of
forgiveness that Isaiah (55:7) featured it as the
heart of his invitation to salvation. So ready was
their Lord to forgive, that Isaiah's listeners must
forget ali notions based on the reluctance of men
to forgive each other.

The experience of forgiveness in the oT was
personally efficacious, although objectively the
basis and grounds of that forgiveness awaited the
death of Christ. Other terms used for forgiveness
stressed the ideas of wiping out or blotting out the
memory of the sin (maha), covering or conceal-
ing the record of the sin (kasd), lifting up and
removal of sin (ndsa'), passing by of sin (‘abar),
and pardoning on the basis of a substitute (Adpar
in the Piel q.v.).

Three texts in Jeremiah, 31:34; 33:8; 50:20,
celebrate a future forgiveness of our Lord in con-
nection with the New Covenant and ultimately
his second coming.

sallah. Ready to forgive, forgiving. The only
biblical example of this adjectival form occurs in
Ps 86:5, which describes the Lord as kind and
forgiving.

s‘liha. Forgiveness. There are three occur-
rences of this noun form. In Neh 9:17 it is used in
the plural as a description of God: ‘*Thou art a
God ready to forgive’ (Rsv), while in Ps 130:4 and
Dan 9:9 tt is used as the subject, forgiveness,
which is available from the God to whom for-
giveness alone belongs.

Bibliography: Freeman, Hobart, *‘The Prob-
lem of the Efficacy of Old Testament Sacrifices,”
BETS 5:73-79. Richardson, TWB, pp. 85-86.
THAT, II, pp. 150-59.

W.C.K.

1506 95D (salal) I, cast up, lift up, exalt.

Derivatives

1506a TM25 (sela) lift up, exalt.

1506b tm?2D (sél*la) mound.

1506c ta¥D (sullam) ladder.

1506d tor (mésilla), 999D% (masiil)
highway.

The primary meaning of the words seems to be
‘‘cast up.’’ Since the meaning of the Hebrew verb
is unparalleled in other occurrences of the root in
Semitic, it is probably a denominative from Ak-
kadian sulu “highway”’ (from salu ‘‘to throw
up/off/out’’).

The Hebrew verb is used chiefly for figurative
expressions, especially in hostile contexts.
Pharaoh lifts himself up against God's people (Ex
9:17). Job decries his treatment by God (19:12)
and people alike (30:12).

The theme of casting up a highway 1s utilized
by the prophets. The figure, derived from build-

ing a road higher than the adjacent terrain, is
natural. Cf. our English word highway which
shows a similar semantic development. While
Jeremiah (18:15) lamented that Israel had left
‘‘God’s highway’’ to follow false bypaths, Isaiah
(57:14; 62:10) foresaw the time when all obstacles
would be removed from the path of a repentant
Israel, returning on the highway to Zion.

sol’la. Mound, siege rampart. (Cf. Egyptian
trr.f ‘‘siege mound.’’) This term is often em-
ployed by the prophets in contexts of judgment
(Jer 6:6; 32:24; 33:4; Ezk 17:17; Dan 11:15).

sullam. Ladder. Used of Jacob's ladder,
raised from earth to heaven (Gen 28:12). Some
would suggest the translation ‘‘stairway’’ and
liken the structure to a ziggurat, which is possi-
ble. However, there are other words for stair-
way, and ladders were used at a very early time
(cf. J. Mellaart, Catal Huyuk, McGraw-Hill,
1967, p. 56).

m‘silla, maslal. Highway, raised way. Whether
of a simple road (Num 20:19) or the steps of Sol-
omon's temple and palace (II Chr 9:11) or pro-
phetically, the highway of the returning remnant
(Isa 11:16). Metaphorically, it describes the way
of the upright (Prov 16:17) or the courses of the
stars (Jud 5:20).

selah. [A term of unknown meaning, probably
of musical significance, occurring 71 times in the
Pss and also in Hab 3:3, 9, 13. Many are the
conjectures as to its meaning, but nothing certain
is known. Other terms also probably musical but
of uncertain meaning are, ‘Glamét, sh°minit,
gittit, mahdlat l*‘annét, n°gindt, nhilét, hig-
gayon, shiggayéon, lamm®nasséah maskil, mik-
tam. Other enigmatic terms perhaps refer to
tunes. See ZEPB IV, p. 945, also commentaries
and introductions, R.L.H.|

R.D.P.

mme%p = (s*l?ha). See no. 1505b.

1507 %%5 (sil) II. Assumed root of the following.

1507a 69D «(sal) basket (e.g. Gen 40:18:
Jud 6:19).
1507b = MPO%D (salsilla) basket, perhaps
Shoot, branch (Jer 6:9).
pop (suallam). See no. 1506c.

moo (salsilla). See no. 1507b.
1508 ys (s/‘). Assumed root of the following.
1508a tp9p (sela‘) rock, cliff. (AsV, RSV
similarly.)

This noun is related to an Arabic root sala‘a
‘split’ (hence sil‘un ‘‘fissure’’). AS opposed to
sur ‘‘rock,’’ (with which it is often used inter-
changeably, which lays emphasis on a more mas-

627

1510 *H2D (salap)

sive rock; cf. Aramaic tér ‘‘mountain’’), it refers
basically to a cleft in a rock, thence a rock or
cliff.

Though the word is used of purely natural
rocks (Jud 6:20) or cliffs (Jer 13:4), the physical
object often becomes a symbol of spiritual truths.
Perhaps the best known case is found in Num
20:8ff., when Moses in disbelief and rebellion
against God's instruction took it upon himself, in
reprimanding the people to strike the rock twice
(cf. Num 27:14).

Like sur, sela‘ symbolizes God himself as a
place of security and refuge (see Ps 71:3) for the
one who fears him and lives righteously before
him (Ps 31:3 [H 4]). The figure of God as a rock
becomes typical for the New Testament teach-
ings relative to Christ's person and walk (cf. | Pet
2:6ff.; 1 Cor 10:4),

The word can at times also carry a bad sense,
its natural features easily symbolizing spiritual
obstinacy (Jer 5:3) or even open sin (Ezk 24:7-8;
Amos 6:12).

R.D.P.
1509 ay%D (sol‘am) locust (edible, Lev 11:22).
1510 *25 (salap) distort, twist, pervert, ruin.

Derivative
1510a HD (selep)

The basic meaning of the root is ‘‘to twist’’; the
related ideas of distorting or perverting a man’s
rights or ways make it synonymous with other
such Hebrew verbs as: hdpak *‘overturn,’’ ‘@wd
‘‘do wrong,’’ ‘pervert, and ‘dgash ‘‘do that
which is crooked.”’

The verb (only Piel) is employed primarily for
contexts dealing with moral or social behavior.
The Torah warns strenously against taking a
bribe (kv ‘‘gift’’) lest it becloud one’s clear think-
ing and so distort the course of justice (Ex 23:8;
Deut 16:19). The dangers of bribery, particularly
in matters of litigation, were well known in the
ancient world (see, for example The Code of
Hammurabi, paragraph 5).

The verb occurs frequently in pointing out that
evil so twists the sinful and foolish man that his
way becomes perverted and he rages against the
Lord (Prov 13:6; 19:3). While the evil man may
think he prospers, God will overthrow him in his
treacherousness (Prov 22:12) and turn his way to
ruin (Prov 21:12).

selep. Crookedness, falsehood. Enlarges upon
this picture. Whereas the righteous is guarded by
his integrity, the falseness of the treacherous man
will turn his way upside down (Prov 11:3). The
man who speaks with a twisted tongue will find
his praises self-destructing (Prov 15:4).

crookedness.

R.D.P.

1511 9D (saléq)

1511 90 (saléq) ascend. (So also, asv, Rsv.)

The Hebrew root is probably a loan word from
Aramaic s‘“léq. It is found only in Ps 139:8 (note
backward assimilated ‘‘l’’) where the Psalmist
underscores the omnipresence of God. Whether
he were to climb to highest heaven or lie in Sheol,
he would find God. Possibly sdlaq (q.v.) is a by-
form meaning *‘go up in flames.”’ It also exhibits
the backward assimilation of the /amed (unless
the derivation from ndSsaq is held).

R.D.P.

1512 m9D (sdlet) (fine) flour (So asv, Rsv.)

The word (from Akkadian salatu ‘‘crush’’),
denoting a finely ground flour, is known through-
out the ancient Mediterranean world (e.g. Akka-
dian siltu, Arabic sultun, Aramaic silta’, Egyp-
tian tr.t). As opposed to gemah ‘meal’? which
came from whole kernels and bran, this finest of
flour was ground exclusively from the inner ker-
nels of the wheat (hence, Lxx semidalis, Vulgate
simila). Though available to all, it was expensive
and considered a luxury item (Ezk 16:13; cf. Rev
18:13), to be used especially in entertaining im-
portant guests (Gen 18:6).

Fine flour figured prominently in the Levitical
sacrifices (Lev 2 etc.), the offerings of the twelve
tribal leaders at the inauguration of the tabernacle
worship (Num 7), the regulations relative to the
fulfillment of the Nazirite’s vow (Num 6:15), the
consecration ceremony of the priests (Ex 29:2ff.),
and the ordination of the Levites, whom God
graciously allowed to take the place of the
firstborn in a life of dedicated service to him
(Num 8:8). The fine flour reminded the priests
and Levites of their high calling and the fine qual-
ity of their service and dedication to God of all
the fruits of their labor (cf. I Pet 2:5).

R.D.P.

m5 (sam). See no. 1516a.

513° Se (s*madér) blossom of grape (Song
2:13, 15; 7:13). Derivation uncertain.

1514 ‘30 (samak) lean upon, lay, put, uphold,
support. (ASV, RSV Similarly.)

The primary meaning of the root is ‘‘to lean
upon,” in distinction to its synonyms tamak
(q.v.), which basically means ‘*grasp,”° ‘‘lay hold
of’ and sd‘ad ‘‘sustain.”

The best known use of this root is in the laying
on of hands. In the Levitical regulations regard-
ing the sacrificial offerings, the offerer brought
his proper sacrificial animal in person and laid his
hand upon its head, thus expressing identification
with the offering, its surrender to God and in the
case of guilt, its transfer to the animal (cf. specifi-
cally Lev 16:21).

628

1515 95 (semel) idol, image.

1516 BRE (smm).

The laying on of hands on the sacrificial animal
figured prominently in the regulations for the ser-
vice of consecration and dedication to the priest-
hood (Lev 8; cf. Ex 29), a ceremony replete with
spiritual application to the ministry of Chnist (cf.
Heb 10:19-23) and of those called to be his minis-
ters (I Tim 4:14; II Tim 1:6).

The root can also involve the idea of support
(Amos 5:19). The Israelites were to learn not to
trust in man or nation (II Kgs 18:21; Ezk 30:6),
but in God who by his power (Ps 37:24) and word
(Ps 119:116) upholds the righteous (Ps 37:17). So
will the believer dwell in safety and surety (Ps 3:5
{H 6]) all his life (Ps 71:6) despite those times
when he may fall (Ps 145:14).

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 160-61.

R.D.P.

(ASV, RSV Simi-
larly.)

The word denotes basically an image or statue,
a meaning found frequently in the Phoenician in-
scriptions. It is one of several words for idols or
images, such as gillilim, maskit, ‘adsab, and
pesel—terms which generally refer to graven im-
ages, massékad and nesek—molten images,
t*rdpim—household images and selem—a gen-
eral term for image or idol. Several other circum-
locutions or terms refer to idolatry, for example:
elil “*nothingness,’’ sheger ‘‘falsity,’’ ’éma ‘‘an
object of terror,” ‘@wen *‘wicked power,” mip-
leset *“‘a cause of trembling,” shigqus, sheges
‘*detestable thing.’* (cf. also discussion under gil-
lulim).

Idolatry was prohibited and condemned as
apostasy and deviation from God's basic stan-
dard. While an idol was nothing in itself, idolatry
did bring men into contact with evil spiritual
forces; hence, idol worship was both spiritually
damaging and dangerous.

The contexts in which semel occurs reinforce
this picture. Thus, idol making was expressly
forbidden to Israel as a violation of God’s person,
work, and covenant with them (Deut 4:15-20).
Setting up an image in the temple or its precincts
was an act of gross sin (II Chr 33:7-9; Ezk 8: 1-4).

semel is not used theologically of the *‘Image
of God.”’

The prohibition of idols in Israel was appar-
ently unique in ancient times as was Israel’s reli-
gion. The obvious thing about every idol image ts
that it represents a created thing which ts natur-
ally less and less worthy than the creator. Cf.
Rom 1:23.

Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 303-11.

R.D.P.

Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1Sl6a 9 (sam) a_ spice used in in-
cense (e.g. Ex 30:34; Lev 4:7;
16:12).

1517 *18 (sa@man). Occurs only as the Niph-
al participle, nismdadn ‘‘in an appointed
place,’’ or *‘a determined portion’’ (Isa

28:25).
1518 “3% (sdmar) bristle up (Ps 119:20; Job
4:15).
Derivatives
1518a = 9% «= (samar) bristling, rough (Jer
51:27, only).

IS518b = SD? (masmér) nail (e.g. Isa
41:7; Eccl 12:11).

1519 M83B (s*na’a) sons of the hated woman,
i.e. the poorer classes of Jerusalem (Ezra
2:35=Neh 7:38). An alternate form from
§ané’ (q.vV.).

1520 735 (s*neh) bush, the burning bush of Ex
3:3-4.

The botanical identification is uncertain as is
the derivation. This bush is referred to again in
Deut 33:16 which is rather clearly a back refer-
ence to Ex 3. The Moldenkes mention the view
that the ‘‘flame of fire’’ was an illusion caused by
bright blossoms. Aside from this naturalistic ex-
planation they suggest the very common shittim
tree, Acacia nilotica or A. seyal (Moldenke,
Harold N. and Alma L., Plants of the Bible,
Ronald Press, 1952, pp. 23-24). More important
than the botanical identification is the great mira-
cle used by God to call his chosen servant to his
great prophetic work. To judge from Deut 33:16,
Moses never forgot the revelation of ‘him who
dwelt in the burning bush”’ (NIv).

R.L.H.

1521 BSS330 (sanwérim) sudden blindness

(Gen 19:11; IT Kgs 6:18).

122 893639 (sansinim) fruit stalk of date tree
(Song 7:9).

1523. 9320. (s*nappir) fin
Deut 14:9, 10).

(Lev 11:9, 10, 12=

1524 Be (sds) moth (Isa 51:8).

1525 “Ye (sa'ad) sustain, establish,

strengthen, comfort.

support,

Derivative
1S25a 0 T3YE% «(mis‘ad) support.

629

1527 AyD (s'‘p).

1528 "YS (sa‘ar)

The basic meaning of this root is *‘support,’* or
‘*sustain’’ (so also Aramaic, Ezra 5:2). In South-
west and Southeast Semitic the ideas of ‘‘aiding”’
or ‘‘assisting’’ come forward. The emphasis of
the word involves the idea of sustenance,
whereas other words for support lay stress on
‘“‘leaning upon’ (sadmak) or ‘“‘holding up”
(tamak, q.v.).

The root is utilized for taking food for physical
nourishment or sustenance (Gen 18:5). It is also
employed abstractly. As a good king sustains his
throne by righteousness (Prov 20:28), so Messiah
will establish and maintain his everlasting king-
dom with justice and righteousness (Isa 9:7
(H 6)).

The believer who has enthroned God in his
heart may claim the promise that God will sup-
port him (Ps 18:35 [H 36}) in time of trouble (Ps
20: 1-2 (H 2-3]) and sickness (Ps 41:3 (H 4]). Yea,
when cares multiply so that his foot would totter
and give way, God is there to support him (Ps
94:18). But God’s sufficiency is not restricted to
the crisis experiences of life; God himself is the
great Provider for man’s everyday needs (Ps
104:15).

mis‘ad. Support. Occurs only in connection

with the steps for Solomon's temple and the royal!

palace (I Kgs 10:12; cf. m*sillét, If Chr 9:11).
R.D.P.

1526 mye (sd‘a) rush (of storm wind, Ps

55:9).
MYD (sa'ip). See no. 1527a.

Assumed root of the following.

I527a = YO «(sa‘ip) cleft (Jud 15:8, 11),
branch (isa 17:6; 27:10).

15276 «= MBYOD (s°'appad) bough, branch
(Ezk 31:6, 8).

1527c *hYd (sa‘ap) lop off boughs (Piel,
Isa 10:33).

527d = =6MBYSS (sar'appa) bough (Ezk
31:5).

1S27e Spo (sé'ép) divided, half-hearted
(Ps 119:113).

I527f 8 mpyo (s*‘ippad) division, divided

opinion (1 Kgs 18:21).

1IS28 “YD (sd'ar) storm, whirlwind, tempest. By-

form of Sd‘ar (q.v.).
Derivatives

1528a tANyd (s*'ard) windstorm.
1528b f3¥H (sd‘ar) denominative verb, to
storm.

sa‘ar means ‘‘storm.”’ It may reflect an origi-
nal nominal root which underlies the Akkadian
Sarum ‘‘windstorm’’ and of which sa‘ar is a by-

1529 85D (sp’)

form. If so, s°‘arad is a feminine derivative and
sad'ar, adenominative verb. The root must be dif-
ferentiated from the homonyms Sd‘ar ‘“‘be ac-
quainted with,’ and sd‘ar ‘‘bristle.”’

sa‘ar denotes a literal storm (Jon 1:4, 12) or
describes the Lord’s wrath against the lying pro-
phet (Jer 23:19) or enemy nation (Amos 1:14),
especially in the end times (Jer 25:32; 30:23). The
Psalmist prays for deliverance from the storms of
life (Ps 55:8 [H 9]).

s*‘ara. Windstorm. Used of a literal storm (Ps
107:25ff.; 148:8) sometimes as a symbol of God's
judgment (Isa 29:6). Its use as a theophany (Job
38:1: 40:6), renders more understandable Elijah’s
translation into heaven in a whirlwind (II Kgs
2:1, 11).

sa‘ar. Tostorm. The root idea is found only in
connection with the storm which occurred during
Jonah’s sea flight (Jon 1:11 ff.).

Taking its meaning from a physical storm,
s@‘ar usually appears in contexts of upheaval and
distress. The Assynian king is ‘‘enraged’’ at hav-
ing his secret plans for ambushing the Israelites
thwarted (II Kgs 6:11). Habakkuk (3:14) cites
part of an ancient epic poem in describing God's
triumph over his enemies who come like a
‘*storm’’ against his people. While Hosea (13:2-
3) warns the Israelites of his day that because of
their idolatry, God would send them away into
exile as chaff driven by a ‘‘tempest’’ (cf. Zech
2:8-14), Isaiah (54:11-14) prophesies that the
God of all grace and compassion will yet restore
his **storm’’ tossed and troubled people and es-
tablish them in righteousness in a land of unsur-
passing beauty and safety.

R.D.P.

"5 (sap) I, 0]. See nos. 1538a,b.

1529 SDD (sp’). Assumed root of the following.

1529a- NIBOM «(mispd’) fodder (Gen
24:25; 43:24; Jud 19:19).

1530 "88 (sapad) mourn, lament, wail.
Derivative

1530a “BO! (mispéd) wailing (cf. Uga-
ritic migspdt ‘‘wailing women” |
Aght 172, 183, UT 19: no. 1790).

Occurring twenty-nine times, sdpad is one of
more than a dozen words with similar meanings.
The basic meaning of the root is attested also in
Akkadian and was no doubt known at Ugarit.
The Synac concept “‘beat the breast as a sign of
wailing,’’ as G. Rinaldi (‘‘Alcuni termini ebraici
relativi alla letteratura,’’ Biblica 40: 278) has
pointed out, is not certain, nor is the supposed
connection with Amharic Sdddfe ‘‘dirge,’’ ac-
cording to Leslau (Ethiopic and South Arabic

630

Contributions to the Hebrew Lexicon, Berkeley:
University of California, 1958, p. 37) notes.

By far most of the references in which this root
and its derivative are found deal with the mourn-
ing rites at Someone's death (e.g. Gen 23:2; 50:10:
I Sam 25:1: 28:3; I] Sam 1:12; 3:31; 11:26; I Kgs
13:29f.: cf. Eccl 12:5). At such times, all who
sensed the loss of the departed would come to
share their grief with the members of the family.
Their grief could be demonstrated in many ways:
going barefoot, stripping off one’s clothes, cut-
ting one’s beard or body, fasting (or banqueting),
scattering ashes, or beating some part of the
body. Some of these rituals were proscribed for
the Israelite, doubtless because of pagan associa-
tion (Lev 19:28). Shnill cries or loud wailing often
accompanied the mourning, which in time be-
came stereotyped and structured into formal la-
ments. Of course, weeping, especially by the
women, was greatly in evidence as the combina-
tion of sadpad with its set parallel baka (‘‘weep’’)
attests. The growth of funerary ritual led to the
employment of professional mourners, again,
usually women.

Mourning for the dead began immediately at
death, went on as the body was carried to the
tomb, was observed at the tomb and lasted at
least seven days after the burial.

The practice of mourning for the departed was
seized upon by the prophets to warn of a coming
national death in accordance with the just judg-
ment of God. Isaiah (32:11ff.) summons the
women of Judah to mourm in the light of the com-
ing judgment. Jeremiah (4:8) calls Jerusalem to
repentance and mourning in the face of the Assy-
rian invasion. Joel (1:8, 13ff.) calls on the mourn-
ing priests to lead the people in a time of heartfelt
national repentance and sorrow for their sins,
since the locust plague was but a harbinger of a
worse judgment to come. Micah (1:8) goes wail-
ing and mourning for Judah.

A whole genre of prophetic lamentation grew
up which not only stressed the need of national
repentance for sin and the certainty of coming
judgment but promised ultimate deliverance at
the coming of Messiah (e.g. Zech 12:10-11),
when in a far deeper sense the believer will re-
echo the Psalmist’s cry (Ps 30:10-11 [H 11-12]),
“*O Lord... thou hast turned my mourning into
dancing!”

Bibliography: Jacob, E., *‘‘Mourning,’’ in
IDB, III. Gregory, T. M., ‘“‘Mourning,’* in
ZPEB, IV, pp. 302-307.

R.D.P.

1531 MBD (sapad) sweep(away), destroy, consume.

(ASV, RSV similarly.)

The basic image of the root seems to be that of
sweeping—both the process of heaping things to-

gether and of sweeping them away (cf. Arabic
safa’ ‘‘to raise and carry away dust’’). The root
may sometimes be confused with ‘dsap or ydsap.

The root is usually used in a hostile sense, par-
ticularly in contexts of judgment. David spent
much of his life being swept away before his
enemies; later, facing God's judgment for sin, he
avoids the choice of being swept away before his
enemies (I Chr 21:12—13).

The judgment of God against sin is the subject
of several contexts. Lot and his family were
warmed so that they would not be consumed with
Sodom (Gen 19:15ff.). The prophets repeatedly
warmed apostate Israel that God would heap mis-
fortunes upon them (e.g. Isa 7:20). Jeremiah
(12:4) stated that man’s sin was so serious that
even the natural world was affected by it.

God’s judgment should occasion prayer and
intercession. Abraham pleaded with his heavenly
visitors for the life of the righteous in Sodom
(Gen 18:23f.). The Psalmist, concerned that
God’s will and reputation be evidenced in his life,
prayed for his enemies to be swept away (Ps
40:14 [H 15}).

R.D.P.

1532 MDO (sapah) I, attach to, join (together).
(asv, RSV similarly.)

While seldom used and of imprecise under-
standing, the basic meaning is usually discernible
(I Sam 2:36; 26:19; Job 30:7; Isa 14:1).

A homophonic root, found in South Semitic,
‘‘pour out,’” may underlie the difficult crux in
Hab 2:15.

R.D.P.

1533. mpD (sph) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1533a = M*BD «6(sapiah) I, outpouring (Job
14:19; Prov 28:3).
1533b «MBB (sadpiah) Hl, growth from
spilled kernels (II Kgs 19:29=Isa
37:30; Lev 25:5).

1534 *mpw (Sapah) HI, denominative — verb,
cause a scab upon (Piel only, Isa 3:17).

Parent Noun
1534a ARMBE (sappahat) eruption, scab

(Lev 13:2).

1534b «=AMBOP (mispahat) eruption, scab
(Lev 13:6-8).

1534c 86 mor? «6(mispahad) long veil (Ezk
13:18, 21).

1534d mpwr (mispah) outpouring (of
blood), bloodshed (Isa 5:7).

mmpo (sappahat). See no. 1534a.
mpp (sapiah). I, Il. See nos. 1533a,b.
mSD (s*pind). See no. 1537b.

631

1538 PD (spp).

1538 "BD (spp)

1535 "°8O (sappir) lapis lazuli, sapphire. (kv,

ASV ‘‘sapphire’’; Rsv often reads “‘lapis
lazuli’ in the margin.

The stone owes its name to the Sanskrit canip-
riya. That the people of biblical times probably
did not understand the word to be the very hard
modern sapphire, but lapis lazuli, the rich, azure
gem so common to the ancient world, seems
probable on the basis of a comparison between
the Ugaritic parallels thr (gem)/ignim (lapis
lazuli) and the biblical pair tadhdr, téhar/sappir.

This beautiful gem was costly (Job 28:16) and
desirable (Ezk 28:13) though less precious than
true wisdom (Job 28:16). It adorned the breast-
plate of the high priest (Ex 28:18; 39:11). Its great
value can be seen in that it is used in the throne of
God (Ezk 1:26; 10:1) and becomes the pavement
under his feet (Ex 24:10). It is little wonder, then,
that it will be found in the very foundation of the
New Jerusalem (Isa 54:11; cf. Rev 21:19).

Its beauty and preciousness made it useful to
poetic language, such as in Shulamith’s descrip-
tion of her beloved (Song 5:14) and Jeremiah's
lamentation concerning the Nazirites’ changed
appearance (Lam 4:7-8). The modern name for
the stone is lazurite—a sodium aluminum silicate
and sulfide. Its ancient source was the Afghan-
istan-Iran area north and east of Babylonia. Evi-
dently the Indo-European name was imported
with the gem.

Bibliography: D.R. Bowes, *‘Lapis Lazuli,”
in ZPEB.

R.D.P.

1536 55D (sépel) bowl (Jud 5:25; 6:38). Deri-

vation uncertain.

1537 i528 (sapan) cover, coverin, panel (e.g. I

Kgs 6:9; Hag 1:14).
Derivatives

1D (sippuin) ceiling (I Kgs 6:15).
mPD (s*pind) vessel, ship (Jon
1:5).

1537a
1537b

Assumed root of the following.

1538a f§B (sap) I, bowl, basin.

1538b THD (sap) MII, threshold, sill.

1538c TAD (sapap) stand at the threshold.
Denominative verb, occurring only
once (Hithpoel, Ps 84:11).

sap I. Bowl, basin, goblet, jar. (asv, RSV simi-
larly.) Well attested in Northwest Semitic (cf.
Akkadian Sappu), it is used of ordinary utensils
(II Sam 17:28), sacred vessels (Ex 12:22: I Kgs
7:50; IT Kgs 12:13; Jer 52:19), and meta-
phorically, the ‘‘cup of reeling’’ of God’s future
wrath against the nations (Zech 12:2).

1539 BS (sapagq)

sap JI. Threshold, sill, door. (ASV, RSV simi-
larly.) sap II designates the threshold (cf. Akka-
dian sippu ‘“doorpost,’ Aramaic — sippa
‘*porch’’), whether of a house (Jud 19:27), palace
(I Kgs 14:17), or the temple (IJ Chr 3:7). The
keeper of the threshold (1 Chr 9:19, 22) held an
important office. Theologically, it becomes a
symbol of God's presence in holy power (Isa 6:4)
or judgment (Amos 9:1; Zeph 2:14).

The denominative sdpap ‘‘stand at the
threshold,’ occurs only in Ps 84:10 [H 11]. The
KJV, ASV, RSV ‘“‘doorkeeper,’’ understands the of-
fice: newer translations which use the definition
given here intend either the Psalmist’s practice
(cf. Lxx) or attitude.

R.D.P.

1539 BD (sdpaq), PPY (Sapaq) slap, clap
(e.g., Job 34:26).

Derivative
15392 Bw (Sepeq) handclapping, i.e.
mockery (Job 36:18). Meaning
doubtful.
S40 "5S (sapar) count, recount. Denomina-

tive verb.
Parent Noun

1540a 50 (séper) writing, book.

1I540b =NDD (sipra) book.

1540c T5BD (sdpér) scribe.

1540d 35D (s*pdr) census, enumeration.
1540e tRNDD (s*pord) number.

1540f 50% (mispar) same.

sadpar is used of general mathematical activity.
One can count objects (Ezr 1:8; Isa 22:10), people
(II Sam 24:10). periods of time (Lev 23:15ff.;:
Deut 16:9; Job 39:2), actions (Job 14:16; 31:4; Ps
56:8 {H 9]) or thoughts (Ps 139:17~18). As well, it
is employed with a negative to indicate innumer-
able things (Gen 41:49). Most importantly, God
promised an innumerable posterity to the pat-
riarchs (Gen 15:5: 32:12 [H 13]) and to Israel (Hos
1:10 [H 2:1]), promises which look beyond the
mere physical fulfillment to the spiritual seed of
the greater David in whom they find culmination
(Jer 33:22; cf. Rom 4:11-13: 9:7-8; Gal 4:28; Hos
1:10 [H 2:1]: cf. Rom 9:26).

In the Piel stem, the iterative concept, ‘‘re-
count,’’ takes on the added idea of ‘‘tell,’’ **de-
clare, “‘show forth." Fathers are to instruct
their children of the need of the primacy of God
in the life and of his mighty wonders so that their
children may, in turn, transmit this information to
their offspring (Ps 78:1ff.). Every believer is to
declare the miracles and mighty deeds of the de-
livering God (I Chr 16:24: cf. Ps 9:1, 14 [H 2, 15];
26:7. 73:28: 75:1 [H 2]; 107:22; Jer 51:10). He is to

632

declare his name (Ps 102:21 [H 22]; cf. 22:22
[H 23] and Josh 1:8 etc.). The Lord himself is
said to keep accounts in his book(s) (Ps 69:28 [H
29}: 139:16; cf. Ex 32:32: Ps 87:6; Isa 4:3; 34:16;
Dan 7:10; 12:1; Mal 3:16).

The Old Testament plainly attests to its inspira-
tion (Ex 24:7; Deut 31:24; Josh 24:26) and was
understood as such (e.g. Josh 8:31-35; Dan 9:2;
Nah 1:1, etc.). Accordingly, the believer is to ap-
propriate The Book as his own, since in it is the
divine preinterpretation of what is best for man
regarding basic issues of life (see Deut !17:18-20;
Josh 1:8; 23:6, etc.).

séper. Writing, book. sopér. Scribe. (asv,
RSV translate similarly.) Both words are usually
considered to be East Semitic loan words, séper
from Akkadian Sipru, ‘‘writing,’’ ‘“‘message™ (it-
self from Saparu, “to send,’ ‘‘write’’) and
sopér, from Akkadian Sdpiru ‘‘scribe,’’ the §>s
shift probably taking place in North Akkadian.
Once the shift has occurred, the word with
samekh becomes common throughout Semitic (cf.
Egyptian tapir ‘‘scribe’’).

The Semitic verb spr occurs with many seman-
tic developments: in Southwest Semitic it means
“set out on a journey.”’ in Southeast Semitic,
‘*measure,’’ and in Northwest Semitic, “‘count.”
The Hebrew verb is either a denominative from
séper or has become associated with it. In favor
of the former suggestion is the fact that while its
synonym mdnd “‘number,’ ‘‘count,’’ empha-
sizes the numbering process, s@par everywhere
seems to retain an underlying remembrance of
the result of the process, the final scribal record-
ing. sdpar, in turn, has spawned several deriva-
tives.

The position and work of the sépér were of
great significance in the ancient near east. The
oldest scribal traditions go back to the ancient
poles of culture at either end of the Fertile Cres-
cent, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. In Babylon, the
scribal art began very early and was regulated
and enhanced by the establishment of scribal
schools in which a rigorous formal education in
all phases of literate culture was given. Indeed,
the scribe was in many ways an indispensable
figure, his activities being integral to every phase
of Mesopotamian society. Likewise, in Egypt the
scribal art became basic to pharaonic society, so
much so that in the famous ‘‘Satire on the
Trades’ the superiority of the scribal profession
is loquaciously set forth as “‘the greatest of all
callings.”

In pre-exilic Israel, the position and work of
the scribes were not clearly delineated. It 1s
known that the scribal art was in existence (e.g.
Jeremiah’s scribe, Baruch, Jer 36) and the scribe
seems to have enjoyed a favorable and responsi-
ble position in government (II Sam 8:17; 20:25;

I Kgs 4:3; II Kgs 12:10—11; 22:3-7; Isa 36:3; Jer
32:12-15), even being quartered in special cham-
bers in the palace (II Kgs 18:18: Jer 36:12). It is
small wonder, then, that the names of many
scribes have been retained, the most famous of
whom are: Baruch, Shebna (Hezekiah's scribe),
Shaphan (the head of the Josianic scribal family),
and Ezra.

[It seems that scribes also had other functions
in the government besides the literary one, just as
today the Secretary of Defense does more than
type letters. Shebna, Hezekiah’s scribe, was one
of three emissaries to the invading Assyrian
commander (Isa 36:3). He is also said to be “‘in-
charge of the palace,’ but his place was to be
taken by Eliakim (Isa 22:15-21). The position was
one of authority, not merely literary production.
Likewise there was a “‘‘scribe’’ in Zedekiah's
government who was ‘‘chief officer in charge of
conscripting the people’’ (II Kgs 25:19, niv). In
Jud 5:14 also the scribe is said to wield a staff of
authority (parallel to ‘‘commander’’) (RSV, NASB,
NIV) not the pen (kJv). BDB and GB may be cor-
rect that the word is often used in the earlier
period to refer to a high office in the palace or
army and after the fall of the kingdom was re-
served for literary and religious activity (e.g.
Ezra the scribe). Our word “‘secretary’* has this
same semantic division. W. F. Albright told of
F. Petrie’'s desire to excavate Kirjath Sepher
thinking it was called city of the book and might
contain tablets. But perhaps the name was de-
rived from a military office, ‘‘city of the com-
mander’’ (class notes). R.L.H.]

It was with the ministry of Ezra that the scribal
art first became identified with the priests (see
Ezr 7; Neh 8; 12:26, 36), although such activity
must have gone on constantly beforehand (cf.
possibly, Ps 45:1 [H 2]). With the conditions of
the exile and return, a distinct class of wise
specialists arose among the priests who were not
only the custodians and teachers of the law but
those who interpreted it. In time, the group devel-
oped into a powerful socio-political and religious
force, as documented by the many references to
these scribes in the intertestamental literature
and the New Testament.

The noun séper ‘‘writing,’’ ‘‘book’’ came to be
used also of important legal documents (Deut
24:1, 3; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8) or official letters (I Kgs
21:8ff.; If Kgs 19:14; Est 1:22; Jer 29:1ff.). No
doubt these were chiefly in the form of scrolls
(e.g. Num 5:23; Ps 40:7 [H 8]; cf. Heb 10:7; Isa
34:4; Ezk 2:9), written in columns (Jer 36:23) and
occasionally on both sides (Ezk 2:9-10; cf. Rev
5:1).

Several source books are cited in the Old Tes-
tament such as: The Book of the Wars of the
Lord (Num 21:14), The Book of Jasher (Josh
10:13; II Sam 1:18), The Book of the Chronicles

> oF

633

1540 "5d (sapar)

of the Kings of Israel (eighteen occurrences), The
Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
(fifteen occurrences and the books of various
prophetic histories, I Chr 29:29; II Chr 9:20,
etc.).

Several source books are mentioned as being
woven into the scriptures: The Book of the Gen-
erations of Adam (Gen 5:1), The Book (concern-
ing Amalek, Ex 17:14), The Book of the Coven-
ant (Ex 24:7; II Kgs 23:2), and The Book of the
Law of the Lord/Moses (Deut 31:24). Man is to
sing his praise (Ps 79:13) in no lesser way than
nature itself (Ps 19:1 [H 2}), and to show forth
his glory, (Ps 96:3). Above all he is to tell others
of God’s righteousness and saving power (Ps
66:16; 71:15) and of the joy of living in accor-
dance with his ordinances (Ps 119:13).

In all of this there is a very real hint of the
scribal activity, the believer recording in his
every thought, word, and action the sufficiency
of the God of his salvation. His whole life is to be
God's living letter to a needy mankind (Ps
118:15-17; cf. IY Cor 3:3).

s°par. Census, enumeration. This noun is
found in II Chr 2:17 [H 16] in connection with
David’s numbering the native Canaanite descen-
dants for work on the temple.

s‘pora, mispar. Number. The latter word,
though often used in purely mathematical con-
texts, has some other interesting uses. Thus, it 1s
often employed to point out God’s greatness: his
wonders are without number (Job 5:9; 9:10), as is
his host (Job 25:3); he alone (cf. Gen 15:5) knows
the number and names of the stars (Ps 147:4; Isa
40:26); in the ultimate sense, his eternality (Job
36:26) and understanding (Ps 147:5) are beyond
man’s power to fathom.

mispar 1s also utilized in some unhappy con-
texts. David is rebuked and his kingdom 1s
plagued by pestilence for his desire to know the
number of his realm solely for the sake of self-
glorification (II] Sam 24:2). [Perhaps there was an
additional motive. The word pdgad used here
(II Sam 24:2, 4) is used elsewhere for numbering
troops in preparation for battle (Num 1:3; Josh
8:10; I Sam 11:8—see KB p. 773), in short, for
mustering troops. Perhaps David was considering
an ill-advised military venture, some war of ag-
grandizement beyond the limits of the promised
land (see padqgad). R.L.H.] Unfaithful Israel is re-
minded that she had forgotten God innumerable
days (Jer 2:32). For her apostasy, Israel would be
scattered among the gentiles where she would be
few in number (Deut 4:27) so that all may learn to
put God first in their lives (Ezk 12:14—-16).

This word also teaches that few numbers can
be quite enough. Indeed, when those men who
are numbered in the army of the Lord have met
his test for their lives and are surrendered to his

1541 970 (saqal)

power, God honors even the few in number with
victory (Jud 7:6ff.). Man should not be surren-
dered to God only for the crisis struggles of life;
rather, dedicated service ever brings God’s
abundant blessings and fullness of life (Ex
23:25-26).

Bibliography: Black, M., ‘‘Scribe,’’ in IDB,
IV. Kopf, L., ‘‘Arabische Etymologien und
Parallelen,’”” VT 9:267-69. AI, pp. 131-32.
TDNT, III, pp. 836-44. THAT, II, pp. 162-72.

R.D.P.

1541 %2B (saqal) stone (to death). (ASV, RSV
similarly.)

The primary meaning of the root is difficult to
establish. It may reside in the Piel stem, where
not only the idea of ‘‘pelting with stones’’ is
found, but more commonly that of *‘freeing/
cleansing of stones,’’ is attested. This latter
meaning is closely related to Akkadian saqgdalu
‘*take away,” ‘‘remove.’’ Thus, the meaning of
the Qal may be a back formation from the idea of
‘‘taking away”’ (i.e. the life, by stoning). At any
rate, sdgal becomes the special word in Hebrew
for putting one to death by the casting of stones.

The use of saqal for removing or clearing away
stones is found only twice, both in Isa. In Isa 5:2
it is employed in the picturesque parable of the
Lord’s careful preparation of his vineyard, Israel.
In Isa 62:10, it is utilized in describing the
painstaking preparations for the Lord’s re-
gathered remnant for their return to Zion.

Elsewhere, the customary significance of ston-
ing is intended. In II Sam 16:6, 13, Shimei keeps
throwing stones at David as a mark of hostility
and contempt.

The other occasions usually involve execution
by stoning. Ahab has Naboth stoned to death so
as to get his vineyard (I Kgs 21:10ff.). The verb is
particularly utilized in the various legal pro-
nouncements. Thus, an ox which killed a person
was to be put to death by stoning (Ex 21:28f.).
Moses prescribed death by stoning for the wor-
ship of other gods (Deut 13:10 [H 11]; 17:5). Not
only spiritual harlotry, but physical immorality
condemned one to death by stoning (Deut
22:21ff.). In Josh 7:25, Achan and his family were
stoned to death for misappropriating that which
stood under the divine ban.

Together with radgam, the more common Se-
mitic word, saqgal underlies the biblical teaching
on execution by stoning. Stoning to death was the
responsibility of the whole community. It took
place outside the city (Lev 24:14; Deut 22:24;
I Kgs 21:13). The witnesses against the accused
were to place their hands on him (Lev 24:14) and
cast the first stone (cf. Jn 8:7), followed by the
rest of the populace (Deut 17:5-7). Death by ston-
ing was chiefly prescribed for overt spiritual and

634

1542 3595 (sdrab)

sexual offences. Other ancient laws such as the
Code of Hammurabi prescribed death for many
offences but do not prescribe stoning. However,
an incorrigibly disobedient son was to be stoned
by the community, since such conduct was con-
trary to the divine prescription for the family as
responsible members of the covenant community
(Deut 21:18—21).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., and Miles, J. C.,
The Babylonian Laws, Oxford: Clarendon, 1960,
I, pp. 281-83, II, pp. 214-15. Poucher, J.,
‘*Crimes and Punishment,’’ HDB, I, p. 527.

R.D.P.
"5 (sar). See no. 1549a.
rebel (Ezk 2:6,
Meaning dubious.

only).

map (sara). See nos. 1480a, 1549b.

1543 mae (sarah) go free, overhang, grow luxu-

riously.
Derivative

1543a mad (serah)

The primary meaning of this root, ‘‘go free,”
becomes a picture of anything that flows freely or
is excessive.

The root is used of physical objects to describe
the outer tent cloth overhanging the tabernacle
(Ex 26:12-13) which was made larger than the
inner cloth so as to provide full protection and a
front gable to the tent. It is also used to describe
an overflowing turban (Ezk 23:15) or overspread-
ing vine (Ezk 17:6).

The concept of overflowing excess makes
Amos’s condemnation of the citizens of the
Northern Kingdom as sprawling over their beds
of ivory at banquets most picturesque (Amos 6:4,
7). The portrayal of a society which had forgotten
God in its reckless pursuit of luxury, idleness,
and debauchery and is therefore overripe for
judgment is one which is all too contemporary.

In Jer 49:7, KB suggest a second root of sarah
with the same radicals meaning ‘‘putrify,’’ ‘‘cor-
rupt.’’ Early support for such a possibility comes
from the Phoenician Yahamilik Inscription,
where the meaning ‘“‘destroy,”’ “‘corrupt,’’ is at-
tested (see H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAT I, text,
p. 2, 10:15).

overhanging.

R.D.P

1544 3990 (siryén) armor (Jer 51:3; 46:4).

1545 Bn (saris) official, eunuch. (ASV, RSV

similarly.)

The noun, meaning ‘‘(court) official,’’ has its
origin in the Akkadian title sa rési (Sarri) ‘‘the

one of the (King’s) head.’*’ The meaning
‘‘eunuch’’ arose with the practice of utilizing cas-
trated men in key positions in the various nations
of the ancient near east (e.g. in Persia, Est 2:3ff.;
4:4f.).

The Hebrew word is clearly related to the
name of the Akkadian royal official (II Kgs
18:17). Accordingly, saris is not to be translated
‘“‘eunuch’’ unless context or other evidence de-
mands it. Thus, since thorough study fails to un-
cover conclusive evidence for the employment of
eunuchs as officials in ancient Egypt, the reason
why the Egyptian officers in the Joseph narrative
were Called by this term is probably that in all
three cases (Gen 37:36; 39:1; 40:2, 7) these men
were special officials of Pharaoh.

It can be doubted that Israel would have inau-
gurated the employment of eunuchs. Such men
would have been excluded from the congregation
by Mosaic Law (Lev 22:24; Deut 23:2). It has
been argued that they may have been introduced
by Jezebel (cf. I Kgs 22:9) and maintained by
subsequent kings (II Kgs 8:6; 9:32) in positions in
close contact with women. If so, the Lord's
promise through Isaiah (56:3—5) is most apropos.

No certain evidence exists that Daniel and his
three friends were made eunuchs (II Kgs 20:17-
18; Dan 1).

Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 766-67.

R.D.P.

[546 190 (seren) I, lord, tyrant. (ASV, RSV
similarly.)

A Philistine loan word, seren always appears
in the plural and designates the five lords of the
Philistine pentapolis (Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron,
Gath, and Gaza, which together with the ter-
ritories around them made up the Philistine am-
phictyony, Josh 13:3; Jud 3:3). Despite attempts
to connect the work with Greek tyrannos ‘‘ty-
rant,’ its exact etymological origin is still de-
bated, and doubtless will be until the Philistine
language can be recovered. Current scholarship
postulates a relationship with Indo-Aryan ser. In
I Sam 21:10ff., the seren of Gath is called a king.
It is to be distinguished from the seren (‘‘axle’’)
of I Kgs 7:30.

Although the Philistine states were totally in-
dependent, they could and did cooperate when
common cause or design necessitated. They con-
spired with Delilah to subdue Samson, an action
which God eventually turned to their death (Jud
16:5ff.).

According to I Sam 5-6, the lords acted in con-
cert in the crisis revolving around the Hebrew
Ark of the Covenant both at Ashdod (where their
god Dagon lay powerless before the Lord) and at
Ekron. They repeatedly banded together in battle
against the Israelites, both in the days of Samuel

635

1549.1
1550 DBD (sdtam)

1550 Bh (satam)

(I Sam 7:7) and Saul (J Sam 29:2ff.; cf. I Chr
12:19).

R.D.P.
1547 5D (seren) II, axle (I Kgs 7:30).
MBY"D (sar‘appa). See no. 1527d.

1548 “B36 (sirpad) an unidentified desert

plant. Apparently a worthless thornbush,
contrasted with a valuable tree (Isa 55:13).

1549 "95 (sdrar) be stubborn, rebellious.

Derivatives

1849a 35D (sar)
1549b TAD (sara)

The root means basically ‘‘to be stubborn.”
While Akkadian sararu ‘‘be unstable,’’ ‘‘obsti-
nate,’’ “‘be a liar/felon’’ is probably related,
Arabic ta‘ara ‘‘be contumacious”’ is unlikely.
The root lays stress on attitude, whereas the
synonymous mdrad emphasizes rebellious ac-
tions.

The root is clearly displayed in the case of the
wayward and rebellious son who is publicly de-
nounced and executed (Deut 21:18ff., see under
sdba’). Most often it portrays Israel's total rebel-
hon against God (Isa 1:23; Jer 6:28). Indeed, the
**stubborn and rebellious son’’ may be one who is
not merely disobedient to parents, but who has
rebelled likewise against their God. In that case,
the verses teach that even the parent should con-
demn the apostate son. Cf. for a similar thought
Deut 13:6-11. It is a rebellious generation (Ps
78:8) or heifer (Hos 4:16) which walks in its own
way (Isa 65:2). It has a stubborn shoulder (Neh
9:29), a deaf ear (Zech 7:11), and a stubborn and
rebellious heart (Jer 5:23).

The Akkadian force of the root is probably to
be understood in the description of the restless
woman of the streets who lacks stable roots in the
community (Prov 7:11).

stubborn, rebellious.
rebellion.

sar. Stubborn, rebellious. This adjectival de-
rivative occurs in two contexts, both of which
describe Ahab’s psychological condition as being
sullen and aggravated when being rebuked or re-
buffed (I Kgs 20:43; 21:4-S).

sara. Rebellion. This noun may be taken from
either sur (q.v.) or sarar. In three contexts (Isa
1:5; Jer 28:16; 29:32), spiritual rebellion is in
view: hence, the word involved seems clearly re-
lated to sarar.

R.D.P.
nD (s‘taw) winter, Song 2:11.
Stop up, Shut up, keep
close (e.g. I] Kgs 3:19, 25; Dan 8:26).

1551 *908 (satar)
1551 *"nd (satar) hide, conceal. Not used in
the Qal.

Derivatives

ISSia tne (séter) hiding place.

I55ib mane (sitra) hiding place.

1SSic = SMB «(mistér) place of shelter.

I55id smo (mistar) hiding place.

IS5le “MoM (mastér) hiding, one who
causes people to hide.

The root in its basic meaning ‘‘hide”’ is com-
mon to West, Southwest, and Southeast Semitic.
The subordinate thought of protection involved
in the root, which helps to distinguish it from its
synonyms ‘alam “‘conceal’’ and haba’ ‘‘with-
draw, “hide,” is reflected in such Amorite
names as Sitré-Bahlum, ‘*Baal is my protection.”

The verbal root occurs eighty-three times, usu-
ally in the Hiphil (forty-five) or Niphal (thirty)
stems. The latter is frequently used reflexively,
‘hide oneself.’° David hides himself from Saul
(1 Sam 20:5ff.); Elijah hides by the Brook Cherith
(t Kgs 17:3).

An interesting problem arises in Prov 22:3 (cf.
27:12). Here it is said that a prudent man sees evil
and hides himself, but a simple man passes on
and pays the penalty. M. Dahood (Proverbs and
Northwest Semitic Philology, Rome: Pontificium
Institutum Biblicum, 1963, pp. 45-46), taking the
form wu yistar (3D) as an example of an infixed
‘“*t’’ with the verb sur (q.v.) “turn aside,’ trans-
lates the line, **The prudent man sees danger and
turns aside.”” Dahood’s comparison of these
verses with Prov 14:16 (‘°A wise man is cautious
and turns away from danger, but a fool passes on
and is unsuspecting’’), where sér is definitely
read, strengthens his point. Otherwise, the
(Kethib) Qal form of the verb in 22:3 would al-
most have to be a scribal error for a Niphal as in
27:12 “hide oneself... The Qal of sdatar is not
used elsewhere.

636

The Niphal is also used passively. Job laments
that his way is hidden from God (Job 3:23). Israel
falsely believed that God did not take notice of
her, let alone adjudicate her cause justly (Isa
40:27).

In the Hithpael, the reflexive takes on the
added idea of ‘‘hiding oneself carefully.’’ The dif-
ficult Isa 45:15 probably means no more than that
the Lord reserves the right to veil some of his
purposes.

In the more frequently attested Hiphil, the
basic idea of ‘‘hiding’’ comes forth. Perhaps its
most significant use is in the idiom to “‘hide the
face,’’ symbolizing broken communion, such as
between God and sinful Israel (Isa 59:2). The
most tragic example of broken fellowship is
man’s rejection of Messiah (Isa 53:3, where the
derivative mastér occurs). Conversely, not to
hide the face beautifully pictures open and full
communion (Job 13:20). Perhaps the most crucial
instance of this is in Psalms 22:24 [H 25]. Wedded
to the call-answer motif (which speaks of fellow-
ship, cf. Ps 102:1—2 [H 2-3]), the connotations in
the idiom and an exegesis of the whole of Psalm
22 bear greatly on a full understanding of Mes-
siah’s relation with the Father in those climactic
hours when he effected the propitiation on the
cross (cf. Heb 5:7).

Experientially, God himself will be a shelter for
the believer, not only on that day of the Lord's
wrath (Zeph 2:3), but from the storms of every-
day living (Ps 17:8; 27:5; 31:20 [H 21]; 64:2 [H 3)).

séter. Hiding place. Occurs thirty-five times.
Most notably, God is seen in the approaching
storm, making darkness his hiding place (Ps 18:11
[H 12]: cf. I] Sam 12:12, where, however, séter
does not occur). But God is available in less spec-
tacular ways. He himself is ever a place of refuge
and protection from all dangers for the believer
(Ps 32:7; 91:1; 119:114).
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 173-81.
R.D.P.

SY (‘ab). See nos. 1552a, 1574a.
1552 33 (‘bb). Assumed root of the following.
1S52a. 3Y) «((‘ab). Architectural term, mean-
ing unknown (1 Kgs 7:6; Ezr
41:25).

1553 3aY (‘abad) work, serve.

Derivatives

1553a iSpy (‘ebed) slave, servant.

1553b «SBP (‘dbad) work (Eccl 12:1).

1553c_ «0 teisp (‘abéda) labor, service.

1553d M33 (‘abudda) service (household
servants) (Gen 26:14; Job 1:3).

1553e 86 ANN3Y «(‘abdiat) servitude, bondage
(Ezr 9:8, 9; Neh 9:17).

IS53f "BRI (ma'bad) work (Job 34:25).

‘abad appears 290 times in the or.

The etymology of this word seems to share the
ideas of several Semitic roots, e.g. the old
Aramaic root which means ‘‘to do or make,”’ an
Arabic root meaning ‘‘to worship, obey’’ (God)
and its intensive stem meaning ‘“‘to enslave, re-
duce to servitude.”

This service may be directed toward things,
people, or God.

When used in reference to things it is usually
followed by an accusative of the thing upon
which the labor is expended, e.g. ‘‘to till’’ a field
(Gen 2:5 and often elsewhere): ‘‘to dress’
vineyards; workers or artisans in flax (Isa 19:9) or
in city construction (Ezk 48:18). Occasionally it
is without the accusative as in Deut 15:19, ‘to
till’’ {the ground]. The second category is fol-
lowed by an accusative of person, e.g. Jacob’s
serving Laban (Gen 29:15; 30:26, 29). Sometimes
this usage includes the preposition b® with a per-
son, thus one ‘‘works by means of another’’ or
uses another as a slave (Ex 1:14; Jer 22:13; or in
the Pual stem with captives, Isa 14:3). Servitude
also includes ‘‘to serve as subjects’ to a king or
ruler (Jud 9:28: 1 Sam 11:1). In the Hiphil stem, it
means *‘to compel one to labor’ as a slave (Ex
1:13). When the service is offered to God, how-
ever, it is not bondage, but rather a joyous and
liberating experience (Ex 3:12; 4:23; 7:16, 26;
10:26; Ps 22:31: Job 21:15: Jer 2:20; Mal 3:14). All
too frequently, the text records that this service
was given to other gods who were not gods at all
(Deut 7:16; II Kgs 10:18-19, 21-23, etc.).

The same concept is used of serving Yahweh
with the Levitical service (Num 3:7-8; 4:23, 30,
47, 8:11, 19ff., etc.). Interestingly enough, the
Lxx reserved the Greek word /atreu6é for the offi-

639

cial service of the priests only. The nT however,
steadfastly resisted using this group of words for
the NT ministry or its functions except in Rom
15:16, where it refers to Paul’s labors for Jesus
Christ. Instead, it reserved it for other religious
contexts, especially those dealing with the oT
ritual (Heb 9:21; 10:11: Lk 1:23).

‘ebed. Slave, servant. The form appears 799
times in the or.

While the most basic idea of ‘ebed is that of a
slave, in Israel slavery was not so irksome, since
this status involved rights and often positions of
trust. A fellow Israelite could not be held indefi-
nitely against his will, but his period of bondage
was limited to six years (Ex 21:2). Even the much
protested description of a slave as his master’s
money (Ex 21:20—-21) was not an ‘‘unsentimental
thought,’’ but served to control physical abuse by
the master. Whenever evil intent could be proved
(Ex 21:14), or the slave died (21:20), the master
was liable to punishment. If the master’s intent
was debatable, an injured slave at least won his
freedom (Ex 21:26—27), and the master lost his
loaned money (21:21). Note also the servant’s
position of honor in Gen 24:ff; 41:12 (cf. 15:2).

A king’s subjects are his servants (Gen 21:25;
Ex 7:28), as are all his vassal kings (IJ Sam 10:19)
and tributary nations (I Chr 18:2, 6, 13). Those in
the service of the king are also his servants (Gen
40:20), including officers (I Sam 19:1), officials
(II Kgs 22:12), and ambassadors (Num 22:18).

Often the term “‘servant’’ was used as a polite
and humble reference to oneself (Gen 33:5). This
could reach extreme proportions as in the ex-
pression ‘‘your servant, the dog’’ and the like
(II Kgs 8:13; If Sam 9:8). Cf. also the Tell el
Amarna tablets and Lachish letters nos. 2, 5, 6.
The expression ‘‘your servant’’ was frequently
used when addressing God in prayer (Ex 4:10; Ps
19:12, 14; 109:28).

The most significant use of the term ‘‘servant’’
is aS a Messianic designation, the most prominent
personal, technical term to represent the oT
teaching on the Messiah. The central teaching
passages on this theme are found in the last
twenty-seven chapters of Isaiah. There the term
occurs twenty times in the singular (chaps. 39-53)
and eleven times in the plural (chaps. 54-66).

In twelve of the twenty examples of the singu-
lar and in all eleven of the plural, the servant is
the nation Israel. Passages in which the singular
occurs include 41:8-10: 42:18-19; 43:9-10; 44:1-
3, 21; 45:4; 48:20: and perhaps 49:3. The plural
occurs in 54:17; 56:6; 63:17; 65:8-9, 13-15; 66:14.

1553 “3a (‘abad)

As Willis Beecher reminds us, this is not just Is-
rael the servant as an ethnical group. It is that,
plus something more. It is also Israel as the
people of the promise or covenant made with Ab-
raham and David. There is both national Israel
and spiritual Israel, regardless of whether it ts
native or adopted, which shares the promise.

There are also passages tn which the servant is
differentiated from actual Israel and has a mis-
sion to Israel (Isa 49:1!-9; 42:!-7:; 50:4-10;
52:13—53:12). This servant must be identified
with the Israel-servant, but he must also be dis-
tinguished from them, having a mission to them
(as explicitly stated in 49:5-6: cf. 49:3). Obvi-
ously this is the reverse of eponymous heroes
who bequeath their names to their countries and
nations so that the same term refers to both.
Here, the focal member of the group arrives last
rather than first. There is a corporate solidarity
between three groups which in Franz Delitzsch’s
illustration are arranged like a pyramid with the
base representing al] national Israel (Isa 42:19),
the middle representing spiritual Israel, i.e. na-
tive believers and adopted believers (Isa 41:8—
10), and the apex representing the Messiah, Jesus
Christ.

An alternative view finds two servants in these
passages—the blind failing servant Israel of
42:19; 49:3 etc. and the healing and restoring
Messiah servant of 42:1 and 49:5; 50:10, 52:13
and 53:11.

Jsaiah is not the only prophet who applies this
term to the covenant people; see also Jer 30:10;
46:27-28, Ezk 28:25; 37:25. It is applied to David,
the Messiah of promise, in Jer 33:21—22, 26: Ezk
34:23-24; 37:24-25, and to David’s descendant,
Zerubbabel, in Hag 2:23. Of special interest is its
connection with the messianic title **Branch”’
(Zech 3:8).

Other religious usages include all ‘‘worship-
ers’’ of God (a phrase commonly used by all
Semitic peoples in referring to their false gods,
e.g. ‘the servant of Baal,” Marduk, etc.), any
servants in the temple or its service, and those
who served their Lord in unique roles as his ser-
vants such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses,
Joshua, Caleb, David, Hezekiah, Eliakim, and
Zerubbabel. Also the title of God's prophets,
‘*my servants,’’ or ‘his servants” or “‘your ser-
vants,’” occurs twenty-four times.

‘aboda.
the oT.

Man's work and labor is not the result of sin
and the fall. Already in God's great creation man
was placed in the garden “‘to work it’ (‘abad,
Gen 2:15). The curse (Gen 3:16-17) was only the
pain and hardship which were to accompany
labor, not the labor itself (cf. ‘eseb *“‘sorrow’’).
This point is made when Lamech says at the birth

Labor, service. It appears 145 times in

640

of Noah that he ‘shall comfort us concerning our
work and toil of our hands, because of the ground
which the Lord has cursed’’ (Gen 5:29).

The fruits of labor are reaped in the occupa-
tions of Cain and Abel and the development of
the arts in Cain's family (Gen 4:21-—22). Nowhere
is the subject of leisure time discussed, for man
works as long as there is daylight (Ps 104:23; cf.
Jn 11:9). But a definite cycle of rest is provided
also as a duty and a blessing on the seventh day
(Ex 20:9-10). By working six days Israel imitated
God who worked six days in creating the cosmos.
In this way she doubtless bore witness to her
pagan neighbors, who worshiped the elements of
the creation personified as deities, that she wor-
shiped the transcendent creator. Man is to rest in
imitation of God, who rests from his work after
the creation (Ex 20:11; Deut 5:14-15). There
were also to be special feast days on which there
was to be ‘‘no laborious work’’ (Lev 23:7-8, 21,
25, 35, 36; Num 28:25—26; 29:1, 12, 35).

The type of work included under this term
ranges from agricultural work in the fields (Ex
1:14) to constructing the tabernacle (Ex 35:24,
repairing the temple (II Chr 34:13), and working
in fine linen (1 Chr 4:21). Even God’s work of
judgment is so termed (Isa 28:21).

When the service is offered to God, it will con-
sist of obedience. The performance of this ser-
vice 1S found in the oT ritual and worship, e.g. the
people's bringing sacrifices (Josh 22:27) and the
service of the Levites and priests (Num 4:19;
I] Chr 8:14).

Finally there is the ‘*bondage’’ of captives or
subjects. Overwhelmingly this refers to the bon-
dage of Israel in Egypt (Ex 1:14; Neh 5:18; II Chr
10:4; Isa 14:3). Sometimes it refers also to mili-
tary service (Ezk 29:18).

Note that the word does not appear in any of
the ethical teaching about work in the wisdom
literature. Perhaps the word had become so
strongly associated with servitude and bondage
on the one side and worship on the other that the
mere secular concept of work was shifted to
other terms, like m‘la@kd@ or pda‘al or ma‘dseh,
although the original agricultural reference could
have provided such a stimulus. Cf. our word
‘*culture’’ and ‘‘to cultivate.”

Bibliography: Allis, Oswald T., The Unity of
Isaiah, Presbyterian and Reformed, 1950, pp.
81-101. Beecher, Willis J., The Prophets and the
Promise, Baker, 1963, pp. 241-88. MacRae,
Allan A., ‘‘The Servant of the Lord in Isaiah,”
BS 121:125-32; 218-27. Mendelsohn, I., “*On
Slavery in Alalakh,”’ /srael Exploration Journal
5:65-~72. , “Slavery in the Ancient Near
East,’ BA 9:74-88. Richardson, TWB, pp. 287-
88. Roth, W. M. W., *‘The Servant of the Lord:
Language and Interpretation, ° EQ: 131-43. Mur-
ray, John. Principles of Conduct, Eerdmans,

1957, pp. 82-106. Richardson, A., The Biblical
Doctrine of Work, London, 1952. TDNT, II, pp.
636-52; V, pp. 654-77 (which has an extensive
bibliography). Zevit, Ziony, “‘The use of ‘ebed as
a Diplomatic Term in Jeremiah, JBL 88:74-77.
W.C.K.

missy (‘abdut). See no. 1553e.

1554 may (‘aba) be thick, fat, gross (e.g.
I Kgs 12:10: II Chr 10:10).

Derivatives

15S4a SP (abi) thickness (e.g. I Kgs
7:26=II1 Chr 4:5).

1554b 5p «6(ma‘dbeh) thickness, com-
pactness (I Kgs 7:46; II Chr 4:17).

myisyp (‘abdéda). See no. 155S3c.

binsy (‘abét). See no. 155Sa.

“33¥ (‘abur). 1, Ul. See nos. 1556f,g.
misyv (‘abat). See no. 1558a.

1555 May (‘abat) take or give a pledge for a debt.
(e.g. Deut 24:10; 15:6). Denominative
verb.

Parent Noun

155S5a BHBp (‘abdt) pledge, article pledged
as security for debt (Deut 24:11,
13).

Derivative

15SSSb) ESP (‘abtit) weight of pledges,
heavy debts (Hab 2:6).

It is probable that the cloak or other item used
as a pledge was not of sufficient value to serve as
security. It was not to be kept by the creditor.
Apparently it was a symbol of the transaction
taken to the local court and witnessed, (cf.
Speiser, E. A., “‘Of Shoes and Shekels,’” in
Oriental and Biblical Studies, University of
Pennsylvania, 1967, p. 154). After the transaction
was witnessed the pledge should be returned
promptly. For discussion on loans, see neshek.

R.L.H.

epsy (‘abrit). See no. 1555b.
‘3p (‘dbi). See no. 1554a.

1556 "3¥ (‘abar) pass over, by, through, alien-
ate, bring, carry, do away, take, take away,

transgress.
Derivatives
1556a i"3¥ (‘eéber) region across or be-
yond, side.

1556b f"3y (‘ibri) Hebrew.

641

1556 “3Y (‘abar)

1556c
1556d

may (‘dbara) ford.
t™"3~ = (ebra) overflow, arrogance,

fury.

1556e *™3y (‘abar) be arrogant, infuriate
oneself. Occurs only in the Hith-
pael.

1S56f th3y (‘abuar) TI,
§:11-12).

1556g t3S5y (‘abur) UH, on account of.

1556h 534% (ma‘dbar) ford, pass.

15561 m=svla (ma‘bara) ford, pass.

produce (Josh

The main idea of this verb is that of movement;
as a rule it is the movement of one thing in rela-
tion to some other object which is stationary,
moving, or motivating. Some have said that the
simplest translation of ‘dbar is ‘‘to pass,’ but
this does not really cover the various nuances
that ‘a@bar may carry with it. It is used about 550
times.

It is impossible to discuss all the shades of
meaning, but there are four general usages.

1. The concept of movement may be used ina
simple sense: ‘a@bar is go beyond or further: thus
Abraham says to his heavenly visitors that they
could go on (RSV pass on) after they had eaten
(Gen 18:5).

‘abar means *‘go’’ when the emphasis is spe-
cifically on movement without specific reference
to another object (Ex 38:26; Deut 2:14; Job
13:13).

2. ‘abar may be uSed to express the fact that
there is some movement between two specific
places. In this category one finds numerous ref-
erences to Israel’s passing over the Jordan to
enter (or pass into) the promised land (Deut 27:3).
Moses used this phrase often to indicate how the
hindrance or barrier was to be overcome by Is-
rael, in realizing the fulfillment of the covenant
promise concerning the land. This same emphasis
is found in Josh 1:2. The idea of passing over
appears also in Gen 31:21, where Jacob crosses
the river Euphrates as he begins his flight from
Laban.

‘abar is used also to indicate the thought of
passing through or traversing a land. Moses
asked the Amorite king Sihon to permit Israel to
march through his land (Num 21:22). Micah
speaks of the remnant of Israel passing through
foreign lands as a lion goes through a forest (Mic
5:8).

The Hiphil form of the verb very often appears
to express the thought that one person causes or
motivates another to move (Gen 8:1; 32:24; Num
32:5, etc.).

The term is used in Deut 18:10 and elsewhere
to indicate the idea of compelling an infant to
pass through sacrificial fire to his death.

3. The concept of movement may be used ina
metaphorical sense. Solomon's wealth exceeded

1556 "3Y (‘abar)

(passed beyond) that of all others. The wicked-
ness of Judah and Israel knew no bounds (Rsv) in
that 1: passed beyond that of others (Jer 5:28).

Other metaphorical uses can be mentioned.
When men die they pass away from this life (Job
30:15; Prov 22:3). Something comes between
husband and wife and they are alienated (Jer 6:8).
The money passed around is the current, the
standard shekel (Gen 13:16). Men do business,
exchange wares (Ezk 27:9). The bulls gender
(Piel of ’adbar ‘‘breed,** Rsv), i.e. are fruitful (Job
21:10).

4. Finally, the term indicates a_ specific
spiritual concept. Men transgress the covenant or
the law, i.e. move outside or beyond the re-
quirements of the covenant or law by committing
adultery and practicing idolatry (Deut 17:2) or
other sin. But on a more positive level Moses also
spoke of Israel as entering or passing into a cov-
enant that God was making with them (Deut
29:12 [H 11]). Balaam gave expression to another
spiritual meaning of ‘dbar when he said, ‘I can-
not pass beyond the Word of the Lord’* (Num
22:18).

‘eber. Against, beyond, by, over, passage, quar-
ter, side other/this side, straight (BpDB adds ‘‘re-
gion, across.’ rSv has ‘‘space in front,’’ Kjv and
ASV read ‘‘over against’’ (Ex 25:37).

‘eber, a derivative of ‘dbar, is uSed as a noun,
preposition or adverb to indicate the relationship
of persons or things in regard to their location,
distance, or direction. In various instances ‘éber
is used with prefixed prepositions such as b¢
or min.

The term is used as a noun to indicate a specific
place (Isa 47:15; rsv reads ‘‘direction’’). In I Sam
26:13, the other side is a mountaintop a long dis-
tance away.

AS a preposition it indicates the relationship of
two things to each other, e.g. the commandments
of the Lord are not too hard to keep or too far
away; they are not in heaven or beyond (‘éber)
the sea. Thus used, the term emphasizes the
presence and availability of God’s Word for his
covenant people. In I Kgs 7:20 we read of how
various parts of the temple were placed in rela-
tion to others, e.g. the tops of the pillars were
beside (‘éber) the network.

‘éber also appears as an adverb. Ezekiel, seek-
ing to describe the flight pattern of the living crea-
tures, said that they went straight forward (‘e/
‘@ber panayw, in the direction their face pointed).
Nehemiah came to the governors beyond (‘éber)
the river (2:11). From his location in Susa he
speaks of passing through the land to Jerusalem.
This area was called the Trans-Euphrates satrapy
(Aber-nahara) according to J. Bright (History of
Israel, Westminster, 1959, p. 354). This reference
to the use of the term ‘éber can serve as an intro-

642

duction to the problem the term ‘éber gives in
interpreting some passages in Deut and Josh. The
interpretation of the term has some bearing on
one’s view concerning the authorship of
Deuteronomy (cf. e.g. Hirsch in ISBE, 459°).

The author of Josh (22:7), writing while on the
west side of the Jordan, says that Reuben, Gad,
and one-half of Manesseh received their inher-
itance mé ‘éber hayyardén (beyond, i.e. on the
other side of the Jordan). Yet the term ‘éber may
also be used to speak of the area west of the river
(Deut 3:20, 25; 11:30; Josh 9:1). Joshua gave to
the other (non-Transjordanian) half tribe of Man-
nesseh a possession in the land among their
brethren (i.e. the nine tribes) mé ‘éber hayyardén
yamma, beyond the Jordan westward, meaning
on the west side (Josh 22:7).

Summing up we can Say: 1) that ‘éber may be
used variously to refer to regions located on one
side or the other of a specific river. 2) The
standpoint of the writer has to be clearly under-
stood as being either local or mental (i.e. writing
as if one is speaking from a place he is not in at
the time); or else a geographical name may be
involved, as in Ezr 4:10, where the Aramaic
‘abar-nahara refers to the Persian provinces
west of the Euphrates.

In Deut the mental standpoint has to be as-
sumed in some passages and not in others. In
Deut 1:1 there is the phrase b* ‘éber hayyardén.
The phrase is adverbial, indicating the place
where Israel was when Moses spoke the words of
Deut to them. The additional phrase, in the wil-
derness, makes it clear that the region referred to
is on the east side of the Jordan. The phrase then
can be used to refer to the region west of the
Jordan as well as to the region east of it (cf. Deut
3:8 east, and Deut 3:20 west). The solution to the
problem of how to translate ‘éber in each in-
stance is to Keep in mind the various possibilities:
1) the term can be used as a noun (naming a
place), as an adverb (indicating a place), as a pre-
position (indicating a relationship); 2) the
standpoint of the writer must be determined as
either local or mental; 3) the entire context must
be carefully studied because definite clues are to
be derived from it in each instance.

A final remark is in order: there is nothing in
the use of the term ‘éber which militates against
Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy. [Another
possibility is to take ‘éber in the sense of ‘‘shore,
edge, area’ (cf. Isa 9:1 [H 8:23] ‘‘along the Jor-
dan”’ niv) which requires further specification.
The passages exhibiting this use are usually qual-
ified as east or west of the Jordan—in Isa 9:1 as
the region of Galilee. Of interest is Num 32:19
which uses the expression twice, once specified
as ‘‘beyond’’ and the other specified as eastward.
Joshua 9 also has the two meanings in close prox-
imity, with verse | specified as the territory to the

west and vs 10 specified as the territory of Og and
Sihon. All but one of the verses in Deut except
1:1 have this additional specification. Cf. Deut
4:41, 46, 47 and 49 versus Deut 11:30. R.L.H.]

‘ibri. Hebrew (asv and RSV same).

Used as an adjective (Gen 39:14) and as a noun
(Ex 1:19), ‘ibr? is used in the oT to refer to a
specific ethnic group of people. In the oT the term
is used mostly by non-Israelites and then could
carry the connotation of a non-native, a person
who is not ‘‘a free person on free soil’’ (Ex 2:11,
etc.). BDB’s suggestion that the term is derived
from ‘adbar and means ‘“‘one from beyond,’’
‘from the other side,’’ ‘‘from beyond the Eu-
phrates,’’ ‘‘from beyond the Jordan’’ seems to
give support to the *‘non-native’’ concept applied
to the Israelites. But this etymological explana-
tion is not followed by KB.

There have also been various attempts to iden-
tify ‘ibri with habiru, a term used in documents
of the second millennium s.c. (See BDB, ‘ibri,
and Haldar in IBD, hAabiru. Kline has argued
however, that this is highly improbable; (cf. Bib-
liography). E. A. Speiser agrees after citing the
monograph by M. Greenberg (begun as a disser-
tation under Speiser’s direction). Speiser says,
‘The evidence remains ambiguous’’ (Genesis
AB, p. 103).

The biblical record quite definitely indicates
that ‘ibri is derived from Eber, the name of one of
Shem’s sons (Gen 10:21; 11:14, 16). Abraham ts
identified as a descendant of Shem, of Eber’s line
(Gen 11:26). The name Ebrum now turns up also
as a king of Ebla! ‘ibri is first used to designate
Abraham in Gen 14:13. Whether or not all de-
scendants of Eber were designated as ‘ibrim is
not known. The ot definitely does link Abraham,
via Eber, to Shem and thus Abraham is desig-
nated as the one through whom Noah’s prophecy
concerning Shem was to be fulfilled. *‘Hebrew”’
(‘ibri) became the name by which the covenant
people were designated in contradistinction to
the Egyptians and Philistines (Gen 39—Ex 10;
1Sam 4-29). But the fact remains that when
non-Israelite people used the word, their intent
was not necessarily to recognize Israel as God's
chosen people through whom he was fulfilling his
promises; rather it could have been used in a
more or less derogatory sense, i.e. the immi-
grants, the strangers, those from beyond. [The
Israelites themselves seldom used the word
among themselves. They used it to describe
themselves to outsiders. Thus it seems to have
covered a larger class of people. R.L.H.]

Bibliography: M. Greenberg, The Habipiru,
American Oriental Society (1955). Kline, M. G.,
‘The Habiru -Kin or Foe of Israel?’’ Westmin-
ster Theological Journal 20:46—-70. Kraeling,
E.G., **The Origin of the Name «Hebrews»,

643

1556 BY (‘abar)

AJSL 58:237-53. Lewy, J., ‘Origin and Signifi-
cation of the Biblical Term Hebrew,’ Hebrew
Union College Annual, 27:1-13. , “A New
Parallel between Habiru and Hebrews,’’ HUCA
15:47-58. Noth, M., The History of Israel, Lon-
don: Black, 1960, 33-36, 110-121. TDNT, II], pp.
365-69.

‘ebra. Anger, rage, wrath (aSv and Rsv trans-
late arrogant pride, arrogance of pride, fury).

The verbal root of the noun is ‘abar ‘to pass,
to pass over, to overflow.’’ (Michaelis and Driver
relate the term to the Arabic gabira: bear rancor.)
The ideas expressed by the noun are a surpassing
measure and/or excess. In the oT it is used in
relation to the pride of men and in association
with anger. Pride, combined with anger is arro-
gance and insolence.

The term ‘ebrad, when used in relation to God,
is used as a synonym of such terms as gdsap,
héma, etc. However, it adds the nuance of the
fierceness of God’s wrath (Ps 78:49) expressed in
an overwhelming and complete demonstration
(Isa 13:9). God’s wrath burns, overflows, sweeps
away everything before it (Ezk 22:21, 31). Thus
on the day of the Lord’s ‘ebrd, nothing stands
before it. When the day of judgment is spoken of,
the reference is to God’s wrath overflowing,
burning, consuming all that has displeased or op-
posed him. When man’s ‘ebrda is spoken of, it ts
described as cruel and merciless (Amos 1:11),
having wounded pride as its basic motivation.

‘abar. Meddle, to provoke to anger, to rage, to be
wroth. BDB lists ‘a@bar separately as a de-
nominative verb related to ‘ebrd used only in the
Hithpael, to be arrogant, infuriate one’s self.

This verb is used to express a number of spe-
cific emphases. We read of the fool, whose at-
titude and conduct is described as one who
‘‘beareth himself insolently and is confident’
(Prov 14:16, asv; “‘throws off restraint, is care-
less’* Rsv). The fool also is quick to meddle in or
be agitated to become a third party in a quarrel.
The prudent man looks where he is going, he
fears and departs from evil. In this context the
verb hit‘abber definitely conveys the idea of
human pride motivating a man to a rash demon-
stration of overconfidence, folly, excessive anger
and evil. Proverbs 20:2 teaches that one who
provokes a king to this frame of mind and con-
duct brings his own life into great danger (ASv
‘*sinneth against,’’ Rsv ‘‘forfeits his life’’). This
passage suggests the uncontrollable devastating
character of aroused and human overflowing
pride and anger.

The verb is used also to describe God's reac-
tions to Moses’ and Israel’s disobedience.
Deuteronomy 3:26 suggests that God gave a
strong, full expression of his impatience and
anger with Moses. The psalmist, when recount-

1557 way (‘abash)

ing Israel’s history (Ps 78:21) reminds God's
people that Israel’s sins in the wilderness really
tried the patience of God. In fact, God became
full of fury and he caused it to flow forth as a
flood. This term certainly gives us an insight into
the spontaneous complete, and evident abhor-
rence of God towards repeated sins by his chosen
delivered people.

‘abir J. Old corn (asv and Rsv have ‘‘pro-
duce’’) UT 19: no. 1807 suggests ‘‘harvest.”’

In Josh 5:11-12 one reads that Israel ate the
‘abur of the land of Canaan, and then manna
ceased. Thus Israel actually realized they had ar-
rived in the promised land, the land *‘passed up
food’’ for sustenance to them.

‘abar JI. Because of, for, intent that, for —’s,
sake, that, to.

‘abur is a preposition and conjunction always
used with the prefix 5° to express causal, pur-
posive, and resultative relationships in agreement
with the meanings of the root term ‘dabar
‘‘movement from one to another,’ as from pur-
pose (or cause) to accomplishment (or result).

Bibliography: Gemser, B., *‘Be’éber Hajjar-
dén: In Jordan's Borderland,’ VT 2:349-SS.
G.V.G.
93 (ibri). See no. 1556b.
1557 wy (‘dbash) shrivel (Joel 1:17, only).
I558 *m35y = (‘abat) weave, wind. Occurs only
in the Piel (Mic 7:3).
Derivatives
1I5S5S8a MSP (‘abdt) having interwoven
foliage, leafy (e.g. Ezk 20:28; Neh
8:15).
I5S8b = ASy (‘abdt) (twisted) cord, rope;
interwoven foliage (e.g. Ex 28:14;
Isa 5:18).
1559 33¥ (‘aGgab) have inordinate affection, lust
(e.g. Ezk 23:7, 9, 12: Jer 4:30).
Derivatives
1559a ae =((‘dgdb) love (sensuous). Oc-
curs only in Ezk 33:32.
1559b = Map «((‘dgaba) lustfulness. Occurs
only in Ezk 23:11.
1559c = NY (‘uigadb) flute, reed-pipe (e.g.

Gen 4:21; Job 30:31).

See no. 157Sa.
See no. 1560c.
See no. 1563a.

May (‘uga).
ay (‘agdl).
"19 (‘dgur).

1560 ‘ay (‘gl). Assumed root of the following.
1560a thay (‘égel) (bull-) calf.
1560b tm ap (‘egla) heifer.

1560c 9ay (‘adgdl), %3y (‘dgdl) round.

1560d soy (‘agdla) cart.

1560e %3p (‘agil) hoop, ring.

15S60f %3y% (ma‘gal) entrenchment,
track.

‘egel. Calf. The calf is one of the animals used

for sacrifice. A year-old bull calf was acceptable
as a burnt offering (Lev 9:3; Mic 6:6) and one of
an unspecified age was used as a sin offering for
Aaron (Lev 9:2, 8).

The fatted calf was used for food (I Sam 28:24;
cf. Luke 15:23, 27, 30) but it was generally a deli-
cacy for the rich (Amos 6:4).

The gamboling of the calf is mentioned in Ps
29:6 and in Mal 4:2 [H 3:20]. The calf was used in
the covenant rite, the participants passing be-
tween the parts of the slaughtered calf (Jer 34:18;
cf. Gen 15:9-10).

The calf is also used as a type. It typifies the
Gentile peoples (Ps 68:30 [H 31]), and Egypt’s
mercenary soldiers (Jer 46:21). In Jer 31:18 the
untrained calf represents the wayward Ephraim
and in Isa 27:10 the grazing calf reflects the deso-
lation of Judah. The calf’s peaceful co-existence
with other animals bespeaks the peace of the fu-
ture age (Isa 11:6).

The calf as an image, made of gold, is by far the
most interesting use of this word. Aaron yielded
to the wishes of the people in the wilderness and
made them the molten calf (Ex 32:4, 8, 19, 20, 24,
35) which he identified as the gods who delivered
them from Egypt. However, this calf is involved
in the subsequent feast proclaimed for YHWH
(Ex 32:5) and therefore may have been a symbol
of God’s presence or, more likely, since **gods”’
is pl. in verses 1 and 4, the name LorD was used
in a pagan polytheistic way.

The golden calves of Bethel and Dan, erected
by Jeroboam, seem also to be pedestals upon
which YHWH was enthroned (I Kgs 12:28, 32),
even as he was enthroned between the cherubim
above the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22; Num
7:89). However, since the calf was a symbol of
fertility, the pedestal concept faded into the
background and in the popular religion the
calves, due to Canaanite influence, became iden-
tified with YHWH (II Kgs 17:16; Hos 8:5) and led
to apostasy.

‘egla. Heifer, young cow (aSv and Rsv similar).
A synonym is para which is the word used in
Num 19 where the rite of the red heifer is de-.
scribed.

The heifer was used for agricultural purposes,
such as plowing and treading out the grain on the
threshing floor (Hos 10:11). She would also be
used for milk. In Isa 7:21 (‘eglat baqdr ** young

644

cow’) reference is made to the nomad who, sur-
viving the Assyrian crisis, would own one cow
and two sheep. Normally, this would indicate a
poor peasant (cf. I] Sam 12:1-3) yet the promise
here is for abundance of milk. The word ‘‘curds”’
in this passage is perhaps used figuratively for
material abundance.

A three-year-old heifer was used in the Lord’s
covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:9). A three-
year-old heifer would still be in its freshness and
the fullness of its strength. (The ‘‘heifer of three
years old,’ the kJv rendering of Isa 15:5 and Jer
48:34, is correctly understood by the asv, rsv and
NIV to indicate a place, Eglath-shelishiyah. )

A heifer which had never been worked, was
used in a rite of expiation, when the body of a
murdered man was found in the open country and
the murderer was unknown. The elders of the
closest city were to break the neck of this heifer
in a valley with running water, washing their
hands over it, thereby indicating their and the
city's innocence (Deut 21:3, 4, 6). This rite shows
that crime is not simply a private matter but in-
volves the whole community. Further, in a real
sense, the heifer was put to death in the place of
the murderer, hence suffering his punishment. It
was also a heifer which Samuel offered at the
time of his anointing David (I Sam 16:2).

Ephraim is also likened to a heifer, a trained
heifer that loved to thresh (Hos 10:11). This
Suggests that she had chosen pleasant, produc-
tive and profitable labor (KD loc. cit.). In thresh-
ing, the animal was allowed to eat at will (Deut
25:4). But now Ephraim will be put under the
yoke to plow, i.e. she will be put to heavy labor
and wearying toil.

Bibliography: Oswalt, John N., ‘The Golden
Calves and the Egyptian Concept of Deity,’° EQ
45:13-20.

CS.

1561 Bay (‘agam)
Job 30:25.

be grieved. Occurs only in

1562 *13Y (‘Ggan) shut oneself in or off. Oc-
curs only in the Niphal, in Ruth 1:13.

1563 “ay (‘er). Assumed root of the following.
1563a 0 NAY (‘dgur) name of a_ bird,
perhaps a thrush.

"Y (‘ad) I, HW, HI. See nos. 1565a,b,c.
sy (‘éd). See no. 1576b.

1564 “Y (‘dd). Assumed root of the following.
1S64a may «6(‘idda) —_— menstruation (Isa
64:5).

1565 may (‘ddad) I, go on, pass by; Hiphil, re-
move. Probably root of the following.

645

1565 m4 (‘ada)

1565a SY (‘ad) I, perpetuity, continuing
future.

1565b 3Y (‘ad) HH, booty, prey, used
only in Gen 49:27; Isa 33:23; Zeph
3:8.

1I565c oY (ad) IM, “sy (‘ddé) as far
as, even to, until, while.

‘ad_ I. Perpetuity. aAsv, RSv translate similarly,
except in Isa 45:17. Here the former has ‘“‘world
without end’ while the latter has ‘‘to all eter-
nity.’

It should be noted that there is no general word
for time in Hebrew, neither are there special
terms for the past, present, future, and eternity.
The word ‘délam should be compared, with spe-
cial attention given to the nineteen times when
these words are used together.

‘ad, like ‘d6lam, is used only in connection with
prepositions, as an adverbial accusative or as a
genitive in a construct chain. Ugaritic b‘d ‘lm
could correspond to Hebrew ‘dd as well as to ‘ad
(UT 19: no. 1813).

This word is used only twice relative to the
past. The knowledge that the success of the
wicked is short, has been known from of old (Job
20:4). In Hab 3:6 reference is made to the an-
tiquity of the mountains.

Otherwise it always denotes the unforeseeable
future; that is, it means in the following com-
pounds: ‘ddé-‘ad ‘forever’ (Isa 26:4; 65:18; Ps
83:17 [H 18]; 92:7 [H 8]: 132:12, 14, la‘ad
‘forever,’ (Isa 64:9 [H 8]: Amos 1:11; Mic 7:18;
Ps 9:18 [H 19]; 19:9 [H 10]: 21:6 [H 7]; 22:26
[H 27]: 37:29; 61:8 [H 9]; 89:29 [H 30]; 111:3, 8,
10: 112:3, 9; 148:6; Job 19:24: Prov 12:19; 29:14:
I Chr 28:9); /*6lam wa'‘ad and ‘dlam wa'‘ad
‘forever and ever’ (Ex 15:18; Mic 4:5; Ps 9:5
[H 6]; 10:16; 21:4 [H 5]; 45:6 [H 7], 17 [H 18]:
48:14 [H 15]; 52:8 [H 10); 104:5: 119:44; 145:1, 2,
21. Dan 12:3); and as well as in a construct chain
in which it serves as the modifier (Isa 9:6 [H 5})
‘dbi-‘ad ‘father forever’; 57:15; shokén ‘ad ‘‘the
eternal throne’’; Hab 3:6: harré-‘ad **the ever-
lasting hills.’*

Frequently the word ‘ad is applied to God. His
existence is eternal (Isa 57:15). While his righ-
teousness endures forever (Ps 111:3; 112:3, 9),
his anger does not (Mic 7:18). God is worthy of
praise and will be praised forever (Ps 45:17
[H 18]; 52:9 (H 10); 111:10; 145:1, 2, 21). The
throne of God (Ps 10:16; 45:6 [H 7]; Ex 15:18) and
the law of God (Ps 19:9 [H 10]) will endure
forever.

This word is also applied to Israel. The Davidic
dynasty will continue forever, depending upon
their response to the covenant (Pss 89:29 [H 30];
132:12). Zion is God’s dwelling place forever (Ps
48:14 (H 15]; 132:14: I Chr 28:9).

A sharp contrast is seen in the use of this word

1566 MIP (‘ada)

relative to the righteous and wicked. The righ-
teous will not always be forgotten (Ps 9:18
(H 19]) and they will inhent the land forever (Ps
37:29). By contrast the wicked are doomed to
destruction forever (Ps 9:6 [H 7]; 92:7 (H 8]).

‘ad_ II, as far as, even to, until, while. The spe-
cial poetic form, ‘ddé is used twelve times. ‘ad
functions as both preposition and conjunction. It
indicates the gamut, beginning with the distance
from, the advance toward, and the movement up
to. It is used spatially, temporally, and compara-
tively.

Spatially it can indicate arrival at a geograph-
ical location (‘‘as far as Bethel,’ Gen 12:6), at a
particular object (‘‘up to the horns of the altar,”’
Ps 118:27) and at a person (“‘approach to God,”’
Ex 22:8). When used in combination with min it
gives the idea of extent (‘from Sidon... as far as
Gaza,’ Gen 10:19). Idiomatically it designates
range (from the young to the old, Gen 19:4).

This word is used temporally to indicate a con-
tinuation of an event from a point in the past to
the present (Gen 19:37, 38). It can be used of an
event clearly in the past (Gen 8:7) and also of an
event in the future (Gen 3:19; Deut 7:20, 23). Asa
conjunction it can refer to action which has al-
ready happened (Deut 2:14) or one which has not
yet been completed at the time of the writing
(1I Sam 17:13). A continuing event can be desig-
nated under such translations as ‘‘while’’ and
‘‘during’’ (‘the exalting of the wicked is but fora
moment,’ Job 20:5; cf. Jon 4:2; I] Kgs 9:22).

It can be used comparatively in the sense of
measure or degree to suggest a higher or the
highest. Esther is promised her request by the
king up to half the kingdom (Est 5:6). Paying the
tithe will result in an overwhelming blessing (Mal
3:10). God's words are said to run even to haste,
i.e. swiftly (Ps 147:15). When used with the nega-
tive it expresses the concept of “‘not even as
much as.’’ The family of Shimei did not have as
many children as Judah (I Chr 4:27). Abishai was
chief of the thirty but he did not attain to the three
(II Sam 23:19). The army of Sisera was totally
destroyed, not a man was left (Jud 4:16). As a
conjunctive it can indicate a degree of achieve-
ment which becomes perpetual (Isa 47:7).

Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., ‘A Preposi-
tion of Interest to Historical Geographers,’’
BASOR 122:12-14; 124:29-30.

CS.
1566 mY (‘dda) II, ornament, deck oneself.
Derivative
1566a ‘SY (‘ddi) ornaments.
may (‘éda). See nos. 1574c, e, 878a.

may (‘idda). See no. 1564a.

646

1567 *33p (ddan)

1568 3p (‘éden)

misp (‘édat). See no. 1576f.
sy (‘ddé). See no. 1565c.
sty (‘ddi). See no. 1566a.

my (‘ddin). See no. 1567c.

luxuriate. Occurs only in
Neh 9:25, in the Hithpael. A denominative

verb.
Parent Noun
1567a WY (‘éden) I, finery, luxury.
15676 many (‘edna) pleasure (Gen
18:12).
1567c 3=0oY «(‘ddin) voluptuous.

1567d YY (ma‘adan)

light.

‘eden J. Finery, dainty, delight. Used only
three times. Twice it refers to the rich booty of
war. In his elegy for Saul, David urged the
women to weep over his death, for he had pro-
vided them with luxurious clothes (II Sam 1:24).
The inhabitants of Judah indict Nebuchadnezzar
as a beast of prey which has devoured their deli-
cacies (Jer 51:34). In Ps 36:8 [H 9] the Psalmist
refers to the river of pleasure found in God who is
the fountain of life. This is perhaps an allusion to
the joining of the four rivers in the Garden of
Eden (Gen 2:10).

dainty (food), de-

II, Eden. (Always so trans-
lated by the rsv and the aSv).

This word was possibly derived from the Ak-
kadian word edinu based on the Sumerian word
eden, meaning “‘plain, steppe.’’ Akkadian Bit
Adini refers to the region on both sides of the
Euphrates. It was then secondarily associated
with the homonymous but unrelated Hebrew root
‘ddan meaning enjoyment. However the Lxx
seems to derive this word directly from the He-
brew root ‘ddan by translating it “‘garden of de-
light.’” This has led to the traditional identifica-
tion of the Garden of Eden with Paradise which
was apt enough (Rev 2:7).

This word appears fourteen times in the oT. In
Gen 2:8, 10; 4:16 reference ts made to the geo-
graphical area in which the garden is placed. The
precise location of Eden is difficult. While the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers can be located, there
is general uncertainty as to the other two rivers,
the Pishon and the Gihon. However, an area near
the head of the Persian Gulf seems a likely possi-
bility. Speiser maintains that the physical back-
ground as given here in Genesis 2 is authentic
(AB, loc. cit. and cf. Harris, R. L. ‘‘The Mist, the
Canopy and the Rivers of Eden,’ JETS 11 (1968)
177-180).

Eden is a symbol of great fertility in Isa 51:3;
Ezk 36:35 and Joel 2:3. Both Isaiah and Ezekiel
promise that the waste places of Judah will blos-

som, becoming as Eden. Joel, referring to the
locust invasion, indicates that prior to their arri-
val the land was as Eden but as a desolate place
after their departure.

In Ezk 31 Egypt is likened to a giant cedar tree
which the trees of Eden (in apposition with *‘the
choice and best of Lebanon,” hence indicating
the nobles and princes of the nations) envied, but
this giant cedar tree will fall, bringing comfort to
the trees of Eden (princes already fallen, now
joined by the nobility of Egypt, Ezk 31:8, 9,
16, 18).

The expression ‘garden of Eden”’ in Gen 2:15;
3:23, 24 (cf. Ezk 36:35; Joel 2:3) apparently gave
rise to a particular use of Eden by the prophets.
In Isa $1:3 Eden ts parallel to the phrase *‘garden
of the Lorp”’ (cf. Gen 13:10) and in Ezk 28:13
Eden is in apposition with the phrase ‘‘garden of
God.’’ (Note the change in the divine name: the
Isaiah passage uses Yahweh because it is di-
rected primarily to Israel and her restoration; the
Ezekiel passage uses Elohim because it depicts
Eden as the most glorious land in all earthy crea-
tion [KD loc. cit.].) Clearly such a usage is now
more interested in the theological rather than the
geographical.

In Ezk 28 Eden, the garden of God, is located
on the holy mountain of God (Ezk 28:14, 16) and
in this garden there is a king, identified as the
King of Tyre. He is a primordial person who is
beautiful and perfect. Because of pride, however,
he was driven out of the garden. The king of Tyre
here may well represent Satan (q.v.) and his fall.
If this is the case then Eden seems to refer here to
a paradisiacal situation.

Even in the Genesis passages the writer is in-
terested in more than geography. There Eden
symbolized a state of unbroken fellowship be-
tween God and man. The expulsion from the gar-
den was more than a physical move. It indicated
that man had sinned, disobeying God’s com-
mand. It 1s also significant that Eden was not only
a luxurious place to be enjoyed, it was a place
where man had work to do.

During the intertestamental period further de-
velopment among the Jews of the belief in the
resurrection led to the identification of Eden as
the place of the righteous dead both before and
after the resurrection. (It should be noted, how-
ever, that they continued to maintain belief in the
original garden of Eden.) This emphasis clearly
influenced the NT writers who refer to paradise
three times—Luke 23:43; II Cor 12:1—4; Rev 2:7.

C.S.

1569 3¥ (‘Gdap) remain over, be in excess
(e.g. Ex 26:12; 16:23).

1570 SY (‘ddar) TI, help (1 Chr 12:34).

647

1571 *93~ (‘ddar) II, hoe.

1573 myIy (‘adashd)

1574 *533y (‘ab)

This verb occurs

only in the Niphal (Isa 5:6; 7:25).
Derivative

147la “3p (ma'dér) a hoe.

1572 *"3y (‘ddar) HI, be lacking, fail. Oc-

curs in the Niphal and Piel only.

Derivative
IS72a tsp (‘éder) flock, herd. (asv, RSV
similar.)

This word is generally used of sheep, goats,
and cattle but it is also used to indicate the nation
of Israel in her relationship to God.

Relative to animals, this word is primarily used
of sheep (Gen 29:2, 3, 8; I Sam 17:34; Jer 51:23;
Joel 1:18; Mal 1:14). The shepherd is challenged
to watch the condition of his flock (Prov 27:23).
In describing his beloved, the bridegroom de-
scribes her teeth as a flock of ewes (Song
4:2=6:6). In addition to sheep, this word is
applied to goats (Song 4:1; 6:5), to oxen (Joel
1:18) and to cattle—domesticated bovine but
often including other animals (Gen 32:17, 20).

The most significant use of this word is its de-
Signation of Israel as the flock of God. The very
nature of the animals (sheep, in particular) and
the devotion and care of the shepherd plus the
common knowledge of this fact made this an ideal
symbol of God’s relationship to Israel. While
kings (Jer 13:20) and other rulers (called
shepherds, Ezk 34:12; Zech 10:3) have mis-
treated God’s flock, he will care for them. The
prophet condemned the shepherds of Israel who
had not been caring for the flock, but rather car-
ing for themselves (Ezk 34:2). By contrast, the
prophet promises that God will take good care of
Israel and set up his ‘‘servant, David’* over them
(Isa 40:11: Ezk 34:13-16, 24). Even as he guided
them in the past in the wilderness after the
Exodus (Ps 78:52), so he will bring them back
from their exile (Jer 13:17), seeking them out and
leading them like a shepherd (Mic 2:12). This al-
legory is the basis of the New Testament image of
Jesus as the Good Shepherd (Jn 10; Heb 13:20).

CS.

! lentil (e.g. Gen 25:34,
Ezk 4:9).

1574 *s3y (‘ab) becloud. Denominative verb,

used in the Hiphil.
Parent Noun
1S74a_ ft3y (‘ab) UH, cloud.

‘ub **becloud”’ is used only in Lam 2:1, of Zion
being placed under a cloud because of the Lord's
anger.

S75 aay (‘ag)

‘ab. Cloud. This word should be distinguished
from the synonym ‘adnan ‘‘mass of clouds’’ (used
in the expression ‘'‘pillar of cloud,’’ Ex 13:21). By
contrast ‘db seems to designate a particular
cloud, generally a dark cloud in the sense of a
rain cloud (Jud 4:5; I Kgs 18:44, 45; Job 37:11;
Eccl 11:3; Job 37:11).

‘ab is used metaphorically to show the swift
movement of the remnant (arriving on white-
masted ships) when God calls them back from
exile (Isa 60:8), the facility, rapidity, and totality
with which God removes sin (Isa 44:22) and the
transience of prosperity (Job 30:51). Even as God
can subdue the heat of the sun by clouds so he
can still the noise of the enemies of his people
(Isa 25:5).

This word is also used to suggest height, par-
ticularly as it pertains to the ambition of the
wicked and their aspirations against God. Though
the wicked seem to prosper, reaching the heights
of success, they will soon perish and disappear
(Job 20:6). It is used in the same way of Egypt,
which is likened to a cedar whose top is in the
clouds but which will be felled (Ezk 31:3, 10, 14).
The king of Babylon expresses his ambition by
the determination to ascend the summit of the
northern mountain or sacred mountain (NIV)
which its lost in the clouds (Isa 14:14). However,
he will die as all other men and go to Sheol where
he will enjoy no special place.

The mobility of God is depicted by this word
(Ps 18:11, 12 [H 12, 13J=II] Sam 22:12, 13; Ps
104:3). God rides upon the clouds when he is
about to bring judgment upon Egypt, striking fear
into the very idols of the nation (Isa 19:1). It is
perhaps in this sense of judgment that Jesus, al-
luding to Dan 7:13, referred to his return ‘‘on the
clouds of heaven with power and great glory”
(Mt 24:29-31).

C:S:

1575 33 (‘ag) bake a cake (Ezk 4:12). De-
nominative verb.

Parent Noun

1S75a_ MAY =(‘uga) dise or cake of bread
(e.g. Hos 7:8; Ezk 4:12).

1S75b NY (ma‘og) cake (1 Kgs 17:12;
Ps 35:16).

aay (‘ugab). See no. 1559c.

1576 y (‘ud) return, repeat.

Derivatives

1S76a iy (‘6d) a_ going round, con-
tinuance.

1576b My (‘éd) witness.

1576c «tmp ('éda) testimony, witness.

648

1876d My (‘ad) bear witness. Denomi-
native noun.

1IS76e ty (‘eda) testimonies.

1S76f tnssp (‘ediit) testimony.

1576g «MTA «((t* ada) testimony (Isa
8:16, 20), attestation (Ruth 4:7).

‘od. Continuance, besides, still, again. Func-
tions as a substantive and an adverb. This word,
derived from ‘id ‘*to repeat,’’ ‘*to do again,’’ has
the sense of repetition and permanence. C. van
Leeuwen notes that the root ‘vd is widespread in
the Semitic languages: e.g. Arabic ‘dda ‘‘to re-
turn’ and ‘ddat ‘“‘habit,’’ Ethiopic ‘dda *‘to turn
about,”’ Phoenician/Aramaic/Hebrew ‘od ‘‘still,
yet.’. But the meaning ‘‘witness’’ (‘éd) occurs
only in Hebrew (THAT, II, p. 210).

Most frequently this word has a temporal
sense. It is used to indicate the continuance of a
past or present event (‘‘Abraham still stood be-
fore the Lord,’’ Gen 18:22), of a custom (‘people
still sacrificed and burned incense on the high
places,’ I Kgs 22:44), and of an attribute (‘I am
still as strong,’’ Josh 14:11). Constancy can be
expressed by this term. The psalmist affirms that
he will sing to the Lord as long as he lives (Ps 84:4
[H 5]; 104:33; 146:2). Jacob declared that God
was with him all his life (Gen 48:15). When lim-
ited by its nature to a single occurrence, this
word assumes the meaning ‘‘again’’ (Gen 18:29;
29:33).

Addition or repetition can be indicated by this
term. After ‘‘yet’’ seven days, Noah sent out
another bird (Gen 8:10, 12). Jacob served Laban
for ‘‘another’’ seven years to gain Rachel (Gen
29:30). Joseph warned his brothers that the
famine would continue five *“more’’ years (Gen
45:6).

This word also has a numerical emphasis,
meaning “‘moreover, ‘“‘besides’’ (Gen 19:22;
I Sam 10:22: Amos 6:10). When used with the
negative, the meaning is there is none besides
(Isa 47:8, 10). God emphatically asserts that there
is no other besides him (Isa 45:5, 6, 14, 18, 22).

‘ed. Witness. (ASV and RSV Similar.) This word,
appearing some sixty-seven times in the oT, 1s
also derived from the root ‘4d meaning “‘return’’
or ‘‘repeat, do again.". The semantic develop-
ment apparently is that a witness is one, who by
reiteration, emphatically affirms his testimony.
The word is at home in the language of the court.

A witness is a person who has firsthand knowl-
edge of an event or one who can testify on the
basis of a report which he has heard (Lev 5:1).
Such a person is under obligation to testify (Prov
29:24). The law demanded the testimony of at
least two witnesses to establish guilt (Num 35:30;
Deut 17:6; 19:15). In the case of a stoning, the
witness hurled the first stone (Deut 17:7; cf. Acts
7:58).

The oT recognizes that a witness could be de-
pendable or false. In the former instance the
word is qualified by ‘émer “‘truth”’ (Prov 14:25:
Jer 42:5), by mana **firmness”™ (Prov 14:5), and
by ne’éman “confirmed” (Isa 8:2). To designate
the unreliable witness the word is qualified by
sheger *‘false’’ (Ex 20:16), by Adzab “lie” (Prov
21:28), by b®*liya’al *‘*worthlessness’’ (Prov
19:28), by shaun" “*emptiness** (Deut 5:20 [H 17]),
and by Aamas “ violence’ (Ex 23:1; Deut 19:16:
Ps 35:11).

Bearing false witness is prohibited in the Deca-
logue (Ex 20:16) and 1s condemned in the wisdom
literature (Prov 6:19; 14:5: 19:5, 9, 28: 21:28:
25:18). The psalmist complains that false wit-
nesses have risen against him (Ps 27:12: 35:11).
According to the law, a false witness is subject to
the same penalty he hoped to have inflicted upon
the accused (Deut 19:16-21).

A witness was needed for various transactions
such as the sale of property (Jer 32:10, 12, 25, 44)
and the act of redemption (Ruth 4:9, 10, 11).

Inanimate objects could be witnesses: stones
(Gen 31:48), altar (Josh 22:27, 28), moon (Ps
89:37 (H 38}). and a poem (Deut 31:19, 21, 26).
The nation of Israel was viewed as God's witness
(Isa 43:9, 10: 44:8, 9). In Gen 21:30 animals were
symbolic witnesses in the making of a treaty.

The ultimate witness is God himself, who is
shown to be keenly aware of man’s integrity
(I Sam 12:5; Job 16:19) and equally cognizant of
man’s sin (Jer 29:23: Mal 3:5).

‘id. Bear witness, admonish, warn. (asv and
rsv similar except for minor variations in
synonyms.) This word ts a denominative verb,
coming from the noun ‘éd meaning “‘witness.

This word is used not too frequently and usu-
ally in the area of human affairs. It is used rela-
tive to a business transaction in Jer 32:10, 25, 44
where Jeremiah obtained witnesses for the deed
to his newly acquired property in Anathoth.
Jezebel secured two men to denounce (witness
against) Naboth so that Ahab could have his
vineyard (1 Kings 21:10, 13). Isaiah secured reli-
able witnesses to verify his sign to Ahaz (Isa 8:2).
Job recalled the wide approval he enjoyed before
his adversity (Job 29:11).

God appeals to and invokes heaven and earth
as his witness against Israel that he has given her
a choice between life and death (Deut 4:26:
30:19). This is a common motif in the or (cf. Isa
1:2). Moses also tnvokes heaven and earth
against the anticipated rebellion of Israel (Deut
31:28).

Most frequently this word is used in the sense
of a strong warning. Man can be the one who
issues the warning as well as the one who re-
ceives it. Joseph warned his brothers to return
with Benjamin (Gen 43:3). The merchants are

649

1576 TY (‘ad)

strongly admonished by Nehemiah not to dese-
crate the Sabbath (Neh 13:15). Moses cautioned
Israel against curiosity at Sinai (Ex 19:21).
Samuel warned the nation against instituting the
monarch (I Sam 8:9). The owner of an ox, who
had been advised that his animal was dangerous,
would be put to death if the ox should kill a per-
son (Ex 21:29).

God is also frequently the subject of this verb,
extending a warning to Israel (II Kings 17:15; Ps
50:7; 81:8 {H 9]; Jer 11:7). The prophets were
often the channel through which God extended
his solemn exhortation (II Chr 24:19; Neh 9:26:
Jer 42:19: Amos 3:13).

‘eda I. Testimony, witness. Used only of things
posited to establish permanence and unequivocal
facts such as ownership (Gen 21:30), an agree-
ment (Gen 31:52), and a covenant with God (Josh
24:27).

‘eda 1. Testimonies. This noun is used only in
the plural. It refers to the laws as given with di-
vine warrant. especially in Ps 119 (thirteen
times). Possibly ‘éda@ is a variant pointing of
“Edit.

‘edut. Testimony, reminder, warning sign. (ASV
and rsv are similar but the latter will occasionally
use the rendering “‘warning,”” cf. I] Kgs 17:15;
Neh 9:34, which ts justified since the meaning of
this word is not simply a corroborative testimony
but also a warning testimony.) This substantive is
from the root ‘dd meaning ‘‘to bear witness.”
Synonymous and derived from the same root are
‘éda III, found less frequently and only in the
plural, meaning ‘‘testimonies’’ of God and
t ‘ada, also meaning “‘testimony'* but somewhat
more restricted since it seems to designate the
particular prophetic testimony of Isaiah (8:16, 20)
rather than the law in general. (For this latter
word cf. UT 19: no. 1832, t'dt, which has the
dual meaning of message and messenger—UT,
16: T nos. 137:22, 26, 30. 41, 44.)

This word is always used in reference to the
testimony of God. It is most frequently con-
nected with the tabernacle (Ex 38:21: Num 1:50,
53), resulting in the expression “‘tabernacle of the
testimony, and with the ark (Ex 25:22: 26:33,
34: 30:6, 26), resulting in the phrase ‘‘ark of the
testimony.’ In fact in several instances this word
stands alone to indicate the ark (Ex 16:34; 27:21;
30:36: Lev 16:13). Moses was instructed to put
the testimony in (‘‘before,’’ Ex 16:34: 27:21) the
ark (Ex 25:21) and he did so (Ex 40:20: cf. Heb
9:4). Here the meaning ts made quite clear. It
designates the two tables of stone upon which the
Ten Words (commandments) were written (Ex
24:12: 31:18: 32:15; 34:29). These two tables rep-
resented God's covenant with Israel (Ex 34:27,
28) and as such are called the *‘tables of the co-
venant (Deut 9:9; 11:15).

1577 MY (awa)

The law of God Is his testimony because it is
his own affirmation relative to his very person
and purpose. While in the oT the written words
constitute the testimony, it is the proclamation of
the gospel which is the essence of the testimony
in the NT.

The identification of this word with the law is
seen even more clearly in Ps 19 and 119 where it
is used as a synonym of the law. In Ps 19:7 [H 8]
the testimony is said to be trustworthy. This
word is used nine times in Ps 119 (14, 31, 36, 88,
99, 111, 129, 144, 157) where the psalmist reflects
his great delight in and his great respect for the
law of the Lord.

This word is also used in conjunction with the
coronation ceremony of Joash. At the time of re-
ceiving the crown from the priest Jehoiada, the
king also received the ‘‘testimony’”’ (II Kgs 11:12
=II Chr 23:11). This action based on Deut 17:18,
19, 20 was to remind the king that the law
was to determine both his personal life and his
rule as king (cf. I Kgs 2:3; I Chr 29:19, of Sol-
omon and II Chr 34:31, of Josiah).

As noted above this word has an emphasis of
warning. The fall of the Northern Kingdom is at-
tributed to the fact that Samaria despised the
warning of the Lord (II Kgs 17:15). Ezra makes a
confession for the Southern Kingdom, acknow-
ledging that Judah had not heeded God's warning
(Neh 9:34; cf. Jer 44:23). The law of the Lord has
been given as a warning sign to man.

Bibliography: Woudstra, M., The Ark of the
Covenant, from Conquest to Kingship, Presbyte-
rian Reformed, 1965, pp. 101-102. TDNT, IV,
pp. 482-86; VII, pp. 802-28. THAT, II, pp. 209-
20.

CS;
1577 MY) (awa) bend, twist, distort.
Derivatives

1S77a_ NY (‘Gwon) iniquity, guilt, punish-
ment.

15S77b tMIY (‘awwa) ruin.

1IS77c = BSS (‘iw‘im) distorting, warping
(Isa 19:14).

IS77d = SY) SO?) so ruin, heap of ruins.

1577e = (Cm * 7) ruin’ (Isa 17:1).

Cognates to Hebrew ‘dwd include Arabic
‘awaya ‘‘to bend,’ ‘‘to twist’’ and/or gawaya
‘*to deviate from the way” (cf. S. R. Driver,
Notes on the Hebrew Text... of the Books of
Samuel (71913), pp. 170f; GB 569b; KB 686f.;
Zorrell, 578a), and Biblical Aramaic ‘awava *‘of-
fense, iniquity’’ (Dan 4:24).

Its main derivative is the masculine noun
‘awon (occurring 231 times against the verb
found 17 times), an abstract nominal pattern with
the dn>6n ending (BL, p. 498 and Moscati,

650

p. 82). BDB conjecture two roots: ‘awd I
‘*bend’’ twist’’ related to Arabic ‘awaya and
‘awa Il **to commit iniquity’’ a denominative
from ‘@won which in turn is related to Arabic
gawaya. But KB and GB with more probability
see only one Hebrew root related either to
‘awaya ‘‘alone’ (so KB) or to both roots (so
GB). For convenience we shall follow this proce-
dure.

The basic meaning of the verb, ‘‘to bend, twist,
distort,"’ can be seen in its concrete, non-
theological uses: ‘‘I] am bent over’’ (Niphal) (Ps
38:7); ‘‘the Lorp lays the earth waste, devastates
it; and he ruins (Piel) it’ (Isa 24:1). From this
primary notion it derives the sense ‘‘to distort, to
make crooked, to pervert’’: *"He has made my
paths crooked (Piel)’’ (Lam 3:9); *‘I have... per-
verted (Hiphil) what is right’* (Job 33:27); *‘a man
of perverse (Niphal) heart will be despised’’
(Prov 12:8). When the distortion pertains to law it
means ‘‘to sin, to infract, to commit a perver-
sion/iniquity.”’

‘awon. Iniquity, guilt or punishment for
guilt. [The derivative noun ‘dw6n occurs with
only the derived, abstract theological notion of
the root: ‘‘infraction, crooked behavior, perver-
sion, iniquity, etc.”

We note in the first place that the noun is a
collective. Thus God says of the midsdeeds/
perversions of the Amorite: ‘‘The perversion
(singular) of the Amorite in not complete’’ (Gen
15:16). The widow of Zarephath complains to
Elijah that he came to ‘‘bring my perversion/
iniquity (singular) to remembrance’ (I Kgs
17:18). Thus it occurs in such formulas as ‘‘to
bear (nadsa’) ‘@won (Gen 4:13; Ex 34:7; Hos 14:3;
Ps 85:3); “‘to take away (‘dbar) (Hiphil) ‘@won
(Zech 3:4), “to visit (padgad) ‘G@won (Ex 20:5);
etc. This notion of totality is also seen in the as-
sociation of individual misdemeanor with that of
the group: ‘‘and the goat shall bear on itself all
their perversions/iniquities (plural) (Lev 16:22);
‘*.,.and the Lorp struck him with the
perversion/iniquity (singular) of all of us’’ (Isa
53:6).

Moreover, as the above references indicate, it
denotes both the deed and its consequences, the
misdeed and its punishment. Both notions are
present, but sometimes the focus is on the deed
(“‘sin’’), and at other times on the outcome of the
misdeed (‘‘punishment"’), and sometimes on the
situation between the deed and its consequence
(“‘guilt’’). As an example of the focus on the mis-
deed demanding punishment: ‘‘this sin will be-
come for you like a high wall, cracked and bulg-
ing, that collapses suddenly, in an instant (Isa
30:13; cf. Ezk 18:30; 44:12; Hos 5:5; Job 31:11,
28). With the emphasis on the punishment:
‘*Arise... or you will be swept away in the

punishment of the city (cf. Jer 51:7; Ps 39:12;
106:43: Job 13:26; 19:29; Ezr 9:7). With the em-
phasis on ‘‘guilt’’: ‘‘upon me be the blame”
(I Sam 25:25; see below for numerous examples).

The remarkable ambivalence between the
meanings **sin as an act’’ and ‘‘penalty’’ shows
that in the thought of the oT sin and its penalty are
not radically separate notions as we tend to think
of them. Rather in the oT the action of man and
what happens to him are presupposed to be di-
rectly related as one process within the basic di-
vine order. This connection has been called a
‘synthetic view of life’? (von Rad, G., Theology
of the Old Testament I, p. 205). The root hata’
‘‘sin’’ displays the same basic ‘‘synthetic’’ con-
cept; e.g. Num 32:23: ‘‘but if you fail to do this,
you will have sinned (Adra’tem) against the Lorp,
and you may be sure that your sin (hatta’t®*kem)
will find you out.”’ The second occurrence, the
nominal form of the root, denotes ‘‘the penalty”’
for the act (cf. Num. 12:11). Thus sin had the
inevitable effect of destroying the individual
and/or the community and must be rooted out.
B.K.W. |

‘awon definitely is not a trait of God's charac-
ter nor of his dealing with man (Ex 20:5; 6; 34:7),
but is an overwhelming trait of man’s character
and actions, including consequences of those ac-
tions.

‘dwon designates kinds of civil or social
violations in ] Sam 20:1, 8; I] Sam 3:8; Neh 4:5;
Ps 51:2, and cultic violations in Josh 22:17; and I
Sam 3:13-14. In instances too numerous to list,
this term is a collective, or a quasi-abstract, noun
denoting the sum of past misdeeds against God
and man. Samples are Num 14:34; I Sam 25:24;
II Sam 22:24; I Kgs 17:18; Ezr 9:6; Job 13-26; Isa
1:4; Jer 11:10).

In other passages the emphasis is on the quality
and the inner source of ‘dwon. In Job 15:4—S it is
related to doing away with the fear of God, etc.,
whereas in Ps 78:37-38 it is tied to being not
steadfast toward him (God), and in Jer 14:10 with
the statement, they have loved to wander thus.
The term is related to both adultery (Num 5:31)
and to idolatry (Hos 5:5: Jer 16:10-11). In this
metaphor, both the act of violation and the con-
sequent defilement is depicted. Other results of
‘awon are found to be separation from God, an
alienation (Lev 26:40; Isa 59:2; 1:4), and un-
cleanness (Ps 51:2 [H 4]).

Guilt is the major consequence of ‘Gwoén on the
inner man. This element is not easily distin-
guished from the function of the term as a sum for
past misdeeds, but BDB lists over thirty in-
stances in which the element of guilt is prominent
(p. 731).

Along with the inner impact of ‘dwodn, there
are consequences which affect the family, the
tribe, the nation, the nations and nature. In re-

651

1577 MIP (‘awa)

gard to the family, the familiar statement is found
in Ex 20:5; Deut 5:9. God's visitation may be
centered as a punishment more immediately on
individuals of the family or tribe (Lev 5:17; 18:25;
Num 5§:31; I Sam 25:24; II Sam 14:9; Ps 106:43;
Jer 36:31). ‘@won makes the nation liable for
punishment (Lev 26:39; Ezr 9:7, 13, Ps 107:17
and a number of times in Isaiah, Jeremiah and
Ezekiel). In a sense, the high priest and the
priests took upon themselves the danger of
punishment, in the stead of the nation, due to the
holiness of their duties and of the sanctuary (Ex
28:38, 43; Lev 22:16; Num 18:1, 23). After the fall
of Jerusalem, that disaster was recognised as the
result of the nation’s ‘@w6dn (Lam 4:6 ,13, 22; Ezk
39:23; Dan 9:13, 16).

It was not inevitable that punishment follow
‘awon; there was a way to escape it. Man’s
prayers of supplication and God's announce-
ments of salvation indicate the way to be rid of
‘awon. Man must be aware of and confess ‘a@won
(Gen 44:16; Lev 16:21; Neh 9:2; Ps 32:5; 38:18
[H 19]) and it must be a request directed to God
(Ex 34:9; Num 14:19; Job 7:21; Ps 25:11). Man
must also change his way of life (Ezk 18:30;
36:31). There is provision for a substitute in pun-
ishment (Lev 16:22; Isa 53:5-6, 11; Ezk 4:46).

Of supreme importance is God's acts of taking
away, forgiving ‘dwn; this is both promised and
declared as an actuality (Num 14:18; Ps 65:3
(H 4]; 78:38; 103:3; Prov 16:6; Isa 6:7; Jer 32:18;
Dan 9:24; Mic 7:18-19; Zech 3:4, 9; cf. David’s
act of forgiveness by kissing, II Sam 14:32). In
three places the divine act of cleansing is stressed
(Ps 51:4; Jer 33:8; Ezk 36:33).

‘awwa. Ruin, rubble. This noun occurs only in
Ezk 21:27 [32], where it is used three times to
express a Superlative degree. The asv translates
this word ‘‘overturn,’’ associating it with the root
‘awa, ‘‘bend.”’ Its meaning is sharpened by the
reference to an inversion of power and status in
vs. 26. The high priesthood (turban) and the
monarchy (crown) will be reduced to ruin until
the coming of the legitimate one. While some
look for an historical person, it seems to have
Messianic overtones. The Messianic interpreta-
tion is strengthened by comparing these verses
with Gen 49:10. The difficult ‘‘until Shiloh
comes’”’ can better be translated, ‘‘until he comes
to whom it belongs,’’ taking the shin as an old
relative pronoun. The phrase then is remarkably
like Ezk 21:27 {H 21:32] which uses the more
usual relative pronoun ‘“‘until he comes whose
right it is.”’

Bibliography: Ben-Mordecai, C. A., **The In-
iquity of the Sanctuary; A Study of the Hebrew
term hy “JBL 60:311-14. Gelin, Albert, Sin in
the Bible, Desclee, 1964. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin
the Old Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell,

1578 3 (az)

G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951.
Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London:
Epworth, 1953. TDNT, I, pp. 268-93. THAT, II,
pp. 243-48.

CS.

1S78 tay (‘az) take refuge, bring to refuge.
Derivative

1578a_ {tiv «(ma'dz) place or means of
safety.

The root ‘wz is found elsewhere only in
Arabic. ‘dda ‘to seek refuge.’’ Gerstenberger,
however, suggests that possibly our verb is a
denominative, because its alleged derivatives
have a striking phonetic and semantic similarity
to ‘dzaz ‘to be strong’ (THAT, II, p. 222).

This verb carries the concept of taking shelter
quickly. Such urgency is seen in the contexts in
which it appears: Ex 9:19, quick securing of that
which is in the field because of the hail: Jer 4:6:
6:1, associated with the advance of the Chaldean
army, necessitating a quick alarm, Isa 10:31, oc-
casioned by an advancing army, either the Assy-
rian or the Syrian-Ephraimite army. The futility
of taking shelter in Egypt is emphasized in Isa
30:2, where the verb occurs with the derived
noun as a cognate accusative.

ma‘6z. Place or means of safety, protection,
stronghold, fortress. As iS sometimes the case,
the mem prefix adds the meaning ‘‘place’’ to the
verbal root.

Natural and manmade places of safety can be
designated by this word such as a mountain (Jud
6:26), harbor (Isa 23:4), cities (Isa 17:9), and
temple (Ezk 24:25). These strongholds, in sharp
contrast to God, are not invincible but are rather
subject to destruction (Isa 23:11, 14: Ezk 30:15).
The noun also possibly appears in Ps 52:7 [H 9]
(however that may be from ‘dzuz ‘‘be strong’’)
showing the futility of riches as a shelter.

This word can also be used figuratively of
human protection. A foreign power, such as
Egypt, can be viewed as a means of protection
(Isa 30:2, 3; here the protection of Pharaoh is
parallel to the shadow of Egypt). This reliance
upon Egypt is acommon problem of Israel, bring-
ing down on her the condemnation of the
prophets (Jer 42:7-17). Judah was also inclined to
view falsely the temple as a symbol of security
(Ezk 24:25: cf. Amos 6:8; Jer 7:4; 26:4, 5, 6).

By far the most common use of this word is the
figurative one, designating God as the refuge of
his people. Careful distinctions are made here.
While the wicked rich refuse his shelter (Ps 52:7
{H 9]) taking refuge in their wealth, he is the
protection of the poor (Isa 25:4), of the upnght
(Prov 10:29), and of his people in general (Ps
28:8: Joel 3:16 [H 16]). The psalmist refers to God

652

1579 Ssp) (‘aly

as his refuge (Ps 31:2, 4 [H 3, 5]; 43:2). Man is
confronted with a decision relative to making
God his refuge (Isa 27:5) and it is possible, as
Israel did, to forget him (Isa 17:10). While he is a
place of shelter in time of trouble (Ps 37:39; Jer
16:19; Nah 1:7), he is also a constant refuge (Ps
27:1). In the midst of sorrow, the joy of the Lord
can be our strength (Neh 8:10), sustaining us.
Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 221-23.
C.S.

2 (dwil). See nos. 1579b, 1580d.

I, give suck. This root, cognate
to Arabic ‘dla “*nurse,’’ and ‘ayyil **in-
fant,’’ designates the feeding activity of
the young of domestic animals and man.
The verb occurs four times, always as a
Qal active participle.

Derivatives

1579a oy (al) «sucking child, suckling
(Isa 49:15; 65:20). The more com-
mon synonym is the Qal active par-
ticiple of yadnaq.

1579b OY «(‘awil) young man. Occurs
once clearly, in Job 21:11, and once
problematically, in Job 19:18.

15S79c = typ (‘Glél) child.

1S79d 993) =<(‘dlal) child. ‘dlél and ‘édlal

are indistinguishable in meaning.
They probably refer to an older
child than the infant (ydnéq). How-
ever, in the pair, ‘d/é/ and yonégq,
‘6lel comes first. These last two
nouns may also be derived from
‘alal a by-form of 3p.

1580 *53y (‘al) II, deviate from, act unjustly.

Used only in the Piel ‘iwwel.

Derivatives
1580a toy (‘dwel) injustice, unrighteous-
ness.
1580b tmp (‘awld) injustice, unrighteous-
ness.
1580c toy (Cawwal) unjust, unrighteous
one.

1S80d toy (‘dwil) unjust one.

The Arabic cognate ‘w/ means ‘‘to deviate.”
Likewise in Hebrew the basic meaning of this
root means to deviate from a right standard, to
act contrary to what is right. The root occurs
sixty times, with forty of these found in Job (six-
teen times); Psalms (thirteen times) and Ezekiel
(eleven times): The rest are distributed through-
out the prophetic and legal literature.

The verb is a denominative from ‘dwel/‘awla
and occurs only twice in the Old Testament, both
times in the Piel stem. In Isa 26:10 it describes the
activity of the people of Judah who act unjustly
(KJV; ““perversely,” RSV) in contrast to upright
behavior. In Ps 71:4, a prayer of supplication, the
verb contrasts the behavior of the unrighteous
with that of God and his servant.

‘awel, ‘awla. Injustice, unrighteousness. Like
the antonyms sedegq/s‘daqa there is little dif-
ference between the masculine segholate ‘awel
found twenty times, and its feminine equivalent
‘awld occurring thirty-three times. Both denote
an act or deed that is against what is right. That
they express a deed or act is clear in the first
place from their frequent use as direct objects of
verbs of doing: after ‘asa (Lev 19:15, 35; Deut
25:16: Ezk 3:20: 18:24: 33:13, 15, 18; Zeph 3:13:
Ps 7:4: 37:1): after pd‘al (Ps 58:3; 119:3: Job
34:32: 36:23): with td'ab (Ps 53:2). Secondly,
‘dwel is sometimes said to be in one’s hand (Ezk
18:8: Ps 7:4; 125:3). By metonymy it stands spe-
cifically for speech (cf. Isa 59:3, Mal 2:6; Job
5:16; 6:30: 13:7: 27:4).

That they denote behavior contrary to what is
right is shown by their frequent employment as
opposites of: sedeg/s‘daqgad ~‘righteousness"’
(Lev 19:15, 35f.: Isa 26:10: 59:3f.. Ezk 3:20;
18:8f.; 24: 33:12f., 1Sf.: Job 6:29), saddiq, **one
who does righteousness’ (Deut 32:4; Ezk 3:20;
18:24, 26: 33:13: Zeph 3:5; Ps 125:3; Prov 29:27),
‘emund “faithfulness, truth’ (Deut 32:4; Isa
59:3f). vashar “upright’* (Deut 32:4; Ps 107:42),
mishpat ~‘justice’* (Deut 32:4: Ezk 33:14f.; Zeph
3:5), shdpat “‘to do justice” (Mic 3:11: Ps 43:1;
82:2): nakéah “upright, right’* (Isa 26:10).

This notion ts further confirmed by the parallel
use with: ‘and (Piel) ‘‘to afflict’’ (IJ Sam 7:10),
rasha'lresha’ ‘“‘wickedness” (Isa 26:10; Ezk
18:24; 33:12f.. 15, 18f..; Ps 125:3; Job 27:7; 34:10),
pesha’ “transgression” (Ezk 33:12f.), hadmds
‘act of violence’ (Ezk 28:15f.. Ps 58:3), dam
‘“bloodguilt™’ (Mic 3:10: Hab 2:12), hdmas *‘ruth-
lessness’’ (Ps 7:17 (H 18]), mirmd “treachery”
(Ps 43:1), Adzab ‘*lie (Zeph 3:13), r*miyyva “‘de-
ceitful’’ (Job 13:7). ‘@won “iniquity” (Ezk
28:18).

These unrighteous deeds include: partiality in
judgment (Lev 19:15; 82:2): dishonest trade
dealings (Deut 25:16; Ezk 18:8)—more specifi-
cally robbing (Ezk 33:15), murder (II Sam 3:34),
oppression (II Sam 7:10; I Chr 17:9; Ps 37:1;
39:22; 125:3: Prov 22:8: Hos 10:9; Mic 3:10; Hab
2:12):—more_ specifically vicious words (Job
6:30; 11:14: 13:7: 15:16; 27:4 Isa 59:3; Hos 10:13).

Thus the words have an important theological
significance for they refer to behavior contrary to
God’s character and against which he must re-
spond. Some texts explicitly state that ‘adwel/

653

1580 *73y (al)

‘awild is not found with him. Moses sings, **The
Rock! His work is perfect, for all his ways are
just; a God of faithfulness and without injustice
[‘awel], righteous and upright is he (Deut 32:4).
Elihu expostulates, ‘*Therefore, listen to me, you
men of understanding. Far be it from God to do
wickedness, and from the Almighty to do wrong
(‘awel)’ (Job 34:10). Jehoshaphat instructs his
judges: **For there is no injustice [‘aw/da} with our
God" (IJ Chr 19:7). In Jer 2:5 the Lord asks the
fathers to search their history and see *‘what in-
justice [‘dwel] they have found in him.”’ Accord-
ingly he will save the oppressed (Job 5:16). Men
who practice injustices are abomination to him
(Deut 25:16; Prov 29:27), and even if a righteous
man turns away from his righteousness and
commits injustice he must die (Ezk 3:20).

Though man may choose injustice (Ezk 18:26:
33:13, 18) and thus become culpable (Ezk 3:20;
28:18; 33:13, 18 etc.) he need not become fixed in
that condition for he may renounce it (Job 34:32),
confess his condition (Ps 7:3; Ezk 33:15), and put
it far from him (Job 11:14; 22:23). God, on his
part, will respond with salvation.

‘awwal. Unjust, unrighteous one. This mas-
culine noun is a close synonym to ‘dwel, but is
used more specifically as a label of persons. Its
five occurrences mostly refer to oppressive rul-
ers. Bildad declared that such a _ person's
dwellings were headed for disaster (Job 18:21),
and Job claimed that this kind of man was his
enemy (Job 27:7) and he was not one of them (Job
29:17). In a statement of personal commitment,
Job agreed that an ‘uwwal had punishment com-
ing to him from God (Job 31:3) and then chal-
lenged anyone to prove he was such a person.
The prophet Zephaniah affirmed that God was
righteous and not an ‘awwai, in sharp contrast to
man.

‘awla. Injustice, unrighteousness, wrong. ‘This
feminine noun carries a more abstract meaning. It
often refers to violent deeds, such as murder
(II Sam 3:34), oppression (II Sam 7:10: I Chr
17:9; Ps 37:1: 89:22 [H 23]: 125:3: Hos 10:9: Mic
3:10; Hab 2:12) and also vicious words (Job 6:30:
13:7; 27:4: Isa 59:3). This quality was the oppo-
site to God's character (IJ Chr 19:7: Job 36:33; Ps
92:15 [H 16]; 107:42: Isa 61:8). Likewise, this
quality must not be in the character of God's fol-
lowers (II Chr 19:7; Job 6:29-30; Ps 119:3: Zeph
3:13: Mal 2:6). In fact, God had made man free of
this quality, but he became this way later (Ezk
28:15).

As with ‘awel, there is a way to be rid of ‘awld.
Man may put it away (Job 11:14: 22:23), not be
envious of those who do ‘awd (Ps 37:1), but seek
God and walk in his ways (Ps 119:2-4). And God
must act in deliverance, for the Psalmist knew he
could not be rid of it in his own power (Ps 43:1).

1581 339 Cuan)

‘awil. Unjust one. Clearly used once, in Job
16:11, as a label for Job’s enemies from whom
God had delivered him.

It is highly probable that four occurrences of
‘6la4 come from this same root. In three instances
the term designates the character of God's
enemies (Job 5:16; Ps 58:2 [H 3]: 64:6 [H 7}).
Once in Ps 92:15 [H 16], the term is the contrast
to God's character, for he is upright.

Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible,
Desclee, 1964. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the Old
Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin,
London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951. Smith,
C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Ep-
worth, 1953. THAT, II, pp. 224-27.

G.H.L.

bey (élél), %¥iy (‘dlal). See nos.
1579c,d.

miosyy (‘d6lélér). See no. 1627a.

py (‘dlam). See no. 163la.

1581 3P (Can) dwell.
Derivatives

IS8la ty (md‘én) dwelling, habitation.

IS81b «2p «(Mm ‘ond) dwelling, _habita-
tion. Most frequently refers to the
dens of animals.

The verbal root ‘wn is unattested in Hebrew.
The Arabic verb gana means ‘‘to cover, con-
ceal.”’

ma‘6n. Dwelling. (asv, RSV similar except
I Sam 2:29, 32 and Zeph 3:17 where rsv emends
to read ‘‘eye’’.) It is used eighteen times. This
word is used to depict the ruins of desolate cities
now the dwelling place of wild animals. Most fre-
quently it designates the Lord's dwelling place,
i.e. heaven (always qualified with the word
‘‘*holy’*) and the temple (Ps 26:8). Finally it por-
trays the Lord as a refuge for his people (Ps 71:3;
90:1; 91:9).

CS.

Ty (‘a@won). See no. 1577a.
By (iw'im). See no. 1577c.

1582 my (‘ap) TI, fly, fly about, fly away. (ASv,
RSV similar.)

Derivatives

1582a TAY (‘dp) flying creatures, i.e. birds
or insects.
1S82b «AYBY (‘ap‘ap) eyelid.

‘ap, used primarily in the Qal and seldom in
the intensives, means to fly about, and also to fly
away, i.e. vanish. The Ugaritic ‘p and Arabic
‘afa have similar meanings.

654

The action of this verb, not surprisingly, is at-
tributed to birds (Prov 23:5: 26:2; Isa 31:5; Hab
1:8; Gen 1:20; Deut 4:17). Actually, only in the
last two references, is flying referred to without
the development of a simile.

This word is also used of angelic beings. The
seraphim of Isaiah 6 are six-winged. With two
wings they cover their face, with two wings they
cover their nakedness (a euphemism) and with
two wings they fly (Isa 6:2, 6). Mounted on a
cherub Yahweh flies through the heavens (Ps
18:10 [H 11)=I] Sam 22:11). Ezekiel describes
the cherubim as four-winged and four-faced crea-
tures accompanied by whirling wheels. The
wings of the golden cherubim overshadow the
mercy seat (Ex 37:9). The cherub of Ps 18:10
[H 11] is perhaps to be considered as a personifi-
cation of the wind. Yahweh is pictured as riding
upon the clouds and wind (Ps 104:3; Isa 19:1).

The passage in Dan 9:21, which in both the rsv
and the asv has the angel Gabriel flying, is much
debated. In the oT angels seem to assume human
form and generally do not fly. It might even be
argued that Gen 28:12 assumes that angels do not
have wings. The problem in Dan 9:21 is whether
the word in question is from the root ‘a#p or the
root yd‘ép, meaning ‘‘to be weary.” By using
this latter word, flying would then not be attrib-
uted to angels. However, it would seem equally
strange for angels to grow weary but the action of
this verb could perhaps be assigned to Daniel
who may be wearied because of his praying and
fasting (cf. KD loc. cit). Since seraphim and
cherubim have wings and since angels appear
with wings in Enoch 61, perhaps it would be best
to accept the traditional translations—*‘fly
swiftly.’ Angels can presumably appear in vari-
ous forms.

In Zechariah 5:]—2 an immense scroll (30 by 15
feet, the same size as the holy place of the taber-
nacle or the porch of Solomon's temple) on which
is inscribed a curse, is seen flying over the land.
It is asymbol of Yahweh's wrath and will find its
target, the thieves and perjurers.

The upward flight of sparks (literally ‘“‘sons of
flame’’) is seen in Job S:7 to indicate the certainty
that sorrow has been allotted to man. The move-
ment of the clouds in Isa 60:8 suggests the
white-masted ships bringing the exiles back to the
land. The success of the eschatological army of
Israel against Philistia is likened to the *‘swoop-
ing down of a bird’’ (Isa 11:14).

The meaning ‘“‘to fly away’’ or ‘“‘vanish”’ ts
used of several matters. The Psalmist, oppressed
by the wicked, is anxious to eScape (the city?)
and to fly away to the wilderness where he can
find rest (Ps 55:6 (H 7)}). Zophar affirms that the
wicked enjoy success which is as fleeting as a
dream (Job 20:8). The sage cautions against the
eyes ‘‘flying’’ (glancing) upon wealth because it

is transitory, flying away as an eagle (Prov 23:5).
The brevity and swiftness of life is depicted by
this word in Ps 90:10. Finally, the army attacking
Assyria plunders her and then flies away with the
booty (Nah 3:16).

‘op. Bird, fowl, insect. Collective noun from
root ‘4p meaning to fly. Used seventy-one times.
Birds were created (Gen 1:20, 21), named (Gen
2:20), taken aboard the ark (Gen 7:8), eaten (Ps
78:27), and sacrificed (Gen 8:20: Lev 1:14).
Classified as clean and unclean. Used with
sheres it designates clean and unclean winged
insects (ASV ““winged creeping things’). Lev
11:20-23 obviously refers to insects with four
legs, perhaps counted in addition to the hind legs
used in leaping.
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., “‘Birds in the
Old Testament, * PEQ 87:5-20, 129-40.
CS:

1583 Ay (ap) HI, be dark.
Derivatives
1583a Ap «(mi'ap) gloom (Isa 8:23).
1583b MIM (ma'‘tip) gloom (Isa 8:22).
1583c 860 MEY Ot ‘upa) gloom (Job 11:17).
I583d MEY «(‘épad) darkness.

1584 psy (‘us) counsel, plan (Jud 19:30; Isa
8:10).

1585 *sspy (‘aq) crush. Occurs only in the
Hiphil, in Amos 2:13.

Derivatives

1S85a MpY «~(‘a@qa) ~=pressure. Occurs only
in Ps 55:4.

I5S85b 0 MBP «(ma'aqga) compression,
distress. Occurs only in Ps 66:11.

1586 *939 (‘Gwar) make blind. Occurs only
in the Piel.

Derivatives

1S86a Tp (‘iwweér) — blind.

1S86b 992) = (Cinwardén) blindness (Deut
28:28: Zech 12:4).

1586c msay (Cawweret) blindness
(Lev 22:22).

‘dwar is used infrequently and only in the Piel.
It may be denominative from ‘iwwér *‘blind,”
which in turn may be derived from ‘ir **skin’’ by
referring to a cataract, i.e. a skin over the eye
(BDB). ‘dwar is used of both literal blinding
(II Kgs 25:7; Jer 39:7: 52:11) and figurative blind-
ing (Ex 23:8; Deut 16:13).

‘iwwér. Blind. (aSv, RSV similar.) While this
word is an adjective it is generally used as a

655

1587 99) (‘ar)

substantive—the blind. Blindness was common
and serious in the ancient near east and even until
recent times (cf. Jesus’ frequent confrontation by
the blind).

This word is used both literally and metaphori-
cally. The former is clearly indicated in the case
of blind antmals which could not be accepted as
sacrifices (Deut 1$:2!; Mal 1:8). A blind person
was disqualified from the Aaronic priesthood
(Lev 21:18). The blind and the lame were suffi-
ciently strong, claimed the Jebusites, to ward off
David's effort to take Jerusalem, because of its
strategic location (II Sam 5:6, 8). The law had
provisions for the protection of the blind (Lev
19:14; Deut 27:18).

While blindness is traceable in some instances
to the Lord (Ex 4:11: Zeph 1:17), it is also he who
heals the blind and restores sight (Ps 146:8).
Blindness is one of the curses that Israel could
expect if she broke the covenant (Deut 28:29).

Metaphorically this word can designate a help-
less and morally insensitive person. False
prophets (Isa 56:10: Lam 4:4) and the nation of
Israel (Isa 42:19; 43:8) are characterized as blind.
Israel laments its blind condition (Isa 59:10). The
promise of the restoration of the remnant in-
cludes God's leading the blind in their return to
Zion and restoring their sight (Isa 29:18: 35:5;
42:16: Jer 31:8).

A significant use of this word is found in the
promise that the Suffering Servant will give sight
to the blind (Isa 42:7), gloriously fulfilled in Jesus
Christ, who gives both physical and spiritual
sight.

Bibliography: TDNT, VIII, pp. 279-85.

CS.

1587 sy (Car) ZT, rouse oneself, awake, incite.

Derivative
1S87a YP (Cir) excitement.

This verb appears in the active, passive, inten-
sive, and the causative with minimal differences.
The latter frequently has God as its subject,
showing his involvement in the flow of history.

Ugantic ‘r in its causative stem means “‘to
arouse’ and Akkadian éru ‘‘awake.”

Inanimate objects can be addressed and be told
to awake: idol (Hab 2:19), sword (Zech 13:7),
spear (II Sam 23:18), wind (Song 4:16), fire (Hos
7:4), storm (Jer 25:32), scourge (Isa 10:26), dawn
(Ps 57:8 [H 9}), and harp and lyre (Ps 57:8 [H 9}).

Qualities can be awakened and incited: love
(Song 2:7; 3:5; 8:4), strife (Prov 10:12), wrath
(78:38), might (Ps 80:2 (H 3]}), and a cry of anguish
(Isa 15:5).

Sheol is pictured figuratively as arousing the
shades when the fallen king of Babylon joins
them (Isa 14:9).

1588 93) (ar)

This word is also predicated of man. He can be
awakened from sleep (Zech 4:1), but he cannot be
aroused from the sleep of death (Job 14:12 cf. gis
‘*awake’’). Man can arouse himself to praise (Ps
57:8 [H 9]) and incite himself to action (Job 17:8).

Military endeavors are described by this word.
Babylon is seen by Jeremiah as stirring, prepar-
ing to move against Judah (Jer 6:22; 50:41). The
king of the north stirs up his power and courage
against the king of the south (Dan 11:2, 25).
Deborah is urged to awake, to awake and sing a
song in the struggle against Sisera (Jud 5:12).

With the negative this word is used to show
spiritual inertia. Isaiah has the exiles confessing
that they had failed to pray, that they had not
awakened themselves, remaining in spiritual
lethargy. Hence God had hidden his face (Isa
64:7). Man needs to arouse himself in areas of
prayer and praise (Ps 57:8 (H 57:9}).

By far the most significant use of this word is in
the causative with God as its subject. Here one
sees the active involvement of God in history. He
is not aloof or passive. He is not simply a spec-
tator. He is in complete charge, manipulating his
plan. All his actions are purposeful. Events do
not happen by chance. This emphasis is clearly
discernible in the oT passages which use this verb
in the causative with God as subject. Tilgath-
pilneser, king of Assyria, was stirred up by the
Lord against the tribes in the Transjordan area (1
Chr 5:26). He aroused the Babylonians against
Jerusalem (Ezk 23:22). Then he stirred up the
Medes against Babylon (Isa 13:17: Jer 50:9, 11;
S1:H1).

Again it was the Lord who incited Cyrus to
allow the Jewish exiles to return to Judah (II Chr
36:22; Ezr 1:1) and who in turn urged the exiles to
return (Joel 3:7 [H 4:7]). When apathy had over-
taken the returned exiles, the Lord agitated
Zerubbabel and Joshua through the prophets
Haggai and Zechariah to carry the construction
of the second temple to its completion (Hag 1:14).

There ts also a personal appeal to God to
arouse himself, particularly in the Psalms. At
times, God appears to man to be inactive, apathe-
tic, at least slow. Hence he urges him to action.
In Ps 7:6 [H 7] the psalmist wants God to arise to
justice. God appears to be sleeping, and is urged
to awake and bring deliverance (Pss 44:23 [H 24];
59:4 [H 5]). He is requested to stir up his might
(Ps 80:2 [H 3]) and to use his arm (power) on
behalf of the nation (Isa 51:9).

CS.

1588 3p) (‘ar) HI, be exposed, laid bare.

Derivatives
1588a “3% (md'ér) nakedness (Hab 2:15).
I588b tony (‘érom), BAY (‘érom) naked
(adjective), nakedness (noun).

656

IS88c fainy (‘drém), ONY (‘arom) naked.
1S88d ONY = (ma‘drom) naked thing (Il
Chr 28:15).

The verb ‘ar I] occurs only in Hab 3:9. It is
probably the root of the above nouns, and possi-
bly it 1s a by-form of ‘ard ‘‘be naked,”’ cf. ‘drar.

‘érom. Naked, nakedness. (ASV and RSV simi-
lar.) ‘érom is used ten times to designate spiritual
and physical nakedness. As used of Adam and
Eve (Gen 3:7, 10, 11), it indicates more than sex
consciousness. It depicts an awareness of the
openness of their guilt to God. Their relationship
with God was impaired, upsetting their relation-
ship to each other. In Ezk 16:7, 22, 29; 23:29 and
Deut 12:29 this word is used of the personified
Jerusalem, indicating both her material and
spiritual poverty. Used in Ezk 18:7, 16 to indicate
proper social concern of righteous in providing
clothes for needy.

‘arom. Naked. (aSv and rsv similar.) This
word is either derived from ‘ar II, **be exposed”’
and thus would be a secondary form of ‘érém
‘*naked’’ or it is from the root ‘dra ‘‘be naked’”’
(q.v.), probably a by-form. While this word fre-
quently indicates nudity (Gen 2:25; 1 Sam 19:24;
Isa 20:2; Mic 1:8) it also indicates exposure, i.e.
lack of concealment and disguise (Job 26:6) and
lack of resources (Amos 2:16).

Frequently the nudity indicated by this term
has a symbolic meaning. Adam and Eve’s lack of
embarrassment at their nakedness suggests inno-
cence (Gen 2:25). Isaiah walked (a verb fre-
quently used with ‘arém) naked (probably not
complete nudity but simply the laying aside of the
upper garment; see KD on Isa 20) as a portent of
Egyptian prisoners being led away by the victori-
ous Assyrians (Isa 20:2, 3, 4). In I Sam 19:24 Saul
likewise was probably not naked, but divested of
his royal robes and especially of his sword by the
power of the Spirit of God so that David could get
away in safety. The nakedness of the poor is an
indication of oppression (Job 24:7, 10; Isa 58:7).
His outer garment had been taken as collateral
(Job 24:9) and not returned at night (Ex 22:25, 26,
27 [H 26, 27, 28]). Hosea 2:3 may allude to a
custom mentioned in the Nuzi tablets in which
children are called upon to strip their mother
when she is dismissed for adultery. So the Lord
would do to his adulterous wife, Israel.

This word also indicates a lack of resources.
Job, following his affliction by Satan, now re-
duced to nothing, observes that it was thus when
he left his mother’s womb and would be the same
when he returned to the womb of the earth (Job
1:21=Eccl 5:15 [H 14]). Amos 2:6 depicts a man
stripped of his resources of courage when he
faces the divine visitation.

A most interesting use of this word is the affir-

mation that Sheol is naked before God, 1.e.,
within range of God’s jurisdiction and interest
(Job 26:6; cf. Ps 139:7, 8; Prov 15:11; Amos 9:2).
God’s knowledge and concern extend even to the
realm of the dead.

C.S.

1589 sy (‘wr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1589a T7IY (‘6r) skin, hide. (ASV, RSV
similar.) This word is used both of
men’s and animals’ skins.

It indicates the skin of man fifty-five times.
While it can designate the outer covering of the
body (Job 10:11; Lam 3:4; Ezk 37:6, 8), it also at
times is used metonymically to indicate the whole
body (Ex 22:27 [H 26}; Job 19:26). Various
characteristics of the skin are mentioned. Men
cannot change its color (Jer 13:23). After talking
with God on Mount Sinai, the skin of Moses’ face
shone (Ex 34:29, 30, 35). The skin can be dark-
ened and hardened by disease (Job 7:5; 30:30;
Lam 4:8; 5:10). An abnormal skin disease, called
leprosy, but probably including various contagi-
ous diseases characterized by skin rash, is dis-
cussed at great length in Lev 13:1-46 (see sa-
ra‘at). To flay or tear the skin of man is used
metaphonically in Mic 3:2, 3 to indicate mistreat-
ment of the people of Israel by their rulers. Two
interesting uses of skin are found in Job. The ex-
pression ‘‘skin for skin’’ (Job 2:4) seems to be a
barter term, while ‘‘by the skin of my teeth”’
(gums? Job 19:20) may indicate a very narrow
escape.

This word is used forty-four times to indicate
the skin of an animal. With the exception of the
harpooning of the skin of leviathan (Job 41:7
[H 40:31)) this word always designates the hide
of animals after skinning. These hides were used
for garments (Gen 3:21; II Kgs 1:8). Such gar-
ments could be ‘‘diseased’’ probably mildewed
(Lev 13:51), and therefore were to be burned.
Hides were also used as coverings; for the taber-
nacle (Ex 25:5), and also for the ark and the sac-
red utensils (Num 4:6).

The hides of sacrificed animals were disposed
of variously depending upon the kind of sacrifice.
The hides of the sin offering for the priest or the
whole community were to be destroyed (Ex
29:14; Lev 4:11, 21; 8:17; 9:11; 16:27). The hides
of other sin offerings and the burnt offering were
assigned to the priests (Lev 5:13; 7:8).

C.S.

See no. 1586b.
See no. 1586c.

NY) (Ciww4arén).
AMY (‘awweret).

1590 wip (‘ash)
4:11).

lend aid, come to help (Joel

657

1592 my (at).

1593 OINty (‘aza’zel) Azazel.

1593 9Istp (‘aza’zél)

1591 *m3¥ (‘awat) bend, make crooked, pervert.

(ASV, RSV similar with the former using
such synonyms as ‘‘subvert’’ and ‘‘over-
throw.’’) Used only in the intensive con-
jugations.

Derivative

moiy (‘awwata) subversion, used
only in Lam 3:59 where it desig-
nates a ‘““wrong’’ produced by the
deprivation of justice.

1$9la

The basic meaning of this verb is seen in Eccl
12 where characteristics of the elderly are listed.
The legs (strong men) of the old ‘‘bend them-
selves,’’ 1.e. are Shaky and unreliable (Eccl 12:3).

The remaining references are figurative and
have a moral dimension. In Amos 8:5 this word
pertains to dishonest business transactions,
where scales are falsified so as to Secure more
money while giving less grain.

In Job this word is involved in the basic con-
tention of the dialogues. Bildad (Job 8:3) and
Elihu (Job 34:12) contend that Job has sinned and
hence he deserves his sufferings. They argue, to
contend, as does Job, that he is innocent, is to
accuse God of perverting justice. Job concurs
that his suffering is from God (he is unaware of
Satan’s involvement) but since he is convinced of
his innocence, he concludes that God has per-
verted his rights (Job 19:6). There simply is no
justice (Job 19:7), he contends.

The pessimism of Ecclesiastes stands out in its
use of this word. What is crooked and what God
has made crooked (Eccl 1:15; 7:13) cannot be
straightened. What is crooked can no more be
straightened than what is lacking can be counted.
Man cannot change the divine order of the world.

Recognizing that God is opposed to the perver-
sion of justice (Lam 3:36), the psalmist appeals to
God because his rights were subverted by the
godless (Ps 119:78). While the Lord cares for the
oppressed, he makes crooked the way of the
wicked, so that it leads to ruin.

CLS.

Occurs only in Isa 50:4, in
phrase lada‘at la‘iat, perhaps meaning *‘to

help.”
mniy (awwata). See no. 159la.
ty (‘az), YY (‘6z). See nos. 1596a,b.
ty (‘éz). See no. 1654a.

(ASV and RSV use
‘‘Azazel,'’ but the former allows for the
translation ‘‘removal’’ in the margin.)

This word appears four times in the or, all in
Lev 16 (8, 10, 26) where the ritual for the Day of

1594 sty (‘azab)

Atonement is described. After the priest has
made atonement for himself and his house, he is
to take two goats on behalf of Israel. One is to be
a sacrifice to the Lord, the other is to be the
‘*scape goat,’ i.e. the goat for Azazel. In all four
appearances of this word, it has the preposition
‘‘to’’ attached to it.

This word has been variously understood and
translated. The versions (txx, Symmachus,
Theodotian and the Vulgate) have understood it
to stand for the ‘goat that departs,’’ considering
It to be derived from two Hebrew words: ‘éz
‘goat’? and ‘dzal ‘turn off.’

By associating it with the Arabic word ‘azdla
‘‘banish,’’ ‘‘remove,” it has been rendered ‘‘for
entire removal’ (IDB loc. cit.).

The rabbinic interpretation has generally con-
sidered this word to designate the place to which
the goat was sent: a desert, a solitary place, or
the height from which the goat was thrown (cf.
Lev 16:22).

The final possibility is to regard this word as
designating a personal being so as to balance the
word ‘‘Lord.’’ In this way Azazel could be an
evil spirit (Enoch 8:1; 10:4; cf. II Chr 11:15; Isa
34:14; Rev 18:2) or even the devil himself (KD
loc. cit.), standing logically in antithesis to Lord.
However the Enoch references to Azazel as a
demon are doubtless dependent on the author’s
own interpretation of Lev 16 and Gen 6:4. Some
who adopt this demon reference of Lev 16 also
consider the passage to be of late authorship
(P document).

The actual use and meaning of this word in Lev
16 is at best uncertain. However, regardless of its
precise meaning, the significant dimension is the
removal of the sins of the nation by the imposi-
tion of them on the goat. In this passage sin
seems to be hypostatized and therefore readily
transferrable to the goat. Indeed vss 21 and 22
state that this goat is to bear away the sin of the
people. Such a ritual would illustrate vividly the
physical removal of defilement from the camp to
a solitary place where it would no longer infest
the nation.

A parallel to the scapegoat can be seen in the
ritual for a recovered leper. Two birds were
selected. One was to be killed and both the leper
and the living bird were to be touched with its
blood. Then the living bird was released. This
bird carried away the evil, the leprosy itself, into
the open field and then the leper was pronounced
clean (Lev 14:1-9).

There is also a parallel for this scapegoat in
Babylonian ritual. In the New Year's Day Festi-
val a slain sheep was removed and cast into the
river. The person who carried out this assignment
was considered unclean as was the person who
released the goat in the wilderness (Lev 16:26).

This concept of the removal of guilt can be

658

seen in Ps 103:12 where God ‘‘removes’’ our
transgressions from us.

In the nt John the Baptist identified Jesus as
the Lamb of God which takes away the sins of the
world (Jn 1:29, 36). This language is sacrificial,
yet nowhere in the Law is a lamb spoken of as a
bearer of the people's sins. The paschal lamb is
not a sin offering. The description of the Savior
as a lamb is unknown to late Judaism. Fur-
thermore, the phrase ‘“‘the lamb of God’’ is an
unparalleled genitive combination. John may
have had in mind that Chnist as the paschal lamb
bespeaks our great deliverance from the bondage
of sin. However, what seems more likely is that
he had a complex of ideas in mind. Some words
of Isa 53 are discernible here: ‘*as a sheep led to
the slaughter, and a lamb dumb before his
shearers... whose soul was made a guilt offer-
ing... and who bore the sin of many.’’ But also
discernible here is an allusion to the scapegoat.
This fact is clearly seen in the words ‘‘taketh
away’ (cf. I Jn 3:5). In Christ are consummated
all the atonement concepts of the ot.

C.S.

1594 3: (‘dzab) I, leave, forsake, loose. (Asv,

RSV translate similarly.)

Derivatives

1594a Masty §=('dzaba) forsakenness, desola-
tion (Isa 6:12; 17:9: a desolate
place).

1594b 332) (‘izzabén) wares.

The verb ‘a@zab appears pnmanly in the Qal
(active) and only limitedly in the Niphal and Pual
(passive). The word also occurs in Akkadian
(ezébu). Arabic has ‘zb ‘“‘to be distant’’ and
‘azab ‘single,’ ‘“‘unmarried.”’ ‘zb in Ex 23:5;
I Chr 16:37; Neh 3:8 may be a second root, ‘zb
II, attested in Old South Arabic ‘db *‘to restore,
repair,’’ and in Ugaritic ‘db *“‘to make, prepare,
set,’ (UT 19: no. 1818). See U. Cassuto, A
Commentary on the Book of Exodus, 1967,
p. 297; cf. M. Dahood, JBL 78: 303-309 for Job
9:27; 10:1; 18:4; 20:19; 39:14.

The basic meaning of ‘dzab is clearly seen in
its literal use where it has three distinct em-
phases: to depart, to abandon, and to loose. Per-
sons (Gen 44:22; Num 10:30; Ruth 1:16; II Kgs
4:30), places (II Kgs 8:6; Jer 18:14; 25:38) and
objects (Gen 39:12—13; 50:8; Ex 9:21) can be left
behind. To leave can mean to entrust (Gen 39:6;
Job 39:11), to expose (Job 39:14), to permit (Ruth
2:16), to allow to continue as is (Josh 8:17; II Chr
24:25; Ezk 23:29), to neglect (Deut 12:9; 14:27;
Job 20:19), to put aside (Job 9:27), and to release
(Job 10:1) but see Dahood above for the meaning
‘‘arrange my complaint.”’

This word is also used figuratively with man as

the subject. He can forsake, 1.e. apostatize. Israel
is indicted for this on numerous occasions (Deut
28:20: 31:16; Jud 10:10; Jer 1:16). In forsaking the
Lord and following after idols she was guilty of
breaking the covenant (Jon 2:8 [H 9]; Deut 29:24;
I Kgs 19:10, 14) and of adultery (Hos 4:10). Fur-
ther this backsliding was evidenced by her for-
saking the temple (II Chr 24:18; cf. Neh 10:39
{H 40}).

With man still the subject, this verb is also used
to indicate the abandonment of virtuous qualities.
Rehoboam forsook the good counsel of the old
men for the poor advice of the young men (I Kgs
12:8, 13=I] Chr 10:8, 13). But this use is best
illustrated in Proverbs. The way of righteousness
(2:13; 15:10), wisdom (4:2, 6), reproof (10:17),
loyalty and faithfulness (3:3) can be forsaken.
The psalmist complains that his strength (Ps
38:10 {H 11})and his courage (Ps 40:12 [H 13])
have failed.

It 1s also possible for man to forsake undesira-
ble qualities. To confess and forsake sin is to ob-
tain mercy (Prov 28:13). The wicked are urged to
forsake their style of life (Isa 55:7). The righteous
are instructed to forsake wrath and anger (Ps
37:8).

God can also be the subject of this verb with
man as the object. The promise ts that God will
never forsake the righteous by allowing him to
fall into the hands of the wicked (Ps 37:25, 33).
The poor and the oppressed, in spite of their
plight, have not been forsaken by the Lord (Ps
9:10 [H 11]: Isa 41:17). In Ps 22 the psalmist is
convinced that God has forsaken him because of
his dire circumstances but then concludes the
psalm with a tnumphant note, proclaiming God's
faithfulness (Ps 22:! [H 2]: cf. Mt 27:46). It may
be suggested that God had indeed not forsaken
his son in his personal relation, but as the parallel
line in Ps 22:1 shows, had forsaken him from the
suffering. The cry from the cross quotes ‘dzab in
the Aramaic translation shabaq.

Of particular interest here is the promise of
God to David. Even if his children forsake the
divine law, God will not violate his covenant with
the Davidic dynasty (Ps 89:30-37 [H 31-38}).
However, the Chronicler reminds the nation that
if they forsake God, he will forsake them (II Chr
12:1, 5; 15:2). An excellent illustration of this as it
pertains to the individual is Hezekiah whom God
forsook ‘in the matter of the envoys of the
princes of Babylon” so as “‘to try him and know
all that was in his heart’? (II Chr 32:31).

CS:

1595 Sty (‘azab) HI, restore, repair (Neh 3:8,
only).

See no. 1594b.
See no. 1594a.

Naty (Cizzabdn).
mowy ('dazuba).

659

1596 tty

1596 ttP (‘azaz)

See no. 1596c.
See no. 1596d.

My (°ézaz).
MIP (1z7ZZ).
(‘azaz) be strong. (ASV, RSV similar,
except in Ps §2:7 [H 9] where rsv reads ‘iz
‘‘take refuge.’’)

Derivatives

1596a ftY (‘az)_ strong.

1596b tty (‘6z) strength.

1596c IY «('ezaz) = strength, might, fierce-
ness.

1S96d so tMty (‘izzz) = mighty, powerful.

1596e 3=—o MY «(‘Ozniyd) osprey.

The verb ‘dzaz can be predicated of both God
and man. When used of God, it generally occurs
in a petition for him to show his strength since he
is already inherently strong. In the Hiphil (causa-
tive) It is used only of man in a negative sense.

When used of man, this word carries the idea
of prevailing as in a war or Struggle (Jud 3:10; 6:2;
Dan 11:12; cf. UT 19: no. 1835) or as being bellig-
erent, particularly to God. The psalmist prays
that man (parallel to goyim, the pagans) might
not prevail, but that God will arise against him in
defense of his own (Ps 9:19 (H 20]). This act of
defiance is seen in the strong man who chooses to
trust in his riches and to strengthen himself in his
{evil] desire rather than to strengthen himself
in God.

That which strengthens man is wisdom—even
more than the multiplication of human strength
(Eccl 7:19).

The psalmist recognizes that God is inherently
powerful (Ps 89:13 (H 1!4]) and therefore prays
that he will show that strength against the
enemies of his people (Ps 68:28 [H 28]). God
demonstrated his strength at creation when he
made firm (established) the fountains of the deep
in the sense that he restrained them (Prov 8:28)
(see ‘ayin).

‘az. Strong, mighty, fierce. (ASV, RSV similar
except in Num 21:24 when rsv reads this word as
a location, Jazer.) Used twenty-three times but
never applied to God. Used of animals: ants
(Prov 30:25 ‘‘not strong’), lion (Jud 14:14, 18)
and dog (Isa 56:11). Applied to forces of nature:
wind (Ex 14:21) and water (Neh 9:11: Isa 43:16).
It is used of qualities: love (Song 8:6); wrath (Gen
49:7, Prov 21:4); and tmpudence (‘‘strong
countenance,’ Deut 28:50; Dan 8:23). When
applied to people it seems tnvariably to denote
enemies.

‘0z. Strength, power. (ASV, RSV are similar.)
This word is used primarily of deity, particularly
in the Psalms. Synonyms are: havil meaning
(physical) strength, efficiency, army; kdah mean-
ing strength, power; and eg burd, meaning
strength, might, particularly of warriors.

1597 *pry (‘azaq)

Since Hebrew does not lend itself to the
abstract, the concept of strength is expressed in
picturesque ways.

Material and physical strength can be indicated
by this word. In Jud 5:1, it is descriptive of a
tower; in Isa 26:1, of a city. Used with face (Eccl
8:1) it clearly means “*stern.’’ It can be descrip-
tive of actions: dancing (II Sam 6:14), rejoicing
(I Chr 13:8), and singing (II Chr 30:21). To **gird
the loins with strength” is to work industriously
(Prov 31:17). Used with rain it indicates torrents
of drenching rain (Job 37:6). This word its also
used with *‘scepter’’ to depict political power (Jer
48:17, of Moab; Ezk 19:11, 12, 14, of Zedekiah;
Ps 110:2, messianic; cf. Ps 2:9; 99:4).

Primarily this word is related to God. Strength
is an essential attribute of God (Pss 62:11 [H 12];
63:2 (H 3}), his voice (Ps 68:33 [H 34]) and his
arm (Isa 62:8; cf. Isa 51:9; Ps 89:10 {H 11]) are
mighty. While the ark is a symbol of his power
(II Chr 6:41; Ps 78:61; 132:8: cf. Num 10:35, 36),
it is also observable in the skies (Ps 150:1).

God bestows strength on man: the king (I Sam
2:10), his people (Ps 29:11; 68:35 [H 36]), and on
Zion (Isa 52:1). But not only is strength a quality
given by God, he himself is that strength. Fre-
quently the personal possessive pronouns are at-
tached to strength in the Psalms to show this (Ps
28:7; 81:1 [H 2]: 118:14). In seeking his presence,
strength is found (Ps 105:4=I Chr 16:11).

God exercises this strength on behalf of his
people against their foes. This is particularly well
illustrated in the Exodus (Ex 15:13).

This word is used figuratively to describe the
security enjoyed by the righteous. The Lord is a
strong tower against the enemy (Ps 61:3 [H 4])
and a mighty rock (Ps 62:7 (H 8]). His name (i.e.
person) is the strong tower in which the righteous
are safe (Prov 18:10). The impartation of his
strength, made the psalmist secure as a strong
mountain (Ps 30:7 [H 8]). Zion is a strong city
because it is surrounded not only by material
walls but also by his salvation (Isa 26:1).

The strength of the Lord is to be a common
theme of our praise. We are to ascribe strength to
him. We are to recognize his glorious might and
to praise him for it (Ps 29:1; 96:7; I Chr 16:28).

Thus in hymns of praise God's strength shows
itself as his overwhelming majesty, and in the
laments it appears as his helping protection.

Dahood translates this word three times as
‘praise’ (Ps 29:1; 68:34 [H 35] and 96:7). Note
the Lxx and nT use of ‘‘praise”™’ in Ps 8:2 [H 3] and
Mt 21:16.

Bibliography: THAT. II, pp. 252-SS.

C.S:

1597) -*Pty (‘azaq) dig about.
the Piel, in Isa 5:2.

Occurs only in

660

1598 “ty (‘azar) I, help, support. (AsV, RSV

translate similarly.)

Derivatives

1598a tity (‘ézer) help.
1598b tmaty (Cezrd) help.

Apart from Akkadian and Ethiopic, this root
(‘dr) occurs in all the Semitic languages. Thus,
for example, in Uganitic ‘dr means “‘to rescue/
save’’ (UT 19: no. 1831). In Old South Arabic it
means ‘“‘to excuse.’ (Akkadian izirtu ‘*help” in
the Tel Amarna correspondence Is a Canaanism.)
As in the Bible, it is especially well attested in
numerous personal names: Hadididri, Asarya,
Isra, etc.

Used approximately eighty times in the or.
‘azar generally indicates military assistance. ll-
lustrative of this is the use of this word with
Egypt. Egypt will fall in spite of her supporters.
In fact, these allies will fall with her (Ezk 30:8;
32:21). Further, Egypt's military assistance for
Judah is worthless and the prophet condemns re-
liance on it (Isa 30:7; 31:3).

‘azar used in compound with the divine name
(either El or Yah) forms several proper names:
Azarel (*‘God has helped’*), Azriel (**My help is
God’), Azariah (“‘The Lord has helped’’) and
Ezra (““help,”’ but possibly from a form meaning
‘the Lord helps’'), and cf. Ebenezer (“‘stone of
help’*).

Divine assistance ts frequently of a military na-
ture. Ahaz, after his defeat by Damascus, turned
to their gods, convinced that they had helped
Damascus defeat him (II Chr 28:23). David's
army received additional recruits from Benjamin
and Judah because they were aware of the divine
assistance which David experienced in his strug-
gle with Saul (II Chr 12:18). Asa is divinely as-
sisted against Egypt (II Chr 14:10: Uzziah,
against Philistia and other nations (IJ Chr 26:7,
13); and Amaziah, against Edom (I] Chr 25:8).
The Chronicler is particularly conscious of God's
military assistance.

While the historical setting is not always cer-
tain, the Psalms also reflect God's military assis-
tance. Jerusalem, perhaps in the 8th century, is
delivered from Sennacherib by God's help (Ps
46:5 [H 6]). This psalm also possibly has some
eschatological emphasis. Following an uniden-
tified assault upon Judah, the psalmist prays for
God's help (Ps 79:9).

The matter of military assistance is seen in the
familiar eschatological passage of Isa 63:5. God
in his wrath and vindication against the nations
has no human assistance. He looked about for
human aid but finding none, he consummated the
day of vengeance himself. There was no human
instrument as God had used on other occasions.
While some have seen the redemptive work of

Chnst in this passage, it is not likely. A more
likely counterpart in the nT is the defeat of the
beast in Rev 19:11 where again the military
character is clearly seen in Chmst’s work of
judgment.

Assistance to the nation of Israel is a common
theme in Isaiah (41:10, 13, 14; 44:2; 49:8; 59:7, 9).
Again the picture here has a military nature. Be-
cause of God's aid, Israel will be successful in
overcoming her foes.

Personal assistance, non-military in character,
is found particularly in Psalms. The Lord is seen
as the helper of the underprivileged: the poor (Ps
72:12) and the fatherless (Ps 10:14; cf. Job 29:12).
The psalmist confesses that he has no help but
God (Pss 22:11 [H 12}; 107:12). He is conscious of
divine assistance at a time of illness (Ps 28:7), ata
time of oppression by enemies (Ps 54:4 [H 6)}),
and at a time of great personal distress (Ps 86:17).
God’s hand (Ps 119:173) and his laws (Ps 119:175)
were sources of assistance to the psalmist. It 1s
the righteous who can anticipate God's aid (Ps
37:40).

‘ezer I. Help, support, helper. (asv, RSV similar
except in Ps 89:19 [H 20] where the rsv reads
nézer and hence translates ‘‘crown.’’) While this
word designates assistance, it is more frequently
used in a concrete sense to designate the assis-
tant. (Cf. Gen 2:18, 20 where Eve is created to be
Adam's helpfer].) As to the source of the help,
this word is generally used to designate divine
aid, particularly in Psalms (Cf. Ps 121:1, 2) where
it includes both material and spiritual assistance.

‘ezra 7. Help, support, assistance. (ASV, RSV
similar.). The assistance specified by this word
is either human or divine. The meaning is quite
like the masc. form. Eight times (Jud 5:23; II Chr
28:21; Isa 20:6; 31:1-2; Jer 37:7; Lam 4:17; Nah
3:9), it denotes military aid which proves ineffec-
tive. When used of divine aid, it is found in an
affirmation (Pss 22:19 [H 20]; 27:9; 40:17 [H 18])
or in a plea (Ps 35:2; 44:26 [H 27]) with the gravity
of the request shown by acry for haste (Pss 22:19
[H 20}; Ps 38:22 [H 23); 40:13 [H 14]; 70:1 (H 2];
71:12). In such conditions, man's help ts futile (Ps
60:11 [H 13]; 108:12 [H 13].
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 256-58.
C.S.

1599 sty (‘zr) II. Assumed root of the following.
1599a mMIY «=(‘dzdrad) enclosure (e.g. Ezk
43:14; II Chr 4:9).

1600 oy (‘ér) stylus (e.g. Jer 17:1; Job 19:24).
Derivation uncertain.

1601 mby (‘ata) I, enwrap, cover. (ASV, RSV

similar.)

1607 ABY (‘atap)

Derivative

meyr (ma‘ateh) wrap, mantle.
Occurs only in Isa 61:3, a “‘mantle
of praise.”’

160la

The asv and rsv differ in two instances. In Jer
43:12, the rsv reads ‘‘delouse,’’ following the
Lxx. In Song 1:7, the rsv understands the root to
be ta'd and hence reads it *‘wander.’’ A synonym
(frequently in parallel relationship with ‘dtd) that
should be noted is /abash meaning “‘to clothe.”

The basic meaning of ‘data is seen in I Sam
28:14 where the elderly Samuel is wrapped in a
robe. This concept is also seen in its figurative
use. God wraps himself in fury so as to prepare
himself as a warrior to protect his community (Isa
59:17) and he also covers himself with light as
with a garment (Ps 104:2).

This word is also used in the causative. Ps 84:7
States that the rain ‘“‘covers’’ the land with pools.
The psalmist laments that God has covered his
anointed with shame (Ps 89:46) because of sin.
Jerusalem (cf. Isa 49:18; 52:1) or the Servant re-
joices even as a bridegroom and bride on their
wedding day because God has covered her (him)
with the robe of righteousness, which phrase 1s
further defined by the parallel ‘‘clothed me with
garments of salvation’ (Isa 61:10). Of signifi-
cance here is the fact that it is God who provides
this covering of righteousness. Man cannot so
clothe himself. However, he can be aware of it,
rejoice in it, and sing over it.

C.S;
1602 mey (‘atad) I, grasp. Occurs only in Isa
22:17, possibly in Ezk 21:15 [H 20}.
poy (Calin). See no. 1604a.
mwsepy (‘dtisha). See no. 1609a.
1603 "POY (‘dtallép) bat (Lev 11:19=Deut

14:18; Isa 2:20).

1604 30Y (‘tn). Assumed root of the following.

1604a OY (‘dtin) pail, bucket (Job
21:24).
1605 HRY (‘atap) I,turnaside. Occurs only in
Job 23:9.
1606 AbY (‘dtap) II, envelop oneself.
Derivative
(ma‘atapad) overtunic (Isa

1606a mByYN
3:22).

1607 "MY (‘atap) IH, be feeble, faint, grow
weak. (ASV, RSV Similar except the former
prefers the word “‘overwhelm’” while the
latter uses ‘faint.’ A difference is also

661

1608 38Y (‘atar)

seen in Isa 57:16 where the rsv follows the
Lxx and renders this word as ‘‘proceed.’’)
Arabic ‘ataba means ‘‘to flag, be feeble.”
This word can pertain to physical exhaus-
tion or the languishing of man’s innermost
being.

It is descriptive of cattle, i.e. feeble cattle,
which Jacob ignored when he developed his own
flock (Gen 30:42). This word is also used to de-
scribe the children of Jerusalem who fainted due
to weakness from lack of food during the Babylo-
nian siege (Lam 2:11, 12, 19).

Used as subjects of this verb are soul (Ps 107:5;
Jon 2:7 [H 8]), heart (Ps 61:2 [H 3}), and spirit (Ps
77:3 [H 4]; 142:3 [H 4]; 143:4; Isa 57:16). Not only
can man be overwhelmed with physical exhaus-
tion, his innermost being can also languish.

This term is descriptive of the individual when
he observes his circumstances and then becomes
aware of his separation from God. As a result he
is overwhelmed. This was true of Jonah in the
belly of the fish (Jon 2:7 [H 8]), of a lonely im-
prisoned man (Ps 142) and of a man totally
crushed by his enemy (Ps 143). This recognition
of weakness is invariably in a prayer when there
is also a petition for divine assistance. The human
resources of strength being exhausted, the psalm-
ist petitions God for his help.

CS;

1608 “BY (‘dtar) surround (1 Sam 23:26; Ps
5:13, only).

Derivatives
1608a ty (‘atara) crown, wreathe.

1608b *"8Y (‘dtar) to crown, to give a
crown. Used in the Piel and

Hiphil.
‘atara. Crown. This word, a general term for

crown, should be distinguished from nézer, the
royal and pnestly crown.

‘afarad can designate the crown of the queen
(Jer 13:18), the nobility (Est 8:15) or the bride-
groom (Song 3:11). While the crown could be
made of gold and silver (Ps 21:3 [H 4]; Zech 6:11),
it could also be a garland of flowers (Ezk 23:42).

By far the most significant use of this word is
the figurative. It is used metaphorically to show
honor and authority. This is seen particularly in
Proverbs where grey hair (16:31), grandchildren
(17:6), good wife (12:4), and wisdom (4:9; 14:24)
are considered a crown. The ultimate metaphor is
found in Isa 28:5 where it is the Lord who will be
the crown of the remnant! He will bless them and
be their pride (cf. Ezk 16:12).

This same metaphor is used when the emphasis
Is negative, the crown is removed.

In Zech 6:11, the prophet is commanded to
take the gold and silver brought by the remnant

662

1610 wy (‘it) scream, shriek.

1612 IY (‘in) to eye.

from exile and make a crown (Hebrew is plural,
perhaps to indicate the superlative, the ultimate
crown), and to place it upon the head of Joshua,
the priest. This crown is then to be kept in the
temple (6:14). This crowning is symbolic of the
Messiah (see semah). By receiving the royal
crown, Joshua indicates that in Jesus Christ both
the priestly and the royal offices are combined.
He alone can wear that crown!
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 624-29.
C.S.

1609 wey (‘tsh). Assumed root of the following.

1609a Mwy (‘atishad) sneezing (Job
41:10).

‘xy (‘7). See no. 1577d.

Occurs only in |
Sam 25:14.

Derivatives

1610a Oy (‘ayit) bird of prey (e.g. Gen
15:11; Job 28:7).

1610b Oy (‘it) dart greedily (like a bird
of prey. Denominative verb (1 Sam
14:32; 15:19).

1611 oxy (‘dyam) glow (Isa 11:15). Meaning

and derivation dubious.

Denominative verb (I
Sam 18:9).

Parent Noun

1612a ty (‘ayin) I, eye. This is a gen-
eral Semitic term and may also
mean “‘source’’ (see ‘ayin II). In
Uganitic ‘yn means ‘“‘to behold”
(UT 19: no. 1846).

More than the eye itself is implied by this
word. Occasionally it represents the whole pro-
cess of seeing and by extension, of understanding
and obedience (Jer 5:21). However, tn the oT it is
the ear which is generally used in this figurative
way. The eye is used to express knowledge,
character, attitude, inclination, opinion, passion,
and response. The eye is a good barometer of the
inner thoughts of man.

Of all the physical organs of the body, the eye
was considered one of the more important. If a
master should destroy the eye of a slave, that
slave was automatically released (Ex 21:26). Not
only are eyes assigned to men (Lev 21:20: II Kgs
4:34), to beasts (Gen 39:41), to birds (Job 28:7;
39:29) but also to wheels (Ezk 1:18; 10:12, where
they symbolize the all-seeing God), to a stone
(Zech 3:9, where they represent facets; cf. Ex
10:15 ‘‘eye [surface] of the whole land’’) and to

idols which are unable to use them (Ps 115:5;
135:6).

Anthropomorphically eyes are attributed to
God. His eyes are in every place, observing the
good and evil (Prov 15:3). They focus throughout
the whole earth to defend the nghteous (II Chr
16:9) while they are upon the sinful to destroy
them (Amos 9:8). Man can find favor in the eyes
of the Lord (Gen 6:8). He can do right in his eyes
(1 Kgs 15:11) or evil (I Kgs 16:25). Man prays for
God to open His eyes. (II Kgs 19:16=Isa 37:17;
Dan 9:18). When God hides his eyes, he ignores
the prayers and needs of man (Isa 1:15). When he
directs his eyes to man, he sustains and delivers
him (Ps 33:18; 34:15 (H 16)).

The eyes are depicted as spiritual faculties.
After eating the forbidden fruit, the eyes of Adam
and Eve were opened. They had lost their inno-
cence, now being aware of their nakedness both
physical and spiritual (Gen 3:5, 7). The eyes can
be blinded to God (Jer 5:21), can be blinded by
God (Isa 6:10; 44:18) and can be opened by God
(Num 22:31; II Kgs 6:17). The eyes looking to the
Lord represent expectancy and confidence (Ps
133:2). The law of the Lord enlightens the eye (Ps
19:8 [H 9]: cf. I Sam 14:28 to enlighten is to in-
vigorate and revive, Ezr 9:8; Ps 13:3 (H 4)}).

Isaiah confessed that he had seen the Lord
with his eyes (6:5). However, this privilege is
generally restricted to an eschatological dimen-
sion (Isa 33:17; Ezk 38:23; cf. Rev 1:7).

The eyes are a mirror of man’s inner being. The
eyes reflect generosity (Prov 22:9, *‘good eye’),
stinginess (Prov 23:6, ‘‘evil eye’’), design (Ps
17:11), arrogance (Prov 6:17; Isa 2:11), humility
(Job 22:29), mockery (Prov 30:17), pity (Ezk
16:5), and avarice (Eccl 4:8).

The phrase ‘in your eyes’ is equivalent to
opinion or judgment. In Judg each man did what
was right in his own eyes (21:25). The fool is right
in his own eyes (Prov 12:15). The temple had
become a den of robbers in the eyes of the inhabi-
tants of Jerusalem (Jer 7:11). Sarah had contempt
for Hagar (Gen 16:4, 5) while Abraham had sor-
row for Ishmael (Gen 21:11, 12).

The promise to preserve with special care is
expressed by the phrase ‘‘apple of his eye’’ (Deut
32:10; Zech 2:8) which literally means pupil, but
has now become an English idiom for what is
precious.

Bibliography: Mikliszanski, J. K., **The Law
of Retaliation and the Pentateuch,’* JBL 66:295-
303. Richardson, TWB, pp. 44-75. Robertson,
E., ““The Apple of the Eye in the Masoretic
Text, JTS 38:56-59. THAT, II, pp. 259-67.

C.S.

1613 f3°Y ) (‘ayin) HH, spring, fountain. (The
ASV generally translates ‘‘fountain,’’ while

663

1614 Yip)

1614 sp (ip)

the rsv uses the word ‘‘spring.’’ Both
words, however, are similar in meaning.)
Connection with ‘ayin I uncertain.

Derivative
1613a

This word designates a flow of water from an
opening in a hillside or valley. It should be distin-
guished from “‘well’”’ or ‘‘cistern.’’ Synonyms are
maqor also meaning fountain but used frequently
in a figurative way and ma‘ydn meaning substan-
tially the same as ‘ayin.

The land of Canaan was described as **a good
land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains
(‘ayin) and springs, flowing forth in valleys and
hills.’ Jacob in blessing his sons, reserved one of
his greatest blessings for Joseph (tribes of Eph-
raim and Manasseh), likening him to a fruitful
bough by a spring (Gen 49:22). This perhaps re-
fers to the ‘‘planting’’ of Manasseh and Ephraim
in Canaan, suggesting their securing of fertile and
significant territories. The association of springs
with the deep is seen in Prov 8:28 where the
phrase “fountains of the deep’’ also seems to
suggest that the deep was the source of the foun-
tains. The exact meaning of this verse is difficult.
Following the Lxx, it appears that it is the Lord
who strengthened, i.e., established the fountains
of the deep, fixing the boundaries of the sea. But
in this passage, the bounds of the deep favor the
interpretation ‘“‘ocean’’ and the ‘ayin t*hém
could merely mean surface of the deep. In Gen
7:11, presumably the reference is to suboceanic
sources. In any event, Wisdom was already in
existence at the time of this creative act of God.

Of significance is that which happened at these
fountains. The nation of Israel found refreshment
at the twelve springs of Elim (Ex 15:27; Num
33:9).

It was at the spring on the way to Shur (proba-
bly Beer-lahai-roi where both Abraham, Gen
20:1, and Isaac, Gen 25:11, dwelt) that Hagar
witnessed a theophany (Gen 16:7—14). In later
times the fountain was used figuratively of the
Lord and as a symbol of His power to refresh.

The only figurative use of this word is found in
Deut 33:28 where the phrase *‘fountain of Jacob”
is parallel to Israel. Israel sprang from the pa-
triarch Jacob, the father of the twelve tribes (cf.
Ps 68:26 (H 27) where the word mdgqor is used).
The constant succession of Jacob’s descendants
would be as a stream ever welling forth fresh
from its source.

WYia (ma'yan) = spring.

CS:

be faint. Probably a by-form of

ya'‘ep.

1615 S°Y Cir)

Derivative

l6l4a thy (‘ayép) faint, exhausted,
weary. (ASV and Rsv similar.)

Most frequently this word describes a physical
exhaustion. It can be occasioned by hunger and
great exertion such as was the case with Esau
(Gen 25:29, 30), with Gideon's men (Jud 8:4, 5),
with the nation of Israel (Deut 25:18), and with
David and his men (II Sam 16:14; 17:29). It can
also be used to represent a condition of extreme
thirst whether actual (Job 22:7; Prov 25:25) or
imaginary (Isa 29:8).

This word also is used figuratively. The psalm-
ist, wandering in the desert land of Judah,
realizes that his soul is in much the same parched
condition as the land in which he wanders. Even
as the dry land ts thirsty for water, so the psalmist
thirsts for God, the Fountain of Life (Ps 63:1
[H 2]). This metaphor of God as satisfying water
is common to both the Old and New Testament,
as is also the figure of man thirsting for God (Ps
143:6; Jer 31:25) even though he often substitutes
something else (Jer 2:13).

C.S.

mpyy (‘épa). See no. 1583d.
1615 sy (ir) city. The root is found in nu-
merous semitic languages (cf. Ugaritic ‘r
(from ‘yr 1) meaning “‘city’’ (UT 19: no.
1847). Derivation unknown.

‘ir refers to a permanent settlement without
reference to size or claims. None of our modern
terms such as city, town, or village adequately
convey the meaning or the mental picture con-
tained in this word. Not only is there a difference
between the modern and ancient city, there were
differences between the ancient cities them-
selves, making definition even more difficult. The
primary distinction between a city and a village
(hasér and banot—the latter literally
‘**daughters’’) is that the former ‘ir generally had
a wall. Frequent reference to the ‘gate’ of the
city where governmental functions were held,
underscores the walled nature of cities. Elders of
the cities are often mentioned who had some
governmental functions. As early as Gilgamesh,
cities in Mesopotamia had a council of elders
whom the king had to consult before beginning a
war, The villages were in an adjacent agricultural
area of a city and were in turn dependent on the
city for protection.

A. R. Hulst says that nothing certain can be
said about its basic meaning; still one ought to
think of some form of fortification in connection
with ‘ir (THAT, II, p. 267). Along side of cities
fortified with high walls, gates and bars, Deut 3:5
mentions “‘unwalled towns” (‘aré happ* rdzi).

664

Here the protection must have been very limited.
Strathmann notes that although the Lxx usually
translates ‘ir by polis, yet the Greek idea of
‘‘city’* differs radically from that of Israel. In its
developed use polis has as its core meaning a
political institution, whereas ‘ir (cf. Greek ‘astu)
focused on a protected place. He wrote: ‘There
is in the oT no trace whatever of the world of
ideas which the Gks. associated with moAuo... .”"
The importance of cities [in Israel] lay in the re-
sistance they could offer to aggressors because of
their fortifications, in the protection they could
give to their inhabitants’’ (TWOT, VII, p. 23).

Synonyms of this word are geret and giryd,
both meaning city with httle or no distinction in
meaning from ‘ir. However these two terms are
chiefly used in poetic sections, with the former
appearing exclusively in poetry. Further they are
limited in use in contrast to ‘ir which is used c.
1090 times.

The Bible represents urban civilization as hav-
ing begun with Cain who built a city and named it
after his son, Enoch. In the tables of the descen-
dants of Noah (Gen 10) several cities are men-
tioned, cities which were built after the disper-
sion from the tower of Babel (Gen 11). Some
scholars think on the basis of these two passages
that there is an antipathy. toward the city in
Genesis (cf. G. Wallis, **Die Stadt in den Uber-
lieferungen des Genesis,’ ZAW 78 (1966): 133-
148). But Hulst argues that such a judgment is not
true to the witness of the ot. Thus cities are a
good gift of the Lorp to Israel (Deut 6:10) and the
sin in Genesis 11 is not the building of the city
(THAT, II, p. 271). Cities continued to be preva-
lent in the scripture up to the very end of Revela-
tion where the new Jerusalem is described (Rev
21 and 22).

Of significance for this article is the fact that
cities have qualities of character. This is in part
because the word ‘“‘city’’ many times actually
means “‘inhabitants.”’ A city can cry (I Sam 4:13;
5:12) and it can be stirred (Ruth 1:19: cf. Mt
21:10). It can be characterized as righteous (Isa
1:26), faithful (Zech 8:3) and holy (Isa 48:2; 52:1;
Neh 11:1, 18). All the above qualities are descrip-
tive of Jerusalem. A city can experience joy (Jer
49:25), stimulate trust (Jer 5:17), and be re-
nowned (Ezk 26:17). She can also have undesira-
ble qualities. She can be proud (Zeph 2:15), op-
pressive (Zeph 3:1), and bloody (Ezk 22:2: 24:6,
9, of Jerusalem; Nah 3:1, of Nineveh). Cities as
corporate societies are hence subject to the di-
vine blessings and curses. They are established
and destroyed depending upon their relationship
to God. The security of the city is contingent
upon God (Ps 127:1).

A familtar concept in the oT is the city of ref-
uge. Six Levitical cities were appointed to re-
ceive and give asylum to the accidental man-

slayers. These cities represent an effort to pre-
vent the shedding of innocent blood in the land
(Deut 19:10). Their aim was to control blood re-
venge, allowing justice to intervene between the
slayer and the avenger (cf. IDB loc. cit.) These
cities are promised in Ex 21:13 and are projected
as SIX in number in Num 35:6. In Deut 5:41-43
after the conquest of Transjordan the three east-
ern cities are named; in Deut 19:2 three more are
projected for Canaan. Finally in Jos 20:7-8 after
the conquest, all six cities are named. The pro-
gression of the narrative is most satisfactory if
the Pentateuch be kept in its unity.

Bibliography: Feinberg, C. L., “The Cities of
Refuge,’ BS 103:411-17: 104:35-48. TDNT, VI,
pp. 522-29. THAT, II, pp. 268-71.

C.S.

1616 “°%Y (‘yr) Assumed root of the following.

16l6a + 79Y (‘ayir) male ass. (ASV, RSV
similar.) ‘r (from root ‘yr II) in
Ugaritic is an “‘ass,’’ but in Egyp-
tian it denotes ‘‘goat’’ (UT 19: no.
1848). C. H. Gordon notes that one
word in Arabic may include ‘‘don-
key’ or ‘‘gazelle.””

The ass had been domesticated centuries be-
fore the times of the Genesis patriarchs. Its var-
ied uses in western Asia are clearly seen in the
Bible: a riding animal (Jud 10:4; 12:14); a work
animal (Gen 49:11; Isa 30:6, 24); a gift (Gen 32:15
[H 16]). Job 11:12 alludes to two well-known
qualities of the ass: stupidity and obstinacy. The
most interesting reference is Zech 9:9 where the
Messiah is pictured as riding upon a mule (cf. Mt
21:1-7 and John 12:14), entering Jerusalem as a
victorious king. That such a ceremony was part
of a coronation is suggested by David's directions
to Solomon to assure him of the crown: he was to
ride on the king's mule down to Gihon then up
into Jerusalem (I Kgs 1:33, 38, 44-45).

CS:

“*y (‘ir). See no. 1587a.
Bay (‘érom). See no. 1588b.

1617 wey (‘ayish) Arcturus (asv and Rsv the
Bear).

Heavenly constellation of which the brilliant
star Arcturus is the most easily identified. Occurs
only in Job 9:9 and 38:32 in connection with k° sil
“Orion,” kima the ‘Pleiades,’ mazzal(r)ot the
‘*constellations,”* (all of which see).

In both occurrences the stars are referred to as
evidence of the creative power of God. In 9:9 Job
points to the heavens as evidence of God's over-
whelming power and wisdom, and therefore, of
the folly of questioning his ways. However, as
with many humans, Job knows better than he

665

1619 wssay (Cakkabish) spider.

1619 wesay Cakkabish)

does, for in the succeeding chapters he proceeds
to do, under the lash of his comforters’ words,
precisely what he had said was folly: to question
the wisdom of God's ways. The result is that, in
the vision of God in chapters 38-41, Job must be
faced with the gulf between himself and God and
brought to realize that his words in the first part
of chapter 9 were more true than his later ones.
God ts the creator and sustainer and, as such,
sees things in ways of which we know nothing.

The particular contexts of both chapters 9 and
38 suggest overtones of both the Mesopotamian
and the biblical creation accounts. In both of
these the deity fixes the times and seasons. Fur-
thermore, in the Enuma Elish, Marduk fixes the
places of the gods in the heavens—rather patent
references to the sun, moon and stars. In the bi-
blical account God also fixes these, but not as
gods, simply as created objects, the work of his
hands. Job also treats them as such, but perhaps
the overtone that God has defeated the gods is
also found here.

Beyond ihis, the reference to Rahab in 9:13 and
Leviathan in chapter 41 seem to be an appropria-
tion of certain ancient literary motifs to indicate
that creation was not only a triumph of creative
might and wisdom, but also a triumph of good
over evil. All in all, the use of these various
themes serves to point up the truth that the gulf
between creature and Creator is a vast one, one
which can only be crossed from the Godward
side.

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., “‘Two As-
tronomical Passages in the Old Testament,’ JTS
71-11.

J.N.O.

1618 "35Y (akbar) mouse. (ASV and RSV

similar. )

Denotes any one of a large number of rodents
of the family Muridae. In Lev 11:29 the mouse is
declared unclean. Reference is made to a pagan
practice of eating mice (collective singular) in Isa
66:17. They are also edible for Moslems (KB,
702). The Philistines suffered a plague of mice
because of their seizure of the ark (1 Sam 6: see
‘Opel). The mice seem to have carried an
epidemic, as rats and other rodents often do carry
the bubonic plague, and perhaps also caused ag-
ricultural problems. As a propitiatory offering,
five golden mice were returned with the ark.

CS.

(ASV and RSV
similar.)

There are only two references to the spider in
the Old Testament and in both instances the em-
phasis ts on the web which is pictured as tran-
sitory or flimsy. The wicked will assuredly be

1620 *DDY (‘akas)

punished in spite of his confidence which is com-
pared to trust in a spider's web (Job 8:14). In Isa
59:5 the spider's web symbolizes something evil.
Isaiah asserts that the nation’s effort to hide its
iniquity (59:6) with the web it has woven, simply
will not work. Any covering that man makes for
his sin is as transparent as the spider’s web. The
spider of Prov 30:28 (av) is the word S$ mamit
and probably refers to a kind of lizard.

C.S:;

May (‘akér). See no. 162t1a.

1620 *5D¥ (‘dkas) shake bangles, rattle, tin-
kle. This denominative verb occurs only
in the Piel, in Isa 3:16.

Parent Noun

1620a Bay (‘ekes) anklet,
3:18).

bangle (Isa

1621 "3% (‘akar) stir up, disturb, trouble, make
(someone) taboo. (ASV, RSV translate simi-
larly.)

Derivative
162la 33 (‘akér) trouble.

‘dkar reflects the social dimension of an indi-
vidual’s action. A person's negative action (this
word always has a negative concept) has a harm-
ful influence not only on himself, but also upon
others. A person can ‘‘trouble’’ another person
or the entire nation, bringing either man’s or
God's judgment upon others. KB (p. 703) fol-
lowed by Holladay (p. 273) define the word to
mean ‘‘taboo; cast out from (social) intercourse”’
(see Schwally, Sem. Kriegs—altertiimer 1 (1901):
41).

The murderous actions of Simeon and Levi
made Jacob odious to the Canaanites (Gen
34:30). Ahab and Elijah exchange charges, each
claiming that the other had brought the present
trouble (drought) on Israel (I Kgs 1:17, 18).
Achan, ignoring the injunction against taking
booty from Jericho (Josh 6:18), did so and
brought defeat upon the whole nation (Josh 7:25;
I Chr 2:7).

A person can bring trouble on his own house-
hold (Prov 11:29; 15:27) or a man can trouble
himself. A cruel man hurts himself (Prov 11:17).

Not only 1s man the subject of this verb, but
also God. Joshua declared that the Lord would
bring trouble (‘a@kér) on Achan (note the word-
play) because of his sin (Josh 7:25). God cut off
Achan from the nation.

‘akor. Disturbance, trouble. (aSv and RSV Simi-
lar.) This word is derived from the root which
means *‘to disturb, to trouble.’’ It is always used
with the word ‘émegq ‘‘valley,’’ indicating a geo-

666

graphic location. It was the site of Achan’s
execution and grave for his transgressing the
command to take no booty from Jericho (Josh
7:24, 26). By this act he had brought ‘‘trouble’’
on Israel. This site figures eschatologically in Isa
65:10 and Hos 2:15 [H 17]. It will be a fruitful
valley, providing pasture for the flock when Is-
rael is restored. An idyllic picture of peace is as-
sociated with it. It will be a place of ‘‘hope”’
rather than ‘‘trouble.”’

C.S.

1622 31W>v (‘akshib) asp, viper.

SY (‘al).
Sy (‘dl).

See no. 1624p.
See no. 1628a.

1623 35 (‘lg). Assumed root of the following.

1623a ay (‘illég) speaking inarticulate-

ly (Isa 32:4).

1624 m9y (‘ald) go up, climb, ascend.

Derivatives

1624a mop (‘aleh) leaf, leafage.
1624b %9p (‘éli) pestle (Prov 27:22).
1624c tnoy (‘ola) I, whole burnt offering.

1624d tmp (‘ola) I, ascent, stairway.

1624e ty (ill?) upper (Jud 1:15; Josh
15:14).
1624f tm9p (‘aliya) roof chamber.

1624g «tip (‘elyén) I, high.

1624h top (‘elyén) I, most high.

16241 toy% (mo‘al) lifting.

1624) tmp (ma‘dleh) ascent.

1624k +5y7% (ma‘al) above, upward.

16241 tAdy (ma‘ala) I, what comes up,
l.e. thoughts (Ezk 11:5).

1624m tm9p (ma'‘ala) Hi, step, stair.

1624n tmopm (t°‘dla) I, conduit, water
course.

16240 ftnHoym (1°'ala) II, healing.

1624p thy (‘al) above.

There are nearly 900 occurrences of the verb
‘ala in the oT. The most common meanings in the
simple tenses are ‘‘go up’’ (over 300 times),
‘‘come up’”’ (over 160 times) and ‘‘ascend”’ (17
times). In the causative stems the two predomi-
nant meanings are ‘‘to bring up”’ (over 100 times)
and ‘‘to offer’’ (77 times). The other 230 uses of
the word are translated about 85 different ways in
the av.

‘ola J. Burnt offering, burnt sacrifice. asv and
RSV similar.

This noun occurs 286 times in the or. The usual
explanation for the common rendering *‘burnt of-
fering’ is that the smoke from the offering goes
up or ascends to God. However, since there are

other sacrifices which were burned, it seems

probable that there is some further concept in-
volved in the use of ‘6/4 to describe this sacrifice.
The key appears to be that alone among the Is-
raelite sacrifices the ‘6/4 is wholly burned, rather
than partially burned and eaten by the worshipers
and/or the priest. Thus, the whole animal is
brought up to the altar and the whole is offered as
a gift (minha, q.v.) in homage to Yahweh. Whole
offering would be a better rendering in English to
convey the theology of the ‘d/da. It is indeed
burned, but the burning is essentially secondary
to the giving of the whole creature to Yahweh.
(See N. Snaith, VT 7: 309.)

According to Lev 1, the ‘d/a@ could be a bull, a
ram, a goat, pigeons, or turtledoves. The animals
had to be perfect male specimens, but no sex
qualifications are indicated for the birds. The
mode of sacrifice is given in some detail, but for
the most part, no interpretation of the meaning of
the various steps is given.

The ‘o/d 1s first presented since it 1s a gift (qgor-
ban, q.v.) to Yahweh (Lev 1:2, 10, 14). If the
offering was a bull (and presumably also either a
sheep or a goat, although this is not specifically
stated in vv. 10 and 14), the worshiper then iden-
tified himself with the animal by placing his hand
on the animal's head. This may symbolize the
substitution of the victim for the worshiper and
indicate the transference of the guilt of sin to the
animal, but, as de Vaux points out (Roland de
Vaux, Studies in OT Sacrifice, p. 28), the only
other instance where this symbolic gesture is
made is in Lev 16:21 where the sin of the nation is
transferred to the scapegoat and then carried into
the wilderness. Because the goat is ‘‘impure,”’ he
is driven away, rather than sacrificed on the altar.
The altar is reserved for holy things. But the
same gesture is used again in the important mat-
ter of the pnests’ sin offering and burnt offering
and the ram of consecration (Lev 8:14, 18, 22)
and in the other offerings. It would seem to be a
valid inference that the gesture implied substitu-
tion, that in some cases it showed the penalty was
explated, in other cases there was the symbolism
of removal. This act certainly implies the close
identification of the worshiper with the ‘d/a. The
animal is his indeed, and he is offering it as a gift
to the Lord.

The third step in the process is the actual kill-
ing of the offering. Normally the act of sacrifice
was performed by the pniest, but for the ‘o/d,
only the birds were slaughtered by the priest—
probably because of the small size of the creature
and the small quantity of blood in them. It was
essential that the blood be put on the altar. A
bull, sheep, or goat was killed by the worshiper
himself beside the altar (Lev 1:5, 11, 15), after
which the priest poured the blood against or upon
the altar. Only after the worshiper had skinned
and cut up the animal and washed the parts in

667

1624 m9y (‘alda)

water was the whole animal conveyed to the
pnest. He then took it to the altar and arranged it
there where it was wholly burned up.

A special case occurs in II Chr 29:20-24 when,
under king Hezekiah, a reform movement began.
In this instance, the priests performed the actual
slaughter of the animals. However, the situation
may reflect a rededication to Yahweh and his true
service on the part of these individuals, and in
fact indicate that these ‘d/ot were the offerings of
these men. This event probably lies behind Eze-
kiel’s shifting the right of sacrificing the ‘o/é6t to
the Levites (Ezk 44:11).

Usually the ‘d/@ was offered in conjunction
with another offering (e.g. a minhd), although the
‘Ola itself has atoning efficacy (Lev 1:4; cf.
16:24).

The ‘ola was offered for specific reasons. In
times of joy and celebration, an ‘o/d is a gift to
express that joy and to reverence Yahweh (Gen
8:20f.; 1 Sam 6:14). This sacrifice is not linked
with the horrors of death. (Note especially on this
the material in Dennis J. McCarthy, **The Sym-
bolism of Blood and Sacrifice,’’ JBL 88: 166-76;
see also his later notes 92:205-10). McCarthy
concludes that the or attitude to the sacrificial
use of blood is without real parallel.

An ‘dla can also accompany petitions for
God’s intervention in time of need (Jud 21:4; Jer
14:12). Common to both these classes of ‘d/dt is
the overiding awareness of the need to give honor
and homage to the God who is holy.

Two particularly troublesome incidents involv-
ing ‘ol6t are the episode of Saul in I Sam 13, and
that of Jephthah in Jud 11. Saul’s sin is identified
as having offered an ‘d/d in preparation for holy
war against the Philistines. Since the worshiper
himself killed the animal, this was not the sin of
Saul. Apparently the problem was in the absence
of a priest to take the blood and the victim to the
altar. The worshiper slaughtered, but the way to
the altar was reserved to the priest. [Moreover, he
disobeyed the Lord by failing to follow Samuel's
order to wait seven days at Gilgal until he would
come to offer the sacnfices and show Saul what
he should do (I Samuel 10:8) R.L.H.]

Jephthah’s ‘d/a was a different story. A vow
taken under the pressure of imminent defeat was
nonetheless a vow to be kept—he thought. The
sacrifice of his only child as an ‘d/a to Yahweh
was the result. Some interpret this controversial
passage to mean that he offered up his daughter
to perpetual virginity for divine service and thus
insured the extinction of his line (see G. L.
Archer SOTI, pp. 278ff.). Others hold that she
was offered in human sacrifice. In that case the
horror with which this action was received both
by Jephthah and the nation (Jud | 1:29-40) is evi-
dence enough that human sacrifice was not the
norm in Israel. Cf. also the reference to the offer-

1624 m?y (ala)

ing of Mesha’'s son as a Sacrifice, II Kgs 3:27. De
Vaux argues that the event terrified the Israelites
and they fled (Studies in OT Sacrifice, p. 62, n.
49). Micah (6:6-8), reflecting the later prophetic
tradition, is perfectly in line with this view—that
the fruit of the body is not acceptable as an ‘ola.
What is required is the gift of the self in justice,
love, and submission. Albright concludes that **it
is very hard not to give Israel credit for having
helped by its example to encourage the oppo-
nents of human sacrifice in Phoenicia’ (YGC,
p. 244).

Whole burnt offerings, unknown in the Meso-
potamian cults, were common among. the
Canaanites, although human sacrifice was not
prevalent even there (see Roland deVaux, Sac-
rifice, pp. 42ff., 66). Evidence from Ugant ante-
dating the ot and from the Phoenician texts post-
dating the oT gives evidence of rites that parallel
the Hebrew ‘d/d. But, missing from all of these is
the one essential element in the Hebrew struc-
ture—the offering of the blood and the contact of
the blood with the altar. The offering of the life
(cf. Lev 17:11, the blood is life) to the God of life
makes the difference between a simple slaughter
and an acceptable sacrificial gift.

Bibliography: Cundall, Arthur E., Judges: An
Introduction and Commentary, Inter-Varsity,
1968; pp. 146-149. McCarthy, Dennis J., “The
Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice,” JBL 88:
166-76. McCarthy, Dennis J.. °* Further Notes on
the Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice,” JBL
92:20S5S-10. Rad, Gerhard von, Old Testament
Theology, I, Harper & Row, 1962, pp. 250-58.
Vaux, Roland de, Studies in Old Testament Sac-
rifice, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1964, pp.
27~51, 52-90. See also ‘@sham, kalil, hatta't,
minha, gorbdn, shelem, sh lamim, zebah.

‘ola. II. Ascent, stairway. This noun occurs
only in Ezk 40:26. Possibly it is a feminine parti-
ciple of ‘ald.

‘illi. Upper. This adjective is used only twice
(Josh 15:19: Jud 1:15), both times to describe part
of the territory given by Caleb to his daughter as
part of her dowry—the upper and lower springs
of Debir. (Albright identified Tell Beit Mirsim
with Debir, but this geographic detail tips the
evidence in favor of Rainey’s identification of
Rabud as Debir.)

‘aliya. Roof chamber. \t was an upper story
room, sometimes built on the roof of a house
(I Kgs 17:19, 23: I] Kgs 4:10-11). Apparently it
was strategically located on the city walls (1 Sam
18:33 [H 19:1]) over the gate, or as a watch tower
(Neh 3:31-32). It also indicated status and
honor—a kind of penthouse apartment. King
Ahab built an ‘a/iyvda as a high place for an altar (II
Kgs 23:12). perhaps following the design of the

668

temple which had elaborate upper rooms (II Chr
3:9). In the heat of the Palestinian summers, an
open room on the roof would catch the cool
breezes and provide a comfortable place for the
king to work (cf. Jud 3:20-25). In Ps 104:13, the
‘aliva is the abode of Yahweh from which he
sends rain upon the mountains.

t®‘ala J. Conduit, watercourse. The apparent
anomaly of deriving conduit or watercourse from
the root “‘to go up’ disappears in the light of the
fact that the dry river beds (wadis) of Palestine
frequently are the routes of easiest access “up
to the towns and citles.

tala I. Identified by both The Englishman's
Hebrew Concordance and Young’s Analytical
Concordance with t° ‘ald 1, above, it is translated
‘*cure’’ or ‘*healing’’ in Jer 30:13; 46:11. Rsv ‘‘no
medicine for your wound"’ seems to be valid, as
the ¢° ‘ala is considered in relation to a (trench-
like) incision or as a **conduit”™ for blood.

Schneider notes that the verb ‘dla is frequently
used as a standing formula for going to Jerusalem
and to the temple, because Jerusalem, like most
cultic centers of the ancient near east, is located
on a hill (but “‘up’’ naturally refers to eminence
too. In Japan people go “‘up”’ to Tokyo at sea
level). Schneider cites Steinleitner approvingly
who argued that this expression became a techni-
cal term for cultic activity in the sense of going to
the temple (TDNT, I, 520f.)

Moreover the oT always speaks of going up to
heaven (Deut 30:12; Amos 9:2; I] Kgs 2:11).

Yet another religious use of the word is found
in the reference to God ascending his throne
when as king he subdues all Israel's enemies (Ps
47:5 [H 6}).

‘elyon J. High, higher, highest, upper, upper-
most. aSv and rsv similar. Adjective from ‘ala
“to go up.’ Cf. ‘al. The word may be taken as
one word with two meanings or as two separate
nouns.

This adjective, derived from a@/ad, occurs some
twenty-two or twenty-three times. It is used of
Israel (Deut 26:19; 28:1), the Davidic kings (Ps
89:27 [H 28]), things (e.g. baskets, Gen 40:17;
rooms, Ezk 41:7; gates, II Chr 23:20, etc.), and
places (the upper pool, Gihon, Isa 7:3; II Kgs
18:17; upper Bethhoron, Josh 16:5, etc.), to de-
scribe location in space or eminence of position.

‘elyon JI. Mosthigh. One of the names of God,
the ksv uses it as a descriptive title. The asv and
RSV Capitalize it as a proper name, *‘Most High.”
The use of ‘elyén as a divine name has been a
much debated topic in of study. (See the specific
material below under ‘d/. In about one-third of
the times it is so used, it appears either adjecti-
vally or in apposition with one of the other divine
names. In about two-thirds of the occurrences,

‘elyon stands alone as a proper name in its own
right. One of the basic ideas in Semitic religion
generally and the ot particularly is of the exal-
tedness and overwhelming majesty of God.
‘ely6n, aS a divine name signifying the supremacy
of the deity, is known from both Ugaritic (ly, UT
19: 1855 and Ais WUS), and Phoenician texts,
appearing there as epithets of the highest gods of
the pantheons.

In the or, ‘elyédn appears only in poetry, and
reflects the ideas of omnipotence (Ps 18:13
[H 14]; Lam 3:38), universality (Ps 83:18 [H 19}),
and/or constancy (Ps 21:7 [H 8]). Thus the sin of
the king of Babylon in Isa 14:14 is not that he
wanted to become godlike or even a god, but that
he aspired to be like the Highest God.

‘ely6n is the place of protection and shelter for
Israel (Ps 9:2 [H 3]; 91:1, 9), and for her king (Ps
21:7 [H 8]). In keeping with the Gen 1[4 passages,
‘elyén seems to have a special concern for Zion
(Ps 46:4 [H 5]; 87:5) even though he ts Lord of all
heaven and earth. Psalm 73:11 satirically em-
phasizes the futility of trying to hide from the
all-knowing ‘elyén. The pathos of Ps 77:10(H 11]
is that it expresses the unthinkable—the omnipo-
tent has become impotent.

‘elyon occurs in several compounds.

l. 'él ‘elyon. The earliest appearance of ‘e/ydén in
the oT is in conjunction with the old Semitic ap-
pelative ’é/ (q.v.) in the Abraham/Melchizedek
story (Gen 14:18-22). Alt points out that the pri-
mary fact about the names compounded with ’é/
is that they seem to be associated with particular
holy places (e.g. El Bethel, Gen 31:13, although
this is his only clear example; Albrecht Alt, The
God of the Fathers, see Bibliog. p. 11). With El
Elyon, however, this is not the case. Genesis
14:19, 22 identifies him as ‘“‘possessor’’ (gdnéh,
q.v.) of all the earth. The rsv follows the Lxx
ektisen “who created.” This perspective clearly
precludes El from being considered a nature deity
(e.g. Baal), and stresses his total supremacy. Psalm
78:35 (cf. Num 24:16) follows this with El Elyon
as the most exalted one.

2. YHAWH ‘elyén. This combination occurs in Ps
47:2 [H 3] and Ps 97:9 where the common version
treats ‘ely6n adjectivally, and in Ps 7:17 [H 15] in
parallel with Yahweh. His exalted position and
his total righteousness leave the Psalmist in awe
(nora’) of the Great King.

3. ‘@l6him ‘elyén. This combination occurs only
twice. In Ps 57:2 [H 3], it is in parallel with ‘é/
gomér which Dahood treats as a proper name,
“Avenger God.’* (Mitchell Dahood, Theological
Studies, 14:595—97.) Ps 78:56 (mT) links the two
words, but Dahood (Psalms II, AB, in loc.) di-
vides the cola between the two, making ‘elyén
objective to the second verb.

Bibliography: Alt, Albrecht, The God of the
Fathers, 1929, reprinted in Essays in Old Testa-

669

1624 m2y (ald)

ment History and Religion, Doubleday-Anchor,
1968, pp. 3-100. Bertram, Georg, ‘‘uwtotos”’ in
TDNT, 8:614-20. Dahood, Mitchell, ‘‘The Root
GMR in the Psalms,’ Theological Studies,
14:595-97. , Psalms I, I, HI, in AB, 1965,
1968, 1970. Levi, Della Vida, G., *‘ El ‘Elyon in
Gen 14, 18-20,’ JBL 63:1-9.

mo‘al. Lifting. This noun occurs only in Neh
8:6 where the lifting up of the hands is associated
with worship of the Lord.

ma‘aleh. Ascent. It is found some nineteen
times, mostly in geographical references to the
high territories associated with specific cities.

ma‘al. Above, upward. Found about 140 times,
always in adverbial or prepositional phrases.
Most frequently it refers to spatial relationships
or locations described as “‘above”’ or ‘‘upward,”’
although often it is used of temporal sequences
describing the age-span of a group of people.

ma‘ala I. Ezekiel (11:5) uses ma‘ala figura-
tively for the ideas that *“come up”’ in the mind of
the wayward Israelites.

ma‘ala II. Used variously of steps or stairs,
the ‘‘way up’’ to the throne, the city walls, etc.
The use in II Kgs 20:9-11 and Isa 38:8 of degrees
of the sundial is obviously just counting the
‘steps’ or divisions marked off on the dial, or,
better, stairway (“‘the stairway of Ahaz’”’ NIv).
A specialized use of ma‘ald II is found in the
titles to Ps 120-134 (av ‘‘Song of Degrees,’’ asv
and rsv ‘‘Song of Ascent’’). Traditionally this has
been interpreted as a series of psalms to be sung
as the Israelites ‘‘went up”’ to Jerusalem (e.g. Ps
122), or as the Levites ascended the fifteen steps
between the court of women and the court of the
Israelites. Dahood (*‘Psalms’’; AB, XVIIa, pp.
194f.) suggests “Songs of extolment’’ on the
basis of 11QPs? Zion 14. Another alternative is to
interpret the ‘‘steps’’ in terms of the ascending
literary structure within the individual psalms.

‘al or ‘al or ‘ali. Is used usually as a preposition
or conjunction. ‘al which usually functions as a
preposition, is translated over thirty different
ways in the oT, the most common being above,
against, beside, concerning, on, over, upon. It
also occurs frequently as a conjunction, trans-
lated because, although. Compounded with k° or
min it provides more precise inflections of the
basic meanings.

Theologically, ‘a/ is important for the substan-
tives associated with it and from which the pre-
position is derived. BDB and Englishman’s He-
brew Concordance list only six uses of ‘al as a
substantive: Gen 27:39; 49:25; I] Sam 23:1; Ps
50:4; Hos 7:16; 11:7. Mandelkern adds Job 36:33.

1625 tov (‘alaz)

In the passages from Gen and Ps SO, the con-
Struction is (ha)shGmayim mé'‘al ‘‘the heavens
above’’ and ‘al is used adjectivally, almost as
‘*the high heavens.”’

In [I] Sam 23:1, ‘al stands alone in an adverbial
relationship to the verb so that the colon reads
‘‘the oracle of the young man who was raised up
highly.”’ Similarly, Job 36:33 (a text which Pope
(Job, AB, p. 238) declares is “‘notoriously dif-
ficult,’° as witness the variety of translations) is
included with the substantive use of ‘al. Pope
understands ‘a/dyw in the first colon as reflecting
the ancient name of the storm god ‘Aliy (which
could as easily be the God who rules the storm),
but emends the second colon in a way that dam-
ages the parallelism. Delitzsch (Job, in loc.) saw
this as a divine name also, but followed it up with
the observation that ‘al-‘6leh also refers to God.
Hosea 7:16 and 11:7 both use ‘al as the proper
name translated in av as **Most High” (=‘elyén
see above). The rsv's emendations to Baal (7:16)
and yoke (‘od/, 11:7), are interesting speculations,
but add nothing to the understanding of the text,
and are unnecessary.

It is now evident that the Ugaritic texts use ‘ly
**Most High’’ as an epithet for Baal (Legend of
Keret 3.6-9) specifically in a storm god context
(UT 19: no. 1855). The related concepts of
power, strength, exaltedness, etc., are paralleled
by the attributes of ‘elyén. What we have here is
another of the so-called standard semitic epithets
or surrogates for the deity—common among the
ancient near eastern peoples, but, purified of all
their pagan overtones of the fertility cults, incor-
porated into Hebrew religious vocabulary.

The discovery of ‘al or ‘ali in these contexts
has not only justified the translation ‘*‘Most
High’* in the Hos and Job texts, and given
additional evidence for the use of ‘elyén as a di-
vine name, but has also opened up the possibility
of identifying other cases of the use of ‘a/ as the
proper name of the deity. Some representative
examples suggested by Dahood are Gen 14:19;
21:33; Deut 33:12; I Sam 2:10; Ps 7:6, 8, 10(H 7,
9, L1]; 16:6; 18:41 [H 42]; 55:22 [H 23]; 57:2 (H 3];
62:7 [H 8]; 68:29, 34 [H 30, 35]; 75:8 [H 9}; 106:7;
119:104, 127, 129, 136; 139:14, 15; 141:3; 144:5;
146:5; Isa 63:7: Hos 10:5.

Bibliography: Albright, William Foxwell,
From the Stone Age to Christianity, 2d ed.,
Doubleday Anchor, 1957, pp. 230-236. :
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday,
1968, especially chapters 3-4. Dahood, Mitchell,
Psalms I, ll, Il, AB, Doubleday, 1965, 1968,
1970. , The Divine Name ‘é/i in the
Psalms,’’ Theological Studies 14:452-S7. De-
litzsch, Franz, Biblical Commentary on the Book
of Job, reprint, Eerdmans, 1949. May, H.G., ‘Al
... in the Superscriptions of the Psalms,’’ AJSL
58:70-83. Reider, J., *“Substantive ‘al in Biblical

670

1626 meoy (‘alata) thick darkness.

Hebrew,’ JQR 30:263-70. Snaith, Norman H.,
‘*Sacrifices in the Old Testament,’’ VT 7:308-17.
G.L.C.

psy (‘alamim). See no. 1630c.
mpiop (‘alaqa). See no. 1636a.

1625 9p (‘alaz) exult, rejoice.

Derivatives

162Sa troy (‘aléz) exultant (Isa 5:14).
1625b try (‘alliz) exultant, jubilant.

These words describe an emotion of joy which
finds expression in singing and shouting. It is in-
appropriate for one in anguish (Jer 15:17) and for
one who has sinned (Jer 11:15). By contrast it is a
natural response of the faithful (Ps 149:5), even
being ascribed to God himself (Ps 60:6 [H 8]=Ps
108:7 [H 8]). When applied to the wicked (Ps
94:3) and Israel’s foes (II Sam 1:20; Isa 23:12; Jer
50:11), it depicts a kind of gloating.

C.S.

Derivation
uncertain.

yy (eli). See no. 1624b.

soy (ali). See no. 1624e.

mop (‘dliyad). See no. 1624f.

Weoy (Celyén) I, II. See nos. 1624g,h.
roy (‘alliz). See no. 1625b.

oop (‘alil), See no. 1628b.

mosoy (‘alila). See no. 1627c.

movop (‘aliliya). See no. 1627d.
maxvop (‘dlisat). See no. 163Sa.

1627 *59p (‘dlal) I, deal with severely, abuse,

make a fool of someone.
Derivatives

1627a tmiboiy (‘dlélét) gleaning.

1627b *99¥ (‘Glal) glean. Denominative
verb, occurring only in the Poel.

1627c «tmobp (‘alila) wantonness, deed.

1627d =o m9°9p (‘aliliya) deed (Jer 32:19).

1627e tp (ma‘alal) deed, practice.

1627f = «ooos°ym (ta‘alilim) wantonness
(Isa 3:4; 66:4).

The verb ‘dlal appears thirteen times, always
in the intensives. It is difficult because it cannot
be consistently translated with any one word.
The context must determine the nuance of mean-
ing. Further homonyms meaning ‘“‘to play the
child”’ (‘iJ in Isa 3:12) and ‘‘to thrust”’ (‘// in Job
16:15) are easily confused with this root. (asv and
RSV are reasonably similar with the former pre-
ferring the words ‘‘do’’ and ‘‘mock’’ while the
latter prefers ‘‘deal’’ and ‘‘make sport of’ re-

spectively. An interesting difference in Ex 10:2
and I Sam 6:6 will be noted below.)

This word speaks of relationships. It is used to
indicate the exercise of power over another per-
son, generally in a bad sense, hence meaning ‘‘to
maltreat.’’ It signifies some great achievement,
generally malevolent.

The negative and strong thrust of this verb can
be seen in Lamentations. In 3:51 the speaker (a
man, 3:1, not the personified city) complains that
his eyes have caused him grief, i.e. that which he
has seen—destruction, disease, famine—has
brought intense pain to him. The personified city
implores God to consider his severe treatment of
her, necessitating cannibalism (2:20). She ques-
tions passers-by whether they have ever witnes-
sed such malevolent treatment (1:12) and intreats
God to treat her enemies even as he has dealt
with her (1:22). In this appeal for retribution there
is a recognition that God is just and that ven-
geance belongs to him.

This word is used to depict the exploitation of
one person by another. The concubine of the Le-
vite was sexually abused by the men of Gibeah
(Jud 19:25). Saul requested that he be slain rather
than to be taken by the Philistines who would
make sport of him (J Sam 31:4=I Chr 10:4).
Zedekiah was fearful that the Jews who had de-
fected to the Chaldeans would abuse him (Jer
38:19). In Num 22:29 Balaam accuses his ass of
mocking him.

The crucial passages in this area are Ex 10:2
and I Sam 6:6 where the Lord is the subject of
this verb and the Egyptians are the object. Is it
proper to suggest that the Lord makes sport of
anyone? Did he deal ruthlessly with Egypt? The
ASV has chosen in these two instances to give a
neutral rendering ‘wrought’ and ‘‘wrought
wonderfully’* while allowing in the margin for the
translation ‘“mocked.’’ While the thought of
mocking 1s startling, both the contextual and the
etymological situation demand a negative type of
treatment. God treated the Egyptians severely
because, as the Philistines noted, they hardened
their hearts. It is clearly within God’s power and
perogative to punish and discipline but he never
acts in jest: hence the rsv translation ‘made
sport of’ can be misleading.

Finally the use of this word in Ps 141:4 is set in
a prayer for an upright heart. There is a recogni-
tion here that wicked external practices originate
in the heart and issue forth from the mouth and
lips (cf. Mk 7:15—23).

‘olelot. Gleaning. (asv and rsv similar.) Re-
fers to grapes and olives left after first picking.
Used six times, always figuratively of a remnant,
derived from ‘ala/i I by BDB and KB, but connec-
tion not clear. Refers to Israel's remnant after
God's exhaustive judgment (Isa 17:6). Same figure

671

1629 a2y (‘alam)

is applied to the nations after universal judgment
(Isa 24:13). Micah (7:1) confesses his inability
to find a godly remnant in Judah. The destroyers
of Edom will not even leave a remnant (Jer 49:9;
Ob 5). Used figuratively by Gideon of Ephraim’s
military achievements (Jud 8:2).

‘alila. Deed, action. (asv and Rsv frequently
use ‘‘doings.’’) Used twenty-four times of which
all are plural, except two (Ps 14:1; 66:5), hence
‘‘doings.’” Applied to both man and God with a
sharp apparent contrast. The deeds of God are
righteous and renowned (Ps 9:12; 66:5; 105:1).
The actions of men are wicked (Ps 14:1). This
wicked quality of men’s deeds is primarily seen in
Ezekiel where six times this word is parallel to
derek ““way, practice’ (14:22, 23; 20:43; 24:4:
36:17, 19).

ma‘alal. Deed, practice. Used somewhat more
often with a similar range of meaning. Again the
deeds of men are wicked deeds. The word is used
three times of the action of God.

C.S.

1628 *59p (‘dalal) WI, insert, thrust in. Used

only once, figuratively of humiliation (Job
16:15).

Derivatives

1628a toy (‘dl) yoke.
1628b = 9°9p) (‘alil) furnace.

‘ol. Yoke. (So translated in rsv and asv.) Used
of a yoke either of wood or iron (cf. Jer 28:2, 4,
11, 14). Limited use as a literal yoke for animals
(Num 19:2; Deut 21:3; I Sam 6:7). Derived from
‘alal II from insertion of the neck into the yoke.
Most frequently used figuratively: oppressive
policies of monarchy (1 Kgs 12 and II Chr 10);
bondage and servitude (Lev 26:13, of Egypt: Isa
14:25, of Assyria; Jer 27:8, 11, 12, of Babylon):
domination of sin (Lam 1:14); benevolent control
of God (Jer 2:20; 5:5). In Isa 9:4 (H 3] a reference
is made to messianic deliverance from the bur-
densome yoke. Cf. the figure in Gal 5:1.

CS.
1629 Bey (‘alam) I, be hidden, concealed, se-
cret.
Derivative
1629a MPR (ta‘dlumma) hidden thing,
secret.

The meaning of the verb ‘alam 1s quite obvi-
ous. Only the passive participle occurs in the Qal
(Ps 90:8). Its commonest uses are Hiphil to ex-
press causative (hide, conceal) or Niphal as pas-
sive. It occurs a few times in the Hithpael, prob-
ably as reflexive. The verb is not used in Uganitic
or Arabic so it cannot be determined whether the

1630 BY (‘Im)

initial consonant is ayin or ghayin. If it is ayin,
the verb may be the parent of ‘dlam; if it is
ghayin, the verb may be the parent of ‘elem and
‘alma.

R.L.H.

1630 aby (‘lm) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1630a Boy (‘elem) young man (1 Sam
20:22; 17:56).

1630b trm%y (‘almad) young woman.

1630c =oaresey (‘alamim) youth (abstract).

There 1s no certain root for these words. They
are not clearly related to ‘alam I. The suggestion
in KB that they may be derived from an Arabic
root meaning “‘to be vehemently affected with
lust’’ is without foundation, particularly since
Arabic literature comes from a time several cen-
turies after the Biblical record, and the relation-
ship, if any, is apt to be the reverse. According to
KB ‘aimad means ‘‘marnageable girl, young
woman (until the birth of her first child)..’ The
latter statement is purely conjectural, for there is
no evidence on which to base it.

Since b¢ tala is used many times in the oT as a
specific word for ‘* virgin,’ it seems reasonable to
consider that the feminine form of this word is
not a technical word for a virgin but represents a
young woman, one of whose characteristics is
virginity. This is borne out by the fact that the
LXX translates it as parthenvs in two of its seven
occurrences, and that its use in Isa 7:14 was
quoted to Joseph by the angel as a prediction of
the virgin birth.

Some translators interpret Mt 1|:22—23 as being
simply a.comment by Matthew, but it is more
reasonable to consider that the argument that
convinced Joseph was the fact, pointed out to
him by the angel, that such an event had already
been predicted by Isaiah. There is no instance
where it can be proved that ‘alma designates a
young woman who Is not a virgin. The fact of
virginity is obvious in Gen 24:43 where ‘alma is
used of one who was being sought as a bride for
Isaac. Also obvious is Ex 3:8. Song 6:8 refers to
three types of women, two of whom are called
queens and concubines. It could be only reason-
able to understand the name of the third group,
for which the plural of ‘alma is used, as meaning
‘*virgins.”’ In Ugaritic the word is used in poetic
parallel with the cognate of b’ tala. See refs. in
UT 19: no. 1969.

Bibliography: Wilson, Robert Dick, “The
Meaning of ‘Alma (AV ‘‘Virgin’’) in Isaiah
vii.14,°° Princeton Theological Review, 24:308-
16. Feinberg, Charles Lee, ‘The Virgin Birth in
the Old Testament and Isaiah 7:14, BS
119:251-58. Gordon, C. H., ***Almah in Isaiah
7:14,° JBR 21:106. Knight, G. A. F., *'The

672

Virgin and the Old Testament,’ RTR 12:1-13.
Lattery, Cuthbert, *‘The Emmanuel Prophecy:
Isaias 7:14,°° CBQ 9:89-95. , ‘The Term
‘Almah in Isaias 7:14,’° CBQ 9:89-95. Moriarty,
Frederick, ‘‘The Emmanuel Prophecies,’’ CBQ
19:226-33. Steinmueller, J. E., “‘Etymology and
Biblical Usage of ‘Almah,’’ CBQ 2:28-43.
A.A.M.

1631 os>5y (‘lm) ILI. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1631a tediy (‘dlam) forever, ever, ever-
lasting, evermore, perpetual, old, an-
cient, world, etc. (RSV similar in
general, but substitutes ‘‘always’’
for “‘in the world”’ in Ps 73:12 and
‘eternity’ for ‘‘world’’ in Ecc
3:11.) Probably derived from ‘alam
1, ‘to hide,” thus pointing to what
is hidden in the distant future or in
the distant past. The Ugaritic cog-
nate is ‘/m, ‘‘eternity.”’

Though ‘d6/lam is used more than three hundred
times to indicate indefinite continuance into the
very distant future, the meaning of the word is
not confined to the future. There are at least
twenty instances where it clearly refers to the
past. Such usages generally point to something
that seems long ago, but rarely if ever refer to a
limitless past. Thus in Deut 32:7 and Job 22:15 it
may refer to the time of one’s elders. In Prov
22:28; 23:10; Jer 6:16; 18:15; 28:8 it points back
somewhat farther. In Isa 58:12, 61:4; Mic 7:14;
Mal 3:4, and in the Aramaic of Ezr 4:15, 19 it
clearly refers to the time just before the exile. In
I Sam 27:8, in Isa 51:9 and 63:9, 11 and perhaps
Ezk 36:2, it refers to the events of the exodus
from Egypt. In Gen 6:4 it points to the time
shortly before the flood. None of these past ref-
erences has in it the idea of endlessness or limit-
lessness, but each points to a time long before the
immediate knowledge of those living. In Isa 64:3
the kJv translates the word ‘“‘beginning of the
world.’ In Ps 73:12 and Eccl 3:11 it is translated
‘‘world,’’ suggesting the beginning of a usage that
developed greatly in postbiblical times.

Jenni holds that its basic meaning **most dis-
tant times’’ can refer to either the remote past or
to the future or to both as due to the fact that it
does not occur independently (as a subject or as
an object) but only in connection with preposi-
tions indicating direction (min “‘since,”’ ‘ad “‘un-
til,’ /° ‘‘up to’’) or as an adverbial accusative of
direction or finally as the modifying genitive in
the construct relationship. In the latter instance
‘Olam can express by itself the whole range of
meanings denoted by all the prepositions “‘since,
until, to the most distant time’’; i.e. it assumes
the meaning ‘‘(unlimited, incalculable) con-

tinuance, eternity.”” (THAT II, p. 230) J. Barr
(Biblical Words for Time (71969), p. 73) says,
‘‘We might therefore best state the ‘“‘basic mean-
ing’’ as a kind of range between ‘remotest time’
and ‘perpetuity'**’. But as shown above it ts
sometimes used of a not-so-remote past. For the
meaning of the word in its attributive use we
should note the designation of the Lorp as ‘el
‘olam, **The Eternal God’’ (Gen 21:33).

The Lxx generally translates ‘dlam by aion
which has essentially the same range of meaning.
That neither the Hebrew nor the Greek word in
itself contains the idea of endlessness is shown
both by the fact that they sometimes refer to
events or conditions that occurred at a definite
point in the past, and also by the fact that some-
times it is thought desirable to repeat the word,
not merely saying ‘‘forever,’’ but “‘forever and
ever.’

Both words came to be used to refer to a long
age or period—an idea that is sometimes ex-
pressed in English by ‘‘world.’’ Postbiblical
Jewish writings refer to the present world of toil
as ha‘o6lam hazzeh and to the world to come as
ha'olam habba’.

‘ad (q.v.) has substantially the same range of
meaning as ‘6lam (usually long continuance into
the future, but cf. Job 20:4).

Bibliography: Snaith, Norman H., *‘Time in
the Old Testament,’ in Promise and Fulfillment,
Essays Presented to Professor S. H. Hooke, ed.
F. F. Bruce, Edinburgh: Clark, 1963, pp. 175-86.
Jennt, E., **Das wort ‘olam im AT,” Diss, Theol.
Basel 1953 ( ZAW 64: 197-248: 65:1-35).

A.A.M.

1632 DB?Y (‘dlas) rejoice (e.g. Job 20:18;
39:13).

1633 *pop (‘ala’). Meaning uncertain. Occurs

only in the Piel, in Job 39:30, y“ ‘al'ad-dam
‘they drink (?) blood.”

1634 *mby (‘alap) cover. Occurs only in the
Pual and Hithpael (e.g. Song 5:14; Isa
$1:20). Ezk 31:15 ‘alpeh is best vocalized
as a Pual form.

1635 poy (‘alas) exult, rejoice. (Asv and Rsv
similar, both using ‘‘tnumph’’ in Prov
28:12.)

Derivative

mayeoy (‘alisat) exultation, used
only in Hab 3:14, ‘‘their exultation
was as it were to devour the poor.”’

1635a

This verb describes an emotional response ba-
sically of the mghteous (Ps 5:11 [H 12]; 68:3
{H 4]; Prov 28:12), which is occasioned by the

1637 OY (‘amad)

Lord (I Sam 2:1: Ps 9:2 {H 3]). The psalmist
prays that his enemies will not be able to exult;
i.e. gloat, over him. This is also a possible re-
sponse from nature (I Chr 16:32) and from a
community (Prov 11:10).

C.S.
1636 >°y (‘lqg). Assumed root of the following.
1636a 9 mpnoy «(alaqd) leech (Prov
30: 15).
By (am), BY (‘dm), BY (‘im). See
nos. 1640a,b,e.
1637 “lay (‘Gmad) stand, remain, endure, etc.
Derivatives
1637a t99Y (‘dOmed) standing place.
1637b tay (‘emdd) standing ground
(Mic 1:11).
1637c iY Cammid), Vay (Cammid)
pillar, column.
1637d faye (ma'dmad) attendance.
1637e tayta (mo'émad) standing ground,

foothold (Ps 69:3).

This basic term for *‘stand,’’ cognate to Akka-
dian emédu *‘to lean against, stand, place,’ and
Arabic ‘amada “‘to prop up, support,” 1s very
common in the Hebrew ot (used over five
hundred times). Synonyms include: vdsab,
Hithpael, ‘“‘to take one’s stand”; kun, Niphal,
**to stand firm, fast’’; ndsab, Niphal “to stand,
stand firm:’* and g&#m, ‘to stand up, get up.”

The verb ‘dmad is used so extensively in the
oT of the physical act of standing as to preclude a
complete analysis in this work, but the reader ts
referred to the full categorizations in BDB and
KB. Attention should be given to certain key
passages, particularly those with significant
theological import. One such expression is ‘‘to
stand before Yahweh, used, for example, of
Abraham in Gen 18:22 (cf. 19:27) and Moses in
Deut 4:10 (cf. Jer 15:1, of Moses and Samuel).
‘*To stand before Yahweh” (construed with lipné
{q.v.]) in these instances is a posture of prayer
and intercession. That men have felt a need for
Yahweh's help is not surprising. But the fact that
men may “‘stand”’ before the Creator of eternity
and make intercession is utterly remarkable. It is
important to add, however, the observation of
E.. Jacob that such intercession ts not at all magi-
cal, nor ts there an automatic answer from God to
the petitioner. He writes, **Whether intercession
is useless because of the greatness of the sin or
pardon is impossible because of the absence of
intercession (Ezk 22:30; Isa 59:16), it is important
to notice that 1t depends on the divine liberty and
that no human device can bring about God's par-
don’’ (JTOT, p. 296).

673

1637 “WY (‘amad)

Another nuance to the expression, ‘‘to stand
before Yahweh,** is afforded by a passage such
as Deut 19:17. In this context litigants *‘shall
stand before Yahweh, before the priests and the
judges who will be in office in those days’’ (cf. Jer
7:10). Such presentation was for judgment.
Standing before Yahweh and his ministers in the
sanctuary portends the ascertaining of truth and
justice. At times the nation as a whole was called
to come to the central sanctuary and ‘‘stand be-
fore Yahweh" in solemn assemblies for sacrifi-
cial acts (e.g. Lev 9:5). Servants of Yahweh
‘*stand before him’’ as an expression of dedica-
tion, allegiance, and servitude. This terminology
is used of priests (e.g. Ezk 44:15), and particu-
larly of genuine believers during the period of
Israel's decline and apostasy (Elijah, I Kgs 17:1;
18:15; Elisha, II Kgs 3:14; and Gehazi [with re-
luctance], II Kgs 5:16).

As Joseph stood before Pharaoh (Gen 41:46),
David before Saul (I Sam 16:21), Abishag and
Bathsheba before David (1 Kgs 1:2, 28), and
Nebuzaradan before Nebuchadnezzar (Jer
52:12); so the believer stands before Yahweh in a
position of obedience, respect, and readiness to
serve. Such a position is noble in proportion to
the majesty of the one served. When a person
stands before Yahweh for service, there ts no
higher honor to which he may aspire.

A crucial use of the verb ‘dmad, the subject of
perennial debate, is in the controverted ‘“‘long
day’’ of Josh 10:12-13; a day unlike any other,
‘‘when Yahweh listened to the voice of a man, for
Yahweh fought for Israel’’ (Josh 10:14). R. D.
Wilson explained long ago that the use of ‘amad
(coupled to dém) in vv. 12~13 refers not to a
prolongation of the day, but to a cessation from
the heat and light of the sun; that is, an eclipse
coupled to a storm. The defeat of the enemy was
completed not in the midst of a very long, hot
day, but in the darkness of a storm. On this point,
see H. J..Blair in NBC, rev. ed., p. 244, and J.
Rae in WBC, p. 218. D. Patten, following a lead
from I. Velikovsky, associates the phenomenon
with a close fly-by of a heavenly body.

‘omed. Place, standing place, stood upright. (ASV,
RSV similar.) A masculine noun found with a gov-
ering proposition and pronominal suffix in late
OT writings (nine times in Dan, Neh, and II Chr.).

‘emda. Standing. (aSv ‘Stay,’ RSv ‘standing
place,’ NASB ‘‘support.*’) A feminine noun found
only in Mic 1:11.

‘ammid, ‘ammid. Pillar (asv, rsv, ‘‘pillar,
column, post’’). A very common noun (110 times
in the ot), used of pillars supporting buildings
(e.g. Jud 16:25), the bronze pillars of the temple (1
Kgs 7:15), and the pillar of cloud and fire in
Yahweh's theophany (e.g. Ex 14:24).

674

The masculine noun ‘ammiud “pillar, col-
umn,” is used of structural, supporting pillars;
bronze (monumental) upright columns; vaporous
columns of smoke, fire, and cloud; and in figura-
tive expressions of the ‘‘supports’’ of earth and
heaven (see Ps 75:3 [H 4]; Job 9:6). Pillars for the
structural support of the roofs of great buildings
were used from an early period in the ancient
near east. The familiar story of Samson's final
victory over the Philistines in the palace at Gaza
describes how he destroyed the building, killing
thousands and himself, by knocking out of place
the supporting pillars (Jud 16:26—30). J. B. Job
notes that the archeological evidence from Philis-
tine sites suggests these pillars were of wood, set
on stone bases (see ‘‘pillar,”’ NBD, p. 998). Sol-
omon’'s palace was noted for the four rows of
cedar pillars with corresponding cedar beams
(I Kgs 7:2-36). Earlier, the tabernacle had pillars
made of acacia (KJv, ‘‘shittim’’; Ex 26:32, 37; cf.
27:10ff.). Pillars are mentioned in the description
of Ezekiel’s temple (Ezk 42:6) and the palace of
Ahasuerus (made of marble, Est 1:6).

The temple of Solomon is remarkable in the
description of two free-standing pillars made of
bronze, named ‘‘Jachin’’ (‘‘he shall establish’’)
and *‘Boaz’’ (‘‘in it is strength,’’ I Kgs 7:13--22).
These products of Hiram of Tyre (Huram-abi in
II Chr 2:13) must have been majestic in strength
(27 feet high, plus the capitals which were 7.5 feet
high), and lovely in beauty (see the description of
the capitals in I Kgs 7:17). In II Chr 3:15 the word
for the height of the pillars differs from that in
I Kgs 7:17 and may refer to the combined length
of the two pillars (see '&/am ‘*porch’’). It may be
noted that the text does not specifically say that
these pillars were free standing. It may be that
they stood at the front corners of the porch. Or, if
the porch had closed sides somewhat like a ves-
tibule, they could have ornamented the entry-
way, dividing it into three openings. This is the
way such pillars were used in the government
buildings of Megiddo (David Ussishkin, *'King
Solomon's Palaces,’ BA 36:78-105, especially
85, 87, and 98).

Some scholars have suggested that these twin
pillars may have contained the sacred fire of the
temple with the smoke symbolizing the presence
of the Lord (see J. Gray, J-] Kings, p. 175). In
any event, the pillars with their strength, beauty,
and symbolic names likely represented the pres-
ence of the Lord and the permanence of the
Davidic house.

The word ‘amméad 1s also noteworthy in the
phrases ‘ammid ‘adnan and ‘ammiid '‘ésh, *‘the
pillar of smoke’’ and ‘‘the pillar of fire’’ (Ex
13:21; cf. 14:24 ‘ammiud’ésh w° ‘adnan, “pillar of
fire and smoke’; see the articles on '@sh and
‘andn). These visual tokens of the presence of
Yahweh in leading, directing, and protecting his

people were designed for the comfort of Israel
and the consternation of her enemies (see Num
14:13-14). It was in the mysterious pillar of cloud
that Yahweh would manifest himself before
Moses (Num 12:5; Deut 31:15), and this mysteri-
ous manifestation in cloud, smoke, and fire was
never forgotten by Israel (e.g. Neh 9:12).

ma‘amad. Attendance, office, place, state. (ASV,
RSV similar; for Rsv add ‘duty, seating.’’) A mas-
culine noun which prefixed mem of location;
hence, the term speaks of a ‘'place of standing”’
in the sense of ‘‘office’’ (Isa 22:19) and ‘‘service,
attendance’ (I Kgs 10:5).

mo‘émad. Standing. (So ASV; RSV, NASB,
‘‘foothold.’’) Only in Ps 69:2 [H 3], in a figure of
distress.

Bibliography: AP-Thomas, D. R., *‘Notes on
Some Terms Relating to Prayer,’ VT 6:225-41.
Patten, Donald W., Hatch, Ronald R., and
Steinhauer, Loren C., The Long Day of Joshua
and Six Other Catastrophies, Pacific Meridian,
1974. Wilson, Robert Dick, *‘ Understanding ‘The
Sun Stood Still,’ ’’ Princeton Theological Review
16:46-54; reprinted in W. Kaiser, ed., Classical
Evangelical Essays in Old Testament Interpreta-
tion, Baker, 1970, pp. 61-65. TDNT, VII, pp.
641-46. THAT, II, pp. 328-31.

R.B.A.

1638 2 (‘mh). Assumed root of the following.
1638a = (‘amit) associate, fellow,
relation (e.g. Zech 13:7; Lev
§:21).
my (amma). See no. 1640b.
"1Y (‘ammiad). See no. 1637c.
3732 (‘ammoni). See no. 1642a.
"av (‘amir). See no. 1645c.
ney (amit). See no. 1638a.

1639 %Y (‘amal) to labor.

Derivatives

1639a toy (‘dmal) labor, toil, trouble.
1639b t¥Y (‘dmél) I, laborer, sufferer.
1639c tomy (‘amél) I, toiling.

The verb ‘dmal is one of several Hebrew verbs
for ‘‘labor, work, toil.’’ Other major. terms in-
clude ‘dbad ‘‘to work, serve,’ and ‘asd ‘‘to
make, do, work’’ (both of which see). ‘dmal is
used less often than those two verbs, and ts em-
ployed often with the nuance of the drudgery of
toil rather than the nobility of labor. Hebrew
‘dmal is cognate to Arabic ‘amila ‘‘to labor,”
and to the Akkadian noun nimélu, that produced
by work, *'gain, possessions.”

The root ‘dmal relates to the dark side of labor,
the grievous and unfulfilling aspect of work. A

675

1640 Bry (‘mm)

biblical view of labor based on this word alone
would be defective, but this aspect of work
should be included in a full induction. Thus
Moses uses this term to describe the frustration
and struggle of the worker in this ephemeral,
transitory world (Ps 90:10). No wonder he cries
out to the eternal God ‘and let thy beauty (eter-
nal, lovely work) be upon us’’ (v. 17). The root in
its several forms is used especially by Solomon in
Eccl as he details the frustration, profitlessness,
and transitory (hebel) benefits of day-by-day
labor; such is noted when that labor is not seen as
service (even worship!) to God, but simply as
work done ‘‘under the sun.’’ For the man whose
relationship to God is tenuous, there ts no profit
(yitr6n) from all his work (Eccl 1:3). Yet even in
Ecclesiastes there are glimpses of a higher view
of labor: ‘‘every one who eats and drinks and
sees good in all his labor—it ts the gift of God”
(Eccl 3:13; cf. 5:18-19 [H 17-18]).

‘amal. Labor, toil, trouble, mischief, sorrow,
travail, pain, grievance, grievousness, iniquity, mts-
erable, misery, painful, perverseness, wearisome,
wickedness. (ASV, RSV Similar.) As in the case of
the verb, so in that of the noun: ‘dmal relates to
the unpleasant factors of work and toil. A perusal
of the varied synonyms used in the ksv to render
this word suggests its negative overtones. Such
are the categories of grievence expressed by this
noun. Moreover, these negative elements are
amplified by words used in hendiadys and paral-
lelism with ‘dmdal: ya€g6n “torment, sorrow’ (Jer
20:18); ka‘as “‘provocation’’ (Ps 10:14); ‘dni
‘*misery’’ (Deut 26:7); ‘dwen ‘‘trouble’’ (Ps
90:10); shaw’ ‘‘worthlessness’’ (Job 7:3); shdd
‘*destruction’’ (Prov 24:2); rd‘ *‘evil’’ (Hab 1:13),
and the like.

‘amel J. Laborer, misery, wicked, workmen. This
noun is used of workmen (e.g. Prov 16:26) and of
misery (e.g. Job 3:20). **Misery’” is preferable to
‘*‘wicked’’ (so Ksv) in Job 20:22.

‘amél JI. BDB, but not KB or Lisowsky, distin-
guishes the use of ‘admé/ II in Eccl from the
above, ‘dmeél I, terming it a verbal adjective, ren-

dered ‘‘toiling’’ (Eccl 2:18, 22; 3:9; 4:8; 9:9).
Bibliography: Rainey, Anson F., *‘A Second
Look at Amal in Qoheleth,’’ Concordia Theolog-

ical Monthly, 36:804. THAT, II, pp. 332-34.
R.B.A.

1640 BMY (‘mm). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1640a toy (‘am), BY (‘adm) people.

1640b +BY (‘im) with.

1640c toy (mé'im) from, with.

1640d +5ssa%y (immani’él) Immanuel,
the messianic name of Isa 7:14 and
of Judah’s king in Isa 8:10.

1640 Bay (‘mm)

1640e &Y (‘am) kinsman (on father’s side).

1640f tmaY (Cummad) against, beside.

‘am. People, nation. (ASV, RSV similar, except
in some instances, e.g. RSV translates ‘*kindred,”’
ASV ‘people,’ Gen 25:17.)

The term seems to be derived from the com-
mon Semitic root ‘@amam (cf. e.g., UT 19: no.
1864) meaning *“*to comprehend or include.’ Al-
though there is some overlapping in meaning with
its two main synonyms goy and /°’6m, (see
synonyms under goéy), the unique emphasis of
‘am lies in its reference to a group of ‘‘people as
viewed by one of themselves,” or to ‘‘people in
general.”

The noun ‘am appears in some important
phrases: ‘ammi, lo’-‘ammi and ‘am hd'ares
("my people,’ **not my people’ Hos 2:23 |H 25],
and ‘the people of the land’’).

The term ‘am is often used in a general sense in
the ot to refer to a group of people, larger than a
tribe or clan, but less numerous than a race (/”
‘6m). When the reference is to a large group,
without reference to any specific characteristic or
relationship, translators have, in instances, cor-
rectly rendered ‘am as “folk” or *‘men.” In the
Aramaic portions of Ezr and Dan the term is used
with this general sense in all but two instances
(Ezr 7:13; 7:16).

However, ‘am is predominantly used to ex-
press two basic characteristics of men considered
as a grouping: |) relationships sustained within or
to the group and 2) the unity of the group.

Various types of relationship are expressed,
implicitly or explicitly. Some examples are: reli-
gious fellowship (Gen 17:14, the uncircumcised is
to be cut off from his people). maternal (Gen
17:16, Sarah a mother of kings of people), ances-
tral (Gen 25:8, Abraham died and was gathered to
his kindred, also 25:17; Gen 49:33), king-subject
relationship (Gen 26:11: Ex 1:9, etc.), family ties
(Gen 36:6, family included wives, children,
Slaves, servants), judicial (Gen 49:16, Dan is to
judge his people), deliverer and ruler (Ex 5:16,
etc., refer to the relationship of Moses and the
delivered Israelites), social (Num 5:27, an adul-
teresS was a curse to her people), a military
leader of his troops (Josh 3:3, etc.) adoption
(Ruth 1:16), and prophetic (prophets from Elijah
to Malachi address their people).

Intimately related to the concept of relatedness
among people, is the concept of unity. Religious.
maternal, ancestral ties united people. Explicit
expression is given to the concept of unity. It
could be achieved by intermarriage (Gen 34:16).
It was achieved by God gathering men (Ezk
38:12). The idea of people as a flock expresses
unity also (Zech 9:16). There are also a number of
passages (cf. | Sam I 1:11) where the word means
“troops.

676

‘ammi is also used extensively in the oT. Occa-
sionally a king or leader is quoted when he is
speaking of the people for whom he is responsi-
ble. The phrase is used basically to express the
relationship between God and his people. That
‘am is the term used should not be surprising
since, aS we have seen, it emphasizes the rela-
tional and unity aspects of a group of people.

The Lord first uses the term ‘ammi when he
speaks of the descendants of Abraham whom he
has chosen and with whom he is identified by
means of the covenant (Ex 3:7ff). God seals this
relationship more firmly by redeeming them from
Egypt (Ex 5:Iff.). His constant protection over
them and all-sufficient provision for them testify
to the continued love and concern he has for
those he calls *‘my people’ (cf., e.g., Ps 78:52-
66: 95:7). God formed these people for himself
(Isa 43:21: 51:16), gave them their dwelling place
(Zion, Isa 10:24), and bestowed his blessings and
virtues upon them (Isa 63:18).

The Covenant people, through religious adul-
tery, became /o’-‘ammi *‘not my people’ (Hos
1:9-10,[H 2:1]; 2:23 [H 25]). They are destroyed
as God's people *‘because of lack of knowledge”’
(Hos 4:6), which implies basically a rejection of
the Lord, his covenant, his love and law. AI-
though many of the people backslide and are
punished (Jer 15:17), God will maintain a remnant
who will be ‘a (Isa I 1:11, 16: 46:3; Ex 8:9, 11).
He will yet save them (Zech 8:6, 11) and the Lord
will say ““it is my people’ (Zech 13:9).

The Covenant people of the Lord will be one
united people. That does not mean only biologi-
cal descendants of Abraham are the ‘am. From
Egypt. as from Assyria (Isa 19:25) and from Is-
rael’s surrounding nations, there are those who
are to be included and written up as God's people
(Ps 87).

The phrase, ‘am hda'ares ** people of the land,”
is used frequently, but its usage vanes from one
time to the other. R. de Vaux (AI, pp. 70-72)
points out that in earliest history, ‘people of
the land’ referred to the body of free men of
various nationalities (Gen 23:13). The term is also
used to distinguish homeborn from tmmigrant
(Gen 42:6). The whole body of Israel is referred
to (Lev 20:4), or the people in distinction from
the royal members (II Kgs 16:15). BDB also lists
a word ‘am II meaning ‘“*kinsman”™ and this ele-
ment is indeed used in theophonc names. The
usages, however, may be subsumed under ‘am
"people."

‘im. With, beside, by, among, accompanying,
from among, between (variations of meaning
occur in asv and RSv).

‘im, the preposition, as ‘am the noun, ex-
presses the concept of inclusiveness, together-
ness, company (cf. UT 19: no. 1863). Men can be

together; fighting with (against) each other (Gen
26:20); they could inherit together or share (Gen
21:10; Josh 22:9): and they could speak with, be
pleased with, show kindness to each other.

The points to be emphasized are: 1) the basic
conception conveyed is that of fellowship, com-
panionship, common experiences of suffering,
prosperity etc.; 2) the term can emphasize a
common lot regardless of social status, location
etc.; 3) the term, as all other prepositions, may
have definite theological implications. All prepo-
sitions indicate relationships, and ‘im in particu-
lar stresses a close relationship. This type of rela-
tionship should be maintained between God and
man, man and man since it is essential for any
person's salvation, eternal life and the worship
and service of God.

‘et also means *‘with,’’ but ‘im expresses more
the concept of relationship and is the more com-
mon of the two words.

mé‘im. From, with, beside. This compound
preposition combines two seemingly contradic-
tory terms: together (with) separation (from). The
specific thrust is coming apart from being to-
gether. The preposition occurs after words such
as depart, remove, turn, ask. E.g., a heart is spo-
ken of as possibly turning **from with’’ God if it
tums to the detestable things of Canaan (Deut
29:18).

There are two other distinct usages of mé'im.
1) When a person seeks counsel, advice, truth, he
asks, enquires, requests from someone. Thus
mé‘im indicates available sources from which
help is available. This is particularly true when
men turn to God making enquiries and requests.
2) Closely related to the preceding is the idea of
origination. Signs and wonders come from God
(Isa 8:18). He also sends his word forth pro-
nouncing sentence (Gen 41:32) and producing
judgments (II Chr 10:15) and giving peace (I Kgs
2:33).

‘immaniel. With us is God. This proper name
occurs twice. It is the name to be given to the
child to be born of the virgin (Isa 7:14). Isaiah
addresses Judah’s king, of Davidic lineage, as
Immanuel (8:8). The prophet also gives the mean-
ing and application of the name by stressing that,
in spite of what a disobedient king does, God will
be with his covenant people (Isa 8:10). _

The name Immanuel gives expression to the
truth God had expressed in various ways to his
covenant people in times previous to Isaiah. He
had specifically said that he would be God to Ab-
raham and his seed (Gen 17:7). He would go with
Jacob (Gen 28:15) and Moses (Ex 3:12). God
identified with his people saying he had taken
them to be his possession (Ex 19:5-6). The angel
of his name would go with and guard his people
(Ex 23:20, 24). To Joshua the word came, **As I

677

1641 ory
31:

1642 3%Y (‘ammon)

was with Moses, so 1 will be with you’ (Josh
1:5). To David God said, **I have been with you"’
(11 Sam 7:9).

Solomon earnestly prayed that the Lord would
be with him and Israel as he had been with David
(I Kgs 8:57). By various visible means, i.e. cloud,
pillar of fire, and the ark of the covenant the Lord
confirmed his word. He was with his people. He
led, upheld, and blessed them.

Isaiah, speaking to Ahaz, assured him that the
faithful covenant God was present as he had been
and as he would be in the incarnate Son to be
born of the virgin. Thus the past, present, and
future intimate relationship of God's presence
with his people is summed up in the name Im-
manuel.

For a fuller statement from the biblical point of
view cf. E. J. Young “*Immanuel,”’ NBD p. 556—
57; for a modern critical statement, C. North in
IBD.

‘umma. Against, over against, at, beside, hard by;
exactly as. (aSvV and rsv have variations.) This
preposition indicates relationship of close prox-
imity, Or opposite to, e.g. certain parts of the
tabernacle (Ex 25). Shimei stood ‘amma *‘oppo-
site’’ David and threw stones ‘a4mmd ‘close to”’
him (II Sam 16:13).
Bibliography: TDNT, Il, pp. 364-69: IV, pp.
32-37. THAT, II, pp. 290-324, 325-27.
G.V.G.

(‘dmam) Hl, darken, dim (e.g. Ezk
8).

1642 3Y (‘ammon), WY (‘ammon) Ammon.

Derivative
1642a t999%Y (‘ammoni) Ammonite

‘ammon. Ammon. This proper noun may be
related to the root ‘amam. In Ugaritic the three
radicals ‘mn indicate either an emphatic use of
‘‘with’’ or of “‘with me’ (UT 19: no. 1868-69).
But Gordon suggests (no. 1861) that the final **n”’
is an emphatic element on the prep. ‘im.

The name states more than a kin relationship
(cf. “*kinsman’’), Lot's younger daughter, in
naming her son Ammon, gives expression to the
incestuous relationship by which she conceived:
i.e. ‘"a son by my father’ (Gen 29:30-38). The or
tells us nothing about Ammon’s youth, or that of
his brother-cousin Moab (who was born also by
an incestuous relationship). This is known: Israel
in the Conquest was not permitted to and did not
molest or attack Ammon’s descendants or take
property from them because of God's promise to
Abraham's nephew Lot (Num 21:24: Deut 2:19).
Israel had to consider Ammon as’ their kinsman
also. They had to respect him as one who had a
specific relationship to their father Abraham.

1643 DY (‘amas)

God had given himself as a blessed possession to
him and his seed. Thus Ammon’s religious
privileges and responsibilities towards Israel (and
Moab) cannot be gainsaid.

‘ammoni. Ammonites. The Ammonites, de-
scendants of Ammon, lived on the east side of
Jordan, north of Moab. The Lord destroyed the
Rephaim, called Zamzumim who lived there.
Later, part of the area was taken from the Am-
monites by the Amorites who came from the west
side of the Jordan (Num 21:25—25). When the
children of Israel sought to enter the promised
land from the east bank of the Jordan, the Am-
monites had every opportunity to ‘‘be blessed”’
through a friendly cooperative relationship with
Abraham's descendants (Gen 12:1~3). Israel did
not attack their distant kinfolk, the Ammonites
(Deut 2:37), as they did the Amorites and others
dwelling in the Gilead and Bashan regions. But
the Ammonites joined Moab on various occa-
sions seeking Israel's ruin. They were therefore
denied the nght to have one Ammonite identify
with covenant Israel for at least ten generations
(Deut 23:3-6). However, Solomon brought Am-
monitish women into his harem (I Kgs 11:1). One
of these was Na‘amah the mother of Rehoboam
(I Kgs 14:31).

The Ammonites were defeated by the Israelites
at various times, by Jephthah (Jud 11), Saul
(I Sam 11), David (II Sam 10, 12). The Ammo-
nites had their own deity named Milcom (J Kgs
11:5). They also worshiped Chemosh, the god of
Moab (Jud 11:29, mentioned also on the Moabite
stone). Both were also worshiped by the Israel-
ites at times.

The Ammonites afflicted the descendants of
Abraham continuously (Amos 1:12—15; Jer 40:13;
Neh 2:10, 19). Various prophets pronounced
God's curse upon them (Zeph 2:8, 9: Jer 49: 1-6;
Ezk 25:1-—7). Instead of enjoying covenant bless-
ings, their attitude toward the covenant people
brought them God's curse.

G.V.G.
osIaY (Cimmani'él). See no. 1640d.
1643 Dry (‘dmas), Wry (‘admas) to load,
carryaload (e.g. Gen 44:13; Neh 13:15).

Derivative

MOmyi (ma'amasa) load,
(Zech 12:3).

1643a burden

1644 Dry (‘amdq) be deep, make deep, be pro-

found. (asv, RSV translate similarly.)
Derivatives
1644a thy (‘eémey) valley.
1644b DRY (‘Omeq) depth (Prov 9:18:
25:3).

678

1644c ipry (‘dméq) deep.
1644d ty (‘Gmoq) deep.
1644e top 6(ma'amagqqim)

The verb ‘dmdq may be compared with its
synonym shaqda’ “to sink down,’’ and the nouns
msola “‘deep, depths,” sila ‘abyss,’ and
t“hom “deep.” It is cognate to Arabic ‘amuqa
‘to be deep; “Akkadian eméqu “‘to be (deep)
wise’ (cf. emiqu ‘power, ability’’); and Ugaritic
‘mq Il, **strong’’ (see Gordon, UT 19: no. 1874).

The verb ‘@mog is found in the Qal stem in an
exclamation of descriptive praise in Ps 92:5 [H 6],
where the Psalmist exults: *‘How great are your
works, O Lorp! / your thoughts are very deep!"
In the other eight uses, ‘dmodgq is in the Hiphil,
**to make deep.”

In the Emmanuel prophecy Yahweh speaks to
Ahaz through Isaiah, challenging him to ask fora
sign to vouchsafe the surety of his words con-
cerning Rezin and Pekah, *‘those two smoldering
stumps’ (Isa 7:4). God casts the verbal gauntlet
that Ahaz make his request *‘as deep as Sheol or
as high as heaven” (Isa 7:11). (This assumes
sh’Ala is Sheol with a locative hé. The alterna-
tive is ‘‘make deep his request or make it high
above.’ So Young, E. J. The Book of Isaiah,
Eerdmans, 1965, Vol. I, pp. 277-78. Cf. also kiv
and niv. Young takes sh°’ald as a “‘paragogic
imperative’ preceded by a Hiphil inf. used ad-
verbially.) Ahaz, in feigned piety, demurs. The
remaining examples of ‘dmagq are all severely
judgmental. Isaiah 29:15 pronounces ‘woe on
those who deeply hide their plans from Yahweh /
and do their deeds in the dark,” as though God
does not see or know! (Cf. Isa 30:33, of Tophet
[q.v.] made deep as a funeral pyre for the king of
Assyria; 31:6, of Israel which had ‘deepened
apostasy.'') Jeremiah warns his hearers to flee
for shelter from judgment, to ‘‘dwell in the
depths’ (Jer 49:8, of Dedan:; 49:30, of Hazor).
Hosea 5:2 is difficult to render, but the general
intent is likely, ‘‘the revolters have gone deep in
depravity’ (so Nass, but see commentaries; cf.
9:9).

‘émeq. Vale, valley. (asv, RSV similar). A
common noun in the oT, cognate to ‘my | in
Ugaritic.

The noun ‘émegq ‘‘valley”’ (Ugaritic ‘mq I), isa
common term, used seventy times in the oT, gen-
erally in specific geographical phrases such as
‘the valley of Siddim (Gen 14:3). In Num 14:25
there is a bitter reminder to the sinning and rebel-
lious Israel that at that time the Amalekites and
the Canaanites were living in the valleys (enjoy-
ing the produce of the land). It was in the valleys
of Canaan that agriculture was maintained (e.g.
I Sam 6:13: Jer 49:4; Ps 65:13 [H 14]), as the hills
were more eroded. It was also in the valleys that
chariots could be used to best advantage (see

depths.

Josh 17:16). In the series of wars between Israel
and Syria in the days of Ahab, the Syrian coun-
selors erred greatly in supposing that Yahweh
was a god of the mountains only, and impotent in
the plains and valleys (I Kgs 20:22-30). Valleys
figure in the description of judgment by God in
prophetic writings. Micah 1:4 speaks of moun-
tains melting under him, ‘‘ And the valleys will be
split / like wax before the fire / like water poured
down a steep place.”

‘améq. Deep, strange. Used of speech, this ad-
jective is best rendered ‘‘unintelligible’* with the
NASB (Isa 33:19; Ezk 3:5-6), or “‘obscure, for-
eign’? with the rsv. Compare the wry /6‘éz of
Egyptian language in Ps 114:1.

‘amoq. Deep, deeper. (ASV, RSV similar.) This
adjective occurs sixteen times in the oT (seven in
Lev 13 of the severity of leprosy). In Prov ‘amdq
describes a man’s speech and thoughts (Prov
18:4; 20:5), and the disastrous destruction to be
found in harlots (Prov 22:14; 23:27).

ma‘damaqgim. Deep, depths, of literal waters
(Isa 51:10), and figurative (Ps 69:2 [H 3], 14
{H 15]; 130:i—an emblem of distress; cf. Ezk
27:34 of the fall of Tyre).

R.B.A.

1645 *"y (‘amar) I, bind sheaves. This de-
nominative verb occurs only once (Ps
129:7), in the Piel.

Parent Noun

1645a oy (‘omer) I, sheaf (e.g. Deut
24:19; Lev 23:11).

16456 9Y (‘omer) II, omer (Ex 16).
One-tenth of an ephah (q.v.).

1645c <%9Y (‘dmir) swath, row of fallen
grain (e.g. Amos 2:13; Jer 9:21).

1646 *"y (‘admar) I, deal tyrannically with.
Occurs only in the Hithpael (Deut 24:7;
21:14).
wry (‘admas). See no. 1643.
1647 33 (‘nb). Assumed root of the following.
1647a 3p «=(‘éndb) grape(s) (e.g. Deut
32:14; Gen 40:10).

1648 *33¥ (‘dnog) be soft, delicate. Occurs
only in the Pual (Jer 6:2) and Hithpael (e.g.
Deut 28:56; Isa 66:11).

Derivatives

1648a aly (‘dneg) daintiness, exquisite de-
light (Isa 13:22; 58:13).

1648b 9-39 ~(‘dndg) dainty (Isa 47:1).

1648c 9 NIYH «(ta‘dnig) daintiness, luxury.

679

1649 2p (‘dnad) bind

1650 3p (‘anda)

around, upon (Job
31:36: Prov 6:21).
Derivative

missy (ma‘ddann6t) bonds, bands
(Job 38:31; I Sam 15:32). Appar-
ently from ‘dnad by metathesis.

1649a

1650 "2Y (‘ana) I, to answer, respond, testify,

speak, shout. (asv and Rsv translate simi-
larly, but the rsv more clearly brings out
secondary meanings.)

Derivatives
1650a "yY (‘6nd) cohabitation (Ex 21:10;
Hos 10:10).

1650b try (‘ét) time.

1650c TARY (‘atta) now.

1650d “my (‘itti) timely, ready (Lev 16:21).
1650e t1¥% (ya‘an) on account of.

1650f tM3p% = (ma'dneh) answer, response.
1650g tive (/©ma‘an) in order that.

Basically, the root ‘dnd I signifies a response.
In several connotations it attests scattered mean-
ings in Ugaritic, among them ‘‘to speak’’ or ‘‘to
say.’ Distinguish this root from ‘dnd II, ‘‘oc-
cupy’’; II], ‘‘afflict,”’ “‘oppress,’* ‘‘humble’’; IV,
‘‘sing.’’ It occurs 617 times.

The most frequent meaning of this root is **to
answer,’ and it is often used with ‘dmar, less
often with ddabar. It is sometimes used in a non-
verbal clause. It corresponds to garda’ ‘‘to call’
and (less often) zd'aq ‘‘to cry out.’’ God is not
bound to answer the person who calls on him.
Hence, the Psalmist uses ‘‘answer me’’ in plead-
ing for God’s grace (Ps 4:1 [H 2], 13:3 [H 4]).
Thus it may occur as part of the normal motif
petitioning God to be favorable in the petition
section of lament psalms. Samuel warns Israel
that God will not answer their prayer for relief
when distress comes upon them as a result of
rebellion (1 Sam 8:18). All the prophets record the
silence of the Almighty (Mic 3:4; Isa 46:7). When
directed to God this root parallels words intimat-
ing God’s hearkening (Ps 55:2 [H 3]) to the situa-
tion and delivering the petitioner (Ps 60:5 [H 7)).
God may respond verbally (Isa 14:32) or nonver-
bally as with fire (1 Chr 21:26) or thunder (Ex
19:19). In all instances it is clear that ‘‘to answer’’
the prayer is equivalent to looking with favor on
the petition. The basis of such a petition is the
righteousness, mercy, and veracity of God (Ps
69:13 [H 14}). The petition often asks for spiritual
salvation (Ps 20:6, (H 7], 9 [H 10], 38:15 [H 16)}),
and/or physical salvation (Ps 22:21 [H 22], 60:5
[H 7]). It is noteworthy that the pleas introduced
by this root are often for yasha‘ *‘salvation,”’ and
that God is the only savior (Ps 118:21). When
God called on man by his word (through Moses

1650 May (and)

and the prophets) he expected an answer, an ap-
propriate response of obedience. To refuse was
to sin (Jer 7:13: Isa 65:12).

One secondary meaning of this root is “‘to tes-
tify’ with the emphasis on speaking (‘“d, q.v.).
In many such cases a tnal (r7b,) is in view (1 Sam
12:3). This is especially interesting in passages
like Isa 3:9; 59:12: and Jer 14:7 where men are
tried and found guilty by God. This usage has a
more general meaning, however, as 1s evidenced
by its occurring in the ninth commandment (Ex
20:16). Usually. this usage appears as an idiom,
‘ana b*, but there are exceptions (Ex 23:2: Hab
2:11).

Another secondary meaning is *‘to speak** (see
Jotion, ““Respondit et Dixit”). The root often is
used of initiating conversation (Job 3:2: Song
2:10: I Sam 9:17). It can refer to loud crying out
as of animals (Isa 13:22) or shouting as of a
victory cry (Ex 32:18: Jer 51:14).

In the case of /‘ma‘an (see also below) the
connocation “in order that” occurs with some
known and intended end in mind, hence, “‘to the
intended response that.” Abraham told Sarah to
say that she was his sister so that it might go well
with him (Gen 12:13). Jehu arranged a feast os-
tensibly to honor Baal but secretly in order to
destroy the worshippers of Baal (II Kgs 10:19).
This aids in understanding passages like Jer 7:10,
in which the people are chided for coming into
the temple while loving sin and ‘fearing’ God.
Actually, they were trying to placate God so that
they could continue their sin.

This word is also used in connection with
God's action in history. In Gen 50:20 Joseph tells
his brothers that they intended harm to him when
they sold him into slavery (Gen 37:22). He also
told them that God was active in all this **in order
that’* (i.e. to the intended and accomplished end)
good might come to him. When God explained to
Moses that he would harden Pharoah’'s heart, the
action (hardening) clearly is initiated by God, not
Pharoah. God is following a plan, since this
‘*hardening’ has a predesignated end: first, that
God's glory might be displayed in the signs, and
second, that God's glory might be recounted in
testimony and that God's glory might be dis-
played in his causing the wrath of man to praise
him (Ps 76:10 [H 1I1]). So, too. God hardened
Sihon’s heart (Deut 1:30) to the end that he might
deliver him into Israel's hands. The basis of this
hardening, however, was doubtless judicial and
because of past sin.

When used to mean “in view of,” /*ma‘an
does not specifically express causation. In pas-
sages like Deut 3:26 God is said to be angry with
Moses in view of the people's sins. Cf. also Dt.
1:37 where big’lal is used *‘on account of the
people, “ instead of /’ ma‘an. The Psalmist prays
for God to take over his life in view of the

680

strength of his foes (Ps 5:9). God is praised for
using the weak things (babes and infants) to es-
tablish a bulwark. He does this not because of, or
to the advantage of his foes, but in view of them
(Ps 8:2 [H 3]).

Sometimes the word ts used (perhaps ironi-
cally) to show the foolishness of man’s sins. In
Isa 30:1 God condemns the people for false
spiritual alliances to the end that they might add
sin to sin. In Jer 44:8 God asks if their idolatry is
to destroy themselves (cf. Hos 8:4; Amos 2:7;
Mic 6:16). Obviously, they did not intend to de-
stroy themselves or offend the deity. Their inten-
tion was the opposite. But they erred in straying
from God's word. Good intentions were not
enough.

As a preposition, /“ma‘an designates the one
who is to be vindicated, i.e. established as right.
We see this in Gen 18:24 where Abraham asks
God if he would spare Sodom for the sake of fifty
righteous. Will he approve their righteousness,
thus demonstrating that righteousness is indeed
pleasing in his sight, or will their righteousness
issue in futility (and destruction)? This question
was very important to Abraham at that early
stage of his walk with God. Would God keep his
promise to reward obedience (nghteousness)?
Abraham learned the lesson; and he obeyed God
(on the basis of believing God's promises of ulti-
mate reward) tn acting (righteous acts) as God
required, and it was reckoned to him for (saving)
righteousness. Ps 51:4 [H 6] is of interest. It does
not mean that David sinned so that God's righ-
teousness might be made manifest in his verdict.
Rather David confesses that he sinned in order to
establish the fact that God would be just should
he give the verdict that David must die for his sin.

Many passages record action (intended or ac-
complished) for God's sake. Indeed, it is the
Psalmists’ frequent plea that God will save, lead,
deliver, quicken. etc., for his sake, i.e. to demon-
strate before the creation, the wicked, or the
righteous (or all three) the certainty of his cove-
nant (Ps 25:11: 143:11: Jer 14:21).

Bibliography: Gowan, Donald, “*The Use of
ya‘an in Biblical Hebrew” VT 21: 168-85. Jotion,
P., ““Respondit et Dixit.” Bib 13: 309ff. TDNT,
VIII, pp. 6-15. THAT, II, pp. 335-40.

R.B.A.

‘et. Time, space of time, appointed time, proper
time. The asv and rsv translate this word identi-
cally except for a few instances involving sec-
ondary meanings. Although BDB lists ‘éf as a
derivative of ‘and 1, to answer, respond, it 1s
difficult to trace any relationship. A clearer tie is
perhaps with ‘dnd II, to be occupied (i.e. the
filling of time?). The basic meaning of this word
relates to time conceived as an opportunity or
season. Other words similarly rendered are:

z’man an Aramaic loan-word with a very similar
meaning; yO6m emphasizing the division of time
into regular units; mé‘éd emphasizing the idea of
appointment (it is sometimes used to further de-
fine ‘ét, e.g., Ps 102:13 [H 14]); pa‘am denoting
short spaces (beats) of time (cf. regel). Our word
occurs 290 times.

Our word can apply to extensions of time. It is
used of particular points in time as an hour of the
day (Ex 9:18; Josh 11:6). It is used of an occasion
such as the completion of childbearing (Mic 5:3
[H 2]), to mark the situation prevailing when
Michael stands in God’s court (Dan 12:1), and
(used distributively) when Israel's judges are to
function (Ex 18:22). It is used of a period nar-
rowly conceived as late afternoon (perhaps dusk,
Gen 21:11), and as the period when Nehemiah’s
enemies were wniting and registering their com-
plaint (Neh 6:1). It can refer to an extended
period as well, e.g. the time during which the
tabernacle rested at Gibeon (I Chr 21:29), and the
period of God’s gracious covenantal treatment of
Israel (Ezk 16:8).

There are many situations which ‘ét descnbes.
We will look at only three.

First, it is used of the usual, the regular events,
such as rains (Ezra 10:13), harvest (Jer 50:16),
seasons of the year like spring, the time of preg-
nancy (Gen 18:10, 14), the migratory time of birds
(Jer 8:7), and mating season (Gen 31:10). God is
consistently presented as the orderer (controller)
of all recurring events. Secondly, it is used of the
appropriate time for unrecurring incidents such
as death (Eccl 7:17). Thus those who return from
the Exile plead that it is not the appropriate time
for rebuilding the temple (Hag !:2). Eccl presents
God as the one who has designed life’s compo-
nents so that each has a suitable season (3:11; cf.
Prov 6:14). In Lev 26:4 God asserts his sover-
eignty over rain. He tells Job (38:32) of his con-
trol over the stars. The Psalmist (104:27) notes
God’s maintenance of the seas and all that is in
them according to their proper times. Just as all
creation suits his plan, so he requires man to ar-
range life according to its times (i.e. according to
his law, Jer 8:7). When man fails to do this God
promises judgment. So, the Psalmist reminds
God that it is time for him to act (119:126). Fi-
nally, the word connotes a fixed, set time or
period (J Chr 9:25). As such it is what astrologers
claim to discern (Est 1:13), but God alone knows
such hidden matters because he controls them.
Therefore, in the prophets God speaks of his ap-
pointed judgment (Jer 8:12), of a point (time)
when all will be consummated (Dan 12:9), and
which will result in an extended period (time) of
glory and blessing for his people (Jer 3:17; 50:20).

‘atta. Now, at this time, henceforth, straightway,
whereas. (ASV, RSV Similar.) Related to the He-

681

1650 3 (‘dnd)

brew noun ‘éf “‘time™’ (q.v.), the adverb ‘attd is
derived from a root ‘dnd (with assimilation of the
nun). The adverb occurs in Ugaritic as ‘nt, a
word to be distinguished from the goddess ‘nt
(Anat, see UT 19: nos. 1888, 1889). In Arabic the
cognate is al-dna, “‘at the time, now’’ (with def.
art.).

The adverb of time ‘atta, found frequently in
the oT (425 times), is rendered usually as *‘now.”’
As developed by KB this term may include the
following nuances: ‘‘now (in the present mo-
ment),’’ as in Jud 11:8, ‘‘we have turned to you
now; now (with the present state of affairs),’’ as
in Gen 19:9, ‘‘now we will deal worse with you
than with them’’; and *‘now (after what has hap-
pened),’’ as in Gen 22:12, ‘for now I know that
you fear God.’ Very often ‘atta with the con-
junction (waw), “‘and now,’’ introduces the next
point in consequence, as in Isa 5:3, **And now, O
inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, /
judge between me and my vineyard.”’ If the con-
junction is adversative (determined by context),
then the rendering is ‘‘but now,”’ as in Isa 1:21,
‘*Righteousness once lodged in her, / but now
assassins.'’ ‘atta may be contrasted with ‘az
‘‘then,’’ as in Josh 14:11, ‘‘as my strength was
then, so my strength is now.’* The adverb may be
contrasted with future time as well, as in
Balaam’s wistful, *‘I see him, but not now”
(parallel to ‘‘near,’’ Num 24:17).

The adverb ‘arta is found in prophetic contexts
of the imminent activities of Yahweh—activities
of blessing, **Behold I will do something new, /
now it will spring forth’’ (Isa 43:19); and judg-
ment, *““Now I will arise, says Yahweh, / now |
will be exalted, now I will be lifted up’’ (Isa
33:10). **Now’’ in some prophetic contexts could
be used from the prophetic standpoint of events
or states still future; e.g. ‘‘Jacob shall not now be
ashamed, nor shall his face now turn pale”’ (Isa
29:22).

ya‘an. On account of, because, is used as a
preposition or conjunction. It indicates purpose:
perhaps, ‘‘in response to.’ When joined with ki
or 'dsher it is the most common causal conjunc-
tion. Simple ya'an can serve the same function
(GKC, sec. 15856). Once it occurs with ma
‘‘why,’’ i.e. *°on account of what’’ (Hag 1:9), and
several times it is repeated for emphasis (e.g. Lev
26:43; see Donald Gowan, ‘‘The Use of ya‘an in
Biblical Hebrew’’).

ma‘aneh. Answer, response. Cf. Ugaritic m'‘n
used of a reply to a letter or school examination
questions.

I*ma‘an. In order that, in view of, provided
that (conjunction, rarely used; cf. M. Dahood,
Psalms, II, in AB, p. 216), for the sake of—(p-
reposition). Grammarians differ as to whether

1651 may (and)

[*ma‘an with an infinitive is a preposition (BDB,
p. 775) or aconjunction (KB, p. 549). The rsv and
ASV uSually agree although in some cases the rsv
brings out secondary connotations better.
[“ma‘an seems to be related to ‘dnd I, ‘‘to an-
swer, respond.’’ ma‘an may mean ‘‘that which
corresponds to.’’ (cf. further on usage earlier
under ‘dnd I).

L.J.C.

1651 my (‘anad) II, be occupied, busied with
(Eccl 1:13; 3:10).

Derivatives

l6Sla %3Y (‘inyadn) occupation, task. Only
used in Eccl 1:13; 2:23, 26; 3:10;
4:8; §:2, 13; 8:16.

1651b = M3pa «(ma‘ana) place for task, i.e.

field (Ps 129:3; I Sam 14:14).
1652 72Y (‘ana) IU, afflict, oppress, humble.
Derivatives

1652a Ty (‘dndw) humble.

1652b tMIY ('andwda) humility.

1652c 8=— PSAP (‘enat) § affliction (Ps 22:25).

1652d tp (‘ani) poor, afflicted.

1652e Ty (‘dni) affliction, poverty.

1652f AMYR (fa‘anit) humiliation (by fast-

ing, Ezra 9:5).

The primary meaning of ‘dnd III is ‘‘to force,”’
or ‘‘to try to force submission,’’ and “‘to punish
or inflict pain upon,’’ mostly in the Piel. Birke-
land (see Bibliography) defines the verb ‘‘to find
oneself in a stunted, humble, lowly position.”’
Consequently it is not predicated of God in the
Qal. It is be distinguished from ‘dnd I, answer;
II, occupy; IV, sing. It differs both from sdrar
which connotes restriction or binding; from
ydga, the emotional side of distress (i.e. sorrow,
grief), from shdpal, the objective state or condi-
tion of being low and/or humble, and from kdna‘
implying submission to another's will. Ugaritic
attests this root with the meaning *“‘cowed, hum-
bled’’ (active) and ‘‘was humbled, punished’’
(passive). The Bible attests this root over two
hundred times.

The verbal form occurs a few times in the Qal
having varying shades of meaning. It most often
occurs in the Piel (intensifying the concept). The
Niphal and Hithpael usages offer some interest-
ing shades of meaning.

The verb is used in several ways. It is used of
what one does to his enemy. It describes the dis-
comfort Sarah inflicted upon Hagar (Gen 16:6)
and what the lawless do to the defenseless (Ex
22:22 [H 21]). It speaks of the pain inflicted on
Joseph’s ankles by the fetters (Ps 105:18). It sets
forth what Egypt did to Israel (Ex 1:11-12: this

682

was more than slavery). In Num 24:24 and Jud it
describes the physical pain brought by war. It is
used for what God does to his enemies (Deut
26:6).

God uses affliction to prompt repentance; for
example, the purpose of the wilderness wander-
ing was to humble Israel (Deut 8:23). This is a
recurrent theme in Scripture. The Exile is simi-
larly viewed as to nature and end (Ps 102:23
(H 24]; Isa 64:12 [H 11]; Zech 10:2). God is there-
fore thanked for affliction (Ps 88:7 (H 8]; 90:15;
119:75; Lam 3:33). Onlookers are wrong to say
that God afflicts the Messiah (Isa 53:4) because of
his sin.

Another theological theme frequently con-
nected with this word is self-inflicted inner pain
expressing contrition and often accompanied by
fasting. These are commanded by God (Lev
16:29, 31) for the Day of Atonement. It is striking
that this is the only time such fasting and contnri-
tion are enjoined by God. The Niphal usages of
the word are reflexive, emphasizing self-affliction
(Ps 119:107; Isa 58:10). The Messiah is to afflict
himself for the sins of his people (Isa 53:7). On
the other hand, the verb may denote here the
Messiah’s humbling by submitting himself to the
oppressions of the ungodly. The Psalmist uses
this concept to emphasize the extent of his sol-
icitude even for his enemy (Ps 35:13).

The Hithpael stem is used to indicate submit-
ting onself to reproach (Gen 16:9) and fasting and
contrition (Ezr 8:21; Dan 10:12).

This root may also be used to denote humbling.
A young lion is undaunted at the shepherds’
voices (Isa 31:4; cf. Ugaritic III AB. B [UT 16:
text 137] 24. 26). Pharoah refuses to submit him-
self to the Lord (Niphal Ex 10:3). Judgment is not
humbled or brought low (and thus violated) by
God (Job 37:23). The Psalmist says that God has
weakened (brought low) his strength; God has
shortened his days (Ps 102:23 [H 24]). One can
also bow down or humble his soul by a binding
oath (Num 30:13 [H 14)).

This verb is applied to the forcing of a woman
including a captive woman later rejected (Deut
21:14) or cases of pre-marital relations (Deut
22:29: Gen 34:2). It can be a capital offence
(Deut 22:24).

‘anaw. Humble, meek. This adjective stresses
the moral and spiritual condition of the godly as
the goal of affliction implying that this state is
joined with a suffering life rather than with one of
worldly happiness and abundance.

‘andw expresses the intended outcome of
affliction: humility. Moses’ description of himself
(Num 12:3) as such a man is no proud boast, but
merely a report of his position: absolute depen-
dence on God (cf. Paul’s statement in Acts
20:19). Of all men he was most properly related to

God. Throughout the rest of scripture such an
attitude and position is lauded as blessed and to
be desired. This is the goal which God intended
when he afflicted his people and toward which
they are to endure affliction. The humble con-
sider and experience God as their deliverer (Ps
10:17; 76:9 [H 10]) receiving grace (undeserved
favor) from him (Prov 3:34). They rejoice when
God is praised, seek God (Ps 69:32 [H 33]), and
keep his ordinances (Zeph 2:3). They wait on
God (Ps 37:11) and are guided by him (Ps 25:9).
As such they are commended as being better than
the proud (Prov 16:19). They are contrasted with
the wicked (Ps 37:11) and the scoffers (Prov
3:34). Isaiah (61:1) writes that it is to such that the
anointed of the Lord is to preach the good news
of salvation (the parallel here is ‘‘the broken-
hearted’’). They are conscious of divine approval
and are confident that in the eschaton God will
save them (Ps 76:9 [H 10}; 147:6; 149:4).

It is interesting that the unleavened bread of
Passover is called the bread of affliction (Deut
16:3) inasmuch as it constitutes a material remin-
der of sin which is the ultimate (sometimes im-
mediate) cause of affliction (Ps 25:18), the bon-
dage of sin (especially that hardship in Egypt),
and God's deliverance (Lam 3:19).

‘anawa. Humility, gentleness. This word sets
forth the dual qualities gained by man in the
school of affliction. Applied to the Messiah it
connotes his gentleness in submission to his own
nature (Ps 45:4 [H 5)}).

‘ani. Poor, weak, afflicted, humble. The ‘dni is
primarily a person suffering some kind of dis-
ability or distress. (Gray, G. B., Isaiah, ICC, I,
p. 310).

The ‘dni, although frequently in synonymous
parallelism with 'ebyén and dal, differs from
both in that it connotes some kind of disability or
distress. In Deut 24:14—15 the hired servant is
descnbed as ‘ebyén and ‘dni. Israel ts told not to
oppress their hired servant by withholding the
wages due him because he is ‘dni. Furthermore,
if he is oppressed he may call on God his defen-
der. We see that financially the ‘dni lives from
day to day, and that socially he is defenseless and
subject to oppression. Consequently, this word is
used frequently in connection with ‘ebydn ex-
pressing the difficulty accompanying-.a lack of
material possessions. The people are commanded
to give alms to the ‘dn? under sanction of God's
blessing (Deut 15:11). God instructs his people to
grant loans to the ‘dni of Israel even when they
have only their outer garment as collateral or
pledge (see ‘Gbat) and not to further afflict them
by keeping that garment overnight because the
‘ani would need it to keep warm (Ex 22:25-26),
for it was his only outer garment. In .e :9:10
the ‘dni is classed with the stranger as having a

683

1652 MIP (ana)

right to the gleanings of the field. ‘dni is distin-
guished from dal (the poor) in Prov 22:22, *‘Rob
not the poor (dal) for he is poor (dal), neither
oppress the afflicted (‘dni) in the gate.’ God Is
set forth as the protector and deliverer of the
afflicted, and he enjoins his people to be the
same. So the one who complies is considered
godly (Ezk 18:17), while those who do not are
considered ungodly (Job 24:9; Prov 14:21; Isa
58:7).

F. Hauck and S. Schulz argue that this much
discussed word is ‘‘in the first instance a social
and economic term like ‘ebyén, dal, rdsh, ‘one
who is in the position of a servant.’ [t describes a
man who has no property and who has thus to
earn his bread by serving others’? (TDNT, VI,
p. 647). They allow that a more developed usage
refers to lowliness, distress, reduced circum-
stances (ibid., 888). They argue that in the Pen-
tateuch it refers to a man with no inheritance, to
one wrongfully impoverished whom the Lord
therefore especially protects.

It is questionable if there is enough evidence to
make these fine distinctions. The Pentateuch, on
orthodox dating, was written when no Israelite
had landed property, but all were to be given
some in due time. The legislation does indeed
envision times when people would become poor
and would have to sell their land—until the
jubilee. Many times these poor people would
have been wrongfully impoverished; some times
there were other factors. They were not to be
discriminated against in judgment. God was their
protector as he was the protector of the widow
who was a widow through no one’s fault. But that
the word refers to a particular social class rather
than to a social condition seems questionable and
difficult to establish.

Material deprivation and the resulting difficulty
are closely associated with social oppression.
Social affliction is clearly in mind in Isa 3:14 and
Ezk 18:17. So, God instructs his people to deal
justly with the ‘dni (Isa 10:2). The king is espe-
cially charged with overseeing their rights forever
(Ps 82:3).

This word can also describe the one afflicted
physically as with the Exile (Isa 51:21) or by
sickness (Ps 88:15 [H 16}]).

Often physical affliction is closely tied to
spiritual affliction, as in Ps 22:24 [H 25]. In many
instances external affliction engenders inner
affliction issuing in a cry to God for help (Ps
25:16; 34:6 [H 7]; 69:29 [H 30]). God’s people are
frequently described as afflicted (Ps 68:10
[H 11]). God does not forget them (Ps 9:18
{H 19}, 74:19). He has pity on them (Isa 49:13),
saves them (Ps 34:6 [H 7]), delivers them (Ps
35:10) and bestows favors upon them (Ps 72:2, 4).

Finally, the word is used in the sense of humble
or lowly. It describes the Messiah in Zech 9:9. It

1653 may (‘ana)

iS in contrast to the scoffers (Prov 3:34; cf. Jas
4:6) and the haughty (Ps 18:27 (H 28]; II Sam
22:28). Such a one has a contrite spirit (Isa 66:2),
is God’s turtledove (Ps 74:19), trusts God (Ps
14:6), and is assured of deliverance (II Sam
22:28).

‘ani (afflicted) is often confused with ‘dndw
(humility), each being wnitten for the other (or
translated for the other as is reflected in the asv
and rsv). Perhaps this is an incidence of the fa-
mous yod-waw interchange (GKC, sec. 17c;
Ernst Wurthwein, The Text of the Old Testa-
ment, p. 72), although not necessarily so. This
interchange appears frequently in the plural of
the words. Isaiah seems to make no distinction
between ‘dni and ‘dndw.

‘oni. Affliction. This word expresses the state
of pain or punishment resulting from affliction.

Bibliography: TDOT, VI, pp. 888—902.
THAT, II, pp. 341-50.

L.J.C.

1653. MY (and) IV, sing (e.g. Jer 51:14; Ex
15:21).

When the verb ‘and I with a similar meaning
‘‘answer’’ is so frequently used, it is inevitable
that there will be confusion between the two
roots. Nevertheless this root ‘‘to sing’’ should be
distinguished. Gesenius-Buhl lists twelve in-
stances in the Qal and three in the Piel, BDB
about the same. Some notable instances listed by
them are: Miriam’s singing after the Red Sea
crossing (Ex 15:21, Nrv); the worshipers of the
golden calf (Ex 32:18); the women who sang
David's praises (I Sam 18:7, etc.). Not listed in
BDB and more debatable is Hos 2:21—22 [H 23-
24] where the translation *‘sing’’ might be more
apropos to the joyful context than the usual
*‘answer’’ or KJv “‘hear.”’

R.L.H.

WY (‘anadw). See no. 1652a.
pwiy (‘dnushim). See no. 1659b.
map (‘eéndt). See no. 1652c.

1654 %32Y (‘nz). Assumed root of the following.
1654a tty (‘éz) goat, she-goat, kid. (asv,
RSV similar.)

As may be seen by the doubling of the zayin in
the plural and suffixed forms, ‘éz comes from a
root ‘nz; cf. Arabic ‘anz"" and Akkadian enzu,
both meaning “‘she-goat, goat.’’ Synonyms in the
oT include ‘atrid, sdpir, $d‘ir, tayish (all ‘‘he-
goat’’), §°‘ird (*she-goat’’), seh and edi
(lamb, kid’’).

Of the seventy-four times ‘éz is used in the oT,
fifty-six are in the Pentateuch. Many of these ref-
erences demonstrate the importance of the goat

684

1655 *12y (‘dnan) I, bring

in the daily life of Israel from the patnarchal
period onward. The kid was used occasionally for
food (see Gen 27:9); the she-goat provided milk
(see Prov 27:27), skin for leather goods, and hair
for cloth (see Ex 25:4; 26:7; 35:6ff.). An animal of
such varied uses and dependence was also ap-
propriate for sacrifice. A regular phrase in sacri-
ficial texts is ‘‘a kid of the goats’’ (e.g. Lev 4:23),
but the female goat was also sacrificed (e.g. Num
15:27).

Twice in Solomon’s Song the woman’s hair is
described in flowing loveliness, ‘‘like a flock of
goats moving down the slopes of Gilead’’ (Song
4:1; 6:5).

R.B.A.

Y (ani), “3P (dni). See nos. 1652d,e.
IY (‘inyan). See no. 16Sla.

clouds. A de-
nominative verb, used once, in the Piel
(Gen 9:14).

Parent Noun
1655a TY (‘dnan)

‘*Cloud’’ is the only translation of ‘dndn. It
occurs about eighty times in the oT, and three-
quarters of those refer to the pillar of ‘*cloud’’
which directed the Israelites through the desert
and represented God’s presence over the taber-
nacle (Ex 13, 14, 16, 33, 40; Num 9-12, 14, 16, et
al.). In Numbers 9:15-22 ‘adndn is used eleven
times.

After the time of the tabernacle, a **cloud’’ was
present in or over the temple (cf. I Kgs 8:10-11;
Ii Chr 5:13-14). God’s presence was accom-
panied by *‘clouds’’ when he met with Moses on
Mount Sinai (Ex 19:9, 16; 24:15-16, 18; Deut
4:11; 5:22; Ps 97:2).

‘*Clouds”’ will accompany God’s eschatologi-
cal presence in judgment (Ezk 30:3; 32:7; Joel
2:2; and Zeph 1:15; cf. Dan 7:13).

Although most references to “‘cloud"’ aside
from the ‘‘pillar of cloud’’ pertain to the ordinary
kind made of water vapor, Nah 1:3 mentions dust
‘*clouds’’ and Lev 16:13 and Ezk 8:11 refer to a
‘*cloud’’ of smoke from burning incense (cf. also
Isa 4:5 and Ezk 1:4).

Several times ‘dndn is used to illustrate some-
thing by its characteristics or functions. Job 7:9
refers to the way ‘‘clouds’’ can disappear and
illustrates the way people disappear at death (cf.
Hos 13:3). Isaiah also speaks of the way “clouds”
disappear, but is referring to the blotting out
of sin (44:22). Hosea illustrates transitory good-
ness to a fast-disappearing morning ‘‘cloud”
(6:4).

When God answered Job, he alluded to the
‘*clouds’’ clothing the sea (38:9). According to

cloud, cloudy.

Jeremiah (4:13), judgment will rise like ‘‘clouds”’
(of dust?). Ezekiel refers to the shadow a
‘‘cloud’’ casts and compares it to a military horde
invading the land (38:9, 16).

It is of interest to note that the Hebrews, far
from thinking that rain actually poured through
celestial windows, knew very well that rain came
from clouds (Isa 5:6; I Kgs 18:44, etc.).

Bibliography: THAT, II. pp. 351-52.

R.L..A.
1656 132 (‘anan) HI, observe times (KV);
practice soothsaying, practice spiritism

(Berkeley Version, II Chr 33:6); practice
magic (JB, Lev 19:26); practice augury
(AsV, Deut 18:10, 14); practice witchcraft
(Berkeley, Lev 19:26); soothsayer, en-
chanter (AV); sorceress, diviner, fortune-
teller (Berkeley Version, Jud 9:37); bar-
barian (NEB, Isa 2:6); Meonenim (av,
ASV, NAB, Jud 9:37); cloud (verb); bring,
gather, or collect (clouds).

This verb only occurs eleven times. Its mean-
ing is uncertain, as the above list of variant trans-
lations demonstrates.

It is questionable whether this variety of
occultism is connected with the clouds, as the
roots of the two words seem to indicate. Since
the future was determined by the position of the
stars (astrology), or by examination of the liver of
a sacrificed animal (hepatoscopy; cf. Ezk 21:21),
even as there are modern tealeaf readers and
palm readers, the reading and interpretation of
cloud patterns seems a natural explanation.

Another suggestion is that this is an
onomatopoetic word. The sound of the word is
the sound made by the one performing the art.
Similarly, some say that ndhash (q.v.), a parallel
word, is the snake-like hiss made by a ‘‘sor-
cerer.”’

Whatever the practice is, it is forbidden by God
in Lev 19:26 and Deut 18:10 (cf. v. 14). Among
Manasseh’s sins was this kind of magic (cf. II
Kgs 21:6; II Chr 33:6).

Isaiah (2:6; 57:3), Jeremiah (27:9), and Micah
(5:12) make derogatory remarks about those who
practice this kind of magic. In these passages,
along with those in Deuteronomy, ‘dnan occurs
in the participial form.

The only other occurrence of the root ‘dnan is
in Jud 9:37, which the av translates ‘‘the plain of
Meonenim,’’ the asv ‘“‘the oak of Meonenim,’’
and the NAB ‘‘Elon-Meonenim.”’ Others translate
it as ‘‘the Diviners’ Oak’’ (Rsv, js) and ‘‘the
Soothsayers’ Terebinth’’ (NEB).

Bibliography: Gaster, M., ‘‘Divination (Jew-
ish),”’ in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,
IV, Scribners, 1955. Liefeld, W. L., ‘‘Divina-
tion” in ZPEB. Il, pp. 146-49.

R.L.A.

685

1657 *3Y) (‘np).

1658 ay = (‘ng).

1659 way (‘anash)

Assumed root of the following.

1657a 3¥ (‘dnap) branch(es), bough(s)
(e.g. Ezk 17:8; Lev 23:40).

1657b =QY (‘dnép) full of branches (Ezk
19:10).

Assumed root of the following.

1658a 2p (‘dndq) I, meck (e.g. Josh
15:14=Jud 1:20).

1658b 3p (‘andq) HH, necklace (Song
4:9; Jud 8:26).

1658c =3y (‘anaq) serve as _ necklace.

Denominative verb (Ps 73:6; Deut
15:14).

1659 wW3y (‘anash) amerce, punish, condemn.

Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

1659a twWiP (‘dnesh) fine.
1659b teswaoy (‘dniishim) fines.

‘dnash is aterm of legal redress, to punish by a
pecuniary penalty (a monetary fine). Other types
of punishment are expressed, e.g. by ydsar (Piel)
‘‘to chastise, discipline, rebuke’’ and ndgam “‘to
take revenge, vengeance”’ (q.v.).

The verb ‘dnash is used in two legal passages
in which a monetary fine was to be assessed fora
criminal act. In Deut 22:19 a groom who falsely
challenged his bride’s virginity was to be
whipped and then fined one hundred shekels of
silver. Exodus 21:22 is the crux passage on abor-
tion and miscarnage in which a fine was to be
levied (‘‘he will most certainly be fined’’) against
one who accidentally caused a woman to mis-
carry. On this verse, see Waltke (below); another
view is given by Cotrell (below). There is a
somewhat similar law in the Code of Hammurabi
(ANET laws 209-214.) ‘dnash is also used of
tribute to be paid on the deposing of Jehoahaz (II
Chr 36:3).

‘onesh. Fine, punishment, used only in II Kgs
23:33 (of tribute) and Prov 19:19 (of penalty).

‘andshim. Fines. Some authorities (e.g. KB,
Holladay) identify this as a noun rather than Qal
passive participle (found only in Amos 2:8).
Unjust fines are evil (Prov 17:26), but just fines
may be instructive (Prov 21:11). Amos 2:8 speaks
of people who ‘‘drink the wine of those who have
been fined’’; likely a reference to ill-gotten funds
used for the purchase of wine in worship, an ‘‘act
of gross hypocrisy’’ (Cnipps, Amos, p. 143).
Bibliography: Cotrell, Jack, “Abortion and
the Mosaic Law,” Christianity Today, 17:6-8.
Cnpps, Richard S., A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the Book of Amos, London:
S. P. C. K., 1960. Waltke, Bruce, ‘‘The Old Tes-
tament and Birth Control,”’ Christianity Today,

1660 BBY (‘asas)

13:3-5. (Also in Birth Control and the Christian,
ed. Walter O. Spitzer and Carlyle L. Saylor,
Tyndale, 1969, pp. 7-23.)
R.B.A.
B’DY (‘dsis). See no. 1660a.
1660 Boy (‘dsas) press, crush, press by treading,
tread down (Mal 3:21).

Derivative

1660a tO%DY (‘dsis) sweet wine.

The derivation of ‘dsis would suggest fresh
pressed juice. It is only used five times. An exact
definition of ‘asis is difficult because Song 8:2
speaks of the juice of the pomegranate. But Isa
49:26 and Joel 1:5 indicate it was fermented. Joel
3:18 [H 4:18] and Amos 9:13 are inconclusive.
Perhaps the word refers to fermented juices in
general, from grapes or other fruit. The usual
definition *‘sweet wine’’ may mislead. *‘Sweet”’
wine today is wine that has had the fermentation
stopped and has some unfermented sugar.
‘‘Sweet’’ wine of antiquity seems to refer to
stronger wine (cf. Greek gleukas, Acts 2:13).
It may mean wine that was stronger because
made from sweeter juice.

R.L.H.
1661 O°NDY (‘p’ym), Kethib; apy (‘dpayim),
Qere, foliage (Ps 104:12). Aramaic loan
word according to BDB, but “raven”
from a root ‘p’ according to M. Dahood,
Psalms Ill, in AB, pp. 38-39.
D’py (‘dpayim). See no. 1661.
1662 °pY (‘apal) I, swell, be lifted up.
Derivatives
1662a ftSpy (‘dpel) I, Ophel, fort, strong-
hold.
1662b t9py (‘dpel) II, tumor.

Some authorities (e.g. BDB) differentiate two
roots ‘dpal. The only time a form of putative
‘dpal 1, ‘‘to swell,’’ is found is in the classic Hab
2:4, in the phrase ‘‘his soul is lifted up’’ (KJv: asv,
‘‘puffed up;’’ rsv, ‘‘shall fail’? [emendation];
NASB, ‘the proud one’’). (See ‘dpal II, below.)

‘opel J. Ophel, fort, stronghold, tower. (AaSv,
RSV, NASB read ‘“‘hill’’ in If Kgs 5:24.) The noun
‘opel **mound, knoll,’ is a designation for an
acropolis within Samaria (II Kgs 5:24), and espe-
cially, Jerusalem (seven times). Ophel in
Jerusalem is the spur on the eastern hill, running
due south, just to the west of the temple area,
joining the Kidron Valley on the east. The Ophel
was the Jebusite stronghold taken by David
(called ‘*Zion’’ [siyyén, q.v.] in II Sam 5:7; cf. S.

Goldman, Samuel [Soncino series], p. 214). King
Jotham was responsible for building on the wall
of Ophel (IJ Chr 27:3; cf. 33:14). Ophel in
Nehemiah’s time was occupied by temple ser-
vants (‘‘Nethinim,’’ see Neh 3:26-27; 11:21).

The noun ‘opel is used by Micah in a stunning
millennial prophecy: *“And Yahweh will reign
over them in Mount Zion / From now on and
forever. / And as for you, O tower of the flock /
Hill of Daughter Zion, / To you it will come— /
Even the former dominion will come, / The king-
dom of Daughter Jerusalem.”’

‘Opel JI. Emerods. (asv, ‘‘emerods, tumors;”’
RSV, tumors;’’ NASB, ‘‘hemorrhoids;’’ NIV
“*tumors.’’) A noun occurring six times, five in
I Sam 5-6, ‘opel refers to boils or tumors (cf.
Arabic ‘afl”" ‘‘tumor, boil of the anus or vulva).
In all instances in the oT it ts replaced by the Qere
(© hdr (q.v.), apparently regarded as a more deli-
cate euphemism by the Sopherim (see C. D.
Ginsberg, ZIJntroduction to the Massoretico-
Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible {Reprint,
KTAV, 1966], p. 346). In Deut 28:27 (in the
‘“‘cursings’’ formula) Israel is threatened with
loathsome diseases of the skin including ‘dpel.
The noun figures prominently in the story of the
Philistine control of the ark (I Sam 5:6, 9, 12;
6:4-5). Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (the latter, in
threat at least) were scenes of the Lord's afflic-
tion of the people by tumors and of the land by
mice (I Sam 6:5). Fiven golden images of the
tumors were made, along with five golden mice
or rats, at the direction of the Philistine priests as
a trespass offering to compensate Yahweh on
the return of the ark. The number five repre-
sented the pentapolis of Philistia. Hindson wntes,
‘‘These representations of their plagues were
thought by pagan peoples to bring healing from
the thing represented. Thus by the pagan notion
of sympathetic magic they hoped to nd them-
selves of the creator's plagues. The mice may
indicate that they suffered from the bubonic
plague’ (The Philistines, p. 143). If so, this
would be the first time in history when the
bubonic plague (characterized by swellings,
especially in the lymph glands of groin and
armpits) was observed to be associated with ro-
dents.

Bibliography: Pfeiffer, Charles F., Jerusalem
through the Ages, Baker, 1967. Owen, G. Fred-
erick, Jerusalem, Baker, 1972. Avi-Yonah,
Michael, Jerusalem, Arco, 1960. Join-Lambert,
Michael, Jerusalem, Frederick Ungar, 1958.
Hindson, L., The Philistines and the Old Testa-
ment, Baker, 1971.

R.B.A.

1663 *9py (‘apal) II, presume. (So asv, RSV;

NASB, ‘to be heedless.’’)

686

This root, to which we may compare Arabic
gafala ‘‘to be heedless, neglectful, inadvertent,”’
is found in only one oT passage, Num 14:44
(Hiphil), of Israel’s rash and reckless attack on
the Amalekites and Canaanites, following her
lack of faith and great rebellion. There are some
authorities who suggest that the Pual of ‘dpal in
Hab 2:4 may be from the same root, “‘to pre-
sume, be proud’’ (e.g. Lisowsky; see root I,
above).

NYoy (‘ap'ap). See no. 1582b.
1664 *"35yY (‘apar) I, to dust. Denominative

verb, occurring only in the Piel (IJ Sam
16:13).

Parent Noun

1664a t73pYy (‘apar) dust, earth, ground,
ashes, mortar, powder, rubbish.
(ASV, RSV Similar, but rsv has ‘'‘plas-
ter’ in Lev 14:41-42, 45, where kJv
reads *‘mortar.’’)

The masculine noun ‘dpdr is acommon term in
the ot (109 occurrences) meaning ‘‘dust,’’ i.e.
‘‘dry, fine crumbs of earth.’’ A rare synonym is
'abaq, meaning ‘‘dust, soot.’’ Another synonym
is '@per “‘dust, ashes,’’ whose paronomasia with
‘apar lends to coupling of the words in a common
hendtadys (Gen 18:27; Job 30:19; 42:6) and paral-
lelism (Ezk 27:30). Compare also fit ‘‘mud,
clay,’ and homer ‘“‘mortar, clay.’’ The broader
term ‘ddama ‘‘ground, soil,’’ and ‘eres ‘‘land,
territory, earth,’ should be consulted. Hebrew
‘apar has cognates in Ugaritic (‘pr), Akkadian
(eperu), and Arabic (‘afar”"), all meaning ‘‘dust,
loose earth, debris.’ The word is found in
Amarna Canaanite as haparu (= ‘aparu).

The noun ‘dapar is used literally in many con-
texts meaning “‘dust’’ or “‘loose earth.’’ The
Philistines filled the wells dug by Abraham with
loose dirt (Gen 26:15). Dust from the ground of
the tabernacle was to be taken by the pnest and
added to the holy water and was to be used as a
potion in the ritual test for adultery (Num 5:17).
Dust and stones were cast at David by the venge-
ful Shimei in his malicious cursings (II Sam 16:13,
see above). Dust was thrown on the head as a
sign of grief and mourning. Joshua and the elders
of Israel expressed distress in this manner when
Israel was defeated at Ai (Josh 7:6; cf. Ezk 27:30;
Lam 2:10; Job 2:12; Mic 1:10, rolling in dust).
This act of humiliation and self denigration (often
accompanied by the wearing of sackcloth) be-
speaks dependence upon the God who ‘‘formed
man of dust from the ground”’ (Gen 2:7, accuSa-
tive of material).

Man in his physical body was formed from
dust, and it is to dust that his physical body re-

687

1666 S¥P (‘asab)

turns (Gen 3:19; Eccl 3:20; 12:7; Job 4:19; 8:19;
10:9; 34:15; Ps 104:29). Probably because of this
usage, dust sometimes means just the grave (Job
7:21; 17:16; 40:13; Ps 22:29 [H 30); Isa 26:19).
Dust is used of the surface of the earth (Ex 8:16—
17 [H 12-13]; Job 19:25), and is found in paral-
lelism with ‘eres ‘‘earth’’ (e.g. Isa 25:13; 26:5).
The fact that man comes from the dust of the
earth is a reminder of the sovereignty of God in
his creative acts, and of the insignificance of man
apart from the intervening ‘breath of life’’ of his
goodness. Man as a fashioned artwork owes
praise and obedience to the Potter who fashioned
him of clay (see Isa 29:16; 45:9; 64:8 [H 7]; Jer
18:1-14; cf. Rom 9:21). Dust-man became liv-
ing-man by God’s grace; therein lies his humility
and his dignity..

Because of the abundance of dust particles on
the earth, dust serves also as a figure for abun-
dance in God's gracious promise to Abraham of
innumerable descendants (Gen 13:16), a promise
renewed to Jacob (Gen 28:14; cf. II Chr 1:9).
Something as commen as dust serves as well as a
figure for worthlessness (Zeph 1:17; cf. Zech 9:3;
Job 22:24). Because of its lightness, dust may
also serve as a symbol for the scattered: ‘“‘the
king of Syria had destroyed them and made them
like the dust at threshing’’ (II Kgs 13:7).

‘apar **dust,’’ comes from a different root than
the noun ‘dper ‘‘young hart, stag,’’ and the name
Epher (‘éper, e.g. Gen 25:4).

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 353-55.

R.B.A.

1665 “by (‘pr) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
166Sa
166Sb

"PY (‘dper) stag.

nappy (‘operet) lead. But possi-
bly this is a loan word not related to
the root.

napy (‘dperet). See no. 1665b.
yy (‘és). See no. 1670a.

1666 33¥ (‘asab) I, grieve, displease, vex, wrest.

Derivatives

1666a 3% (‘eseb) sorrow, labor.

1666b t3¥y¥ (‘dseb) sorrow.

1666c T3¥Y (‘aséb), 38Y (‘assab) labor.
1666d nSaxyv (‘assebet) sorrow, wound.
1666e N3¥Y (‘issabén) sorrow, toil.
1666f tmZxkv% (ma‘dséba) terror.

The root ‘asab relates to physical pain as well
as to emotional sorrow (cf. ‘dsfb in Biblical
Aramaic, “‘sad’’). Words similar in Hebrew are
hil / hal ‘to writhe,’’ hadr@ *‘to be hot (with
anger), yagd Niphal ‘‘to gneve,’ /a’d ‘‘to be-
come tired, weary,’’ kd‘as ‘‘to be irritated, an-

1667 *3$Y (‘asab)

gry,’ mdrar ‘to be bitter, despairing,’ git ‘‘to
feel a disgust,’ gis ‘‘to feel a disgust,’ tdwa II,
‘‘to trouble’ (Ps 78:41), and the noun rogez
‘*turmoil.”’

The verb ‘dsab as aterm of physical and men-
tal discomfort is used in a variety of contexts.
The Qal is found three times in the ot. The
prophet-historian of I Kings comments wryly
concerning Adoniyah that his father had ‘never
crossed him’’ (I Kgs 1:6, NAsB) at any time by
inquiring into his activities, a shameful lack of
parental interest and discipline. In another pas-
sage, Israel 1s depicted as a forsaken wife who is
‘*grieved in spirit’’ (Isa 54:6). The third instance
of the Qal is in I Chr 4:10 where the translation
‘*hurt’’ serves as a pun on the name *‘Jabez’’ (see
below).

The Niphal of ‘dsab is found seven times; once
of physical pain (Eccl 10:9, on the folly of a
stoneworker being hurt by his stones). Usually
mental and spintual anguish are depicted by this
form of the verb, as in the sorrowful and angry
distress of Joseph’s brothers on recognizing him
(Gen 45:5); Jonathan’s anguish concerning his
father’s foul plots respecting David (I Sam 20:34;
cf. 20:3); and Israel's shocked grief at hearing the
Torah recited and recognizing their deficiencies
(Neh 8:10-11).

Twice the Piel is employed. Psalm 56:5 [H 6]
speaks of David’s enemies wresting his words
(NASB, ‘‘they distort my words’’). In Isa 63:10 it is
declared of Israel that *‘they rebelled and grieved
his Holy Spirit’’ (cf. Eph 4:30 where lupedé is
used in a similar manner). The Hiphil of the He-
brew verb is found only in Ps 78:40, parallel to
terms for rebellion, tempting, and provocation.
One of the two uses of the Hithpael describes the
reaction of the brothers of Dinah at her being
raped (Rsv, ‘the men were indignant,’’ Gen 34:7).
The other is the chillingly familiar prologue to the
deluge, the grief in the heart of Yahweh concern-
ing the wickedness of man and his continually
evil thought patterns (Gen 6:6).

‘Oseb. Sorrow, wicked. (ASV, RSV Similar, but
add ‘‘pain.’’). Rendered ‘‘wicked’’ in Ps 139:24,
‘‘and see if there be any wicked way in me.”’

‘aséb, ‘assab. Labor (so ASV; RSV and NASB,
‘‘worker’’). Only found in Isa 58:3, ‘‘and drive
hard all your workers” (NaAsB).

ma‘aseba. Terror. (Literally, ‘‘a place of
pain’’; RSv renders ‘‘torment.’’) Used only in Isa
50:11.

The several derivatives listed above depict
many types of pain. In I Chr 4:9-10 there is a pun
complex on the name Jabez respecting the pain
(‘6seb) his mother suffered in childbirth, and his
own desire not to be hurt (‘dsab, Qal). His name,
ya‘bes, has the same root letters as ‘sb, but with

688

1668 "“Y (‘sd).

1669 YY (asa) I, shut

metathesis (see J. M. Myers, I Chronicles, AB
p. 28).

Yet another example of paronomasia is noted
by Cassuto in the pericope of the curse on the
woman and the man in Gen 3. Pain in childbirth
(‘issab6n and ‘eseb) are decreed for the woman
(Gen 3:16), and pain in manual labor (‘issdbdn) is
decreed for the man (Gen 3:17). Both came as the
consequence of the sin respecting the fruit of the
forbidden tree. Noting that ‘‘tree’’ (‘és) has the
same first two radicals as pain (‘sb), Cassuto
writes, “It was with respect to ‘és that the man
and the woman sinned, and it was with ‘esebh
(pain) and ‘issa@bhdén (toil, suffering) that they
were punished”’ (Genesis, 1, p. 165).

R.B.A.

1667 *33¥ (‘asab) HI, make, worship. Occurs

only in the Piel.

Derivatives

1667a t3¥Y (‘eseb) idol.
1667b 33 (‘dseb) idol (Isa 48:5).
1667c t3gy (‘dsab) idol.

The verb ‘dsab II is used only twice in the ort.
In Job 10:8 the protagonist speaks of Yahweh
shaping or fashioning him. A difficult construc-
tion is found in Jer 44:19, where the Hiphil reads
‘to make an image”’ (rendered ‘‘worship’’ in av
and asv). The rsv smooths this to “‘bearing her
image,’ and Nass to “‘in her image.”

‘eseb. Jdol. Better, ‘‘vessel,’’ something
fashioned. rsv has “‘pot,’’ NasB *‘jar.’’ Only in Jer
22:28, used figuratively of Coniah = Jehoiachin.

‘asab. Idol. Always in the plural in the or.
Idols, though fashioned of silver and gold, are
poor substitutes for the living God (e.g. Ps
115:3-11).

There doubtless are places where ‘eseb *‘idol”’
should be read for ‘eseb ‘‘sorrow”’ or its similar
words. Ps 16:4 (though fem.) may be a case in
point.

R.B.A.

See no. 1666e.

MS¥Y (‘issabén).
See no. 1666d.

naxy (‘assebet).

Assumed root of the following.
“yo (ma‘dsdd) axe (Jer 10:3;
Isa 44:12).

1668a

(Prov 16:30).

1670 msy (‘sh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1670a Py (‘és) tree, wood, timber, stock,
plank, stalk, stick, gallows.
1670b =mkPY (‘ésa) trees (Jer 6:6).

‘és. Tree, etc. This masculine noun, which oc-
curs 329 times in the oT, is the basic term for
‘tree’? and also wood products. It is common
Semitic, found in Ugaritic (‘s “‘tree, vine’’), Ak-
kadian (is [5s] u), Arabic (‘gissat""), Aramaic
(‘a‘, etc.).

The noun ‘és is used regularly throughout the
oT, with good distribution in the Torah, the
prophets, and the writings. The singular may be
used in a collective sense, ‘‘trees’’ (e.g. Lev
26:20, ‘‘the trees of the land’’), or of a single tree
(e.g. Prov 11:30, ‘‘the fruit of righteousness is a
tree of life,’ reminiscent of Gen 2:9). The plural
is also to be found of standing trees (cf. Joel 1:12;
Isa 7:2, etc.). More often the plural is employed
for felled wood, used for timber (I Kgs 5:18
(H 32]), kindling (I Kgs 17:10, 12), sacrificial
firewood (Gen 22:3ff.), and wooden articles (Ex
7:19). The singular ‘és may be used for felled
lumber or wood as well. Some examples are: a
wooden idol (Hos 4:12; kv “‘stocks’’), timber
(Hag 1:8), wood paneling (Ezk 41:16), a wooden
vessel (Lev 11:32), a wooden handle (Deut 19:5;
KJV “helve’’), a stick (Ezk 37:16ff.), a shaft
(II Sam 23:7), a gallows or pole (Gen 40:19—
probably a pole for impaling), etc. Many varieties
of trees are mentioned in the ot. Specific types of
lumber listed include: ‘‘gopher’’ (the wood of
Noah’s ark, Gen 6:14; the variety is still in doubt,
but perhaps is a type of pine or cypress), acacia
(used in the construction of the tabernacle, Ex
25:5ff.; ‘‘shittah’’ and ‘‘shittim’’ in ksv), ‘‘al-
mug’’ (or ‘‘algum,’” used in the temple, I Kgs
10:11ff.; likely Juniperus phoenicea excelsa;
Ugaritic ’*/mg), cedar (used in the temple, I Kgs
6:9; the cedars of Lebanon are proverbial in the
OT as producing great timber), pine (used in con-
struction, I Kgs 5:8ff.; some authorities render
Hebrew b’résh as ‘‘juniper’’ or ‘“‘cypress’’),
olive (zayit, ‘olive tree’’ is found often in the oT;
occasionally one reads ‘és shemen, ‘‘tree of oil,”’
e.g. I Kgs 6:23), etc. When ‘és means ‘‘tree’’ as
against ‘timber, lumber,’’ it may refer to any kind
of tree in God’s creation (cf. Gen 1:11~12, 29).

In reading the description of the righteous in Ps
1:1-3, the reader, especially if he is from a
forested area, must not miss the emotional ‘‘wal-
lop’ in the image of the tree, with its splendid
emblematic parallelism. A tree in Palestine, par-
ticularly in the southern areas, was something
rather special. It is fitting that one remember that
Eden was characterized by the plenitude of its
trees (Gen 3:9). An oasis in the desert of southern
Palestine was a haven from oppressive heat, a
place of rest and refreshment; but also it was a
grim reminder of a well-watered and heavily
forested garden lost through human sin. In that
garden of God there were two trees of paramount
import, the tree of life and the tree of knowledge
of good and evil. We agree with Kidner that re-

1672 *98Y (‘asél)

specting these two trees, ‘“‘there is much to com-
mend the literal sense, naive though it may
seem.’ The trees were not magical, but were the
means of confronting man with God’s will, giving
‘*man a decisive Yes or No to say with his whole
being’’ (Genesis, p. 62). It is morally significant
that God fenced these two trees not with a wall
but with his word!

It is no accident that human sin which began at
the foot of a tree, the ‘tree of the knowledge of
good and evil’’ (Gen 2:9ff.), found its resolution
on another tree, the cross of Calvary. There is a
poetic justice in the use of trees in the Heilsge-
schichte, the redemptive directedness, of biblical
theology. Satan’s victory over the woman (and
the man!) beneath the branches of that primal
tree led to his own defeat beneath the crossed
beams of another tree on which the Prince of
Glory and the embodiment of wisdom died.
Henceforth there is another tree, the ‘‘tree of
life’’ of the New Jerusalem (Rev 22:2), trans-
planted, as it were, from Eden (Gen 3:9, 22, 24),
and made available for the inhabitants of the com-
ing new world.

‘és4. Trees. A feminine’ collective noun,
‘‘wood,’’ found only in Jer 6:6 (but some read as
‘és with the 3d feminine pronominal suffix, ‘“‘her
trees’'; SO RSV, NASB).

Bibliography: For brief discussion and illus-
trations of the various types of trees in the oT,
consult Fauna and Flora of the Bible: Helps for
Translators, X1, London: United Bible Societies,
1972. Moldenke, H. N., and A. L., ‘‘Plants of
the Bible’? Ronald Press, 1952. THAT, II, pp.
356-58.

1671 mey (‘sh) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
167la BY (‘aseh) either spine or os sa-
crum, bone close to fat-tail (Lev
3:9).

M¥y (‘ésa). See no. 887a.
Esty (‘asuim). See no. 1673d.

1672 *9xy (‘dsél) be sluggish. Occurs only in
the Niphal, in Jud 18:9.

Derivatives

1672a = XY «((‘dsél) sluggish, lazy (e.g.
Prov 24:30; 10:26).

1672b «=MKY (‘asla) sluggishness (Prov
19:15; Eccl 10:18).

1672c 3 =omsoep (‘aslit) sluggishness (Prov
31:27).

ms°sy (‘aslat). See no. 1672c.

689

1673 BY (‘asdm), BY (‘Gsam)

1673 BSy (‘adsdm), BY (‘asam) I, be strong,
mighty, great, increased.

Derivatives
1673a fOxy (‘dsem) might.
1673b tMSY (‘osma) strength.
1673c TOkpy (‘esem) bone.
1673d foxy (‘asim) mighty, numerous.

1673e MexvH (ta‘dsima) might (Ps
68:36).

There are two roots in the oT spelled ‘@sam (so
KB, Holladay, Lisowsky; BDB confusingly lists
four). The first is a stative verb, ‘‘to be mighty,
numerous, strong’’; the second a transitive verb,
‘‘to close (the eyes)’ (see below, ‘dsam II).
‘asam may be compared to Arabic ‘azuma ‘‘to be
great in bones,’ hence, ‘to be mighty.’’
Synonyms used more often in the ot for
‘strength, power’’ are hadzaq *‘‘to be strong,”’
‘amas ‘‘to be strong,’ gddal ‘‘to be great,’’
rdbab ‘‘to be numerous,”’ etc.

The verb ‘dsam is found once in the Piel (de-
nominative of ‘esem ‘‘bone’’), meaning ‘‘to
break the bones’’ (BDB), or ‘‘to gnaw off the
bones’’ (KB), in the figure of a lion gnawing on
the bones of Israel (Jer 50:17). Once it is found in
the Hiphil, “to make strong” (Ps 105:24). Else-
where, ‘adsam I is found in the Qal. Sometimes
this is in a comparative sense (e.g. ‘“‘my iniquiti-
es... are more than the hairs of my head,’’ Ps
40:12 (H 13]; cf. Ps 40:5 ([H 6], God’s wondrous
deeds and thoughts ‘‘are more than can be num-
bered’’). Elsewhere the verb is used in an abso-
lute sense (e.g. of Egypt, ‘‘they are very strong’”’
(Isa 31:1]; of the thoughts of God, ‘‘How vast is
the sum of them! (Ps 139:17, Nass}).

An important theological employment of this
verb is in Ex 1:7 (cf. 1:20) where it is used in
dramatic and emphatic juxtaposition with the
verbs padrd ‘‘to be fruitful’? (see Gen 1:28),
sharas *‘to swarm’’ (see Gen 1:20), rdbda ‘‘to be-
come numerous’’ (see Gen 1:28), and the doubled
noun ‘exceedingly’ (bim’dd me’dd, ‘‘with ex-
traordinary muchness!’’), *‘so that the land was
filled with them’’ (see Gen 1:28). Such is a vivid
summary of Yahweh’s miracle of blessing the
growth of his people in the ‘‘womb’’ of Egypt.
The vocabulary of growth from Gen is quite pur-
poseful in Ex 1—this is indeed a new beginning.

‘osem. Might, strong, substance. Used three
times (Deut 8:17; Job 30:21; Ps 139:15 [‘‘my
frame was not hidden from thee,’’ asv, RSV, NASB;
KB and Holladay render ‘‘bones’’ in this pas-
sage]), and perhaps in Nah 3:9 (with defective 3
fem. sing. suffix; see K. J. Cathcart, Nahum in
the Light of Northwest Semitic [Rome: Biblical
Institute Press, 1973], p. 135).

690

‘osma. Strength, abundance. This feminine
noun is used three times (Isa 40:29; 47:9; Nah 3:9
[but see above]), rendered ‘‘full might’’ by KB.

‘esem. Bone, body, same, selfsame. (ASV, RSV
similar.) A very common noun in the oT, ‘esem is
cognate to Ugaritic ‘zm I, Arabic ‘azum™“", and
Akkadian esemtu, all meaning ‘‘bone.’’ A He-
brew synonym is gerem (which see).

This noun has a variety of nuances in the oT. It
may mean ‘‘bone’’ in the anatomical sense, both
human (e.g. Lam 4:8, of skin cleaving to the
bones: Jud 19:29, of dismembering a concubine)
and animal (e.g. Ex 12:46, of the passover lamb).
In Num 19:18 ‘esem is used, it seems, for a skele-
ton (which defiles). Adam’s exclamation of iden-
tity and relationship to Eve who was fashioned
from a part of him is given in the well-known
words, ‘“‘This is now bone of my bones, / and
flesh of my flesh’’ (Gen 2:23a, NaAsB). From this
stirring couplet comes the Hebrew expression
‘flesh and bone’”’ (in English locution, *‘flesh and
blood’’), descriptive of close genetic relationship
(Gen 29:14; Jud 9:2; IT Sam 5:1; I] Sam 19:13
(H 14]; I Chr 11:1).

The plural noun ‘‘bones’’ often is used for a
corpse. Joseph demanded that his ‘‘bones’”’ (i.e.
his mummy) be taken back to Canaan with Israel
(Gen 50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Josh 24:32). Similarly,
David took the ‘‘bones’’ (corpses) of Saul and
Jonathan for burial (II Sam 21: 12-14).

Yet another employment of ‘esem is as a figure
of the seat of the emotions. Jeremiah speaks of
the reticence of proclaiming Yahweh as ‘‘a burn-
ing fire shut up in my bones”’ (Jer 20:9; cf. 23:9,
both used parallel to ‘‘heart’’). David speaks of
the burden of sin causing a lack of health in his
bones (Ps 38:3 [H 4]). The revilings of his
enemies challenging the reality of Yahweh are
‘‘as a shattering of my bones”’ (Ps 42:10 [H 11)).
One’s ‘‘bones’’ may refer to the entire person
(see Ps 6:2 (H 3], where ‘‘bones’’ is used parallel
to ‘‘self/soul’’ in the following verse).

A more specialized use of ‘esem is found in Ex
24:10 in the phrase, “‘the substance of the
heavens”’ (‘‘the sky itself’ in the NasB). ‘esem
expressing absolute identity is rendered ‘‘self-
same’’ as in the phrase, ‘‘exactly at this day”’
(e.g. Ex 12:17, and often).

‘asim. Mighty, strong. This adjective is used
thirty-one times in the oT. It may be cognate to
Ugaritic ‘zm II, ‘‘mighty’’ (UT 19: no. 1842), and
Phoenician ‘smt ‘‘mighty deeds.’’

R.B.A.

1674 BS (‘adsam) Hi, shut, close (eyes).

(ASV, RSV Similar.) Used twice in the oT
(Isa 33:15, shutting one’s eyes from seeing
evil (Qal]; and Isa 29:10, of Yahweh clos-

ing the ‘‘eyes’’ of Israel, the prophets
[Piel]).

Derivatives

1674a = Meey (‘asma). Some authorities,
e.g. KB, Holladay, Lisowsky, dis-
tinguish the feminine plural ‘asmét
from *‘bones’’ in three passages (Ps
53:5 [H 6], ‘evil deeds’’; Job 7:15,
Ps 22:17 [H 18], “‘severe suffer-
ings’’).
1674b «-MIMEY (‘asumdt) strong (reasons).
(Rsv, ‘‘proofs.’’) A feminine plural
abstract, used only in Isa 41:21.
(BDB, however, assigns this noun
to a different root, ‘sm, compared
to Arabic ‘asama ‘to defend, pro-
tect.’” KB regards it as a plural of
‘astm [above]}.)
R.B.A.

nyvexy (‘dsamot). See no. 1674b.

1675 “$Y (‘asar) restrain, close up, retain, shut,
withhold, refrain, stay, detain.

Derivatives
1675a t38Y Ceser) oppression (Jud
18:7).

1675b t3¥Y (‘dser) barrenness.

1l675c «= ASFY Cdsara), AIBY (‘dseret)
solemn assembly.

1675Sd) t53BY% «(ma'sér) restraint.

1675e tf (ma'sdr) restraint, control.

The Hebrew root ‘sr is compared to Ethiopic
and Arabic roots meaning “‘to press,’’ and to a
Syriac root “‘to retain."’ (The Akkadian eséru
noted by BDB is omitted by KB; Akkadian eéru
means ‘‘to draw, make a drawing’’ (CAD, IV-E,
p. 346)). In the Amarmna texts ha-zi-ri (= ‘asdru)
is found meaning ‘‘to restrain, retain’? (K. A.
Barker, ‘‘Comparative Linguistic and Gram-
matical Study of Canaanisms in the Amarna Tab-
lets (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, p. 106).
Synonyms of this Hebrew root include: mdna‘
‘to retain, hold back’’ ’dhaz ‘‘to seize, hold
fast,’ hadsak ‘‘to restrain, hold back,’ hdzaq
Hiphil ‘‘to take hold of,’’ etc. and kala’ I, ‘‘to
keep back.’

The verb ‘dsar is used forty-six times in the oT.
In the Qal stem this root has three basic mean-
ings: (1) ‘‘to hold back, restrain, retain, prevent”
as in Sarai’s words, *‘ Yahweh has prevented me
from bearing’’ (Gen 16:2; cf. 20:18); (2) *‘to keep
from,’’ as in David’s words, *‘women have been
kept from us’’ (I Sam 21:5 [H 6]}); and (3) ‘‘to
rule,’’ only in I Sam 9:17, Yahweh to Samuel, of
Saul. **This one shall rule over my people.’’ The
Niphal has the passive renderings, ‘‘to be re-

691

1676 32DY (‘aqab)
Strained, shut up, under restraint,’’ as in Num
16:48 [H 17:13], ‘‘and the plague was checked’’
(NASB). With Yahweh as subject, this verb con-
tributes greatly to the doctrine of the sovereignty
of God. It is he who restrains as well as who
wills.

‘eser. Oppression, only in Jud 18:7. This mas-
culine noun used only in Jud 18:7 in the phrase
‘*possessor of restraint’ (Lxx and Rsv, *‘possess-
ing wealth’’), is suggestive of the nT phrase,
**that which/he who restrains’’ (II Thess 2:6-7),
although Greek katecho usually renders Hebrew
‘A@haz or hdzaq (q.vV.).

‘oser. Barrenness (closedness), oppression.
This noun is used of barrenness in Prov 30:16 and
of oppression in Isa 53:8 and Ps 107:39.

ma‘sor. Restraint, hindrance. The feminine
nouns ‘dsdrd and ‘dseret are rendered ‘‘solemn,
sacred assembly,’ perhaps from the semantic
development suggested by KB: ‘‘suppression,
stop of work”’ leading to ‘‘solemn assembly’”’ (see
Num 29:35). Such a solemn assembly can be
proper and pious (e.g., Joel 1:14), apostate (Jer
9:2 [H 1]), or idolatrous (II Kgs 10:20).

ma‘sar. Restraint, control; ‘‘self-control’’ in
Prov 25:28, with / rihd.

R.B.A.

1676 3DY (‘dqab) take by the heel, supplant.

Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

1676a topy (‘aqgéb) I, heel, hoof, rear of a
troop, footstep.

1676b =SpYy (‘dgéb) HI, overreacher (Ps
49:6).

1676c =P (‘dqdb) deceitful; showing
footprints.

1676d "9Py (aq°ba) deceitfulness (II Kgs
10:19).

16/6e 32y (‘éqeb) consequence. Usually

occurs as an adverbial accusative,
as a consequence of, because.
1676f f3pys (ya'dqob) Jacob.

‘aqéb. Heel. From the literal idea of ‘‘heel’’
(cf. Job 18:9, a man caught by the heel), ‘agéb
extends itself to describe horses’ hoofs (Gen
49:17; Jud 5:22) or anything at the rear. ‘aqéb
denotes the rear guard of a troop (KB, p. 279;
attacked, literally, at their heels, Gen 49:19) or
the exposed buttocks (euphemistically, ‘‘thy
heels made bare,’’ Jer 13:22) of captive individu-
als (v. 19; cf. Ugaritic ‘gbt ‘‘tendon”’ of a bull).
At Ai, the Israelitish army’s ‘agéb (Josh 8:13) is
the concealed detachment directed against the
Canaanitish “‘heel’’ (cf. Ps 49:5 [H 6]), therefore
not so much a Hebrew rear guard (RSv) as an

1677 “2Y (‘aqad)

ambush, “‘lters in wait’’ against Ai (k)v, Asv: KD,
p. 86). ‘adgéb may also connote the motion of the
heel, i.e. a Step—so in Ps 56:6 (H 7}. David's foes
watch “his steps.’ The actual word is ‘‘heels,”’
or the mark left by the heel, i.e. a footstep,
whether of a man (Ps 89:51 [H $2] where enemies
‘‘reproach the footsteps’’ of God's anointed,
perhaps referring to King Jehoiachin as he was
led captive in 597 B.c.). It can also refer to a flock
(Song 1:8), or even to God (so Ps 77:19 which
speaks of Yahweh's leading Israel through the
Red Sea; but after the water returned, *‘ Your
footsteps are not known’’).

The metaphorical usage of ‘aqéb includes such
ideas as a traitor’s ‘lifting up the heel’’ against
David (Ps 41:9 [H 10}), i.e. ‘‘proving faithless and
spurning’’ him, or, ‘‘iniquity at my heels*’ (49:5
ASV; “iniquity of my heels’ kv), i.e. dogging
one’s steps (‘‘wicked deceivers’’ nNiv). Greatest
of all references is the prophecy in Gen 3:15, that
mankind is to achieve victory over Satan and
reconciliation with God at the price of Calvary,
where the serpent will ‘‘bruise the heel’’ of the
seed of woman.

ya‘aqob. Jacob. Abraham’s grandson through
Isaac. Used collectively, it refers to the tribes of
Israel, as descended from the twelve sons of
Jacob.

Jacob, the second of Isaac’s twin sons, re-
ceived the preeminence before birth (Gen 25:23;
an example of divine election in general, Rom
9:11-13). But he acquired his name when he was
born ‘with his hand [symbolically] holding on to
Esau's heel’’ (Gen 25:26 Nass: Hos 12:3 [H 4]).
When he had later gained the birthnght (Gen
25:29-34) and stolen Isaac's blessing (27:1-29),
Esau thus exclaimed, ‘‘Is he not mghtly named
Jacob (ya'daqdb), for he has supplanted me
these two times?’” (v. 36). See also his devices
against Laban (30:29-31:12; cf. Isa 43:27—28).

Yet at Bethel, as Jacob was fleeing from Esau,
God assured him that he was with him (28:12, 15)
and renewed the covenant which he had pre-
viously revealed to Abraham and Isaac (vv.
13-14; cf. 17:7-8; 26:3-4; Lev 26:42). Jacob
thereupon vowed that Yahweh would be his God
and receive his tithes (Gen 28:20—22). Then at
Peniel, enriched by the Lord but dreading to meet
Esau, he uttered a model prayer (32:9-12).

God, in the person of the Angel of Yahweh
presumably Chnist pre-incarnate (vv. 24, 30; Hos
12:4), next encountered Jacob, with whom the
patriarch wrestled, literally, but also in prayer
(Hos 12:4). Broken by God (Gen 32:25 [H 26}),
Jacob thereby achieved his final spintual victory
and blessing (v. 29 [H 30}), for the Angel said,
‘“Your name will no longer be Jacob (ya'aqdb
**supplanter’’), but Israel (yisra‘él), for you have
striven (Sard) with God and with men and have

prevailed’ (v..28 (H 29]; cf. his subsequent devo-
tion, Heb 11:21).

Both names, Israel and Jacob, became designa-
tions of honor for the patriarch’s descendants
(from Num 23 onward; cf. 24:5, or 17 [Mes-
sianic]; Ps 47:4 (H 5]). God “‘loves Jacob’’ (Mal
1:2; cf. Rom 11:26). Yet finally the blessing
reaches out to all the people of God, **the genera-
tion of those who seek Thy face—even Jacob’’
(Ps 24:6 nas; cf. Gal 3:29).

Bibliography: Payne, J. B., Theology of the
Older Testament, Zondervan, 1962, pp. 419-22,
430. Wood, L., A Survey of Israel's History,
Zondervan, 1970, pp. 69-75.

J.B.P.
1677 “DY (‘dqad) 1, bind (Gen 22:9).
1678 “py (‘qd) Il. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1678a DY (‘dqdd) striped, streaked
(e.g. Gen 30:40; 31:8).
1679 spy (‘gh). Assumed root of the following.
1679a =p (ma'dgeh) parapet (Deut
22:8).
m2oY (‘aqa). See no. 1585a.
1680 *%5y (‘aqal) bend, twist. Occurs only in
the Pual, in Hab 1:4.
Derivatives
16802 %9¥py (‘dqalqal) crooked (Jud
5:6; Ps 125:5).
1680b 9=tin?py (‘dqallatén) crooked (Isa
27:1).

“o°py (‘dqalqal). See no. 1680a.
invay (‘daqallatén). See no. 1680b.

1681 “bY (agar) I, pluck orrootup (Eccl 3:2;
Zeph 2:4). Denominative verb.
Parent Noun
168la “py (‘éger) offshoot, member
(Lev 23:47).
1682 *"D¥ (‘adqar) H, hamstring. This de-
nominative verb occurs only in the Piel
(e.g. I] Sam 8:4; I Chr 18:4).
Parent Noun
1682a “py (‘adqar) barren (e.g. Deut

7:14; Ex 23:26).

1683 352¥ (‘agradb) scorpion (e.g. Deut 8:15;

Ezk 2:6).

692

1684 *wop (dqash) is perverse, Niphal; to
make crooked, pervert, Piel, to declare,
prove perverse, Hiphil.

Derivatives

1684a wey (‘iggésh) crooked, perverse.

1684b tmiwpy (‘igg’ shat) crookedness
(Prov 4:24; 6:12).

1684c =0wep (ma‘dqdsh) crooked things
(Isa 42:16).

The root ‘dgash is a descriptive term in hamar-
tiology that emphasizes the perversion and
twisted nature of sin. Hebrew ‘dgash may be re-
lated to Arabic ‘agasa ‘‘to twist her hair’’ (a wo-
man); aS women braid and plait their hair, so
people twist their ways.

With the exception of ‘*crooked, rough places”
in Isa 42:16, the root ‘agash and its derivatives
are used to describe the twisted and perverted
acts of sinful men. In Isa 42:16 it denotes the
difficulties the Lord will overcome in saving his
people out of their desperate situation. In Deut
32:5 ‘iggésh is used in hendiadys with p¢ taltol
‘tortuous,’ of a desperately wicked generation
(see also Prov 8:8: Ps 18:26 [H 27]). Other
synonyms for ‘dgash are hdpak ‘‘to turn;”’ (az
“to go the wrong way;’’ ‘dwd ‘‘to pervert the
right; sdlap “‘to twist,’ ‘dwat ‘“‘to make
crooked, pervert.’’ Wicked rulers “‘twist every-
thing that is straight’’ (Mic 3:9, NasB). The per-
verse of lips is a fool (Prov 19:1), and the per-
verse of heart is an abomination to Yahweh (Prov
11:20).

‘iqq’shit. Froward. (ASV, RSV, *‘‘wayward,
crooked.’’) This ts an abstract feminine noun,
‘“perverseness,’ used twice in the phrase, “‘per-
verse mouth”’ (Prov 4:24; 6:12).

R.B.A.

mwpy (Ciqg’ shat). See no. 1684b.
"¥Y (ar) foe. Only I Sam 28:16. Arama-
ism(?). See no. 2930a.

1685 35 (‘rb) I. Assumed root of the following.
1685a snp (‘éreb) I, mixture, mixed
company (e.g. Ex 12:38; Neh
13:3).
1685b «Say (‘éreb) II, woof (Lev 13:48).
1685c =35y (‘dréb) swarm (e.g. Ex 8:17;
Ps 78:45).

1686 35Y (‘arab) HH, to be / become surety,
mortgage, engage, occupy, undertake for;
give pledges (Hithpael).

Derivatives

1686a tmMgny (‘adrubba) pledge.
1686b f35y (‘érabén) pledge.

693

1686 35 (‘arab)

1686c t35pI (ma‘drab) merchandise.
1686d tAguyn (ta‘aruibd) hostages.

The verb ‘drab may be compared with one use
of Akkadian erébu ‘‘to enter (under one’s author-
ity)’ (see CAD, IV-E, 264), and to Ugaritic ‘rb
‘‘to enter (as a pledge),’’ e.g. in the phrase ‘rb
bbnshm ‘‘they entered as pledges for their men =
they guaranteed their employees”’ (so UT 19: no.
1915). Synonyms for the Hebrew ‘arab ‘‘to
pledge,’ include hdbol, hadbolad, ‘dbdét, nouns
meaning “‘pledge’’; and the verbs Adabal *‘to take
in pledge,’ and ftdga‘ ‘‘to strike the hands in
agreement.’ Cf. the noun ‘dbdér ‘‘pledge.’’ De-
pending on the manner of classification, there are
four (KB) or six (BDB) roots ‘drab, eight in GB!

As used in the ot the range of meaning for the
Qal of ‘drab | falls into three clusters. First, the
term may mean, ‘‘to exchange merchandise, bar-
ter,’ as in Ezk 27:9 (cf. 27:27). Secondly, the
verb may mean ‘‘to pledge, mortgage,’’ and by
extension, ‘to dare.’’ Nehemiah 5:3 speaks of
mortgaging fields, as an example of the former
alternative, and Jer 30:21 (figure) of daring one’s
heart (NASB, ‘*who would dare to risk his life’’), as
an example of the latter.

The third, and major, cluster is ‘‘to be/become
surety or bail for."’ A splendid example is af-
forded by the Joseph narrative. Judah ventures to
be the surety for his youngest brother, Benjamin,
to his father, Jacob. He states, “I will be the
surety for him; of my hand you shall require him”’
(NASB, ‘you may hold me responsible for him’’
Gen 43:9; cf. 44:32). Another type of example is
given by the noun ‘érdbén (see below) in Gen 38
(vv. 17-18, 20). In this far less noble chapter of
Judah’s spiritual degradation, the reader ob-
serves that he is dull not only spiritually, but ra-
tionally as well. He leaves with Tamar, his dis-
guised daughter-in-law, his signet, cord, and staff
as ‘érabdén. By leaving behind his ‘‘credit card,”’
he lost all chance for anonymity in the sordid
affair.

The Hithpael of ‘drab is found in one context
only, meaning “‘to make a wager’’ (rsv II Kgs
18:23; Isa 36:8). The Hithpael forms in Ps 106:35;
Prov 14:10; 20:19; 24:21; listed by BDB under the
root ‘‘to pledge,’ are better understood as froma
homonym, ‘‘to associate with, intermix, meddle”’
(so KB, Holladay, Lisowsky).

‘Arubba. Pledge, surety.
17:18; Prov 17:18.

‘erabon. Pledge. Used only in Gen 38 (three
times, vv. 17-18, 20; of Judah’s seal, his ‘‘credit
card’’). The noun ‘érdbén (Ugaritic ‘rbn) is one
of the few Semitic words which have entered
Western languages (Greek, arraboén; Latin, ar-
rabo; French, les arrhes). In the nt arrabo6n is
used of the Holy Spirit who is the **pledge of our

Found only in I Sam

1688 sy (‘rb)

1687 392 (‘arab)

inheritance’ (Eph 1:14; cf. 11 Cor 5:5). The desire
for God himself as one’s “‘security”’ is an oT
hope. Hezekiah, twittering and moaning like a
bird, said: *‘My eyes look wistfully to the heights;
/O Lord, I am oppressed, be my security’’ (Isa
38:14, NasB: cf. Ps 119:122). Similarly Job pleads
with Yahweh: **Lay down, now, a pledge for me
with Thyself; / Who is there that will be my
guarantor?’ (Job 17:3). Kidner observes, *‘Job is
a bad risk for anybody but God” (Proverbs, p.
72). The parallel expression, ‘‘who will be
guarantor,” is literally to be read, “‘who will
strike hands with me?’’ The verb tdya‘ (q.v.) isa
stock-in-trade parallel for ‘drab I, in the sense,
‘to confirm a contract, bargain’’ (see Prov 6:1;
11:15; 17:18; 22:26).

The passages given above in Prov on acting as
surety for a loan for another (to which we may
add 20:16 and 27:13 where the parallel verb is
habél) contain strong wamings against such
well-meaning, but foolish acts. Such a man is
‘lacking in sense’’ (Prov 17:18) and “will smart
for it’ (Prov 11:15). The advice for one who has
entered such an agreement, ts to get out as best
he may (Prov 6:1-5). Again, we quote Kidner
who says such advice *‘does not banish generos-
ity: it is nearer to banishing gambling. That is, a
man's giving should be fully voluntary.’ He
adds, ““Even to the recipient, an unconditional
pledge may be an unintended disservice by ex-
posing him to temptation and to the subsequent
grief of having brought a friend to ruin’’ (Kidner,

Proverbs, pp. 71-72). Neverthéless, compare the ©

acts of the Good Samaritan in Luke 10:35.

ma‘d4rab. Merchandise (articles of exchange).
This collective noun occurs only in Ezk 27 (nine
times).

ta‘dariba. Hostages inthe phrase, ‘children of
pledges’* found in II Kgs 14:14; J] Chr 25:24.
Bibliography: Porten, Bezalel, ‘Guarantor at
Elephantine-Syene,’* JAOS 89: 153-57.
R.B.A.

1687 35¥ (‘Grab) TI, be sweet, pleasing.

Derivatives

1687a =o 3nY «(‘aréb) «sweet, pleasant (Prov
20:17; Song 2:14).

IV. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
1688a =35Y (drab)
(Isa 21:13).
1688b %35P (‘drabi) steppe-dweller (Isa
13:20: Jer 3:2).

desert plateau, steppe

1688c 35p (‘drab) steppe-dwellers (col-
lective noun).
1688d 9 =ma5y (‘draba) desert plain, steppe.

694

1689 S95 (‘drab)

V, become evening, grow
dark. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

1689a t3np (‘ereb) evening, night.
1689b t35yI (ma'‘dradb) westward.

‘ereb. Evening, night. This common _ mas-
culine noun for “‘evening’”’ likely developed from
the expression, ‘‘the setting of the sun, sunset.”’
It is cognate to Akkadian erébu, a common verb
of wide usage which includes "‘to enter, go down
(of the sun).’’ Akkadian erib SamSi means ‘‘sun-
set." Compare Arabic garifa ‘to set (of the
sun), and Ugaritic ‘rb $p§ (= m'‘rb), *‘sunset.”’
Other important Hebrew words for time periods
of the day are: yém ‘‘day,”’ ‘ét ‘‘time,’” bodker
**morning,’* and /av/d ‘‘night’’ (all of which see).
Some have suggested that **Europe,’’ the west-
ern land is derived from this root (BDB, GB and
cf. the American Heritage Dictionary).

‘ereb is found 131 times in the ot. The phrase
‘there was an evening and there was a morning”
occurs six times in the creation narrative (Gen
1:5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31), delimiting the six days of
divine creative activity. This phrase would indi-
cate that in ancient Israel a day began with sun-
rise. Some have felt this at variance with the
Jewish practice of regarding sunset as the begin-
ning of the next day. Cassuto, after dealing with
the biblical data and the Jewish custom, con-
cludes that there was ‘‘only one system of com-
puting time: the day is considered to begin in the
morning; but in regard to the festivals and ap-
pointed times, the Torah ordains that they shall
be observed also on the night of the preceding
day’’ (U. Cassuto, Genesis, I, p. 29 [his em-
phasis]). This judgment appears vindicated in the
employment of ‘ereb in Levitical legislation re-
specting uncleanness. One was considered un-
clean because of certain acts ‘‘until the evening”’
(Lev 11:24, plus thirty times). That is, one was
unclean for the duration of the day.

Evenings were quite important for sacrificial
acts and ceremonial meals in ancient Israel. The
Passover began on the evening of the fourteenth
day of the first month (see Ex 12:6, 18). Some-
times, as in Ex 12:6, the Hebrew reads literally,
‘between the two evenings,” likely ‘*twilight,”’
the time interval between sunset and darkness in
which there is a state of illumination. Only in Job
7:4 does ‘ereb denote ‘‘night’’ proper.

ma‘drab. Westward, from or toward the west, the
west side. (asv, RSV Similar.) Strictly, the ‘place
of sunset,’ hence, ‘“‘west.’’ See Ps 103:12 where
this word is contrasted to mizrah, ‘from the
east’’ (see zarah ‘‘to rise’’).

R.B.A.

1690 ssp (‘rb) VI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1690a 35) (‘dréb) raven.

1690b 9=many (‘adraba) poplar.

N3aay (‘érabén). See no. 1686b.
‘359 (‘drabi). See no. 1688b.

1691 any (‘drag) long for.

Derivative

1691a manny (‘driigd) garden terrace or
bed.

1692 *MaY (‘arad) uncover, leave destitute, dis-
cover, empty, raze, pour out.

Derivatives

1692a MY 6(‘ara) «bare place (Isa 19:7).

16925 «MSY O(‘erwa)_ = nakedness, shame.

1692c omy (‘erya) nakedness.

1692d Sym (ma'‘ar) nakedness.

1692e “YR (ta‘ar) razor, sheath; cf. Ugar-
itic t'rt ‘‘sheath, scabbard’’ (that
which makes bare).

The verb ‘rh does not occur in the Qal stem. In
the intensive and causative stems it is employed
meaning: (1) ‘‘to lay bare, uncover, expose
nakedness,’” and (2) to lay bare in the sense ‘‘to
empty, to pour out.’ This latter sense may be
used as a figure of death in the expression given
in Ps 141:8 and Isa 53:12, ‘‘to pour out the soul/
life’’ (nepesh, q.v.). Hebrew ‘ard has cognates in
Arabic (‘ariya ‘‘to be naked’’), Phoenician (‘rh
‘‘to lay bare’’), Akkadian (aru ‘‘nakedness, des-
ert waste’), and Ugaritic (‘ry ‘‘naked’’ [Ais-
WUS, no. 2097}).

After the fall (or ‘‘plunge’’) of man, nakedness
in the of was a matter of shame. This is not be-
cause sex ts evil, but because of sin-burdened
minds (see J. B. Payne, Theology of the Older
Testament, p. 218). As D. Kidner writes, ‘‘Man
saw the familiar world and spoilt it now in the
seeing, projecting evil on the innocence (cf. Tit
1:15) and reacting to the good with shame and
flight.’" He adds, “‘The fig leaves were pathetic
enough, as human expedients tend to be, but the
instinct was sound and God confirmed it, for sin’s
proper fruit is shame. The couple, now ill at ease
together, expressed a foretaste of fallen human
relations in general’’ (Genesis, InterVarsity,
1967, p. 69).

Hence, nakedness tn the ot after Gen 3:7 is a
symbol of human shame, the evil fruit of sin. It is
quite impossible to build a case biblically for nud-
ity. Nakedness cannot be tolerated outside
proper sexual relationships (see the prohibitions
of incest in Lev 18 and 20), nor may it occur in
worship (Ex 20:26; cf. 28:42).

695

1693 tiny (‘Grdd)

1694 39 (‘arak)

Conversely, makedness, the exposure of
shame, ts a marked feature of judgment on evil-
doers (see Isa 3:17; Hab 3:13; Zeph 2:14 Lam
4:21; and the extensive employment of the vo-
cabulary for nakedness by Ezk in chapters 16,
22, 23).

In Ps 137:7 Edom’s taunt of Jerusalem is an
example of paronomasia. Edom’'s words, “‘raze
it, raze it, down to its foundations,’’ by double
entendre signify, ‘‘strip her, strip her, down to
her buttocks’ (Jerusalem pictured as a woman
being ravaged; see Dahood, Psalms, HI, in AB
p. 273).

The verb ‘ard is employed in the Niphal (ex-
plained as passive of Hiphil by BDB) tn Isa 32:15
of the Spirit being poured out upon us. Other
examples of ‘‘make bare’’ leading to the idea of
‘‘pour out’’ are found in Gen 24:20 (Piel, Re-
bekah emptied her pitcher); II Chr 24:11 (Piel, an
officer emptied the chest); Isa 53:12 (Hiphil, the
Servant poured out his life unto death; cf. Ps
141:8).

The Hithpael in Ps 37:35 is somewhat prob-
lematical. The Nass renders, *‘a violent, wicked
man spreading himself like a luxuriant tree.”

R.B.A.

many (‘driga). See no. 169la.

wild ass. Only in Job 39:5.
See no. 1692b.

Biny (‘drim). See no. 1698c.

spiny (‘drd‘ér). See no. 1705c.

yuay (‘dras). See no. 1702a.

map (‘eryad). See no. 1692c.

mony (‘drisd). See no. 1699a.

Asy (drip). See no. 1701a.

yay (‘dris). See no. 1702b.

say (‘driri). See no. 170Sa.

mny (Cerwa).

1694 "say (‘arak) set (put, lay) in order, set in

array, prepare, order, ordain, handle, fur-
nish, esteem, equal, direct, compare.

Derivatives

1694a =S3y (‘érek) order, row, estimate.

1694b *t"5y (‘arak) value, estimate, tax.
Occurs in the Hiphil only.

Tr3yl (ma'‘drak) preparation
(Prov 16:1).

1694d tRMpnyl (ma'drakad) row.

1694e tmhasyle (ma‘dreket) row.

‘Grak is a verb of preparation, arranging (so Its
Phoenician cognate), setting in order; often used
in martial contexts of ‘drawing up in battle or-
der."’ The militaristic tone of the verb may be
compared to the Arabic ‘araka in III stem, “‘to
contend (in battle),"’ and to the Arabic nouns

1694c

1695 93 (‘aral)

ma‘rak"" and ma‘rakat"", both meaning **battle-
ground.”

The verb ‘drak has two basic nuances in the
ot. The first, found often, means “‘to set or ar-
range in order,’ used variously. The second, *‘to
compare,” is suggested by BDB to be the result
of arranging in order (for the purpose of compari-
son). This latter use of the verb is found in Isa ina
majestic paean of praise to the incomparability of
Yahweh. Isaiah 40:18 reads, ‘‘to whom then will
you liken (dadmd, Piel) God? / or with what like-
ness will you compare (‘drak) him?”* (so Ps 40:5
[H 6]; 89:6 [H 7]; cf. Job 28:17, 19). The incom-
parability of Yahweh is one of the grand, but
sometimes neglected, themes of oT biblical theol-
ogy.

More often ‘drak means ‘‘to set in order, ar-
range.’’ One encounters this verb with many ob-
jects: pieces of firewood set in order for a sacrifi-
cial fire by Abraham for his son Isaac, in one of
the most moving scenes in the ot (Gen 22:9);
pieces of the sacrificial bull arranged on the altar
by the priests (Lev 1:8); showbread set out in two
rows of six cakes on the gold table (Lev 24:8);
seven altars set up by the pagan mantic Balaam
(Num 23:4); stalks of flax arranged by Rahab
for hiding the spies (Josh 2:6); a table prepared
for dining (Ps 23:5; Isa 21:5); words produced for
speaking (Job 32:14); a legal case developed for
presentation (Job 13:18); etc. In II Sam 23:5
David exults in the covenant granted him by
Yahweh, ‘for he has made with me an everlast-
ing covenant, / ordered (‘dri#k@) in all things and
secure.’

Often ‘drak is a military term describing the
drawing up in battle order to commence the fight-
ing. The verb may appear with milhama ‘‘com-
bat’ (Gen 14:8; Jud 20:22; I Sam 17:8, etc.), and
with ligra’t ‘‘to meet’ (e.g. I Sam 4:2; I] Sam
10:9-10, etc.). The oT writers also speak of ar-
ranging weapons for battle (Jer 46:3; I Chr 12:9).
At one point, Job described his anguishing state
of affliction as that of military attacks by the
forces of the terrors of God, set against him in
battle array (Job 6:4).

‘arak. Hiphil, to value, estimate, tax. BDB
lists this as a denominative verb from the noun
‘érek “‘estimate.’’ It is found five times in Lev 27
and in I} Kgs 23:35. Some authonties, e.g. KB,
do not distinguish this use of ‘drak as a separate
lexical entry; it is merely the Hiphil of the verb
listed above.

ma‘arak. Preparation (rSv, ‘‘plan’’). Occurs
only in Prov 16:1, ‘‘the plans of the heart.”

ma‘araka. Row, rank, army, order, fight. A
feminine noun with three usages: (1) ‘‘battle
line, as in | Sam 4:2ff.; (2) ‘‘ranks** or ‘‘army,”’
as in | Sam 17:10; and (3) ‘row,’ as in Ex 39:37,
‘lamps of the row."

696

1695 sy

ma‘areket. Row, showbread. Found only of
the rows of showbread or the table, as in Lev
24:6-7.

(‘aral) count uncircumcised (Qal);
foreskin to be uncovered (Niphal). De-
nominative verb.

Parent Noun

1695a tmosy (‘orla) foreskin, uncircum-
cised.

1695b f99p (‘arél) having foreskin, i.e. un-
circumcised.

The denominative verb (so BDB, KB) ‘dral is
used only twice. In Lev 19:23 the rsv and NASB
render the Qal, ‘‘forbidden,’’ and Holladay
suggests, “leave unharvested.’* The Niphal in
Hab 2:16 is a crux. The asv reads, ‘‘be as one
uncircumcised’*; NASB, ‘“‘expose your own
nakedness’’; Niv, “*be exposed’’; the rsv reads
with the DSS and some versions, “‘stagger’’
{from the root r‘/, metathesis].

‘orla. Foreskin, uncircumcised. (ASV, RSV Simi-
lar.) The feminine noun ‘orld may be related to
Arabic gurlat"" ‘foreskin,’ and garila ‘‘to be
uncircumcised,’ Aramaic géarl*ta’ *‘foreskin,”’
and Akkadian uwral(l)ati (pl.) “‘foreskins’’ (Bé-
zold, Glossar, p. 68). The reader should compare
the article on the verb mé/ ‘‘to circumcise.”’

‘arel. Uncircumcised, uncircumcised per-
son, i.e. having the foreskin intact. (ASV, RSV
similar.)

Circumcision has been practiced by many
peoples of the world usually at puberty, but in
Israel it was rooted in a profound religious con-
viction: by this act of dedication, witness was
given to the fact of belonging to Yahweh and to
his people (see Eichrodt, ETOT, I, p. 138). As far
as we know, only Israel practiced infant circum-
cision. Of course this practice precluded the
other licentious puberty rites of the surrounding
pagans.

The institution of circumcision is detailed in
Gen 17 as the sign of Yahweh's covenant with
Abraham, as was the rainbow in his covenant
with Noah. Every male of the community, bond
and free, was to be circumcised when eight days
old. The uncircumcised were to be cut off from
the community. Youngblood writes, **From that
time forward the rite of circumcision would be-
come...a token of God's solemn promise to
bless His people numerically. God had spoken,
and He would bring His word to remembrance
every time the circumciser’s knife was wielded”
(The Heart of the Old Testament, p. 46). The
patriarchal covenant act was reaffirmed in the
Mosaic code (Lev 12:3). Exodus 4:24-26 is
somewhat obscure. See Cassuto, Exodus, pp.

58-61, and Clements, Exodus, p. 31. [This dif-
ficult passage has been much discussed but the
suggestions of Hans Kosmala possibly bring new
light (‘The Bloody Husband,’’ VT 12:14—28). He
argues, first, that it is the first-born son who is in
danger—not Moses. In the context the emphasis
is on Israel as God's first-born. Pharaoh's first-
born is in danger. Now Moses’ first-born must be
circumcised or he too is in danger. Second, the
verb ndga‘ should be taken as a Qal *‘touch"’ not
Hiphil ‘‘cast”’ as k)v. Third, says Kosmala, Zip-
porah touched the child’s legs with the foreskin
to make a sign of blood—not that she cast it at
Moses’ feet. Moses is not mentioned by name in
this sentence. Fourth, that her remark ‘a bloody
husband’’ should rather be translated **a blood-
circumcised (boy).’’ The Arabic verb hatana
means ‘to circumcise’’ and Kosmala reminds us
that Zipporah in Sinai may well have had early
Arabic connections. Thus she was not petulantly
blaming Moses, but in satisfaction claiming she
had saved her boy by performing the rite. Kos-
mala finds the last clause of v. 26 to be not a mere
repetition. It is a linguistic note that what she said
in Arabic idiom applied to the boy who in He-
brew idiom was ‘‘the circumcised”’ (mai).

The suggestion changes no consonants in the
text. It has linguistic support. And it avoids the
Otherwise strange tension between Moses and
Zipporah. A free translation would be:

At a lodging place on the way the LORD met
him (Moses) and sought to slay him (his first-
born). But Zipporah took a flint knife and cut off
the foreskin of her son and touched his legs with
it. Then she said, ‘‘Surely you are my blood-
circumcised one’’ and the LORD let him alone.
So the term she used ‘‘blood-circumcised one’’
(Arabic) referred to the circumcised one (He-
brew). R.L.H.]}

The adjective ‘dré/ ‘having foreskin, uncir-
cumcised,° became a word of contempt, used
particularly with reference to the Philistines who
did not practice circumcision (cf. Jud 14:3; 15:18;
I Sam 14:6; 17:26, 36; 31:4=I Chr 10:4; IT Sam
1:20). This term was associated with moral and
spiritual uncleanness (Isa 52:1) as well as with
organs that did not function properly (Ex 6:12,
‘uncircumcised lips’’ do not speak well; Jer 6:10,
‘uncircumcised ears’* cannot listen).

Circumcision was a spiritual act as well. Egypt,
Edom, Ammon, Moab—and Judah!—all prac-
ticed circumcision of the penis, but not the heart
(Jer 9:25-26 [H 24-25], see Bright, Jeremiah,
AB, p. 78). Hence, Israel was commanded to cir-
cumcise the foreskin of the heart (Deut 10:16; Jer
4:4; cf. Rom 2:28-29).

Ezekiel uses ‘dré/ in ch. 32 in his ‘conducted
tour of the nations in Sheol” (Taylor, Ezekiel,
p. 211). There the nations are described as uncir-
cumcised, to bear out the concept of their pollu-

697

1696 *55¥ (‘dram)

1698 BAY (‘arom)

tion and defilement (see Feinberg, Ezekiel, pp.
184-85).
Bibliography: Youngblood, Ronald, The
Heart of the Old Testament, Baker 1971.
R.B.A.

I, be heaped up. Occurs
only once, in the Niphal (Ex 15:8).
Derivative

1696a MnP (‘drémd) heap.

1697 BsyY (‘rm) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1697a any (‘armén) the plane-tree (as
stripped of bark (Ezk 31:8).

1698 osy (‘adr6m) beware, take crafty counsel,

be prudent.
Derivatives
1698a teny (‘drem) craftiness (Job
§:13).

1698b theny (‘orma) guile.
1698c fOmy (‘adrim) crafty.

‘drom is a root with positive (prudence) and
negative (shrewdness) connotations. It may be
contrasted with its positive synonym Sdkal ‘‘to
be skillful, wise,’’ which is always positive. Its
cognates in Arabic, Aramaic, and Symiac are
negative in tone (“‘ill-natured, shrewd’). The
Greek terms panourgos and panourgia, used in
the Lxx and the NT, mean ‘ready to do any-
thing,’ usually in the bad sense of tricky and
cunning behavior (e.g. Lk 20:23; Eph 4:14). Dis-
tinguish this root from ‘dram, Niphal, “‘to be
heaped.”’

The verb ‘arom is used in the Qal five times:
twice positively (Prov 15:5; 19:25), and twice
negatively (I Sam 23:22 ). The Hiphil is used once
meaning, “to act craftily,’’ ‘‘they lay crafty plans
against thy people’ (Ps 83:3 {H 4]). Some au-
thorities have considered all but the Qal infinitive
absolute in I Sam 23:22 to be Hiphils. KB and
Lisowsky say the only true Hiphil is in Ps 83:3 [H
4}.

‘Orem. Craftiness. This masculine noun oc-
curs only in Job 5:13.

‘orma. Guile, prudence, subtility, wilily, wis-
dom. This noun may be used negatively of pre-
sumptuous guile (as in Ex 21:14), or positively of
prudent behavior (as in Prov 1:4).

‘aram. Crafty, prudent, subtle. The adjective
‘ariim is construed to be a positive virtue when
rendered ‘‘prudent.’’ The prudent one does not
vaunt his knowledge (Prov 12:23), ignores an in-
sult (Prov 12:16), acts with knowledge (Prov
14:8), looks where he is going (Prov 14:15), sees

1699 BY (‘rs)

danger and acts appropriately (Prov 22:3 =
27:12), and is crowned with knowledge (Prov
14:18).

This adjective is negative when rendered
‘‘crafty’’ (see Job 5:12; 15:5). The most memora-
ble use of ‘dram in this negative nuance is, of
course, Gen 3:1, ‘‘Now the serpent was more
crafty than any other wild creature which the
Lorp God had made.”’ His ‘‘malevolent bril-
lance’ (D. Kidner, Genesis, Chicago: Inter Var-
sity, p. 67) is contrasted by paronomasia to the
naked innocence of Adam and Eve in Gen 2:25
(‘dram ‘‘craftiness,’’ vs. ‘arammim ‘‘naked-
ness;’’ see U. Cassuto, Genesis, I, p. 143). Given
this seminal passage, the comment of our Lord to
his disciples is even more surprising: "Be shrewd
[phronimos |) as serpents, and innocent as doves”’
(Matt 10:16, Nass).

R.B.A.

asy (‘armén). See no. 1697a.
1699 Bmp (‘rs).
1699a

Assumed root of the following.

Moy (‘drisa) coarse meal (e.g.
Ezk 44:30; Neh 10:38). Meaning
uncertain.

"vay (‘ar‘ar). See no. 1705b.

1700 ASyY (‘drap) I, break the neck of an

animal. Denominative verb (BDB; KB

treats it as a homonym, compared to

Arabic ‘arafa ‘‘to cut to pieces’’).

Parent Noun
1700a tHSY (‘drep) back, neck.

This anatomical term is often used metaphori-
cally. It has been related to Akkadian arib(b)u/
arlip(p)u ‘“‘neck (mane?),’’ and Arabic ‘urfat""
**mane of a horse, crest of a cock.’’ Some He-
brew synonyms for ‘‘neck”’ are gargadrot, garén,
mapreget, sawwa'r, and saww* ronim.

‘6rep is used thirty-three times. In Gen 49:8,
Jacob prophesies that Judah's hand will be on the
neck of his enemies, a symbol of authority over
his foes. In the expression ‘‘turned (one’s)
neck,’’ ‘drep is used as a synonym for back (see
gab, gaw, géw, sh° kem {‘*shoulder’’}). This term
occurs as a figure of fear and retreat of the
enemies of Israel (Ex 23:27: cf. Josh 7:8, 12 of
Israel turning her back; II Sam 22:41 in a psalm of
David); as a figure for apostasy from Yahweh
(II Chr 29:6; Jer 2:27; 32:33); and as a figure for
shame and remorse (Moab in Jer 48:39).

From comparison with Arabic ‘urfat"" *‘mane
of a horse,’ ‘‘crest of a cock,’’ one can see the
possible semantic development of ‘‘neck’’ to
‘stiffness, arrogance, recalcitrance, refractori-
ness.’’ Hence, there are numerous occasions in

698

1701 SY (‘arap)

which Israel is termed gq‘ shéh—‘orep ‘'stiff-
necked”’ (e.g. Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9, etc.). The
term ‘orep thus enters the vocabulary of hamar-
tiology. Arrogance on the part of the vassal to the
suzerain is a form of rebellion and treason.
Bibliography: Daiches, S., ‘‘The Meaning of
msy in Lev. 5, 8,’ ExpT 39:426.
R.B.A.

II, drip, drop.
Derivatives

170ia sy Carip) cloud (Isa 5:20).

1701b fT9ESY (‘adrdpel) dark cloud, dark-
ness, gross darkness, thick darkness.
(ASV, RSV Similar, but Rsv ‘‘gloom’’
in Deut 4:11 where Nass has ‘‘thick
gloom.’’)

The word ‘drape! is a masculine noun em-
ployed respecting the veiled glory of Yahweh, the
darkness enveloping his appearance on Mount
Sinai, and the judgment he brings on sin.
Suggested etymologies are from (1) ‘drap ‘‘to
drip, drop,’’ with lamed afformative (BDB); or
(2) Arabic gafara *‘to cover’’ (KB). The word
grpl ‘‘heavy cloud,”’ occurs in Ugaritic (UT 19:
no. 1989a). Important synonyms in Hebrew for
**cloud’’ are ‘ab (used of theophany in Ex 19:9)
and ‘dndn (often used of the glory of God).

Descriptions of the glory of God in the oT seem
deliberately vague, perhaps to preserve the ele-
ment of reverential awe respecting the wonder of
beholding tokens of God, and also, perhaps, to
remind one of the horror of sin in his presence.
Hence, while the people stand afar off, Moses
comes near to the ‘‘thick darkness’’ enveloping
Yahweh (Ex 20:21). Indeed, the very mountain
visited by God became an awesome mountain,
‘‘burning to the heart of heaven, wrapped in
darkness (hdshek), cloud (‘a@ndan), and thick
gloom (wa'‘drdpel)’’ (Deut 4:11). Similar ex-
pressions are found in Deut 5:22 [H 19]; II Sam
22:10; Job 22:13; Ps 18:9 [H 10]; 97:2. When Sol-
omon dedicated the temple, the glory of Yahweh
filled the building in cloud and thick darkness
(I Kgs 8:10—12; II Chr 5:13—6:1), ‘‘as a reminder
of the darkness into which Moses penetrated on
Sinai’’ (JTOT, p. 259).

Other uses of ‘ardpel include the poetic figure
of darkness as a swaddling band for the sea (Job
38:9); and darkness as a symbol of ignorance,
misery, and sin of man (Isa 60:2). The term
‘drdpel is also used as a symbol of Yahweh's
judgment on sin (Jer 13:16; Ezk 34:12; Joel 2:2;
Zeph 1:15). Because the same term is used of
God’s enveloped glory and his awesome judg-
ments, the term 1s paradoxical: it bespeaks ter-
ror, wonder, fear, majesty, awe, and reverence.

R.B.A.

“pay (‘drapel). See no. 1701b.

1702 yay (‘aras) to be affrighted, dread, fear,
oppress, prevail, break, be terrified.

Derivatives

1702a fPsny (‘aris) dreadful (Job 30:6).

17026 tp*sy (‘aris) mighty, awe-inspiring.

1702c =TM¥svI (ma'‘drasad) awful — shock,
crash (Isa 10:33).

The verb ‘dras denotes fear or terror; tran-
sitively, ‘‘to cause terror,’’ or intransitively, ‘‘to
be terrified.’’ The Hebrew root may be compared
with a Syriac root, *‘to come upon suddenly,
violently,’’ and the Arabic ‘arasa ‘to quiver,
flicker." Hebrew synonyms include ydré’ ‘‘to
fear;'’ pdhad ‘‘to tremble;”’ gar ‘‘to be afraid;”’
ydgor ‘‘to be afraid;’’ sd‘ar ‘‘to bristle with hor-
ror; and hatat ‘‘to be shattered, filled with
terror.'’

In the Qal stem the root ‘dras is used in two
ways. In a transitive sense the verb means ‘‘to
cause to tremble, to terrify... An example with
Yahweh as subject is in Isa 2:19, 21, speaking of
the terror of his judgment. The word occurs with
men as the subject in Ps 10:18 (cf. Job 13:25) and
Is 47:12 (with irony). The verb is used intransi-
tively six times meaning, “‘to tremble, be afraid.”’
In five instances those trusting in the might of
Yahweh are commanded not to tremble, for
Yahweh the great and awesome one is in their
midst (Deut 1:29; 7:21; 20:3; 31:6; Josh 1:9). In
these passages the verb ‘dras is associated with
the synonyms yaré’, padhad, and hatat (q.v.).

The Niphal is used once (Ps 89:7 [H 8]) in the
phrase, *‘a God greatly feared in the council of
the holy ones"’ (parallel to néra’ *‘awesome’’).
The Hiphil occurs three times (Isa 8:12-13;
29:23). Yahweh is to be held in reverential awe;
fearing him, one need fear no other.

‘ards. (Properly, Qal passive participle) cliffs
(Job 30:6). BDB reads **(most) dreadful (ravines);”’
AsV ‘frightful (valleys).’’ (KB regards this term
as from another root, ‘aras IH], and renders
‘‘slope,’’ So RSV, ‘‘gully.’’)

‘aris. Mighty, oppressor, in great power, strong,
terrible, violent. (ASV similar; RSV and NASB OCCa-
sionally use ‘‘ruthless.*’)

The adjective ‘dris is found twenty times in the
oT. Once it refers to Yahweh as a ‘‘dread cham-
pion’’ (Jer 20:11, Nass). More often it relates to
the ruthless enemies of an individual (e.g. Ps 54:3
[H 5]; 86:14) or a nation (e.g. Isa 13:11; 25:3-5;
29:5; Jer 15:21). Ezekiel employs the phrase ‘dria
sé goyim “the ruthless of the nations,’ four times
(Ezk 28:7; 30:11; 31:12; 32:12). In Prov 11:16
violent and ruthless men are contrasted to a gra-
clous woman (’éshet hén).

699

1704 SY (‘rr)

ma‘drasa. Terror (Isa_ 10:33). BDB reads,

‘‘awful shock, crash;”’ rsv, *‘ternfying power;”’

NASB, a termble crash;’’ Niv ‘‘great power.”’
R.B.A.

1703 PAY (Carag) gnaw (Job 30:3).

1704 Ssy (‘rr) I. Assumed root of the following.

1704a tM4Y% (me'drad) cave, den, _ hole,
Mearah. (asSv, RSV Similar.)

The word m° ‘ard is a feminine noun from the
root ‘adrar; compare Arabic mag‘arat"" “‘cave,”’
and perhaps the Ugaritic place name mg‘rt (see
UT 19: no. 1523; AisWUS no. 1630). Some au-
thorities (KB, Holladay, Lisowsky, Nes) distin-
guish m‘ ‘dra II, ‘“‘barren field’’ as a hapax
legomenon in Isa 32:14. ‘‘Caves’’ is read there by
other authorities (BDB, KJV, ASV, RSV, NASB, JB).
Synonyms are hor “‘hole, cave,’ and m¢hilla
‘*hole’’ (occurs only as a pl. in Isa 2:19).

The word ‘‘cave”’ is used for temporary dwell-
ing, emergency refuge, or burial. Lot and his
daughters dwelt in a cave for a period of time
(Gen 19:30-38). On numerous occasions people
are reported to have fled to caves for safety from
enemies. Some examples include the Canaanite
kings in the cave at Makkedah (Josh 10:16—27);
Israelites during the Midianite oppression (Jud
6:2) and in a battle with the Philistines (I Sam
13:6); the prophets of Yahweh hidden from
Jezebel by Obadiah (I Kgs 18:4, 13); and wicked
men fleeing from the wrath of Yahweh (Isa 2:19;
cf. Ezk 33:27).

The cave of Machpelah which Abraham pur-
chased from Ephron the Hittite (Gen 23) became
the bunial place for Sarah (Gen 23:19), Abraham
(Gen 25:9), Isaac, Rebekah, Leah (Gen 49:31)
and Jacob (Gen 50:13). The manner of purchase
fits nicely into what is known of Hittite customs
of the day (see Kidner, Genesis, pp. 145-6).
Theologically, the chapter continues Abraham's
testing begun in Gen 22. He who had been prom-
ised the land of Canaan had to purchase a burial
site upon the death of his wife. The cave of
Machpelah is believed to be in the Haram el-
Khalil at Hebron, surrounded by a wall built in
Herod's time (see Avraham Negev, Archaeolog-
ical Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, pp. 141-2,
191).

David in flight from Saul stayed in the Cave
Adullam and a cave at Engedi, a scene of humor
and pathos (see I Sam 22:1; I Chr 11:15; I Sam
24). The titles of Psalms 57 and 142 likely refer to
Adullam.

Elijah is associated with a cave on Mount Sinai
in I Kgs 19:9-18. The definite article in the He-
brew text (v. 9) suggests a specific cave, the very
place in which Moses saw the glory of Yahweh

1705 S3¥ (‘arar)

(Ex 33:21 f.: on this parallel, see, with some cau-
tion, Cross (see bibliography).

Bibliography: Cross, Frank Moore, Jr.,
Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic, Harvard Uni-
versity, 1973. Negev, Avraham, Archaeological
Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, London and
Jerusalem: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972.

R.B.A.

1705 "9¥ (‘drar) I, make bare, strip oneself.

Derivatives
170Sa tap (‘ariri) stripped.
1705b thRSY (‘ar‘ar) stripped, destitute.
170Sc tapisp (‘aré'ér) tree or bush.

The verb ‘drar 1! ts one of several entries in the
vocabulary of nakedness; compare the synonyms
gala “‘to uncover;”” ‘ar *‘to be exposed, bare;”
‘ara “‘to uncover, expose nakedness;'’ and
pashat ‘‘to strip off.’ The verb ‘drar is likely a
by-form from the root ‘dra (q.v.).

Forms from the verbal root ‘drar are found just
four times in the oT, each in a different stem. The
Qal is used in Isa 32:11 (parallel to padshat) asa
command to the complacent women of Jerusalem
to strip off finery and clothe themselves for
mourning. A Poel in Isa 23:13 has been rendered
variously (kJv “they raised up the palaces;”’ asv,
‘they overthrew;”’ rsv, ‘“‘they razed;’* and NaAsB
‘they stripped’’), but the rsv and NaAsB Seem pre-
ferable. E. J. Young writes, ‘‘The reference is to
a stripping of the palaces of all their ornament
and contents’’ (The Book of Isaiah, II, 135). In
Jer 51:58 a Pilpel inf. abs. is coupled to a Hithpal-
pel to render ‘‘completely razed’’ (of the broad
wall of Babylon; rsv, ‘“‘leveled to the ground’’).

‘ariri. Stripped, childless. The adjective ‘driri
means ‘‘stripped’* and is used to describe the
loneliness and *‘nakedness’’ of the childless in an
era when children were necessary for a sense of
completeness. Abraham is ‘driri in Gen 15:2,
having only Eliezer as his adopted heir.
Childlessness was a divine judgment for certain
sexual sins (Lev 20:20-21, cf. the judgmental for-
mula of Jer 22:30).

‘ar‘ar. Stripped, destitute. The adjective
‘ar’adr, **stripped, destitute,’’ occurs as a sub-
Stantive in Ps 102:17 [H 18]. The prayer of the
nakedly destitute is not spurned by the Lord.

‘ard‘ér. Tree, bush. Mentioned only in Jer
17:6. A type of shrub, perhaps the Juniper
(Arabic ‘ar‘ar), Juniperus phoenicia. This is a
shrub with minute leaves like scales, having
small, round tawny-colored cones. (See Fauna
and Flora of the Bible {London: United Bible
Societies, 1972], p. 131). On this shrub, compare
the Hebrew city name ‘drd‘ér.

R.B.A.

700

1706 way (‘rs).

1707 sy (‘sb).

Assumed root of the following.
way (‘eres) couch, divan (e.g.
Deut 3:11; Amos 3:12).

1706a

Assumed root of the following.
1707a tawy (‘éseb) grass, herb. (ASV
similar; rsv, add ‘‘plants.’’)

The masculine noun ‘éseb is one of four major
synonyms for ‘‘vegetation, verdure, herb, or
grass.’’ The English “‘herb,’’ found in the kv, is
used in the broader and older sense of non-woody
tissue vegetation, rather than in the more re-
stricted nuance of seasoning or medicinal plants.
‘é§eb and its synonyms correspond more closely
to the American English use of the word “‘plant”’
than to “‘herb.’’ The other synonyms (which
should be consulted) are: deshe’ ‘‘new, fresh
grass;’’ yereg ‘green plant, verdure’’ (and ydraq
‘greens, vegetables’’); and Aasir I, **green grass,
herbage’ (distinguished by some authonities from
homonyms hasir II, ‘leeks,’ and dasir III,
‘*reeds, cattails’’). The reader is also directed to
the article on ‘és ‘‘tree.’’ A rare word for ‘shrub,
bush”’ is si(a)h, only in Gen 2:5; 21:15; and Job
30:4, 7. The Hebrew ‘éSeb may be compared to
Arabic ‘usb"" **green, fresh herbs, pasturage,”’
and to Akkadian esébu ‘‘to grow luxunantly.’* In
Biblical Aramaic ‘dsab occurs five times in Dan
of Nebuchadnezzar’s bestial affliction, ‘eating
grass like an ox’ (Dan 4:15, 25, 32, 33 [H 4:12,
22, 29-30]; 5:21).

The noun ‘éseb is found thirty-three times in
the Hebrew or, fifteen of which are in the Torah,
and four are in Gen |. In the creation account this
word has its most important role. On the third
creative day God called for the earth to ‘sprout
forth vegetation (deshe'), plants (‘éseb) yielding
seed, and fruit trees (‘és pri) bearing fruit with
its seed within, each according to its kind, on the
earth; and God saw that it was good”’ (Gen 1:11:
cf. v. 12 for fulfillment). In this context, deshe’
‘vegetation,’ appears to be the broader cate-
gory, subsuming both ‘éseb and ‘és, *‘plants and
trees.”’

(The absolute use of ‘éseb in Gen | should be
contrasted with its construct use in the expres-
sion ‘éseb hassddeh *‘plant of the field’’ in Gen
2:5. Cassuto has argued that this expression de-
notes ‘‘cultivated grains’’ (Cassuto, U., Genesis
in loc.). But these did not exist at the time the
Lord formed Adam because there was as yet **no
man to till the ground’’ (Gen 2:5). Accordingly,
Gen | and 2 are in harmony. Whereas *‘plants”’
did exist before the creation of man, cultivated
plants did not. It is possible also, however, that
Gen 2:5-6 refers only to the land where Eden
was, which was watered by the rivers (not
‘mist,’ ’éd, q.v.). This view would find the rec-
onciliation of Gen 1 and 2 in the thought that they

describe different items of God’s creative
activity—the world at large in Gen 1, Eden alone
in Gen 2:4 ff. (Cf. Harns, R. L., “‘The Mist, the
Canopy and the Rivers of Eden,’’ JETS, 11:177-
79). R.L.H.]

Man and animals, some hold, were made origi-
nally as herbivores, according to Gen 1:29—30 (cf.
3:18). Not until God’s covenant with Noah, fol-
lowing the Deluge, was man specifically in-
structed to add meat to his diet, but the blood
of animals was still restricted (Gen 9:3-4). No
account is given of the transformation of some
animals to carnivores, but it is likely that this
was one of many changes brought by the fall
of man and the loss of Edenic conditions. Never-
theless, the ideal of a retransformation of animal
life to herbivorous patterns is part of the es-
chatological hope of Israel—an Eden redivivus
where ‘‘the cow and the bear will graze; / their
young will lie down together; / and the lion will
eat straw (teben) like the ox’’ (Isa 11:7; see con-
text of the entire chapter and compare 65:25).

Some authorities, e.g. Kidner, would demur
from the view that Gen 1:29-30 suggests that all
creatures were herbivorous. Rather, he states
that the statement ‘‘is a generalization, that di-
rectly or indirectly, all life depends on vegeta-
tion, and the concern of the verse is to show that
all are fed from God’s hand’’ (Genesis, p. 52).
But he does admit that for man, meat was a new
concession in Gen 9:3-4 (ibid., p. 101).

Elsewhere in the ot, the noun ‘éseb figures in
the catastrophic plagues of hail (Ex 9:22, 25) and
locusts (Ex 10:12, 15) brought by God through
Moses in the classic confrontation with Pharaoh.
As God was the creator of all vegetation in Gen 1,
so he is the supplier of vegetation in his promises
to his people respecting their new land (Deut
11:15). Nevertheless, for the recalcitrant, God
may prevent the growth of vegetation in judg-
ment (Deut 29:23 [H 22}). The pervasiveness of
grass in a fertile field allows the noun to be used
as a figure for abundance (II Kgs 19:26 (used with
yiraq deshe’ ‘‘green vegetation’’]; Job 5:25; Ps
72:16). The transitoriness of grass under the
Palestinian sun also allows the noun to be used as
a figure of brief flourishing followed by destruc-
tion and death (Isa 37:27; Ps 92:7 [H 8]; 102:4, 11
(H_ 5, 12}).

R.B.A.

1708 m¥wy (‘asa) do, fashion, accomplish.
Derivative
170842 tM¥yr (ma‘dseh) deed, work.
The verb ‘asad has the basic connotation of
‘do’ or ‘‘make.’’ It is used in numerous crystal-

lized expressions, always with the same basic
idea.

701

1708 mwYy (‘asa)

Aside from the numerous occurrences of the
meaning ‘‘do’’ or ‘‘make”’ in a general sense,
‘asa is often used with the sense of ethical obliga-
tion. The covenant people were frequently com-
manded to ‘‘do’’ all that God had commanded
(Ex 23:22; Lev 19:37; Deut 6:18, etc.). The nu-
merous contexts in which this concept occurs at-
test to the importance of an ethical response to
God which goes beyond mere mental abstraction
and which is translatable into obedience which is
evidenced in demonstrable act.

The word is often used in specialized expressions
such as ‘‘make war’’ (Gen 14:2), ‘‘deal kindly”’
(Jud 1:24), ‘show faithfulness’ (Gen 32:11), ‘‘do
folly’? (Deut 22:21), ‘‘offer sacrifice’’ (Ex 10:25),
‘*keep the Passover’ (Ex 12:48), ‘execute ven-
geance’’ (Jud 11:36), and many more.

When used in the sense of ‘‘make,’’ the em-
phasis is on the fashioning of the object (Gen 8:6;
33:17; Ex 25:10-11, 13, 17, etc.).

The word also connotes the concepts **com-
mit,’’ when used of wrong (Hos 6:9), ‘‘to deal
with one’’ (Zech 1:6), and ‘‘to follow’’ in the
sense of following advice (II Sam 17:23).

When used of God, the word frequently em-
phasizes God’s acts in the sphere of history.
These contexts stress one of the most basic con-
cepts of ot theology, i.e. that God is not only
transcendent, but he is also immanent in history,
effecting his sovereign purpose. Moses could re-
call God’s great acts in Egypt, reminding the
people of all that God ‘‘did’’ (Deut 29:1). That
which God has done to the nations is a testimony
to God’s intervention in history (Josh 23:3). Sol-
omon, in his dedicatory prayer, could beseech
God to ‘‘act’’ (I Kgs 8:39). The word ‘dSd is often
used of the signs and wonders performed by God
in the course of history (Josh 24:17; Ps 98:1; Isa
25:1), demonstrating again the heavy emphasis in
the oT on the immanence of God.

The word occurs with great frequency in the
Genesis account of creation, which is the first
great act of God in history. The significant inter-
change between the words bard’ ‘‘create’’ and
‘asa is of great interest. The word bard’ carnes
the thought of the initiation of the object in-
volved. It always connotes what only God can do
and frequently emphasizes the absolute newness
of the object created. The word ‘asd is much
broader in scope, connoting primarily the fash-
ioning of the object with little concern for special
nuances.

The use of bara’ in the opening statement of
the account of creation seems to carry the impli-
cation that the physical phenomena came into ex-
istence at that time and had no previous existence
in the form in which they were created by divine
fiat. The use of ‘asa may simply connote the act
of fashioning the objects involved in the whole
creative process.

1709 ‘wy (‘aSa)
The word ‘asa is also used elsewhere in Scrip-

ture to describe aspects of the creative work of
God (Ps 86:9; 95:5; 96:5).

ma‘dseh. Deed, acts, business, workmanship,
purpose. The primary meaning of the noun
ma‘dSeh is **that which is done or made.”’ It oc-
curs frequently in the basic sense of *‘work’’ or
‘‘labor’’ (Gen $:29; Ex 5:4). The word is used
often in contexts denouncing idols as the **work’”’
of men’s hands (Ps 115:4; Isa 2:8).

The word has the sense of *‘deed”’ and, like its
verbal root, uses that concept in both a general
sense (Gen 20:9; I Sam 19:4) and an ethical sense.
When used in the latter sense, it frequently has a
negative connotation (Ex 23:24; Ezr 9:13). It
may, however, be used positively (Prov 31:31).
The *‘work’’ of an individual is the basis for re-
quital on the part of God (Ps 62:12 (H 13)).

The word frequently occurs in the sense of
‘‘deed”’ in contexts dealing with God’s activity in
the created world (e.g. Ps 118:17). A basic
theological concept emerges in this regard in the
affirmation that God is kind in all his doings (Ps
145:17). The psalmist affirmed that all God’s
work is done in faithfulness (Ps 33:4). His deeds
are awesome (Ps 66:3) and unparalleled (Ps 86:8).

The works of God include the wonders that
God performed on Israel’s behalf (Deut 11:3, 7),
as well as his great acts as they are revealed in his
creation (Ps 107:24). These contexts affirm a
concept of God that is fundamental to the oT
understanding of God. God’s acts are discernible
in two areas: the physical universe which testifies
to God’s power and the sphere of history where
the acts of God may be clearly witnessed. A
well-defined but severely limited natural theology
thus exists in the ot. The concept of God’s activ-
ity in history is an important aspect of oT theol-
ogy. The psalmist warned of the dire results of
forgetting the works of God (Ps 106: 13ff.)

The word ma‘dseh has great significance in the
book of Ecclesiastes. Qoheleth asserts that he
has seen all the works which are done under the
sun, and he finds them devoid of reality (1:14).
The word appears to refer here to the events of
the world of history observed by Qoheleth. The
same usage obtains in 2:17 and 8:9. In
Ecclesiastes, the word is used most frequently of
man’s work. In 3:22 a theology of contentment
emerges, for man is encouraged to enjoy his
work.

The word occurs in an ethical sense referring to
evil deeds (4:3; 8:14b) and good deeds (8:14a).
Because evil deeds are not punished im-
mediately, the wicked are encouraged to do more
wickedness (8:11).

The word ma‘dseh connotes ‘‘work’’ or
**workmanship”’ in numerous contexts (Ex 39:5;
Deut 14:29; I Kgs 7:8) and is frequently used of

702

1709 *mwy (‘dsd) II, press, squeeze.

1710 *pwy (‘asaq)

God in this same sense. The heavens are the
work of God’s fingers (Ps 8:3 (H 4]), and they
proclaim his workmanship (Ps 19:1 [H 2]). God’s
works are a source of gladness (Ps 92:4 [H 5]),
and they are proclaimed as great (Ps 92:5 (H 6];
111:2). The mighty nation of Assymia is only the
work of God's hands (Isa 19:25). Man is also the
work of God's hand, and this concept forms a
basis for Isaiah’s plea for mercy (Isa 64:7-8).

The word occurs in a number of technical ex-
pressions such as ‘‘the work of a baker,”’ i.e.
‘‘baked goods’’ (Gen 40:17) and the work of a
perfumer (Ex 30:25).

Bibliography: TDNT, III, pp. 1005-1028; VI,
pp. 459-72. THAT, II, pp. 359-69.

T.E.M.

Occurs
only in the Piel, in Ezk 23:3, 8.

See no. 171 1d.
See no. I7I1 If.
See no. 171 If.

“iwy (‘asdr).
wy (‘asiri).
mevwy (asirit).

contend. Occurs only in
the Hithpael, in Gen 26:20.

1711 wy (‘sr). Assumed root of the following.

7ila t3wy (Ceser), Baye ('asard) ten.

171lb t3Yyy (‘asadr), mIwy (esréh) ten,
-teen.

17llc t3Wy (‘aSar) take the tenth part of,
tithe.

1711d thiwy (‘asdr) ten, tenth.

7iie tonwy (‘esrim) twenty.

ITHf PIwY Casiri), mBY (‘asiriya),
meawy (‘asirit) a tenth.

TiNIyy (‘issarén) tenth part.

t wy (ma‘dsér) tithe.

1711g
1711h

The Hebrew root ‘sr is related to the Arabic
verb ‘ashara ‘‘to form a community, a group,”
and the Arabic nouns ‘ashirat"" ‘“‘tribe,’’ and
ma'‘shar"“" ‘‘assembly.”’ Likely because of the
ten fingers, the semantic development was ‘‘ten
= collection, union.’’ Hence, ‘‘ten’’ in Arabic is
‘ashr*": in Ugaritic, ‘sr I; in Akkadian, eSru; in
Biblical Aramaic, ‘afar.

The concept of tithing in the oT is one of con-
siderable importance in oT theology. As in the
instances of circumcision (though infant circum-
cision does not seem to be documented outside
Israel), sacrifice, dietary restrictions, and the
like; tithing was not unique with Israel in the an-
cient near east. Other nations of antiquity prac-
ticed tithing. This is true of the Egyptians as well
as the Mesopotamians (see, e.g., citations from
Akkadian literature respecting tithes paid to gods
or temples in CAD, IV-E, 369). Nor was tithing
first introduced to Israel in the Mosaic law.

Abram paid a tithe of his war booty to Mel-
chizedek after receiving a pnestly benediction
from him (Gen 14:20; cf. Heb 7, esp.v. 4), and
Jacob vowed a tithe to God at Bethel following
his dream of a ladder leading to the presence of
Yahweh (Gen 28:22).

It is in the Mosaic code, however, that sense
and shape are given to the tithing principle. As
J.G.S.S. Thompson observes (NBD, p. 1284), the
three clusters of instruction in the Torah serve to
answer three basic questions concerning tithing:
(1) ‘““what?’’ (2) ‘‘to whom” and (3) “‘where?”’

The first question, ‘‘what is to be tithed?”’ is
answered in the last paragraph of Lev 27 (vv.
30-34). In this major passage, of seemingly inci-
dental setting in the book, the range of the tithe is
given in the broadest possible terms, and in a
manner perfectly suited for an agricultural econ-
omy. All the tithe of the land belongs to Yahweh.
This includes vegetation as well as animal life,
without exception. Moreover, the tithe is not to
be confused with the offering of the firstfruits (Ex
22:29-30 [H 28-29]; see Eichrodt, Theology of
the Old Testament, I, p. 153), nor is it to be based
on partiality (keeping the better for oneself). Re-
specting animals, for instance, a herdsman was
simply to count every tenth animal as it would
leave the fold and regard it as belonging to
Yahweh. A farmer might wish to convert his ag-
ricultural tithe to cash (for ease in transporting
it), but he would have to add a fifth to it, to pre-
clude any financial advantage. He could not
make such an exchange for his animals. The re-
sultant tithe was “holy to Yahweh" (see
qodesh), set apart to his exclusive use.

A second question respecting tithing, ‘‘to
whom are tithes to be given?,’’ is answered in
Num 18:21-32. As the Levites were not to be
given a territorial inheritance in Canaan, their
reward for their service to God was “‘every tithe
of Israel’’ (18:21). In their own regard, the Le-
vites were to give a tithe of their own income (*'a
tithe of the tithe,’’ 18:26), which was reckoned by
Yahweh to be as fitting as the grain from agricul-
tural workers. These Levitical tithes were paid to
the priest.

A third question, ‘where are tithes to be
given?” is answered in Deut 12: 1-14 and 14:22-
29. Tithes and sacrifices were not to be given ‘‘at
every place that you see’’ (12:13), but at the
‘‘place which Yahweh will choose in one of your
tribes’* (12:14). This central sanctuary site, sub-
sequently decided to be Jerusalem, was the only
authorized point for the presentation of tithes and
offerings in the new land (12:6). In the presenta-
tion of these tithes and offerings there was to be a
sacred meal, in which the Levite was to share,
eaten with rejoicing and praise to the magnificent
blessing of Yahweh (12:7; cf. 14:23). If the dis-
tance would prove to be too great, one might

703

1711 Wy (‘Sr)

convert the produce to a monetary equivalent. In
Deut 14:28-29 regulations are given for the distri-
bution of tithes within one’s own locality every
three years. In this tithe there was an emphasis
on the needs of the poor and the defenseless (cf.
26:12-15).

Such were “the comparatively simple laws in
the Pentateuch governing tithing’? (Thompson).
There are some complexities, however, respect-
ing these simple laws.

One complexity concerns the number of tithes
Israel was to pay. Some read the legislation in the
Torah without any thought or question that more
than one tithe might be under discussion. Yet, H.
Landsdell and others, especially on the basis of
Deut 14:22-29 as compared with Lev and Num
argue for three tithes: (1) the tithe to be given to
the Levites (14:27; Num 18), (2) the tithe for the
sacred feast (14:22-26), and (3) the tithe in the
third year in the local area for the poor (14:28-
29). Landsdell concludes, ‘‘It would seem, then,
that the Mosaic law enjoined upon the Israelite to
pay yearly, in connection with his religion, two-
tenths, and, at the end of three years, a third
tenth, of his income’”’ (The. Tithe and the Scrip-
ture, p. 36; for contra, see S. R. Driver, Deuter-
onomy, ICC, pp. 166-73; M. G. Kline, Treaty of
the Great King, Eerdmans, 1963, pp. 87-88 ar-
gues that only a small portion of the single tithe
would go for a communal meal, and that the tithe
for the poor was an alternate use of the annual
tithe on the third and sixth years). Dennis Wret-
lind argues that there were two kinds of tithes,
one primary tithe (Lev 27 and Num 18), and two
secondary tithes (Deut 12, 14, 26), whose pur-
poses related to the ‘‘justice, mercy, and faithful-
ness’’ of our Lord's words in Matt 23:23; that is,
justice to the Levite, faithfulness to God, and
mercy to the poor (unpub. master’s thesis, **Fi-
nancial Stewardship in the New Testament
Church,’ Western Baptist Seminary, 1975).

A second complexity relates to the perversion
of the tithing legislation. Israel and later Judaism
were prone to err in one of two ways. Either they
kept the law too rigidly, losing its intended pur-
pose, so that tithing came to be regarded as a
means of obtaining mercy from God in the inter-
testamental and New Testament periods (cf. Lk
11:42); or Israel neglected the tithe and became
guilty of robbing God (Mal 3:8-10).

Perspective on tithing in the ot is found in two
directions, Godward and manward. Respecting
the Godward thrust, tithing was never meant to
be an onerous weight, that one must give a tithe
of what one earns. Rather, the tithe was a liberat-
ing act of joyful worship (e.g. Deut 12:12; cf. the
**cheerful giver’’ of II Cor 9:7). All that one has is
God’s (on this point, see J. B. Payne, The Theol-
ogy of the Older Testament, p. 434). The surren-
der to his use of a small proportion of what one

1711 swy (Sr)

holds in trust by his grace is a grateful act of
submission and dependence. Secondly, tithing
has a manward, or community thrust; it is part of
the inter-relatedness of the people (‘dm) of God.
The Levites who were in the service of God, not
in commercial activity, were the direct bene-
ficiaries of the tithes (Num 18:21). There was an
inter-relatedness, therefore, between their minis-
try and the daily labor of the non-Levites. In this
synergistic bond there was a regular reminder of
their need one for another. Moreover, the poor,
the widows, and the orphans (proverbial subjects
of neglect) were to be maintained by means of the
tithe of the third year (Deut 14:29). They too,
though defenseless, were a part of the community
(‘am). The tithes insured their well-being (cf. the
repeated test of true religion, one’s care for the
widow and orphan, e.g. Isa 1:23; James 1:27), a
major step toward a healthy society.

‘eSer, ‘dSara. Ten (ASV, RSV). The cardinal nu-
meral *‘ten’’ in masculine and feminine forms, is
found very often in the Hebrew ort (176 times).
Only occasionally are the forms of the number
ten joined to other numbers (e.g. Gen 50:22,
‘‘Joseph lived one hundred ten years’’). More
often these forms of the word are used for a group
not exceeding ten items, such as ‘‘ten bulls’”’
(Gen 32:15 (H 16]). In the Aramaic sections of the
oT, ‘‘ten’’ is found five times (‘aSar and ‘agrda).
While ten is the number used in several important
lists, such as the Ten Commandments (literally,
‘**ten words,’ Deut 4:13), there does not appear
to be any mystical or symbolic significance to the
number ten in the oT.

‘asar, ‘eSréh. Ten, -teen’ (ASV, RSV). These are
the masculine and feminine forms of ‘‘ten’’ which
are joined to units to make the numbers 11-19,
both cardinals and ordinals. Usually the num-
bered item, if commonly used with numbers, is in
the singular (e.g. ‘“‘day,’’ ‘‘month,’’ “‘year,”’
etc.); otherwise, the numbered item will be in the
plural. In making the ‘‘teen,’’ the unit may pre-
cede or follow the form for ‘*ten.’’ Again, this isa
very common entry in the Hebrew or. The mas-
culine is found 203 times and the feminine 144
times, the gender agreeing with the item num-
bered.

‘aSar. To tithe, give or take a tithe, take a tenth.
(ASV, RSV similar.) A denominative verb accord-
ing to BDB, but not KB (witness the Qal in I Sam
8:15, 17; elsewhere Piel or Hiphil). The verb *‘to
tithe’’ 1s used in only five passages in the ot (Gen
28:22, in Jacob’s vow to God at Bethel; Deut
14:22, in God's command to tithe agricultural
produce annually; Deut 26:12, in the tithe of the
third year, designated for the Levite and the poor;
I Sam 8:15, 17, in Samuel’s warning of the tax-
ation policies likely to be instituted with the

704

coming of kingship; and Neh 10:37-38 [H 38-39},
of Levites who were to collect the tithes from
rural areas). In four of these passages, tithing is
described as an act of worship to God. In one
(I Sam 8:15, 17) the word is used, perhaps with
some irony, of the oppressive taxation of a king
(a common practice in the ancient near east).

‘asér. Ten, tenth. A masculine noun meaning
‘‘aten.’’ In Gen 24:55 it is used of a period of ten
days, and in Ps 33:2 of an instrument with ten
strings (so Ps 92:3 {H 4]; 144:9). Elsewhere, ‘ds6ér
is used in a date formula, ‘‘on the tenth day of the
month’ (Ex 12:3, ten plus times).

‘esrim. Twenty. The plural of ten is used for
“*twenty’’ in the Hebrew ot; it is very common,
seen 315 times.

‘asiri, ‘asiriya, ‘dsirit. A tenth. These are the
masculine and two feminine forms of the ordinal
‘*tenth.’’ They are used in such phrases as, “‘the
tenth day’’ (Num 7:66). The words are used as
well as substantives (e.g. ‘a tenth’’ [a remnant],
Isa 6:13; ‘‘a tithe’’ of herds and flocks, Lev
27:32).

‘issar6n. A tenth deal (asv, ‘‘tenth part (of an
ephah)’’; rsv, ‘*a tenth of an ephah’’). A measure
of quantity employed in Ex Lev and Num in sac-
rificial texts (thirty-three times).

ma‘asér. Tithe, tenth part. This is the noun for
‘tithe,’ to which the verb ‘dsar ‘‘to tithe’’ 1s
related. The first mention of a tithe in the oT is
Abram's offering to Melchizedek (Gen 14:20).
Legislation respecting the tithe is given in Lev 27,
Num 18, and Deut 12, 14, 26. After the legal cor-
pus the word “‘tithe’’ appears infrequently in the
oT. In pre-exilic texts subsequent to the Torah,
this word occurs only in Amos 4:4 (although
II Chr 31:5ff. records tithes in the reform of
Hezekiah). In post-exilic texts, ma‘dasér is found
six times in Neh and twice in the classic text in
Mal 3 (vv. 8, 10). In Ezk this noun is used twice
of a tenth part of a measurement (45:11, 14).

Bibliography: Corley, Bruce, **The Intertes-
tamental Perspective of Stewardship,’ South-
western Journal of Theology 13:19-24. David,
John J., Biblical Numerology, Baker, 1968.
Landsdell, Henry, The Sacred Tenth, Baker,
1955. , The Tithe in Scripture, Baker,
1963. Segal, J. B., ‘Numerals in the Old Testa-
ment,’ JSS 10:2-20. Vischer, Lukas, Tithing in
the Early Church, Fortress, 1966.

R.B.A.

wy (‘issarén). See no. 171 1g.
pawy (‘esrim). See no. 171le.
Wy (ash). See no. 1715a.

miwy (‘ashdqg). See no. 1713c.
pyeswy (‘dshugim). See no. 1713d.

See no. !1716b.
See no. 1714b.

mivy (‘ashot).
“wy (‘ashir).

1712 WY (‘ashan) to smoke; to be angry. De-
nominative verb.

Parent Noun

17l2a twee (‘ashan)
I712b WWY (‘adshén)
Isa 7:4).

‘ashan. Smoke. This noun (cf. Arabic ‘atana)
means **smoke,’’ both literally and figuratively.
Comparison should be made with the root qgdtar
(Ugaritic gtr) which is a term used in the ot for
sacrificial smoke.

‘ashdn is used of the smoke arising from the
burning city of Ai (Josh 8:20—-21). The term then
becomes an ominous figure of the utter devasta-
tion of the enemies of Yahweh (Ps 37:20; 68:2
(H 3}; Isa 34:10; Nah 2:14); and, conversely, of
the destructive powers of wickedness (Isa 9:18
(H 17}). Smoke is an irritant to the eyes (Prov
10:26), may be a military signal (Jud 20:38, 40),
and smoke clouds arise from caravans (Song 3:6)
or armies (Isa 14:31). Smoke, like vapor (see
hebel), is a picture of transitoriness (Ps 102:3
{H 4]; Isa 51:6; Hos 13:3). Once the word is used
of the fire-snorting Leviathan (Job 41:20 [H 12]).

Most significantly, the root ‘adshdn is used of
Yahweh in two ways. First, smoke is a marked
attendant to the theophanies to Abram (Gen
15:17), Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex 19:18; 20:18;
cf. Ps 104:32; 144:5; II Sam 22:9; Ps 18:8 (H 9];
Isa 4:5; Joel 2:30 (H 3:3]), and in Isaiah’s vision
of God (Isa 6:4). The origin of the figure is
obscure, but the portent is clear. Smoke (along
with fire) proclaims the terror of Yahweh, the
confrontation of his holiness with man’s sin (see
Derek Kidner, Genesis, pp. 124-25). Secondly,
the verb and noun may refer to the anger of
Yahweh (Deut 29:20 [H 19]; Ps 74:1; 80:4 (H 5];
Isa 65:5). Whereas the anger of God against his
enemies is terrifying indeed, the smoke and terror
of his presence does not create panic among his
own, but a mysterious wonderment, attraction,
reverence, joy, and confidence (see Eichrodt,
Theology of the Old Testament, II, p. 270).

R.B.A.

smoke.
smoking (Ex 20:18;

1713 pwy (‘ashaq) oppress, get deceitfully, de-
fraud, do violence.
Derivatives

1713a =pwy (‘dsheq) oppression, extortion.

1713b « BBwWY (‘oshqad) oppression,
distress (Isa 38:14).

1713c = Iw 6 (‘adshdq) oppressor (Jer
22:3).

1713d 0 BSDIwY (‘dshaqim) oppressions.

705

1713 wy (‘ashaq)

1713e =P (ma‘dshaqqd) extortion

(Prov 28:16; Isa 33:15).

The verbal root ‘dshag 1s concerned with acts
of abuse of power or authority, the burdening,
trampling, and crushing of those lower in station.
Important synonyms in the semantic range of
‘dshaq include: gdzal ‘“‘to deprive, take by
force;’’ dakd’ (Niphal) ‘to be crushed;"’ yand
‘to be violent, to oppress;”’ /dhas ‘to crowd,
oppress, torment;’’ sdrar ‘‘to be cramped, op-
pressed;”” rdsas ‘to ill-treat, abuse;’’ and
shddad ‘‘to devastate, maltreat."’ The Hebrew
root ‘dshagq has been related to the Akkadian ad-
jective eSqu ‘strong, massive,’ and the Arabic
noun ‘asaq"" ‘‘roughness, injustice, ill-nature’’
(cf. Arabic ‘usug ‘‘hard toward his debtors’’).

E. Jacob writes in his Theology of the Old Tes-
tament, ‘If man’s nature can be defined by the
theme of the image of God, his function can be
qualified as an imitation of God. This involves a
double obligation for man, we might say a double
outlook: one eye turned towards God and the
other towards the world’’ (p. 173). This **double
outlook’’ precludes for the righteous any oppres-
sion of those of inferior station in life. Just as
man, much-forgiven, is expected by God to re-
spond forgivingly to others, so one, who has been
dealt with in extraordinary graciousness by the
Master of eternity owes favorable treatment to
the defenseless. The proverb explains, ‘He who
oppresses the poor reproaches his Maker / But he
who Is gracious to the needy honors Him"’ (Prov
14:31, NASB).

Oppression, hence, is a grievous sin against
which Israel was warned in stern terminology.
One is never to oppress (‘dshaq) or rob (gazal)
his neighbor (Lev 19:13), or his hired servant,
whether a fellow Israelite or a foreign sojourner
(Deut 24:14). Ludicrous is the poor man who
would oppress the lowly (Prov 28:3). Those most
likely to be mistreated and oppressed were those
without adequate defense of their rights, i.e. the
widow, the orphan, the sojourner and the poor.
Against none of these were evil acts to be di-
rected or contemplated (Zech 7:10; see Jer 7:6).
Such acts of oppression are a breach of faith
against Yahweh (see Lev 6:1-—7 [H 5:21-26]). Of
such gross abuses of privilege and power the
prophet Samuel was able to maintain full inno-
cence (I Sam 12:3—4). The king, a regent under
Yahweh had as a divine task the vindication of
those oppressed by wicked men (Jer 21:12). The
king was to ‘‘crush the oppressor” (widakké’
‘é6shéq, Ps 72:4). This is in imitation of Yahweh
who ‘‘works vindication and justice for all who
are oppressed’’ (Ps 103:6; see Ps 105:14; I Chr
16:21; Ps 146:7).

Nevertheless, one of the pervasive and persis-
tent sins of many Israelites was the oppression of

1714 wy (‘ashar)

the poor and the weak and the committing of
gross acts of extortion against the sojourner (Ezk
22:29, Hos 12:7 [H 8], ‘the loves to oppress’’;
Amos 4:1; Mic 2:2; Mal 3:5). For such acts,
punishment by Yahweh is just: ‘“You shall be
only oppressed and robbed continually and there
will be no one to help you”’ (Deut 28:29; cf. v.
33). Yet in his judgment God does remember
mercy. Israel who is oppressed by others for her
own oppressive actions (Hos 5:11) will yet see
God's redemption (Jer 50:33-34).

Once (wrongly!) God is accused of oppressing
the righteous (Job 10:3). The righteous may pray,
however, that Yahweh will preserve them from
oppressive acts (Ps 119: 121-22). Two rare uses of
the verb ‘dshagq are in Job 40:23 (of a turbulent,
raging river), and Prov 28:17 (one burdened,
laden with the blood of another).

R.B.A.

1714 "Wy (‘ashar) be rich, Qal; to enrich,

Hiphil; pretend to be rich, Hithpael.
Derivatives
1714a wy (‘osher) riches.
17146 9WYy (‘dshir) rich, rich man.

This verbal root (‘dtar in Biblical Aramaic) is
one of the major entries in the lexicon of wealth
and riches. Some synonyms are: hén ‘‘wealth,”’
hadmoén ‘“‘riches,”” hayil ‘“‘property, wealth,”
hosen ‘treasure,’ yitrd’ “‘savings,”’ yitrén *‘pro-
fit,’ n°kdsim ‘‘wealth,” and matmén ‘‘trea-
Sure.”

There is an ambivalent attitude in the oT re-
specting wealth and riches. On the one hand,
riches are said to be the blessing of Yahweh to
the righteous (Ps 112:3; cf. Prov 10:22; I Sam 2:7
(Hannah’s psalm]), the reward of humble faith
(Prov 22:4), the gain of wisdom (Prov 14:24), the
reward of valor (I Sam 17:15), the result of dili-
gent labor (Prov 10:4), and the proper adornment
of kings (e.g. Solomon [I Kgs 10:23; II Chr 9:22;
cf. If Chr 1:1]-12], Jehoshaphat (II Chr 17:5],
and Hezekiah [II Chr 32:27]; but cf. Deut 17:17).

Conversely, riches may lead to _ self-
dependence rather than dependence’ upon
Yahweh (see Ephraim in Hos 12:8 [H 9]), may
derive from deceit and treachery (Jer 5:27), may
fly away with eagles’ wings (Prov 23:4), cannot
redeem a soul (Ps 49:6 [H 7]; cf. I Pet 1:18-19!),
and cannot last (Ps 49:16—-17 (H 17-18]; ‘‘you
cannot take it with you!’’). Hence, a good name
is more desirable (Prov 22:1).

As in so many areas of life, the evil is not in
one’s riches, but in one’s attitude toward them.
Proverbs 28:20 reads, “‘A faithful man will
abound with blessings / But he who makes haste
to be rich will not go unpunished’’ (Nass). He
who has riches (or wisdom or might) had rather

boast in knowing Yahweh (Jer 9:23-24 [H 22-23],
cf. I Cor 1:29-30). Rather than in riches the right-
eous trust in the loyal love of Yahweh (Ps 52:7-8
(H 9-10]). The verb ‘dshar in Ps 65:9 (H 10] re-
fers to Yahweh's (millennial) enrichment of the
earth in the year of his goodness (Ps 65:11 (H
12)).

The tension between the benefits and dangers
of riches is well expressed in the sage’s prayer:
‘‘Give me neither poverty nor riches, feed me
with the food that is my portion, lest I be full and
deny thee and say ‘Who is the Lord?’ or lest I be
in want and steal and profane the name of my
God’’ (Prov 30:8-9).

R.B.A.
1715 wwy (Cashésh) waste away.
Derivative
1715a We (ash) moth.
1716 myy (‘ashat) I, be smooth or shiny (Jer
5:28).
Derivatives
1716a Mwy (‘eshet) plate (Song 5:14).
1716b «omiwy (‘dshét) smooth (Ezk
27:19).
1717 *nwy (Cashat) WH, think. Occurs only in
the Hithpael, in Jon 1:6.
Derivatives
1717a so AIMWy (‘ashtat) thought (Job
J 2:5).
1717b «MMW Y (‘eshtdnd) thought (Ps
146:4).
1717c = HWY (C‘ashté) one.

See no. 1717a.
See no. 1717c.
See no. 1717b.

PInWy (‘ashtiit).
‘Mwy (Cashté).
mimwy (‘eshtona).
1718 manwy (‘ashtoret) Ashtoreth, Ashtoroth
(plural). This is the name of a Canaanite
goddess of sex and war, a vivid repre-
sentation of paganism in its most corrupt
manifestations.

Derivatives

1718a tminmwy (‘ashtdrdt) I, flocks.
1718b tminmwy (‘ashtdrdot) II, Ashtaroth.

‘ashtarét J. Flocks (ASV, RSV, NASB, ‘‘young’’).
The term occurs four times in Deut (7:13; 28:4,
18, 51) inthe phrase, ‘asht°rét so’nekd, rendered
‘the flocks of thy sheep”’ (kiv), or “‘the young of
thy/your flock’’ (Asv, RSV, NASB; ‘“‘ewes’’ by KB,
Holladay). Albright observes, ‘‘Since Astarte
was best known as the patroness of sexual re-

706

production, this is a very natural development,
quite acceptable in Israel, as the Israelites had
little feeling for the religious connotations of the
expression’ (YGC, pp. 185-86).

‘ashtarét JI. Ashtaroth. (aASv, RSV Similar.) A
place name, perhaps associated with the worship
of Astarte, some twenty miles east of the Sea of
Galilee, Tell ‘Ashtarah; mentioned in the Amarna
texts and Assynian inscriptions (see maps 21, 23,
24, etc., in The Macmillan Bible Atlas).
Ashteroth (near) Karnaim was conquered by
Chedorlaomer in the war of Gen 14. Ashtaroth in
the time of Moses was the principal city of Og,
king of Bashan (Deut 1:4; see Josh 9:10; 12:4;
13:12, 31; I Chr 6:71 (H 56]—gentilic).

The goddess Astarte, as she is known in Greek
transliteration, figures prominently in the reli-
gious world of the ancient Near East as a mother-
goddess associated with sexual reproduction as
well as warfare. The Hebrew ‘ashtoret is cognate
to Akkadian istar and Ugaritic ‘trrt (there 1s also
amasculine deity, ‘ttr; cf. Moabite ‘shtr [masc.],
Phoenician ‘shtrt, Aramaic ‘tr, Old South Arabic
‘attar [masc.]). The Hebrew ‘ashtar6ét is the
plural form. Albright and Pope suggest that the
plural refers not to many such goddesses, but re-
flects ‘‘an increasing tendency to employ the
plural of the name ‘‘in the clear sense of totality
of manifestations of a deity’ ”’ (Pope, p. 20, quot-
ing Albright, p. 213). The BDB lexicon observes
that the singular form ‘ashtdret may be an artifi-
cial pronunciation to suggest the vowel pattern of
the Hebrew boshet ‘‘shame’’ (q.v.); the Akka-
dian, Ugaritic [normalized ‘attart], and Greek
renderings show no vowel between the last two
consonants. This singular Hebrew form is used
three times in the book of Kings of a Sidonian
goddess worshiped by Solomon (I Kgs 11:5, 33;
Il Kgs 23:13, called the shigqis ‘‘abominable
idol,’ of the Sidonians). Elsewhere in the or the
plural ‘ashtdrét is found, usually associated with
Baalim (the plural of Baal [q.v.], Jud 2:13; 10:6:
I Sam 7:4; 12:10), and once with ‘‘strange gods”’
(I Sam 7:3). Saul’s armor was placed in a temple
of Ashtaroth upon his death (I Sam 31:10).

Some scholars dissent, but it appears likely
that the goddesses Ashera (q.v.) and Astarte are
one and the same (e.g. Kapelrud, p. 62). In the
Hebrew Bible, as in the Ugaritic texts, Astarte is
used much less often than Ashera. Yet they are
both associated with Baal (and in Ugaritic, with
El). To complicate the picture of the Canaanite
pantheon further, some scholars suggest that the
goddess Anat (Ugaritic ‘nt, UT 19: no. 1889), the
consort of El and the sisterspouse of Baal, is
identified at times with Ashera and Astarte (e.g.
Harrison, p. 167). Anat does not occur in the oT
as the name of a goddess, but is the name of
Shamgar’s father (Jud 3:31; 5:6; cf. Anathoth, a

707

1719 *Imy (‘atod)

1719 *3ny (‘atod)

place name, Josh 21:18). The devotees of these
goddesses glorified Astarte, Ashera, and Anat
(or, aS some suggest, one goddess under three
designations) in terms of exaggerated sexual fea-
tures (so the terra cotta figurines) coupled with
vicious sadism (so the nauseating scenes in the
Uganitic epic literature).

Modern readers of the oT doubtless miss occa-
sionally the import of Canaanite idolatry. The
worship of a Canaanite god or goddess was no
minor blemish in Israel’s history. Besides having
a devastatingly debasing effect on the practi-
tioner, the acts of worship, which included male
and female cultic prostitutes in hetero- and homo-
sexual liaisons, were fundamentally opposed to
the worship of the living God, and were, in fact,
acts of treason against his suzerainty. R. K. Har-
rison, after describing the gross and savage wor-
ship system of the Canaanites, concludes that
‘‘its sordid and debased nature stand in marked
contrast to the high ethical ideals of Israel. The
absolute lack of moral character in the Canaanite
deities made such corrupt practices as ritual pros-
titution, child sacrifice, and licentious worship
the normal expression of religious devotion and
fervor. In consequence there could be no com-
promise between the morality of the God of Israel
and the debased sensuality of Canaanite religion’’
(see Bibliography, p. 170).

Bibliography: Albnght, William Foxwell,
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical
Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, Garden
City, N.Y.: Doubleday, & Co., Inc., 1968. Cas-
suto, U., The Goddess Anath: Canaanite Epics
of the Patriarchal Age, Tr. Israel Abrahams,
Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1971. Cross, Frank
Moore, Jr., Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic:
Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel,
Harvard University, 1973. Harrison, R. K., Old
Testament Times, Eerdmans, 1970. Kapelrud,
Arvid S., The Ras Shamra Discoveries and the
Old Testament, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965.
Pope, Marvin H., El in the Ugaritic Texts, Sup-
plements to Vetus Testamentum, II, Leiden:
Bnill, 1955.

R.B.A.
my (‘ét). See no. 1650b.
be ready.
the Piel and the Hithpael.

Occurs only in

Derivatives
17192 WHY (atid), My (‘atid) ready,
prepared.
1719b =tsIAy (‘attiid) he-goat, ram, chief

one.

‘attad. He-goat. The Hebrew noun ‘attiid is
one of several terms used for goats in the oT, and

1720 *any (‘atam)

is to be compared to Akkadian atidu ‘‘wild
sheep,’ and Arabic ‘atud"" ‘young he-goat.”’
For a list of Hebrew synonyms see ‘éz.

The male goat was a sacrificial animal and the
‘attid is So designated as part of the peace offer-
ings of the leaders of Israel thirteen times in Num
7 (twelve times for each offering, plus once
{v. 88] in the total). In these offerings the ‘artad
is associated with rams and male lambs. Sacrifice
must be motivated by reverent attitude, to be ac-
ceptable. Hence, Yahweh spurns the blood of
goats from the wicked and unrepentant (Isa 1:11),
and expresses scornful irony in Ps 50:7-15 re-
specting those who sacrifice wrongfully.

Goats are part of Moses’ picture of the plenty
of the land of Canaan (Deut 32:14). Striped or
speckled goats were rather rare; hence, Jacob’s
stratagem in the Laban struggle (Gen 31). The
word is employed figuratively on occasion. Since
the ‘attiid was the head of the flock (Jer 50:8), the
term could be used of rulers and leaders (see Isa
14:9; Ezk 34:17).

See no. 1650c.

My (‘atad). See no. 1719a.

33mY (‘attad). See no. 1719b.

‘my (‘atti). See no. 1650d.

wnmy (‘atid). See no. 1719a.

mny (Catiqg), PAY (attiq).
1721c,d.

may (atta).

See nos.

1720 *ony (‘atam) Occurs only in Isa 9:18, in
the Niphal. Meaning dubious, perhaps
‘will be scorched.”’

1721 pry (‘atéq) become old, be removed, Qal;
copy out, leave off, remove, Hiphil.
Derivatives
172ta tPpy (‘ataq) forward, arrogant (of
speech).
1721b «teny (‘atéq) durable (Prov 8:18).
721c «temp (‘atiq) durable.
1721d T>°AP (‘attiq) ancient.

This root is used infrequently in Hebrew of
spatial motion and temporal aging. Its Akkadian
cognate etégu is a common verb meaning ‘'‘to
pass along, advance.’’ Cognates are found also in
Arabic (‘ataqga *‘to precede, grow old’’), Ugaritic
(‘tq ‘‘to pass’’) and Aramaic (‘attig *‘old’’).

The root is used in the Qal in Job 14:18 of a
rock moving from its place (cf. Job 18:4). It is
used of aging with consequent weakening (of the
eye) (Ps 6:7 [H 8]), and of persistent strength of
the wicked (Job 21:7).

In the Hiphil stem the root is used twice of
patnarchal travels (Abram in Gen 12:8, Isaac in
Gen 26:22). Job 32:15 speaks of words failing,
leaving the speaker in the lurch. Job 9:5 tells of

708

the awesome power of Yahweh who removes
mountains, overthrowing them in his anger. A
unique employment of the Hiphil is found at Prov
25:1 where the proverbs of Solomon are said to
have been transmitted by the men of Hezekiah
(So R. B. Y Scott, Proverbs, in AB, p. 155.

‘ataq. Arrogancy, grievous things, hard things,
stiff. Used of froward, insolent and arrogant
speech (I Sam 2:3; Ps 31:19; 75:6; 94:4).

‘atéq. Durable. (asv same; RSv, ‘“‘enduring.’’)
An adjective used in Prov 8:18 of ancient or
hereditary (hence, eminent) wealth.

‘atiq. Durable. (asv same; RSv, ‘‘fine.’’) Used
only in Isa 23:18, of noble or choice attire.

‘attiq. Ancient, drawn away. (ASV, RSV, ‘‘an-
cient, weaned.’’). Used to mean removed from
the breasts (weaned) in Isa 28:9, and old or an-
cient in I Chr 4:22.

R.B.A.
1722 sny (‘atar) I, pray, entreat.
Derivative
1722a MY (‘atdr) suppliant, —worshiper
(Zech 3:10).

The verb ‘dtar is a somewhat unusual entry in
the vocabulary of prayer. Its Arabic cognate ‘at-
ara means ‘‘to slaughter for sacrifice.’’ Perhaps
the Hebrew ‘datar has a sacrificial basis (so von
Rad, Old Testament Theology, 1, p. 380, and
Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, |,
p. 172). In Ex 8:28 [H 24) ‘dtar is related to sac-
rifice, but see below. This verb is rendered in the
LXx often by euchomai *‘to pray’’ (Ex 8-10) and
(in the Niphal) epakoud ‘to hear with favor.”’
The word ‘‘entreat’’ means ‘‘to make an earnest
prayer or request, to beseech, implore.’ Impor-
tant synonyms include hdnan (Hithpael) ‘‘to
plead for grace,’ pdga‘' ‘“‘to urge strongly,’
palal (Hithpael) ‘‘to pray,’’ sha’al ‘‘to ask, re-
quest,’ and hald (Piel) ‘‘to appease, entreat.”’

The biblical doctrine of prayer, as Eichrodt at-
tests, is remarkable for the element of freedom
from ‘‘any trace of hollow pathos or high-flown
flattery; rather its marks are a childlike simplic-
ity, sincerity and confidence’? toward Yahweh.
Further, in contrast to the prayer literature of the
ancient Near East, there is not a “‘disparity be-
tween the prayer of the cultus and the prayer of
the private individual’’ (Eichrodt, Theology of
the Old Testament, I, p. 175). Biblical prayer 1s
spontaneous, personal, motivated by need, un-
conditioned by time or place. As VWnezen ob-
serves, ‘“‘God could be approached anywhere
(Gen. XXIV) and at any moment of the day”
(Outline of Old Testament Theology, p. 279). It is
of interest that in Israel’s worship despite the de-

tailed instructions for sacrifice, there is not a
fixed liturgy of prayer. It was to be spontaneous.

Of the twenty occurrences of ‘adtar, eight are
found in the theological contest of the plagues in
Ex 8-10, (viz. Ex 8:8-9, 28-30 [H 4-5, 24-26]:
9:28; 10:17-18). In Ex 8:28 [H 24] sacrifice is re-
lated to the prayer of entreaty; such a relation-
ship seems likely throughout this episode. Sacri-
ficial acts are associated with the making of
entreaty in II Sam 24:15 (David offers burnt offer-
ings and peace offerings to stay the plague at the
direction of the prophet Gad), and perhaps in
II Sam 21:14 (concerning the burial of Saul and
Jonathan). Sacrifice need not always accompany
prayer of entreaty, however, as the two and
one-half eastern tribes prayed to God in the midst
of battle, ‘“‘and He was entreated for them, be-
cause they trusted in Him” (I Chr 5:20). Yet
another example of sacrifice-less entreaty is
given by Manasseh in his prayer of contrition
while in Babylonian captivity (II Chr 33:12-13:;
cf. v. 19). In this passage ‘drar is used along with
hala **to appease,’’ kana‘ *‘to humble oneself’
(Niphal), palal *‘to pray’ (Hithpael), and the
noun ¢’hinnd ‘‘supplication.”’

The active forms of ‘dtar (Qal and Hiphil) have
to do with prayer as it is given to Yahweh in

709

1724 SAY (tr)

earnest entreaty; the passive (Niphal) is used of
the prayer as received with favor by Yahweh, the
marvelous display of his grace and condescen-
sion. This interplay of voice may be observed in
Gen 25:21: “‘And Isaac entreated to (Qal)
Yahweh on behalf of his wife, for she was barren,
and Yahweh was entreated of him (Niphal) and
Rebekah his wife conceived.'* This verb is to be
distinguished from two homonyms: ‘dtar I] and
‘atar III.

Bibliography: TDNT,II, pp. 785-800. THAT,
II, pp. 385-86.

R.B.A.
1723 *sny (‘atar) UH, be abundant. Occurs
only in the Niphal and Hiphil.
Derivative
1723a onany (‘ateret) abundance (Jer
33:6).
1724 smy (‘tr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1724a “ny (‘atar) odor (of incense, Ezk

8:11).

many (‘dteret). See no. 1723a.

1725 M8) (pa’a) cleave in pieces

Derivative

1725a tMSB (pé'a) corner, side.

pe’a. Corner, side. pé'a is used eighty-two
times in the oT, five times in the absolute state,
seventy-seven times in the construct state. The
one questionable reference is Amos 3:12, ‘‘The
sons of Israel will be rescued that dwell in
Samana in the corner of a bed (bip* ‘at mitta).”’
KB, p. 780, suggests that pe’da here is from the
root ydpa/ydpa’ *‘to be beautiful’ and translates
‘splendid (i.e., luxurious) couch.”’

It is of interest to note that of the eighty-two
occurrences of pé’d, forty-four of them are in
Ezekiel and without exception they are all found
in the last unit of the book, chaps. 40-48, the
prophet’s vision and description of the new tem-
ple. Along with these Ezekiel passages, the word
is used in Exodus, and in Joshua, in the
Stereotype phrase ‘‘east/west/north/south side”’
of the tabernacle, an apportionment of land, or
the designation of a city’s boundary.

The phrase “‘east side’ (p° ‘at gadim/q’ déma)
and its counterpart **west side’’ (p” ’at yam) each
appear twenty-three times. The phrase, ‘north
side’ (p°’at sdpon) is used eleven times as is its
polarity **south side’’ (p’’at negeb). Thus, the
use of pé’a in relation to one of the four points of
the compass accounts for sixty-eight of eighty-
two usages.

The second basic way pé’d is used in the oT is
in the meaning “*corner,’ though how ‘*corner”™’
in translation is to be distinguished from *‘side”’
is not always clear or obvious. As ‘‘corner™’ pé’a
may refer to (1) the corner of a foreign land (fron-
tier regions), Neh 9:22: Num 24:17: Jer 48:45; (2)
the corner of a table, Ex 25:26; 37:23; (3) the
corner of the court (in the tabernacle), Ex 27:9:
(4) the corner of a field, Lev 19:9; 23:22; (5) the
comer of the hair on the head, Lev 19:27: (6) the
comer of the beard, Lev 19:27: 21:5: (7) the sides
of the head, i.e. the temples, Num 24:17 (maybe
Jer 48:45).

In connection with (7) we might note the three
references in Jer 9:26 (H 25); 25:23; 49:32. In
each of these verses one finds the phrase g‘ siisé
pée’a, literally, “‘those cut off/clipped on the
comer, the temples. The ksv translation, ‘‘and
all that are in the utmost corners’” (9:26 [H 25])
seems to be in error. JB appropriately translates
this phrase ‘‘Crop-Heads!"* But niv follows the
older interpretation thought to be more appro-
priate to the context. Also the hair, beard or face

(Deut 32:26).

713

1726

is not mentioned in these three passages as they
are elsewhere when foreheads, etc. are intended.
It is in any case a reference to the nomadic Arab
tribes of Israel's day.

There are two especially interesting contexts in
which pé’ad as “‘corner’’ occurs. The first is in
Lev 19:27; 21:5. Both verses prohibit rounding
off the hair at ‘the edges” or trimming ‘‘the
edges’ of one’s beard. These injunctions, at first
sight meaningless, are found listed with other
abominations such as body laceration, tattooing,
and even cultic prostitution. Presumably the
references to the avoidance of cutting the edges
of one’s hair refer to the peculiar markings which
the pagans put on themselves at their funerary
rites (Jer 9:26 [H 25]; 25:23; 49:32). It is thought
that their intention was to make the mourner in-
cognito to the spirits hovering round the de-
ceased. In Israel such deference to the presence
of evil spirits is prohibited.

The second context is in Lev 19:9 and 23:22:
‘‘when you gather the harvest of your land, you
are not to harvest to the ‘very end’ of the field”
(and cf. Deut 24:19-22: Ruth 2:2). This fact is
illustrative of the Bible's concern for the poor
and the stranger.

Bibliography: On the translation problems of
Amos 3:12, Gese, H., **Kleine Beitrage zum Ver-
standnis des Amosbuches, VT 12: 417-38. esp.
pp. 427-32.

V.P.H.
*38_B (paar) I, glorify, beautify, adorn.
Derivatives
1726a ‘58D (p'’ér) turban.
1726b TRAINER (tip'arad) beauty.

The verb pa’ar appears thirteen times in the
OT, SIX times in the Piel (of which four are in Isa:
55:5: 60:7, 9, 13) and seven times in the Hithpael
(of which five are in Isaiah: 10:15: 44:23: 49:3;
60:21; 61:3).

The basic meaning of pda'ar in the Piel is *‘to
beautify/glorify.’’ In the six instances of this, the
subject of the verb is always God. The recipient
is his child(ren), for example, Isa 55:5; Ps 149:4,
or his sanctuary (Ezr 7:27: Isa 60:7, 13). This
thought is carried into the use of pd’ar in the
Hithpael (Isa 44:23: 49:3; 60:21: 61:3). An
additional meaning in this stem is “‘to boast’ as
seen in Jud 7:2; Isa 10:15. Exodus 8:5, Moses
speaking to Pharaoh, literally reads, “*glory your-
self over me, ’ which seems to mean “‘please give
me an order” or ‘‘explain yourself before me."

1727 *585 (pa'ar)

This distinction in the verb between ‘‘to
beautify’’ and *‘to boast’’ is found in the derived
substantive as well, although the primary mean-
ing is “‘beauty,’’ but including the nuance of
‘‘pride’’ (cf. Isa 10:12, *‘I will punish the ‘pride’
of his arrogant looks,’’ and also Isa 13:19 (Baby-
lon) and 20:5 (Egypt).

There is a sense in which ftip’ard speaks of a
right kind of boasting, pride, a ‘‘glorying.”’ This
is especially true of this word in Proverbs: 17:6,
‘the children’s ‘glory’ is their father’’; 20:29,
‘the glory’ of the young is their strength’’;
28:12, ‘“‘when the righteous triumph, there is
great ‘rejoicing’. (See also Jud 4:9.) Related to
these are those verses in which God speaks of
Israel as his ‘“‘glory,’’ Isa 46:13; 62:3; Jer 13:11;
33:9.

It is interesting to note the extensive vocabu-
lary in the of for ‘*beauty.’’ This can be observed
in the number of synonyms for tip’drd used ina
parallel relationship. Isatah 28:5, *‘The Lord will
be a crown of glory (s° b7), a diadem of beauty.”’
Psalm 96:6, ‘‘Strength (‘6z) and beauty are in his
sanctuary.’’ I Chronicles 29:11, ** Yours, O Lord,
is the greatness (g° dalla) and the power (g° bird)
and the glory, and the victory (nésah) and the
majesty (héd). Exodus 28:2, 40, ‘‘Clothes... for
glory (kadbéd) and beauty.’’ Deuteronomy 26:19,
‘‘To make you high... in praise (t°hilld), and in
name (shém) and in honor.” Isaiah 4:2, ‘*And the
fruit of the earth shall be excellent (gd’én) and
beauty.’ Isaiah 64:11 [H 10], ‘‘Our holy (gadésh)
and beautiful house.’’ Also Isa 63:15.

p’er. Turban. If the idea behind the verb is
‘*to clothe with beauty” it is only fitting that a
derivative from the verb should refer to some
kind of clothing. The turban was not limited to a
certain sex or worn on just one occasion as the
following shows. It could be worn by women (Isa
3:20, KJv “‘bonnets’’) or by men (Ezk 24:17, 23,
Ezekiel himself, ksv ‘‘tire’’). It also was worn by
the high priest or priests and was made of linen
(Ex 39:28; Ezk 44:18). It was worn by the bride-
groom (Isa 61:10), perhaps here with the transla-
tion ‘‘wreath.’’ Cf. also ‘‘garland’’ for ashes in
Isa 61:3.

tip’ara. Beauty, glory, pride. Occurs fifty-one
times in the oT, and with two exceptions (Isa 28:5
and Jer 48:17) always in the construct case,
tip’eret ‘““*beauty of.”
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 387-88.
V.P.H.

1727 *389 (pa’ar) II, go over the boughs. De-
nominative verb. Occurs only in Deut
24:20 (Piel).

Parent Noun
1727a MSE (pd'rad) bough.

714

17276 «=o S98B (pa'rir) glow (Nah 2:11;
Jon 2:6). Meaning uncertain.

1728 8 (pa’ran) Paran.

This biblical place name is referred to only in
the books of Gen, Num, Deut, I Sam, I Kgs,
Hab. The accumulated evidence would seem to
support a district or area in the northeast section
of the Sinai peninsula, southwest of Edom, and
south of the wilderness of Zin near the Judean
mountains.

Though a desert area, it was both habitable and
inhabited. In the campaigns of ‘‘kings’’ (Gen
14:6) El-Paran designated the extent of the con-
quest of Chedor-laomer as far as Edom, perhaps
a campaign to clear the caravan route to the Red
Sea. For the designation **El-Paran,’’ *‘God of
Paran,”’ cf. ‘‘El-Bethel’’ (Gen 35:7), ‘‘God of Be-
thel.’’ When Ishmael was cast out with Hagar by
Abraham, presumably from Beersheba, he dwelt
in the wilderness of Paran (Gen 21:21).

Paran also functioned as a base for clandestine
operations for it was from here that Moses dis-
patched spies to reconnoiter the land of Canaan
(Num 10:12; 12:16; 13:3, 26). Numbers 13:26 spe-
cifically says that the spies returned to Kadesh
(-Barnea) in the wilderness of Paran, though note
that Num 33:36 places Kadesh in the wilderness
of Zin (but cf. the Lxx reading, **In the wilderness
of Paran, that is Kadesh’’). Cf. also Deut. 1:1.

After the death of Samuel, David went to the
wilderness of Paran (I Sam 25:1) where he came
into contact with Nabal, a man of ‘‘Maon’’ L.e.
southern Judah from whom David was to extort
protection money. This also put safe distance be-
tween David and Saul, especially after the death
of David’s friend and supporter Samuel. Hadad
the Edomite escaped Joab’s slaughter (in Sol-
omon’s time) by fleeing from Edom to Midian,
through Paran and on to Egypt, suggesting that
Paran was contiguous with Edom and Midian.
Deuteronomy 33:2 connects Mount Paran with
Mount Sinai and Hab 3:3, Mount Paran with Te-
man, a north district of Edom.

V.P.H.

“39ND (pa’rfir). See no. 1727b.

1729 335 (peg). Assumed root of the following.

1729a = 3B «(pagga) early fig (Song
2:13).

"325 (piggul). See no. 1730a.

1730 %35 (pgl). Assumed root of the following.

1730a «03a «(piggil) foul thing, refuse.

1731 35 (pdaga') encounter, meet, reach, en-

treat, make intercession.

Derivatives

1731a Yad (pega') occurrence, chance (I
Kgs 5:18: Eccl 9:11).

17316 YgbI (mipga') thing hit, mark
(Job 7:20).

The verb pdga‘ appears forty-four times in the
oT with the above range of meanings. The two
basic meanings of the Hiphil are (1) “‘to in-
tercede’’ (Isa 53:12; 59:16; Jer 15:11; 36:25); and
(2) “‘to lay, burden’’ (Isa 53:6, ‘‘the Lord has
‘laid’ upon him all our iniquity’’). The sixth use of
the Hiphil of this root is Job 36:32b and a trans-
lation is difficult. Cf. nrv ‘‘he commands it to
strike its mark’’ and Pope’s ‘the directs it (viz.
the lightning) with ‘sure aim’’’ (Job in AB,
pp. 268, 276) with Tur-Sinai’s ‘‘and he com-
mands for him an ‘accuser’’’ (Commentary on
Job, pp. 506-7).

In the Qal stem the basic meaning is “‘to
meet..” With but few exceptions pdga‘ is fol-
lowed by the preposition b° ‘‘to, upon’’ and this
combination of verb and preposition conveys the
idea of physical contact. The basic meaning of
the verb is illustrated in the following verses:
I Sam 10:5, **You shall *meet’ a company of
prophets’’; Ex 23:4, “If you ‘meet’/‘come on’
your enemy’s ox or donkey going astray.” Cf.
Gen 32:1 [H 2]; Ex 5:20; Num 35:19, 21; Amos
5:19.

There are, however, three special ways in
which the verb is additionally used. One is to
describe that a piece of land or a designated terri-
tory went from place X and *‘reached"’ to place Y
(Josh 16:7; 17:10; 19:11, 22, 26, 27, 34), or that a
man in his journeys “‘reached’’ a certain place
(Gen 28:11, Jacob).

A second use of this verb is to serve a number
of times simply as a synonym for “‘to kill,’” to
meet another person for the sake of eliminating
him. The usual translation in these contexts is
‘to fall upon.”’ There are fifteen uses of pdga‘ in
this context. In only one instance is God the sub-
ject who doles out punishment in the form of
death (Ex 5:3). Every other time it is man, nor-
mally (but not always) acting outside of divine
will, selfishly, capriciously. The verse in Ruth
(2:22), ‘‘That they not ‘meet’ thee in any other
field’’ (kJv) means likely, ‘‘that they not ‘molest’
thee’ rather than **kill.”’

The third way the verb is used ts in the context
of making intercession (1) to man (Ruth 1:16,
‘‘entreat me not, i.e. ‘don't press me to leave
you,’ and Gen 23:8, ‘‘entreat for me to Ephron,”’
le. ‘put pressure on, use your influence’’); (2) to
God (Jer 7:16, ‘‘don’t make intercession to me’’:
also Jer 27:18; Job 21:15). We have already noted
the four references to this verb in the Hiphil as
‘“intercede’’ (to man: Jer 36:25 ‘to beg’: Jer
15:11; Isa 53:12; 59:16). An intercessor is one

715

1732 *539 (pagar)

1733 wap (pagash)

who makes ‘‘contact’’ with God as opposed to
the many who simply dabble in prayer.
V.P.H.

be exhausted, faint. Oc-
curs once, in the Piel (I Sam 30:10, 21).

1732a 34 (peger) corpse, monument,
stela.
peger. Corpse, monument, stela. The word

peger appears twenty-two times in the or.

peger refers to the corpse of men, never of
animals (except Gen 15:11), and not just the body
immediately after death, but the corpse in which
decay and stench have started (Isa 34:3; cf. Jn
11:39). The idea of *‘dead/death"’ is contained in
peger, though twice it is qualified by the word
métim *‘dead”* (II Kgs 19:35; Isa 37:36). In most
instances the presence of death is the result of
divine judgment, not death through natural
causes: I Sam 17:46; Amos 8:3; Nah 3:3; Isa
14:19, inter alia.

Of interest is that in Ugaritic the root pgr
means *‘monument, stela’’ (Gordon, UT 19: no.
2005). This has led some to believe that this is the
correct translation in some instances of Hebrew
peger. Leviticus 26:30 most likely does not refer
to ‘corpses of your idols’’ but *‘the stelae of your
idols.’ Ezekiel 43:7, 9 ‘carcasses of kings"
should come out as ‘‘the (idolatrous) stelae of
kings’’ and this is the sin for which Ezekiel re-
bukes the people, sacralizing the dedicatory
stelae of earthly monarchs.

Bibliography: Neiman, D., *‘PGR: A Canaan-
ite Cult-Object tn the Old Testament,’’ JBL
67:55-60.

V.P.H.

1733 Wap (pagash) meet, encounter.

The basic meaning of the verb is illustrated in
the following passages: Gen 33:8, *‘What do you
(Jacob) mean by all this company I (Esau) have
met?’’ Also Gen 32:17 [H 18}; Ex 4:24, 27 (the
first, an encounter fraught with danger and the
second, an encounter fraught with happy conse-
quences): I Sam 25:20; II Sam 2:13; Jer 41:6.
Even in the Qal stem more than simply **meet”’
may be involved, as is obvious in Hos 13:8, ‘‘]
will ‘pounce’ on them as a bear bereaved of her
whelps.”’

In the Niphal the verb seems to mean “‘to co-
exist’’ as in Prov 22:2, ‘‘the rich and poor are met
together,’ or Prov 29:13, ‘‘the poor and deceitful
man meet together.’’ That is, the nch and poor
are found side by side in every community. There
is a polarity of wealth and poverty. In Ps 85:11
pagash is parallel to ndshag **kiss, embrace.”’

V.P.H.

1734 M35 (pada)

1734 35 (pada) ransom, rescue, deliver.
Derivatives
1734a teste (p*diyim) ransom (Num
3:49).
1734b fAINB (p*dit) ransom.
1734c tay (pidyém) ransom.
1734d f785 (pidyén) ransom money.

The basic meaning of the Hebrew root is to
achieve the transfer of ownership from one to
another through payment of a price or an equiva-
lent substitute. The root occurs in Assyrian with
the meaning ‘to spare,’’ and in Ugaritic it is used
in the sense ‘‘to ransom (UT 19: no. 2013).’’ The
root with its derivatives occurs sixty-nine times
in the oT.

The semantic development of pada is one of
great significance to Chmnistian theology. Ongi-
nally, it had to do with the payment of a required
sum for the transfer of ownership, a commercial
term. Exodus and Lev 19:20 speak of the re-
demption of a slave girl for the purpose of mar-
riage. It is also used to speak of the redemption of
a man’s life who is under the sentence of death,
as in I Sam 14:45, when Jonathan was redeemed
by the people of Israel.

The word was given special religious signifi-
cance by the Exodus. When God delivered Israel
from servitude to Egypt, he did so at the price of
the slaughter of al} the firstborn in Egypt, man
and beast (Ex 4:23; 12:29). Consequently, the
event was to be perpetually commemorated in
Israel by the consecration of all the firstborn of
man and beast to the Lord (Ex 13:12).

When the Israelites were numbered at Mount
Sinai, it was ordained by divine direction that the
Levites should be exempted from enrollment and
separated unto the Lord in place of the firstborn
of the people and their cattle in the place of the
cattle of the people (Num 3:44ff.). The number of
firstborn in excess of the number of the Levites
were then redeemed at the price of five shekels
apiece, and the money was given to Aaron and
his sons. According to the legislation in Ex
13:11-—16; 34:19-20 and Num 18:8—32, in later
generations the firstborn of men and unclean
animals were to be redeemed, but the firstborn of
a cow, a Sheep or a goat were unredeemable be-
cause they were holy to the Lord and were there-
fore to be sacrificed; but the firstborn of asses
were to be redeemed with a lamb or be killed.

That which is holy to the Lord, i.e. the cow,
sheep or goat, was not to be redeemed. Similarly,
any thing or person ‘“‘devoted’’ to the Lord
(hrm), i.e. placed under ban and therefore unlaw-
ful for human appropnation, was *‘most holy’’ to
the Lord, and was therefore unredeemable (Lev
27:28-29). (The word used here for redeem is

716

ga’al, which is sometimes used synonymously
with pada.) The herem refers to the spoils of
war, as in the battle of Jericho (cf. Josh 6~7 in the
light of the law in Lev).

The theme of redemption was not to be related
merely to the firstborn of Israel. Israel itself was
the firstborn of God (Ex 4:22) and had been re-
deemed by Yahweh: **You shall remember that
you were a Slave in the land of Egypt and the
Lord your God redeemed you...’’ (Deut 15:15;
24:18). Israel had been delivered, ransomed from
servitude in Egypt by the hand of God. This fact
was to color Hebrew thought through the cen-
tunes to come (cf. II Sam 7:23; Ps 78:42; 111:9;
Mic 6:4). Isaiah even saw God’s calling of Ab-
raham from Ur as redemption (Isa 29:22; cf. I Pet
1:18). Likewise he saw the future deliverance of
Zion as the result of that same redemptive activ-
ity (Isa 35:10; 51:11; cf. also Isa 50:2; Zech 10:8).

The concept of redemption continued to
broaden. God, who had redeemed his people
from Egypt, would also deliver them from other
difficulties. David could affirm that God had re-
deemed him from all adversity (II Sam 4:9; I Kgs
1:29); therefore he could pray, ‘‘Redeem Israel,
O God, out of all his trouble’* (Ps 25:22).

The Psalms often speak of God’s deliverance
or redemption of life from some danger (Ps 26:11;
31:5; 34:22 [H 23]; 44:26 (H 27]; 71:23), or from
the hand of human oppression (Ps 55:18 [H 19};
69:18 [H 19]; cf. also Job 6:23). The greatest
danger or adversary that man faces is Death,
Sheol, the Pit. The Psalmist gives poignant ex-
pression to man’s inadequacy in Ps 49:8-9, but
concludes that God’s redemptive power is not
limited (v. 16). The resurrection ts God's ultimate
redemption of man.

Interestingly enough, only once is pada used
with reference to redemption from sin (Ps 130:7-
8). This remained for the completed revelation of
the new covenant. Unfortunately, this emphasis
has become so dominant in Christian redemptive
theology, there is the tendency to overlook the
fact that the NT as well as the oT sees redemption,
or salvation, in terms of the total human situa-
tion. Even a cursory reading of Luke’s Gospel
will catch the reflection of the ot heritage in the
concept of salvation.

The use of pdda and its derivatives is some-
times paralleled by other roots. Particularly it
should be noted that gd@’al is used synonymously.
Both roots have to do with redemption by the
payment of ransom though it is suggested that
ga’al basically is associated with family situa-
tions; hence, the idea of acting as kinsman.
Nevertheless, the usage of both pddé and ga'al
in parallelisms in Hos 13:14 and Jer 31:11, and the
synonymous usage in Lev 27:27 et al. illustrate
the overlapping of the two words. Also, of the
ninety-nine times the Lxx uses the verb lutroo,

forty-five times it translates the root gd'al and
forty-three times the root pada.

The word kdper sometimes parallels pdd4é as in
Ps 49:8 and Ex 21:30. The root kdpar means ‘‘to
appease, to make an atonement,’ and the koper
is the ransom paid to secure favor or reconcil-
lation.

pada occurs in parallelism with nasal (Jer
15:21) and malat (Job 6:23), both of which mean
‘to deliver..” In fact, pada is sometimes trans-
lated ‘‘deliver” (as in Ps 44:26 [H 17}; 55:18
[H 19]), because the idea of payment recedes into
the background and the emphasis is upon release.
While it may be said that the price of redemption
in the Exodus is the firstborn of Egypt (Ex 12:13),
there is no indication of ransom price in other
contexts. In the NT, however, the Scriptures are
clear: “‘You know that you were ran-
somed... with the precious blood of Christ, like
that of a lamb without blemish or spot’’ (I Pet
1:18-19).

pdat. Ransom, redemption. A feminine
abstract noun. This form occurs only in Ex 8:19;
Ps 111:9; 130:7 and Isa 50:2. The significance of
this term in Ex 8:19 is difficult. Here translators
render p’ dat either as ‘“‘division’’ or ‘‘distinc-
tion,’ so also Septuagint and Vulgate, but it is
not clear whether this is an interpretation or
whether it depends on a different text. (Cf. A. A.
Macintosh, “‘Exodus VIII 19, Distinctive Re-
demption and the Hebrew Roots ™°5 and %"5,””
VT 21 (1971), 548-555, for a discussion of the
problem.)

p‘dayim, pidyom. Ransom. The former is a
plural abstract form of the passive participle
(which is used substantively in Num 3:49, Isa
35:10 and S1:11 with the meaning “‘the re-
deemed’’), occurring only in Num 3:46, 48. The
latter is found only in Num 3:49, S1.

pidyon. Ransom money. Occurs only in Ex
21:30 and Ps 49:8 [H 9). Both passages use a
parallel word also, koper, which refers to money
given (though sometimes it refers to a bribe, as in
I Sam 12:3, Prov 6:35 and Amos 5:12).
Bibliography: Elliott, Ralph H., “‘Atonement
in the Old Testament,’ Review and Expositor
59:9-26. Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms of the Old
Testament, 2d ed., Eerdmans, 1897. Hill, David,
Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings, London:
Cambridge University, 1967. Morris, Leon, *‘The
Idea of Redemption in the Old Testament,’ RTR
11:94-102. Yaron, R., °**A Document of Redemp-
tion from Ugarit,’ VT 10:83-90. TDNT, EV, pp.
329-35. THAT, II, pp. 389-405.
W.B.C.

Ba (p’divim). See no. 1734a.
miss (p’ dat). See no. 1734b.

717

1735 155

1736 YD (pada')

1736 YIB (pada’')

See no. 1734c.
See no. 1734d.

BID (pidyom).
M35 (pidyén).

(paddan) Padan.

This noun occurs only in Genesis, and always
is combined with ‘adrdm to form paddan-' dram,
Padan-aram (except for Gen 48:7, mippaddan
‘from Padan"’). Its location is obviously in
northern Mesopotamia since it included, we
know, the city of Haran (Gen 29:4). Some have
suggested that Padan-aram is Haran, the meaning
of Padan-aram being the ‘‘route/road” of Synia/
Aram (on basis of Akkadian paddnu **route’’),
synonymous with Haran (Akkadian, harrdnu,
also meaning “‘route/road’*). The expression in
Hos 12:13, §*déh ‘dram, takes Padan to mean
‘field’ of Aram instead of ‘‘route’’ of Aram.

The Bible consistently refers to Laban, the
uncle of Jacob and a resident of Padan-aram, as
an Aramean (ksv, ““Syrian’’): Gen 25:20; 28:5;
31:20, 24. Laban is connected with Padan-aram
not only geographically but also linguistically.
That is, he is portrayed as speaking Aramaic,
Gen 31:47: **-And Laban called the place (in a
covenant with Jacob) Jegarsahadutha’* (*‘mound
of testimony,’ the Aramaic equivalent to Jacob's
Hebrew designation *’Galeed’’).

There are eleven references to Padan-aram in
Genesis. One of them, Gen 25:20, relates that it
was at Padan-aram that the servant of Abraham
found Rebekah and brought her back to Canaan
as a wife for Isaac. This mission was performed
at the personal request of Abraham (Gen 24: I ff.)
in hopes that Isaac would not marry a local
Canaanite woman (v. 3). In v. 4 Abraham refers
to the area from which Rebekah was eventually
fetched as **my own land and my own kinfolk.”’

Similarly Isaac follows the same plan with his
son Jacob—Gen 28:2, and for the same reasons
(Gen 27:46), but this time without the presence of
an intermediary. The remaining nine references
to Padan-aram refer to Jacob and his experi-
ences.

Note that in the case of both Isaac and Jacob,
the prohibition on marrying a Canaanite woman
is to maintain the line through which God's cov-
enant would be perpetuated. Also, in both cases
neither Isaac nor Jacob are to be repatriated to
Mesopotamia (Aram Naharaim), for the covenant
is vitally connected with the promised land.

Bibliography: Dhorme, P., **Abraham dans le
cadre de l’histoire,’” RB 37:367-85; 481-511, esp.
pp. 484-87. O'Callaghan, R., Aram Naharaim,
Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1948, esp. p. 96.

V.P.H.

deliver. Occurs only tn Job
33:34. Meaning uncertain.

1737 955 (peder)

1737 "32 (peder) fat (of the burnt offering,
Lev 1:8, 12; 8:20). Derivation uncertain.

1738 = (peh) mouth.

This word appears almost 500 times in the oT,
most frequently in Ps (sixty-six times) and Prov
(fifty-six times). Some preliminary observations
on the various uses of peh may first be noticed.
(1) Primarily as an organ of speech (a) for God,
(ca. 50 times) only in Ps 18:8 (H 9] (=II Sam
22:9), and perhaps in Job 37:2, is God’s mouth
something other than an organ of speech. (b) for
man; (c) for animals (Num 22:28). (2) Less fre-
quently, an organ for eating and drinking (Ezk
3:3, inter alia). (3) Mouth as ‘‘opening/outlet/
aperture/entrance’’ for example, of a well (Gen
29:2); a sack (Gen 42:27): a cave (Josh 10:18); a
city (Prov 8:3); ‘edge’ of a sword (Gen 34:26).
(4) In phrases such as peh ‘ehdd ‘‘with one ac-
cord’’ (Josh 9:2); peh ’el peh *‘mouth to mouth”
(Num 12:8); peh ladpeh ‘from one end to
another’ (II Kgs 10:21); (5) peh with prefixed
prepositions: ‘‘according to (k*p7) his service’
(Num 7:5); ‘‘according to (/° pi) the multitude of
years’’ (Lev 25:16); (6) peh in fractional units:
peh sh*nayim (Deut 21:17; II Kgs 2:9; Zech
13:8). This particular phrase has been translated
two ways—’’a double portion”’ or *‘two-thirds,”’
which is more correct. Hence, Elisha asks not for
a ‘*double portion”’ of Elijah’s power and gift but
for two-thirds.

We can now look at how peh is applied to God,
then to man. Approximately fifty times the oT
speaks of God’s mouth. The God of the oT is a
God who speaks. His voice has not been muted.
Interestingly, in all but two passages it is in God’s
capacity as the Lorp that he speaks. Lamenta-
tions 3:38 uses the phrase mippi ‘elyén ‘‘out of
the mouth of the most High.”’ II Chr 35:22 in-
forms us that the saintly king Josiah met his death
because he refused to listen to the words of the
Pharoah ‘‘from the mouth of God’ (mippi
'él6him).

Most prominent is the phrase ‘al pi yhwh, ‘‘ac-
cording to the mouth (=commandment) of the
Lorp.”’ It occurs twenty-four times, eighteen in
Num plus Ex 17:1; Lev 24:12; Deut 34:5; Josh
19:50; 22:9; II Kgs 24:3. Note the heavy concen-
tration of this phrase in the Pentateuch. When
God speaks he speaks with authority and finality.
God’s speech is also prophetic speech as is illus-
trated in references from the prophets (Isa 1:20;
40:5; 62:2; Jer 9:11; etc.). Thus, the prophet's
word is not his own concoction. He becomes
God’s mouth (cf. Jer 15:19). In God’s mouth
there is also a creative word: Ps 33:6 and Deut 8:3
(live on what comes from the mouth of God).

In Ps and the wisdom literature the uses of peh
refer predominantly to man’s mouth, not God’s.

718

The mouth is the external manifestation of one’s
character and disposition.

The mouth is the organ through which one’s
relationship to God is ascertained. Obvious here
is the oft repeated theme of praise to God in one’s
mouth (Ps 8:2-3 [H 3-4]; 34:1 [H 2]), or a prayer
that God may guard the believer's mouth (Ps
142:3).

Bibliography: Couroyer, B., ‘*Mettre sa
main sur sa bouche’ en Egypte et dans la Bible,”
RB 67:197-209. Dahood, M., **‘Hebrew-Ugaritic
Lexicography VIII,’ Bib 51:391-404, esp. pp.
395-96. Meek, Theophile J., ‘‘ Archaeology and a
Point in Hebrew Syntax,» BASOR 122:31-33.
Richardson, TWB, p. 156. Weiss, K., *“Stoma”™
in TDNT, VII, pp. 692-701. THAT, II, pp. 406—
10.

V.P.H.

1739 ™B (poh) here, hither.

Forty-three times poh is simply an adverb
meaning ‘here,’ translated in the Lxx primarily
as hode, but also entautha or autou. *‘Here’’ as
an adverb means “'present/in this place”’ as in *‘Is
there not ‘here’ a prophet of the Lord?’’ (I Kgs
22:7; IT Chr 18:6). ““Why sit we ‘here’ until we
die... if we sit still ‘here’ we will die’’ (II Kgs
7:34).

In Ezk 40-41 the word mippoh or mippo is
used not as an adverb but as a correlative in the
phrase mippdh... mippodh, literally, *‘from
here... from here’’ or *‘on this side... on that
side.’ The Lxx translation of such a phrase is
enthen kai enthen ‘‘on this side and on that.”

V.P.H.

1740 33B (pig) grow numb.

Derivatives

1740a AQIB (pagat) benumbing, cessa-
tion (Lam 2:18).

1740b MgB (hdpigd) benumbing (Lam
3:49),

PID (pugat). See no. 1740a.
335 (paid). See no. 1765S.

1741 M3%_ (pitah) breathe, blow.

Derivative
174la MB (piah) soot (Ex 9:8, 10).

The verb appears fifteen times in the oT, of
which seven are in Prov: 6:19; 12:17; 14:5, 25;
19:5, 9; 29:8. The problem of tracing the occur-
rences of this root in the oT is complicated by the
fact that in Hebrew there are two roots, puah and
the by-form ydpah, both meaning ‘‘to breathe,
puff’ and in many instances the consonantal
skeleton of verbal forms of these two verbs will

be indistinguishable. (Gordon, UT 19: no. 1129
lists Ugaritic yph but no pwh.)

Primarily the verb means ‘‘to breathe/blow”’ in
the negative sense of ‘‘to utter’’ lies, be utterly
deceitful. Thus the object of paah in Prov 6:19;
14:5, 25; 19:5, 9 is k*zadbim “‘lies.”’ Similarly,
Prov 29:8 speaks of scornful men who ‘‘stir up”’
(piah) a city to strife. (There is some question in
these Prov passages whether the form ydpiah, a
verb should be pointed as a noun, yépiah. Thus
Prov 14:5 is not ‘‘a false witness will utter lies’’
but ‘‘a perjurer is a false witness.’’) In most of
these verses puah is translated in the Lxx by
egkaled ‘‘to accuse.’’ Only in Prov 12:17 is piéah
used of uttering ‘‘truth.”’

Twice the verb occurs in the Psalter: 10:5,
“God's rivals, he puffs/sneers at them all,”
(though Dahood, Psalms 1, in AB, p. 60 trans-
lates, ‘‘He (the unbeliever) ‘sniffs’ at them all
(i.e., God’s decrees).’” He shows contempt and
scom for God’s laws.). Also, in Ps 12:5 [H 6] is
the phrase, ‘*I will set him in safety from him that
‘puffeth’ at him’’ (Kv). Better is the rsv transla-
tion, “‘I will give my help to him that ‘longs’
for it.””

piah in reference to nature refers to the
‘blowing’ of the day, i.e. the first appearance of
the morning (Song 2:17; 4:6; also 4:16).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., *‘The Phoenician
Contribution to Biblical Wisdom Literature,’’ in
The Role of the Phoenicians in the Interaction of
Mediterranean Civilizations, ed. W. A. Ward,
Beirut: The American University of Beirut, 1968,
pp. 123-52, esp. pg. 127. , ‘Some Ambigu-
ous Texts in Isaias,’° CBQ 20:41-49, esp. p. 47,
n. 21. , Proverbs and North-West Semitic
Philology, Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1963,
p. 45.

V.P.H.

1742 313 (pak) antimony,
4:30; II Kgs 9:30).

Stibium (e.g. Jer

1743 “SB (pdl) beans (1 Sam 17:28; Ezra
4:9).
1744 95 (pun). Meaning dubious. Occurs

only in Ps 88:16.

1745 YB (pus) I, be dispersed, scatter.
Derivatives

1745a PDI (méepis) scatterer,
(Nah 2:2: Prov 25:18).

17456 AYIOM (t’ pdsa) dispersion (Jer
25:34).

disperser

The verb appears sixty-four times in the oT,
twelve times in the Qal, fifteen times in the Nip-

719

1745 PIB (pits)

hal, thirty-seven times in the Hiphil. pis is used
most often in the prophets, thirty-seven times,
(eighteen times in Ezk and ten times in Jer).

The word is first used in Scripture to describe
the ‘‘scattering’’ of the families of the Canaanites
in Gen 10:18. On the heels of this is the famous
Tower of Babel incident (Gen 11) in which the
builders of the tower(?) did not want to be *‘scat-
tered abroad”’ upon the face of the earth (Gen
11:4). The Lord, however, made such a scatter-
ing inevitable (vv. 8-9) by destroying their lan-
guage. This made further communication among
the peoples impossible, and thus brought to a halt
their building project. It should be observed in
this passage that no mention is made of God con-
fusing the languages. Rather, what was destroyed
was the universal language (11:1), an interna-
tional lingua franca. The individual dialects (Gen
10:5, 20, 31) remained intact.

There is no substantial change in the meaning
of the verb as it is used in one of the above men-
tioned three stems. The only perceptible dif-
ference ts that in the Qal and Niphal pés is tn-
transitive and in the Hiphil it is transitive.

There are three repeated categories which
most often serve as the subject or object of pis.
(1) It may refer to the scattering of armies, either
that of the enemy (Num 10:35; Ps 68:1 [H 2}) or
one’s own (I Sam 11:11; 14:34; I] Kgs 25:5=Jer
52:8). (2) The subject/object of pus may refer to
sheep, (a) as subject, in Jer 10:21; Ezk 34:5—6, 12;
Zech 13:7; (b) as object, in Jer 23:1. Sheep may
get lost inadvertently. They may, quite literally,
nibble their way to lostness. But that is not the
nuance inferred by the verb under consideration.
Sheep scatter, if possible, impulsively when there
is some external threat to their safety and secu-
rity. It is the shepherd's duty at that time to take
command of the situation and repulse the threat.
Ezekiel 34:5 mentions the hapless sheep who
were scattered because of the absence of a
shepherd. (3) Most frequently, the object of pis
is Israel, who sometimes is likened to scattered
sheep (I Kgs 22:17=II Chr 18:16). In a few pas-
sages not only Israel, but Israel’s enemy, Egypt,
is scattered abroad (by God): Ezk 29:12-13;
30:23, 26.

There are two things of interest when the Bible
speaks of God’s ‘‘scattering’’ Israel. One, the
phrase, *‘I/He/the Lorp scatters Israel’’ is con-
fined to the prophetic books of the Bible (and
here, either in the past, Ezk 20:23; 28:25, or asa
threat, Ezk 22:15 for example). The only excep-
tions to this are: Deut 4:27; 28:64; 30:3; Neh 1:8.
Two, when in this phrase God is the subject and
Israel is the object, the verb is always in the
Hiphil stem. It is not the Assyrians or Babylo-
nians who scatter the people of God. They are
simply instrumental. God himself is the scatterer.

Bibliography: Humbert, P., “‘En marge du

1746 P35 (pis)

dictionnaire hébraique,’” ZAW 62:199-207, esp.

p. 202 (on pas in Prov 5:16).

V.P.H.
1746 psp (pas) HI, flow, overflow (Prov 5:16;
Zech 1:17).
1747 335 (paq) I, reel, totter (e.g. Isa 28:7;
Amos 2:13).
Derivatives
1747a MpIB (puqd) tottering, staggering
(I Sam 25:31).
1747b DD (pig), ?B (pig) tottering
(Nah 2:11).
1748 * 35 (piaiq) II, bring out, furnish, pro-

mote. Occurs only in the Hiphil (e.g. Isa
58:10; Prov 3:13).

1749 “3B (par) lot.

The word occurs only in the book of Esther,
3:7; 9:24: 9:26 (two times), 28, 29, 31, 32. Hebrew
pur is to be distinguished from gédrdal, the usual
word for *‘lot.’’ In Est 3:7 and 9:24 the two words
appear beside each other.

It appears obvious that pér is related to
Babylonian paru which means “‘lot’’ and secon-
darily ‘‘fate.’’ Of special interest ts that in Est
9:26, 28, 29, 31, 32 the Hebrew ‘‘Purim”’ is trans-
lated in the Lxx by phrovrai, from a verb meaning
**to watch, guard.’’ One suggestion has been to
see in phrourai the aramaized form of Babylo-
nian purruru ‘to destroy, exterminate.’ (Lewy).

From Est 9:20-28 we learn that Purim was a
feast instituted by Mordecai to celebrate the de-
liverance of Jews from Haman’s plot to kill them.
The observance of Purim was determined after
lots were cast by Haman in order to determine
the month in which the slaughter was to take
place. Esther 3:7 says that Haman, having al-
ready decided on the pogrom, consulted the lots
only to learn the most propitious day on which to
extirpate the race of Mordecai. The Lxx adds to
the mt these words, *‘And the lot fell on the four-
teenth of the month called Adar’’ (March/April);
that is, the decree was to be enforced almost a
full year after its original promulgation. One asks,
why did Haman send the edict out almost twelve
months in advance of the proposed day of slaugh-
ter? Is it reading in too much to see in this un-
usual arrangement the sovereign hand of God
once again protecting his children, even though
they are in exile?

Bibliography: Lewy, J., *“The Feast on the
14th Day of Adar,’ HUCA 14: 127-51.
Lindblom, J., ‘*‘Lot-Casting in the Old Testa-
ment, VT 12 164-78. Moore, C., in AB, Esther,

pp. XLVI-XLIX.. Feinberg, C. L. **Purim”
ZPEB, IV, 957-58.
V.P.H.

1750 “3B (pwr) Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1750a A385 «(pard) winepress (Isa 63:3;
Hag 2:16).
1750b =o"395 (parir) pot (Num 11:8; Jud
6:19).
1751 wsp (pash) I, spring about (e.g. Hab 1:8;
Mal 3:20).
1752 *W3p (pash) H, be scattered. Occurs
only once, in the Niphal (Nah 3:18).
1753 *ttB (pazaz) I, be refined. Occurs twice,
only in the Hophal (I Kgs 10:18; If Chr
9:17).
Derivative
1753a %B (paz) refined, pure gold (e.g.
Lam 4:2; Isa 13:12).
1754 5 (pdadzaz) HH, be supple, agile (Gen
49:24: If Sam 6:16).
1755 “IB (pazar) scatter (e.g. Jer 50:17; Joel
4:2).
ma (pah). See nos. 1759a,b.
1756 "M5 (pahad) fear, tremble, revere (RSV

sometimes ‘‘be in dread,’’ **be in terror’’).

Derivatives

1756a t3mMB (pahad) I, dread.
1756b tmSmMp (pahda) fear, religious awe.
1756c T3MB (pahad) H, thigh (Job 40:17).

pahad serves as a strong verb of fearing with
emphasis either on the immediacy of the object of
fear or upon the resulting trembling. The verb
may refer to the kind of fear aroused by a pahad
‘*terror’’ (see below). Most of its occurrences are
in poetic passages so that it could be considered a
strong, poetic synonym for ydrd’ (q.v.).

pahad refers to a strong emotion of fear, such
as the fear of the princes at hearing Jeremiah’s
scroll read (Jer 36:16; lit. ““feared to each other’’)
and the fear of sinners before God's judgment
(Isa 33:14). It is appropriately used in contexts
which refer to such ideas as quaking and trem-
bling (e.g. Isa 19:16; 33:14; Jer 33:9). (The
categories used for this discussion roughly paral-
lel those used for the verb ydra’).

However, in some contexts, the particular sig-
nificance of pdhad seems less in mind than the

720

desire to use an appropriate synonym in a poetic
context. This verb occurs only rarely in prose.

While the verses cited above show pdhad used
to refer to the emotion of fear, there are no clear
examples in which the immediacy of feeling is
lost sight of for this verb. Thus, unlike ydra’, it is
not used for the abstract, intellectual apprehen-
sion of evil.

It may refer to awe or reverence; Ps 119:161
speaks of David's standing in awe at God’s word
(cf. also Prov 28:14). The ‘‘fear’’ of Hos 3:5 is
probably this kind of reverence. Unlike yard’, it
is not used to refer to pious living or formal reli-
gious worship.

pahad twice occurs in the Piel (Isa 51:13; Prov
28:14). In both cases the Piel probably has itera-
tive meaning, particularly in light of the iterative
adverbs in these two contexts (‘‘continually’’ and
‘‘always’’ respectively). Proverbs 28:14 is
another case of this verb with the meaning of
‘revere.’

The Hiphil is once used (Job 4:14) with causa-
tive meaning; i.e. ‘‘cause to fear’ (Rsv
**made... shake’’).

pahad /. Dread, fear, terror, etc. (RSV some-
times ‘‘panic’’). May refer either to a strong emo-
tion of fear or terror or to the external person or
thing arousing terror.

Clear instances of the substantive, pahad, re-
ferring to the emotion of terror are the terror in
the hearts of the Jews’ enemies in Deut 2:25 (rsv
‘“dread’’) and the ‘‘dread”’ of Job 4:14.

A larger number of passages use the term to
refer to an external terror or object of fear. The
Psalmist was a ‘‘terror’’ (rSv ‘“‘object of dread’’)
to those who knew him (Ps 31:11 [H 12]). In other
contexts poetic parallels indicate that the pahad
is an external danger comparable to the pit and
the snare (e.g. Isa 24:17-18; Jer 48:43). In Isa
2:10, the ‘‘terror’’ of the Lord is something ex-
ternal from which one can hide; here, ‘‘terror’’
may refer to the terrifying aspect of God's re-
vealed glory. On the surface, the weapons of Sol-
omon’s bodyguard were better utilized against
some external night-terror (Song 3:8; rsv ‘‘alarms
by night,’’ kJv ““fear’’) than against an emotion.
Psalm 91:5 probably refers to a similar, if not
identical nightterror. The ‘‘sudden panic’” (Rsv)
of Prov 3:25 may be better taken as referring to
an external terror. Similarly, in Ps 53:5 (H 6; cf.
also Ps 14:5) the phrase, “‘are in great terror”
may mean ‘fear the [external] terror.’’ God, as
an external object of terror, is in view in the
phrase ‘‘Fear of Isaac’’ cf. E. A. Speiser,
Genesis, in AB *‘The Awesome One of Isaac”
(Gen 31:42, 53). [W. F. Albright (FSAC 2nd Ed.
p. 248) follows the suggestion of Alt and trans-
lates this phrase **kinsman of Isaac’’ similarly to
the **Champion ‘abir of Jacob’’ (Gen 49:24). This

721

1759 *mmp (pahah)

1759 *mnp (pahah)

translation derives from the alleged meaning of
‘*thigh’’, ‘‘loins’* for pahad. Cf. pahad 11. But
see Bibliog. R.L.H.]

At times careful exegetical judgment may be
needed to decide whether a given passage refers
to internal emotion or to an external object of
terror; some passages could refer to either (e.g.
Deut 28:67). A large group of such passages are
those referring to the terror of some personage.
Examples are the terror of the Hebrews which
fell upon Egypt (Ps 105:38), the terror of the Jews
upon the Persian subject peoples (Est 8:17), and
passages referring to the terror of God (1 Sam
11:7). Such passages are easiest taken as express-
ing the emotion aroused towards the personage:
and there is no firm objection to this interpreta-
tion. However, in light of the examples above,
one must consider the possibility that such pas-
sages refer to the personage as an external object
of terror (in such a case, the genitive relationship
would express the genitive of apposition).

The immediacy of the object of terror and the
strength of the emotion are clearly seen in such
passages as Deut 28:67, Ps 119:120, and I Sam
11:7.

pahda Fear. Feminine of pahad. Used once
referring to fear of God as an inner attitude lack-
ing in the Jews’ hearts (Jer 2:19).

pahad JI. Thigh (kiv “‘stone’’). Occurs once
in the physical description of *‘Behemoth’* (Job
40:17). Its meaning is unclear, but cognate evi-
dence indicates that ‘‘thigh’’ is the most likely
meaning.

Bibliography: Hiullers, D. R., °*Pahad
YISHAQ” JBL 91:90-92 (against Albright’s
view). TDNT, IX, pp. 203-208. THAT, II, pp.
411-12.

A.B.
1757 mmp (pehad) governor (e.g. Neh 5:14;
Mal 1:8). Probably a loan word from Ak-
kadian.
1758 Imp (pdhaz) be wanton, reckless (Jud
9:4; Zeph 3:4).
Derivatives

1758a wb (pahaz) wantonness, _reckless-
ness (Gen 49:4).
MIMD (pahdzat) recklessness, ex-

travagance (Jer 23:32).

1758b

mime (pahdzat). See no. 1758b.
ensnare. Denominative

verb, occurring once, in the Hiphil (Isa
42:22).

1760 OMd (phm)

Parent Noun

1759a =MB (pah) I, bird trap (e.g. Hos
5:1; Amos 3:5). Often used figura-
tively for calamities and plots.
1759b «=D (pah) UH, plate of metal (Num
17:3; Ex 39:3).
1760 OMD (phm). Assumed root of the following.
1760a OMB (pehdm) coal, ember (e.g.
Prov 26:21; Isa 44:12).
1761 mmp (pht). Assumed root of the following.
176ta MMB (pahat) pit (e.g. Jer 48:43:
Isa 24:17). Never used for the pit of
the grave as is shahat and bor.
1761b =nnns (pchetet) a boring or eating

out (of leprous decay in garment,
Lev 13:55).
POMS (p*hetet). See no. 1761b.

1762 MIB (pit’da) topaz (e.g. Ezk 28:13; Ex
28:17). A loan word; from Sanskrit (7).

1763 W°BD (pattish) forge hammer (Isa 41:7;
Jer 23:21). Possibly a loan word.
1764 “05 (patar) set free, remove, open, escape.

Derivatives

1764a +305 (peter) firstborn.
1764b «= MSOP (pitra) firstborn (only in
Num 8:16).

This verb is used nine times in the oT. All in-
stances are in the Qal stem except for one use in
the Hiphil, Ps 22:7 (H 8}; cf. Mat 27:39), ‘‘They
‘gape’ (open/separate the lip) at me, they shake
their head.”

There are four discernible uses of pdtar in the
Qal. (1) **To escape from.** ** David escaped from
Saul’s presence’ (I Sam 19:10). (2) ‘°To set free,
let out.”’ ‘‘The beginning of strife is as when one
lets out water,” (Prov 17:14), comparing the
commencement of disagreement to the seepage
of water. (3) “‘To set free/exempt from duty”
1 Chronicles 9:33; Il Chr 23:8, **For Jehoiada the
priest had ‘exempted’ none of the (priestly) or-
ders.’ (4) In I Kgs 6:18, 29, 32, 35 it is said re-
garding the interior furnishings of the walls of
Solomon's temple that they were of ‘**knops and
‘open’ flowers”’ (p° turé sissim) of cedar.’’ Liter-
ally the Hebrew phrase reads, ‘‘open parts of
flowers," i.e., calyxes.

peter. Firstborn. Occurs in Ex: 13:2, 12, 13,
15; 34:19, 20. peter refers to both the firstborn of
children and animals. The more usual word in
Hebrew for ‘‘first(born)’’ ts b“kér, which is the
firstborn of the males. Regarding the institution

of primogeniture in the oT, there are two distinct
conceptions. First, there is a socio-legal one
which assigns special status to the first male of
the paternal line (6° kér). Second, there is a cultic
conception which assigns special responsibilities
to the first male issue of the maternal line (peter).
This one ts dedicated to God. If it is a sacrificial
animal it must be sacrificed. Otherwise, the
firstborn must be redeemed (Ex 34:19).

V.P.H.
1765 5 (pyd), SB (pwd). Assumed root of
the following.
1765a BS (pid) ruin, disaster (e.g. Job
12:5: Prov 24:22).
mS (piah). See no. 174la.
1766 B°D (pym). Assumed root of the following.
1766a => (pima) super abundance
(Job 15:27).
1766b te*’s (pim) (or payim) a weight of

two-thirds of a shekel.

The kJv erroneously translates ‘‘file."’ Most
recent versions use either two-thirds of a shekel
or pim.

The word occurs only in I Sam 13:21 where it
was formerly connected with peh (BDB called
the text corrupt). Now the word has been found
inscribed on several weights of two-third shekel
size. Speiser (see bibliography) suggested that
the word is a dual and arose from a false Hebraiz-
ing of the Akkadian shanipu (a Sumerian loan
word for two-thirds of a shekel), reading it as two
pu’s therefore in Hebrew a dual of peh—payim.
(the ordinary plural of peh ‘‘mouth” has a
feminine ending).

This identification of pim or payim helps
beautifully to elucidate I Sam 13:19-22. The
verse iS not corrupt. It tells of the beginning of
the iron age in Palestine. Iron was known before
then ( about 1200 B.c.) but it was wrought iron
and not as strong as steel which is made by heat-
ing the iron then quenching it in water. Appar-
ently, the Philistines brought with them the secret
of tempering and therefore were able to make
long steel swords which were much better than
the short bronze daggers the Israelites had used.
I Samuel 13:19 really says the Israelites had no
ironsmiths. The Philistines effectively kept their
military secret for some time and the Hebrews
had to pay them to get their agricultural imple-
ments repointed after use in the rocky soil of
Palestine. The price for sharpening a plow point
was a payim, two-thirds of a shekel. It is of some
interest that David lived for a while as a Philistine
subject in Philistine territory. The military secret
could not be kept after that.

Bibliography: Al, p. 205.

Huey, F. B.,

722

‘‘Weights and Measures,’ in ZPEB, V, p. 921.
Speiser, E. A., ““Of Shoes and Shekels,’ in
Oriental and Biblical Studies, University of
Penn., 1967, pp. 156~59.

R.L.H.

D°B (pig). See no. 1747b.
32 (pak). See no. 1767a.

1767 “35 (pkk). Assumed root of the following.

1767a 35 (pak) vial, flask.

1767b 9 **35 (paka) trickle. Occurs in the
Piel only (Ezk 47:2). Perhaps de-
nominative from pak.

1768 *895 (pala’) be marvellous, wonderful. This
denominative verb does not occur in the

Qal.

Parent Noun
1768a t89B (pele’) wonder.

1768b oo °S89B (pil'i) wonderful, incompre-
hensible.

1768c = M895 «(mipla’a) wondrous — work
(Job 37:16).

The basic meaning of the verb is *“‘to be won-
derful’’ and in the Hiphil *‘to cause a wonderful
thing to happen.”* In the Piel, however, it means
“to fulfil (a vow),’ Lev 22:21; Num 15:3, 8,
though this nuance is also present in two in-
stances of pala’ in the Hiphil (Lev 27:2; Num
6:2).

Preponderantly both the verb and substantive
refer to the acts of God, designating either cosmic
wonders or historical achievements on behalf of
Israel. That is, in the Bible the root pl’ refers to
things that are unusual, beyond human capa-
bilities. As such, it awakens astonishment (p/') in
man. Thus, the ‘‘real importance of the miracu-
lous for faith (is) —not in its material factuality,
but in its evidential character... it is not, gener-
ally speaking, the especially abnormal character
of the event which makes it a miracle; what
strikes men forcibly is a clear impression of
God's care or retribution within it’’ (Eichrodt).
We may add that it is essential that the miracle is
so abnormal as to be unexplainable except as
showing God's care or retribution.

pala’ is applied to man around fifteen times. In
such cases the thrust of pala’ is ‘‘to be beyond
one’s capabilities,» and hence, unsolvable or in-
accessible, and such are God's mighty and won-
derful acts. To illustrate. (1) Deut 17:8, ‘‘Ifacase
comes before you which is ‘too difficult’ for you’
(in the Lxx, adunatein). The same Greek verb is
used in the translation of Gen 18:14, “"Is there
anything ‘too hard’ for the Lorp?’’ Two verses in
Jeremiah—32:17, 27—are almost identical to this
rhetorical question but the Lxx uses instead the

723

1769 *395 (pdlag) split, divide.

1769 *395 (palag)

verb kruptein. Zechariah 8:6, “If this seem a
‘miracle’ in the eyes of the remnant.” (2) Prov
30:18, “‘There are three things which are ‘too
wonderful) (Lxx adunatos) for me.’ (3)
Deuteronomy 30:11, ‘This commandment is not
‘hidden’-—ksv—from you (Lxx huperogkos).”
That is, it is accessible, and hence knowable. The
same Greek word translates p/’ in II Sam 13:2
and Lam 1:9. (4) The root may also be used nega-
tively to mean ‘‘unbelievable.’’ The reference in
Dan 8:24 and 11:36 to the diabolical apocalyptic
figure who hatches “incredible schemes” or
speaks ‘incredible blasphemies”’ illustrates this.
We have seen, then, that when pi’ refers to man
it means unsolvable, suprarational, incredible.

Our clue for pi’ applied to God will be found in
the Psalter. There appears to be no significant
difference here between pele’ and nipla’ot, both
referring to God's wonders, either in a general
sense, or in a specific historical antecedent. As
might be expected, the root appears mostly in Ps
that are classified as hymns or prayers of
thanksgiving but also the historical Pss 78, 105,
106. Often, in such psalms the key verb is
hod’ (‘praise’): 9:1 (CH 2); 75:1 (H 2), etc.,
though nipla’ot is the direct object of héda only
in Ps 107:8, 15, 21, 31.

Equally important are the verbs in the impera-
tive in the Psalter exhorting the people to recite
orally the wonders God has done. This forms the
heartbeat of Israel’s liturgical celebrations. The
most frequent verb here is sdpar, “‘tell’’: Ps 9:2:
26:7; 75:2; 96:3, etc.; but also Siah, **talk of *: Ps
105:2 (= 1 Chr 16:9); 119:27; 145:5; ndgad, **de-
clare’’: Ps 40:5 (H 6]; 71:17; dabar, **speak’’: Ps
40:5 {H 6]. There is to be a public sharing of what
God has done and not just a private musing.

It is of interest to note that the function of
God's wonders is ultimately to make mercy
available to the recipient or reciter, and not just
to make a demonstration of power. Thus, in Ps
107:8, 15, 21, 31 nipld’or is parallel with hesed
‘‘loving kindness, mercy.’ God performs ‘mar-
vels of love,’ Ps 31:21 (H 22), hipli hasdo.

pele’. Wonder. Always in a context of God's
acts or words, except for Lam 1:9. The root ap-
pears most frequently in the Psalms, of eighty-
four instances of pdla’/pele’, thirty-seven of
them are in the Psalter.

Bibliography: fEichrodt, W., Theology of the
Old Testament, II, Westminster, 1967, pp. 162-
67. TDNT, III, pp. 27-42. THAT, II, pp. 413-19.

V.P.H.

2D (pili). See no. 1768b.

Occurs in the
Niphal and Piel only.

Derivatives
1769a 2B (peleg) channel, canal.

1769b = 7395 (p*laggda) stream; division.
1769c = 39B (plugged) division (II Chr
35:5, only).
1769d = aE" «(miplaged) division (If Chr
35:12, only).
1770 wae (pilegesh), wap (pilegesh) con-
cubine.
pilegesh. Concubine. The Hebrew equivalent

of Greek pallakis and Latin pellex. A concubine
was a true wife, though of secondary rank. This is
indicated, for example, by the references to a
concubine’s “husband” (Jud 19:3), the **father-
in-law’? (Jud 19:4), “‘son-in-law’’ (Jud 19:5).
Thus, the concubine was not a kept mistress,
and did not cohabit with a man unless marned
to him. The institution itself is an offshoot of
polygamy.

A number of men in the ot had concubines,
either one, or many (as sign of wealth and status
symbols). Note that many of those who have
concubines are kings (and cf. Est 2:14; Song 6:8;
Dan 5:3, 23).

There are two famous concubines mentioned in
the ot. They are (1) Rizpah, the concubine of
Saul, whose moving display of maternal love so
moved David that he had her children burned in
the family sepulcher (1] Sam 3:7 and 21:8—14); (2)
the concubine of an unnamed Levite of Gibeah
whose rape and murder brought about the death
of 25,000 members of the tribe of Benjamin, and
the ban against members of the other tribes
intermarrying with them (Jud 19-20; one-third of
the uses of pilegesh in the or are in these two
chapters).

To he with a king's concubine was tantamount
to usurpation of the throne. This explains why
Abner soon fell out with the house of Saul be-
cause he sought in marriage Rizpah, Saul’s con-
cubine (II Sam 3:7). Marrying a king’s widow
could easily suggest designs on the throne (cf. II
Sam 16:21-22 and similarly the idea in I Kgs
2:21-24).

Bibliography: Morgenstern, J., ~‘Additional
Notes on 'Beena Marriage (Matriarchat) in An-
cient Israel, “° ZAW 49:46—S8, esp. pp. 56-58.
Patal, R., Sex and Family in the Bible, Double-
day, 1959, pp. 39-43. Plautz, Werner,
‘‘Monogamie und Polygynie im Alten Testa-
ment, ZAW 75:3-27.

1771 ms9p (p‘lada) iron, steel (Nah 2:4). De-
rivation uncertain.

1772 *m95 (pala) be distinct, marked out.

724

Derivative

1772a °39B (p’loni) a certain one. Al-
ways used with ‘almoni (Ruth 4:1,

] Sam 21:3; I] Kgs 6:8.

According to BDB, p. 811, this root occurs
seven times, four times in Ex, three times in Ps.
It is used in the Niphal twice (Ex 33:16; Ps
139:14), and in the Hiphil five times. KB, p. 761,
on the other hand, treat only the Ex passages
(8:22 [H 18]: 9:4; 11:7; 33:16) under the root pala.
If this is the case, pala occurs once in the Niphal
(Ex 33:16, “*to be marked out, separated’’), and
three times in the Hiphil (8:22 (H 18]: 9:4: 11:7,
‘to set apart, discriminate’’).

In the fourth plague on Egypt of flies (8:22
[H 8]), the Lord *‘sets apart’’ the land of Goshen
from the plague which infests the Egyptian
houses. In the fifth plague, the death of the Egyp-
tians’ livestock, the Lord ‘‘discriminates’* be-
tween the cattle of Israel and Egypt (9:4). When
Moses announces the death of the firstborn, Ex
li:1ff., he says again that the Lord will ‘‘dis-
criminate’’ between Egypt and Israel (11:7).

The three passages tn question in the Psalter
are 4:3 (H 4): 17:7; 139:14. To illustrate, Ps 4:3
{H ] reads, “the Lord ‘works wonders’ (Hiphil)
for those he loves.’ The MT for ‘works won-
ders’ reads hiplad, from pala, but many manu-
scripts read hipla’, from pald@’, akin to the form
hipli’ in Ps 31:21 [H 22], and hapléh in Ps 17:7.

For Ps 17:7 and 139:14 cf. the juggling efforts of
Dahood in AB, Psalms, I, p. 96: ITI, p. 293.

V.P.H.
1773 m2_ (pdlah) cleave (e.g. Ps 141:7; Job
16:13).
Derivative
1773a =M2B (pelah) cleavage, millstone
(e.g. Jud 9:53; Song 4:3).
1774 25 (palat) escape, save, deliver.
Derivatives
1774a op (pallét) deliverance (Ps 32:7;
56:8, only).

1774b tex>R (palit) fugitive.
1774c =9w>R (palét) fugitive.
1774d tMB 2D (p'léta) escape.
1774e 625% (miplat) escape (Ps 55:9).

The verb palat appears twenty-seven times in
the ot, of which nineteen are in the Psalter. The
verb always occurs in the Piel, except for its us-
ages in Isa 5:29, Hiphil, and Ezk 7:16 (Qal). Da-
hood has suggested repointing the Piel in Job 23:7
to a Qal, and reading, *‘I would forever escape
his condemnation.”

As we indicated above, the verb pdalat is con-

fined primarily to the Ps. The only places pdlat
occurs in the Piel outside of the Ps (or parallel
passages to Psalm verses) are: Mic 6:14, ‘‘You
Shall store away (food) but never ‘preserve’ ’’:
Job 21:10, *“‘His cow ‘calves’ (i.e. escapes from
the womb) with no loss’; Job 23:7 (in kJv), “so
should | be ‘delivered’ forever from my judge.”’

It can be observed then that the verb padlat in
the sense of ‘‘rescue, deliver’ is limited to poetry
in the oT. In the Psalter the verb is always on the
lips of the Psalmist addressed to God either in the
form of a testimony of praise for deliverance or,
palat is in the form of an imperative, seeking
God's deliverance. In 43:1 and 71:2 we find illus-
trations of pala? in the imperfect, but with im-
perative function. Only in Ps 91:14 is God the
subject of the verb, **! will deliver him.”’

A frequent parallel of palat is ‘azar ‘‘to help,
assist’’ as in Ps 37:40; 40:17 [H 18]; 70:5 [H 6}.
Cf. the Ugaritic passage, aght ypltk bn dnil
wy‘drk, ‘* And (call) Aqhat and let him save you,
Daniel's son, and let him rescue you,’’ 3 Aght;
rev 13-14.

palit. Fugitive, escapee. Nineteen times in the
oT. In form, a Qal passive participle of palat.
Always palit refers to someone who has escaped
from a calamity, a survivor in battle or war. A
few times palit refers to a single survivor or fugi-
tive as in the case of the one who brought to
Abraham the news of the capture of his nephew
Lot (Gen 14:13, and cf. similarly the references to
the survivor who announces that Jerusalem has
been taken by the Babylonians, Ezk 24:26, 27;
33:21, 22).

More often palit is used collectively to refer to
the remnant of Jews who escaped either death or
deportation at the hands of an enemy. By way of
extension, Lam 2:22 indicates that none shall
‘‘escape’’ on the day of the Lord.

pléta. Escape, survival. Twenty-eight times in
the ot. Once again, the pnmary use of this noun
is to refer to the remnant of God's people (II Kgs
19:30, 31=Isa 37:31, 22, etc.) But those who have
escaped do not owe their survival to simply for-
tuitous circumstances or luck. Their survival is
only of God’s mercy. As a matter of fact, p° léta
means not only ‘‘escape’’ but also ‘‘deliver-
ance,’’ as in IY Chr 12:7. *‘In a little while J will
grant them deliverance.’ Cf. also the statement
of Joseph (Gen 45:7): “God sent me before you to
make sure that your race would have ‘survivors’
in the land.’’ The goodness of God in preserving a
remnant, rather than liquidating the race, is espe-
cially emphasized in Ezra 9:8, 13-15.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., *‘Hebrew-Uganitic
Lexicography VIII,”’ Bib 51:391-404, esp. p. 397.
TDNT, IV, pp. 196-209; VII, pp. 970-89. THAT,
I], pp. 420-26.

725

1775 395 (plik).

1776 925 (palal)

Erp (palit), wd
1774b,c.

bm (palil). See no. 1776b.

V9 (p'lili). See no. 1776d.

m%5_B (p°liliya). See no. 1776e.

(palét). See nos.

Assumed root of the following.

1775a =. 39B (pelek) whirl of spindle, stick,
district (e.g. Il Sam 3:29; Neh 3:9,
12, etc.).

1776 %95 (pdalal) intervene, interpose, pray.
Derivatives

1776a tMPEM (t’pilla) prayer.

1776b 9°95 (palil) assessment, estimate.

1776c 3=—O9%B (p' lila) office of judge or
umpire (Isa 16:3, only).

1776d 199995 (p°lili) assessable, criminal.

1776e 9 tms9s>_ (p°liliya) reasoning.

The verb is found eighty-four times in the oT,
usually in the Hithpael (except Gen 48:11: I Sam
2:25; Ps 106:30; Ezk 16:52). The usual translation
for the root in the Hithpael ts “‘to pray.’ The
semantic development behind this will be dis-
cussed below.

There is a rich nomenclature for ‘* praying” in
the ot. There are at least a dozen Hebrew words
for pray and prayer. But easily the most common
word for ‘‘prayer”’ is ¢° pilla and the related verb,
palal. A number of suggestions have been made
for the etymology of palal. Wellhausen in the
19th century connected it with the Arabic falla,
‘*to notch the edge of a sword”’ and thus palal, it
was thought, meant ‘‘to cut or wound oneself,’
and reflected the pagan custom of slashing one-
self in a frenzy during worship, a practice forbid-
den by the law (Deut 14:1).

A second suggestion also relates Hebrew palal
to Arabic falla but sees the connection between
the two in the common meaning “‘to break, cut”
with the subsequent development: to cut>to di-
vide>to compare>to distinguish>to pass a
judgment (Ap-Thomas).

A third suggestion is that Hebrew pdlal and
nadpal are developments of the same bilateral
stem meaning “to fall,"’ emphasizing prayer and
prostration.

A fourth suggestion is to see in palal the mean-
ing ‘‘to estimate, assess’’ on the basis of the re-
flexes of the derivatives. The Piel (the 4 uses
noted at the beginning of this article) then means
‘‘to count on, figure’’ (Gen 48:11) or ‘‘cause
(re)assessment’’ (Ezk 16:52 “‘you have caused
reassessment in favor of your sisters.’ That ts,
Jerusalem is so corrupt she has made Sodom and
Samaria look angelic!) (Speiser).

What then is the relationship between the Piel
and the Hithpael of this root and what is the sig-

1777 *D>D (palas)

nificance of the 80 of 84 usages of this verb in the
Hithpael, meaning “‘to pray’’? First, it should be
observed that several verbs in Hebrew for prayer
are found preponderantly in the Hithpael stem.
For example, I Kgs 8:33, ‘‘and they shall pray
(w¢ hitpall® &@) and make supplication (w°*hithan-
n°nia).’’ Ezra 10:1, °**Now when Ezra had prayed
(ak*hitpallél) and confessed (uk hitwadoéto),
weeping, and casting himself down (amitnap-
pél)...’ Isa 44:17, “‘and he worships (w‘yish-
tahi) and prays (w° yitpallél).”’

The traditional explanation is that the Hithpael
is connected with p°lilim ‘‘judges’’ and hence,
hitpallél means to ‘“‘invoke God as judge.’ A
second explanation, taking pdlal as “‘to break,”’
is that the Hithpael, a reflexive, means here, ‘to
break oneself,’ that is, ‘‘to be contrite, pray,”
(Goldman). A third suggestion is to move from
the Piel pillél ‘‘to decide, settle an affair,’* to
hitpallél *‘to act as mediator,”’ (Ap-Thomas). A
fourth suggestion is to move from the Piel pillél
‘to estimate, make assessment” to hAitpallél *‘to
seek assessment, consideration, to pray,’ on the
basis that one of the syntactical functions in the
Hebrew Hithpael is to seek what the simple stem
designates (Speiser). An interesting case where
the Piel and Hithpael of pala/ are juxtaposed is
I Sam 2:25, *‘If one man sin against another, God
can ‘intervene’ (ipil® 16 ’élohim) but if a man sins
against the Lord who can ‘intercede’ for him
(yitpallel-l6)?” GB divides the root into two
verbs, *pdlal I judge (mostly Piel) and *padlal Il
pray (Hithpael).

Most often both the verb and the noun refer to
intercessory prayer. This is best illustrated in
Solomon's prayer for the people at the dedication
of the temple (I Kgs 8 and its parallel Il Chr 6)
where the root occurs 30 times in these chapters
alone. The first reference there, I Kgs 8:28,
reads, ‘‘listen to the prayer (1° pillat) of your ser-
vant and to his entreaty (ft hinndatd)... listen to
the cry (rinnd) and the prayer (f° pilla) your ser-
vant makes to you today (mitpallél).”’

t°pilla. Prayer. Found seventy-six times in the
OT, most often in Ps (thirty-two times). Indeed
five Psalms are specifically called **prayers’’ in
their superscription (Ps 17, 86, 90, 102, 142).

palil. Assessment, estimate. It is found three
times (Deut 32:31; Ex 21:22; Job 31:11) all in the
masculine plural. In each of these cases the trans-
lation by the ksv/rsv, ‘‘judges,’’ seems unlikely.
To illustrate, the relevant section of Deut 32:31
reads in the rsv, ‘even our enemies themselves
being ‘judges’.’’ More likely it should read some-
thing like, ‘even in our enemies’ estimation.’’ Or
Ex 21:22, *‘He shall pay as the ‘judges’ deter-
mine,’ a passage dealing with the liability of one
who caused a miscarriage by brawling. It is pre-
ferable to read, ‘‘He shall pay according to the

726

1777 *d2p (palas)

1778 *¥95 (pdlas) shudder.

husband’s ‘assessment’ ”’ (Lxx, meta axiOmatos
‘according to estimate’’).

plili. Assessable, criminal (?), found only in
Job 31:28, ksv, “‘this also were an iniquity to be
punished by the ‘judge’.’’ Perhaps it means, *‘this
was an ‘assessable’ offence,’’ or ‘‘criminal in-
iquity.”’

pliliyya. Reasoning, judgment, only in Isa
28:7, ‘‘they stumble in (making) ‘judgment’.”’
Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., **Notes on
Some Terms Relating to Prayer,’ VT 6:225—-41.
Blank, S. H., ‘The Confessions of Jeremiah and
the Meaning of Prayer,"”5 HUCA 21:331-54.
idem., **Some Observations Concerning Biblical
Prayer,’ HUCA 32:75-90. Richardson, TWB,
p. 169. Speiser, E. A., *‘The Stem PLL in He-
brew, JBL 82:301-306; Girdlestone, R., SOT,
pp. 219-20. Yalon, H., 99b, 9p‘’D in Hebrew and
Aramaic, Tarbiz 6:111. TDNT, I, pp. 785-800.
THAT, II, pp. 427-31.
V.P.H.

See no. 1772a.
A form of no. 1722a.

weigh, make level. De-
nominative verb occurring in the Piel only
(e.g. Prov 4:26; Isa 26:7).

3295 (p*loni).
937995 (palmoni).

Parent Noun

1777a 0B2B (peles) balance, scale (Prov
16:11; Isa 40:11).
1777b won (miplas) swaying, poising
(Job 37:16). derivation uncertain.

Occurs only
once, in the Hithpael (Job 9:6).

Derivatives
1778a =o maxop (pallasit) shuddering (Job
21:6; Isa 21:4).
1778b =o msoE% «(mipleset) horrid thing (I
Kgs 15:13; II Chr 15:16).
1778c mg2bR (tipleset) shuddering, hor-

ror (Jer 49:16).
myx?p (pallasat). See no. 1778a.

1779 *¥W9p (palash) act of mourning. Occurs

only in the Hithpael (e.g. Mic 1:10; Ezk
27:30).

1780 %5 (pen) lest, not.

In biblical Hebrew, pen is a conjunction that
negatives dependent clauses, ‘‘neither shall you
touch it ‘lest’ you die’’ (Gen 3:3). In every occur-
rence, except two, it is followed by the imperfect
form of the verb. The two exceptions are: (1)
II Sam 20:6, ‘“‘pursue after him ‘lest’ he get

(mdsa’) fenced cities and escape (w° hizzil) us”’;
(2) II Kgs 2:16, ** ‘lest’ the spirit of Yahweh has
taken him up (n“sda'd) and cast him on some
mountain.’" The conjunction pen always stands
at the beginning of the clause, followed by the
verb and then the object. The one departure from
this is Prov 5:6, ‘drah hayyim pen t° pallés “lest
you should ponder the path of life.”’

The primary function of pen at the beginning of
a Clause is to express precaution. For example,
many of the instances of pen in Prov follow the
negative particle ‘a/ and the jussive form of the
verb: ‘“‘reprove not (‘al t6kah) a scorner, ‘lest’
(pen) he hate you’’ (Prov 9:10); also, 20:13; 22:25;
26:4—-5; 30:6, 10. For pen following a positive im-
perative, see Prov 25:16—-17.

On the other hand, in Deuteronomy, pen often
follows the phrase hishshadmer I’ ka (Niphal imv.
of shdmar) or a variant of that. Deut 4:9 *‘take
heed to yourself (hishshamer I*kd)... ‘lest’
(pen) you forget.’’ Cf. also Deut 4:16, 19; 6:12;
8:11; 11:16; 12:13, 19, 30: 15:9; also, Gen 24:6 and
34:24,

Dahood has argued that occasionally pen is the
equivalent of the negative adverb ‘not’ and is
merely a stylistic substitute for the normal nega-
tive adverb ‘al followed by the jussive.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., **Hebrew-
Ugaritic Lexicography VIII,’ Bib 51:391-404,
esp. pp. 398, 399. GKC, par. 107q; 152w.

V.P.H.

1781 335 (pannag). Meaning dubious. Appa-
rently some kind of food (Ezk 27:17).

1782 735 (panda) turn.
Derivatives

1782a TO%35 (panim) face.

1782b +99_B9 (lipné) before.

I782c = MIB (p°nima) toward the inside.
1782d TM9°3D (p nimi) inner.

The frequency with which pdnd, and even
more its derivatives, occurs in the OT is attested
by KB p. 76, who notes that the root appears
twenty-one-hundred times in the ort.

The basic meaning of the verb, which appears
most frequently in the Qal stem, is ‘to turn,’’ but
here it may assume a number of nuances. For
example padnd may mean “to turn towards” a
direction (Deut 2:3); a person (Jer 50:16); a thing
(Ex 16:10). It may mean ‘‘to turn back’’ (Josh
8:20); “to turn from’ (Gen 18:22); “‘to turn
around’’ (Ex 2:12); *‘to look for, expect’’ (Hag
1:9); ‘‘to pay attention to, consider’ (Job 6:28).

panim. Face. This particular word always oc-
curs in the plural, perhaps indicative of the fact
that the face is a combination of a number of
features. As we shall see below, the face iden-

727

1782 M35 (pana)

tifies the person and reflects the attitude and
sentiments of the person. As such, pdnim can be
a substitute for the self or the feelings of the self.

In the Bible the ‘‘face’’ (along with the other
parts of the body) is described not merely as an
exterior instrument in one’s physiology, but
rather as being engaged in some form of be-
havioral pattern, and is thus characterized by
some personal quality. It is only natural that the
face was considered to be extraordinarily reveal-
ing vis-a-vis a man’s emotions, moods, and dis-
positions.

A ‘‘hard’’ face ts indicative of defiance (Jer
5:3), impudence (Prov 7:13), ruthlessness (Deut
28:50). A ‘‘shining’’ face is evidence of joy (Job
29:24). A ‘“‘shamed’’ face points to defeat, frus-
tration, humiliation (II Sam 19:5). A “‘flaming™
face is one convulsed by terror (Isa 13:8). An
‘evil’ face is a face marked by distress and anx-
iety (Gen 40:7). A “fallen” face stems from very
strong anger or displeasure (Gen 4:5). To make a
person's face ‘“‘sweet™ is to conciliate him or
seek his favor (of God: I Kgs 13:6; II Kgs 13:4).
The ksv translates freely this last phrase ‘*X
sought/entreated the Lord.’’ But the Hebrew
runs literally *‘X made sweet the Lord’s face.”
Similarly, this idiom is used of man (Prov 19:6).

The phrase “to hide one’s face’’ means to
show aversion or disgust (Isa 53:3) and ‘‘to turn
away the face’’ is to reject (Ps 132:10). Con-
versely, ‘‘to raise the face’’ of another is to show
favor, respect, acceptance (I Sam 25:35), or show
partiality and favoritism (Lev 19:15).

Most of these idioms and phrases are also
applied to God. God's face ‘‘shines” (Ps 4:6
(H 7]}) as a sign of favor and good will. His face
may *‘fall’* in anger (Jer 3:12). God may ‘“‘hide”’
his face (Ps 13:1 [H 2]).

Five times one encounters the phrase *‘to see
God's face’’ probably in the technical sense of
visiting the sanctuary for cultic worship: Ex
23:15; 34:20 (kiv, ‘“‘none shall appear before
me’’); Deut 31:11; Ps 42:2 (H 3); Isa 1:12. In each
of these instances the verb rd'd “‘to see,’ Is
pointed as a Niphal, and is translated then ‘‘to
appear, the idea of ‘‘appearing before’’ soften-
ing the concept of seeing God’s face. In one case
(1 Sam 1:22) the Niphal is indicated by the conso-
nantal text. The thought of /éra’6t pdndy, Niphal
infinitive construct, “‘to appear before God’’ is
acceptable, even mandatory, but the possibility
of lir’6t panay, Qal infinitive construct, is incon-
ceivable, according to Ex 33:20. There are some
exceptions to this, for example, Jacob (Gen 32:30
(H 31}) and Moses (Ex 33:11). They saw God
“face to face’ padnim el padnim.

A man must perish if he looks on or even hears
God (Ex 19:21). For this reason Moses (Ex 3:6),
Elijah (I Kgs 19:13), and even the seraphim (Isa
6:2) cover their faces in God's presence. The man

1783 33B (pnn)

who remains alive after seeing God is over-
whelmed with astonishment and gratitude (Gen
32:30; Deut 5:24); with awe (Jud 6:22-23; 13:22:
Isa 6:5). In the New Testament God is manifested
in Jesus who alone has seen the Father (Jn 1:18:
6:46: I Jn 4:12). Christ is not only the Word
through whom God is heard. He is the image
through whom God is seen.

lipné. A preposition, in the presence of, be-
fore. This is the most frequent usage of p’né
(plural construct) with a prefixed preposition.
Literally, the phrase means ‘‘at/to the face of.”’
We are dealing then with a case of a substantive
which has become a preposition by virtue of its
union with a prefix. In the meaning “‘before’’ the
following object is most frequently a person, God
or man, ‘before’ in the sense of ‘in full view of,
under the eye of, at the disposal of, in the estima-
tion of ° (BDB, pp. 186~187).

p‘nimi. IJnner, always used of parts of build-
ings, usually the temple (esp. Ezk 40-46).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., *‘Hebrew-Uga-
ritic Lexicography VII," Bib 51:391—404, esp.
pp. 399, 400. Johnson, A. R., “Aspects of the
Use of the Term 8335 in the O.T.,° in Festschrift
Otto Eissfeldt zum 60 Geburtstage, ed. J. Fueck,
Halle: Niemeyer, 1947, pp. 155-59. . The
Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of An-
cient Israel, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1949,
pp. 42ff. Lohse, E., “*prosdépon”™ in TDNT, VI,
pp. 768-780. Oppenheim, A., ‘Idiomatic Acca-
dian,” JAOS 61:251-71, esp. pp. 256-58 for
panu. Speiser, E. A., ‘The Biblical Idiom
PANIM HOL®* KIM” in The 75th Anniversary
Volume of the JOR, pp. 515-17. TDNT, VI, pp.
771-75. THAT, Il, pp. 432-60.

V.P.H.

M39 (pinna). See no. 1783a.
5°95 (panim). See no. 1782a.
m3 (p°nima). See no. 1782c.
YD (p’nimi). See no. 1782d.
OI (p*ninim). See no. 1783b.

1783 335 (pnn). Assumed root of the following.

1783a t§35 (pinnd) corner.

17836 -9399B (p*ninim) corals (e.g. Job
28:18, Lam 4:7).

pinna. Corner 1s one of the two words trans-
lated “‘corner’’ in the ot, the other being pé’a
(q.v.). pé’a includes the idea of “side” or ‘‘ex-
tremity '; pinnd is more specifically *‘corner.”
pinnd may refer to the corner of a house (Job
1:19); an altar (Ex 27:2; 38:2); a city wall (Neh
3:24, 31); a street (Prov 7:8, 12): a roof (Prov
21:9; 25:24); a tower in the tract of a wall (II Kgs
14:13; Jer 31:38; figuratively, “‘chieftains’* (Jud
20:2; I Sam 14:38).

728

Most interesting is the use of pinna as cor-
nerstone of the world (in Job 38:6). In two pas-
sages the cornerstone is figurative, and has a
Messianic significance. These are: (1) Isa 28:16
(Rom 9:33); (2) Ps 118:22 (and cf. the quotation of
this in Mt 21:42; Mk 12:10; Lk 20:17; Acts 4:11:
LP Pet 2:2):

The question is whether the cornerstone of
Scripture is a foundation stone or a stone which
crowns the building. Isaiah 28:16 seems to refer
to the former and Ps 118:22 (ré’sh pinnd) to the
latter. By extension, in the Nt, Christ is both the
foundation on which the church is built, and he is
also the coping stone or keystone which crowns
the church.

Bibliography: Good, E. M., “Cornerstone,”
in IDB, I, p. 700.

V.P.H.

1784 *535 (padnaq) indulge, pamper. Occurs

only once, in the Piel (Prov 29:21).

DB (pas). See no. 1789a.

1785 * 285 (pasaq) pass between. Is used once,

in Ps 48:14 (Piel).

MOD (pissd). See no. 1789b.

1786 MOB (pdsah) I, pass or spring over.

Derivative
1786a iM (pesah) Passover.

pesah. Passover. There are three areas, which
one must investigate, to put together the data in
the Bible on Passover. These are: (1) the histon-
cal setting for Passover, Ex 12; (2) references to
texts that spell out the procedures in the obser-
vance of Passover, Num 28:16-25; Lev 23:5-8:
Deut 16:1-8; (3) historical texts that narrate the
celebration of a particular Passover, Num 9: 1-14;
Josh 5:10-12 (at Gilgal); If Chr 30:1-27 (cele-
brated by Hezekiah, but interestingly no parallel
to this in Kgs): Il Kgs 23:21-23; I] Chr 35:1-19
(celebrated by Josiah, and note the amplification
in the Chronicles account); Ezr 6:19-22.

The name **Passover™ is derived from pdsah
which some think means “‘to pass (over)’’ (BDB,
p. 820). There are four instances of this. (1) Ex
12:13, ““When I see the blood I will ‘pass’ (apa-
sahti) over you.” (2) Ex 12:23, ‘*The Lorp will
‘pass’ through (‘abar)... and the Lorp will ‘pass’
(apasah) over the door.” (3) Ex 12:27, “It is the
sacrifice of the Lorp’s passover who ‘passed’
(pasah) over the houses of the children of Israel.”’
(4) Isa 31:5, *“The Lorn of hosts will protect Jeru-
salem (ganan) he will protect (ga@nan) and de-
liver (nasal) it. He will pass over (pdadsah) and
deliver (mdlat) it.”

In addition to this etymology for pesuh (i.e. the
merciful passing over of a destructive power),
several others have been suggested. (1) It is to be
linked with the root pdsah II, ‘‘to limp, hobble,”
and thus Passover describes a special cultic
dance. (2) Some have connected pesah with the
Akkadian verb pasdhu, *‘to appease, assuage” (a
deity) in ritual. (3) The interpretation of others
suggests that pdsah in the above four passages
means not “‘to pass over’ per se but rather “‘to
defend, protect.’ The Lorp will protectively
cover the houses of the Israelites and will not
suffer the destroyer to enter (Ex 12:236, and cf.
1 Cor 10:10: Heb 11:28). It 1s the destroyer who
seeks to enter the houses and the Lorp rebuffs
him, standing guard by the houses of his people.
The blood is a sign to the Lorp. **When I see the
blood (cf. Gen 9:16, ‘‘when I see the rainbow’’) I
will ‘protect’ you"’ (not the negative idea, **I will
pass over/omit you’ (Glasson, Weiss). (4) A final
suggestion Is to relate pesah to an Egyptian word
meaning “stroke, blow’ and thus the Passover is
the blow of the tenth plague in which the Lord
struck the firstborn of Egypt. The traditional
etymology and (3) seem the most plausible.

According to Ex 12, the Passover was to be
celebrated at the full moon in the first month of
the year (Abib = March/April). On the tenth day
of the month every family chose a one-year-old
lamb, a male, and one without blemish. This lamb
was killed at the twilight on the 14th, and its
blood was sprinkled over the two doorposts and
the lintel of the house where it was eaten. On the
following day, the 15th, the feast of unleavened
bread began. Note that it is a domestic ceremony
originally without reference to any central
sanctuary or priestly involvement. Interestingly,
it was very advantageous for the Israelites to
leave Egypt on the night of a full moon.

The critical theory regarding the relationship
between Passover and Unleavened Bread is as
follows. Originally, both were separate feasts,
Passover a nomadic shepherd's mte, and Un-
leavened Bread a Canaanite agricultural feast.
Subsequently the two were historicized (by being
connected with the Exodus) and coalesced, or
reestablished (Kraus), in the time of Josiah as a
consequence of the centralization of worship.
This, of course, is speculation. Hezekiah cele-
brated a great Passover (If Chr 30, where it is also
called the Feast of Unleavened Bread). Solomon
celebrated the three annual feasts (Unleavened
Bread, Weeks, and Tabernacles, II Chr 8:13).
The silence of the books of Samuel and Kings is
not a valid argument against the early date of the
Passover. None of the prophets except Ezekiel
(only Ezk 45:21) mention either the Passover or
the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Even Jeremiah
passes over Josiah’s great celebration in silence,
a silence that proves nothing.

729

1791 MPD (pa‘a)

Jesus celebrated this feast (Mt 26:2, 18). Christ
is the ‘Passover’ for the Christian (1 Cor 5:7 and
also Jn 1:20, I Pt 1:19).

Bibliography: DeVaux, R., Al, pp. 484-92.
Glasson, T., ‘‘The ‘Passover, A Misnomer: The
Meaning of the Verb PASACH,*’ JTS 10:79-84.
Haran, Menahem, ‘‘The Passover Sacrifice,”’
Supp VT 23:86-116. Kraus, H. J., Worship in
Israel, Richardson, Richmond, Virginia: John
Knox, 1966, pp. 45-55. TWB, p. 163. Weiss, R.,
*psh=hml, hws,’ Legsonéné 27:125-30. Jocz, J.,
**Passover,”’ in ZPEB, IV, pp. 605-11.

V.P.H.

1787 Mop (pasah) I, limp.
Derivative

1787a MOb (piséah) lame.

It is debated whether or not there are two dis-
tinct verbs in biblical Hebrew with the conso-
nants psh. BDB, p. 820, suggests there are and
discusses pasah I, “to pass over’ and pasah II,
‘to limp."’ KB, p. 769, does not differentiate be-
tween roots | and II, remarking that the etymol-
ogy of pesah **Passover™ is not clear.

There are only three uses of pasah II in the or.
(1) 11 Sam 4:4, ‘‘and he (Mephibosheth) fell and
‘became limp/lame’.”’ (2) I Kgs 18:21, “how long
‘halt’ ye (k)v) between two opinions?’’ Another
suggested translation is, ‘“‘how long will you
‘hobble’ on two crutches?’ (i.e., Yahweh and
Baal). (3) I Kgs 18:26, ‘‘and they (the priests of
Baal) ‘leaped’ upon/‘hobbled’ upon the altar,”
presumably a reference to some kind of pagan
ritual dance.

V.P.H.
2b (pasil). See no. 1788b.
1788 %35 (pdsal) hew, hew into shape.
Derivatives
1788a %3B (pesel) idol, image.
1788b =9%°DB (pasil) idol, image. For the

different words for idol, cf. gillal
and also ‘asdab.

1789 bBDD (pss) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1789a BOB (pas) flat of hand or foot, of
tunic reaching to palms and soles,
k*tonet passim (Gen 37:3, 23, 32;
If Sam 13:18, 19).
17896 «=SBD (pissad) abundance, plenty
(Ps 72:16). Meaning uncertain.
1790 3d (pdsas) II, disappear, vanish (Ps
12:2 only).
1791 SY5 (pa'ad) groan (Isa 42:14).

1792 9b (pa‘al)

Derivatives

1791a YPN (Cepa’) worthless. Derivation
uncertain.

I791b «= AYES (ep'd) viper.

1792 %yb (pd'‘al) do.
Derivatives

1792a toyp (po‘al) work, deed.

1792b tmPyp (p*‘alla) work, recompense,
reward.

1792c pp (mip‘al) work, thing made
(Prov 8:22).

1792d omdyEr (mip‘ala) deed (Ps 46:9;
66:5).

The verb appears fifty-six times in the ot. Most
often it is found in the Psalms, twenty-six times,
(eighteen times in the expression pd‘alé 'dwen,
**workers of iniquity’’). pd‘al is found only in the
Qal stem and in poetic texts. Its use in the or,
only fifty-six times, is of interest when one ob-
serves that the verb ‘asa *‘ to do, make,’’ occurs
over twenty-six hundred times (BDB, p. 793).

When pa‘al describes man’s actions or deeds,
like the substantive po‘al, it refers to his moral
acts, either positive (Ps 15:2; Zeph 2:3), but more
often negative: Prov 30:20—wickedness; Job
34:32— iniquity; Isa 44:15—idolatry.

In connection with this we may note the sig-
nificance of the phrase pd‘dalé ’adwen ‘workers of
iniquity.’ In addition to the eighteen instances in
the Psalter the phrase appears in: Isa 31:2; Hos
6:8; Job 31:3: 34:8, 22; Prov 10:29; 21:15. In spite
of the suggestion made famous by Mowinckel in
Psalmenstudien that the word 'dwen is a magical
power and the pod‘dlé ‘Gwen were sorcerers who
by their potent spells brought about the affliction
of the righteous, we may be safe in assuming that
the ‘workers of iniquity’ are foreign enemies who
harass and gloat over their defeats of Israel and
her king.

po‘al. Work, deed. Sixteen times the reference
is to God’s work and twenty-one times to man’s
work. When applied to God, po‘al refers primar-
ily to God's acts in history, not his acts in crea-
tion. When applied to man pd‘al often has a
moral nuance, positively, Prov 21:8; negatively,
Prov 21:6, for example.

p*‘alla. Work, recompense, reward, fourteen
times in the or. It may refer to normal labor (Jer
31:16): most often recompense in the sense of
wages (Isa 40:10); a reward (Prov 11:18); reward
(of sin) (Isa 65:7; Ps 109:20), all paid by God.
pulld is used with sakar/sakdr ‘*to hire/wages”’
in Lev 19:13; If Chr 15:7; Isa 40:10; 62:11; Jer
31:16; Prov 11:18.

Bibliography: Dahood, M. (who sees some-
times in Hebrew 6b'l, ‘‘to own,’’ a dialectal form

(from Ugaritic) for p'l), Bib 41:303; 43:361;
44:303; 46:320-21. TDNT, II, pp. 1005-1028.
THAT, III, pp. 461-65.

V.P.H.

1793 BY (pdad'am) thrust, impel.

Derivatives

1793a tOavyp (pa‘am) foot, step.
1793b -17YD (pa'admon) bell, on robe of
high priest.

pa‘am. Foot, step, anvil, time. This noun oc-
curs one hundred-seventeen times in the oT, usu-
ally meaning ‘time, occurrence.’ When pa‘am
means *‘foot’’ it may refer to: (1) the foot of man
(Ps 58:10 [H 11]); (2) (foot)step(s) (Ps 17:5; 85:13
[H 14]); (3) supports or a pedestal for a building
(Ex 25:12). The meaning ‘‘anvil’’ is found once,
in Isa 41:7.

There are numerous expressions for ‘‘time’’ in
which pa‘am is one of the elements. For exam-
ple, ‘This is ‘at last’ (happa‘am) bone of my
bones’” (Gen 2:23). *‘And I will speak ‘but this
once’’”’ (’ak-happa‘am) (Gen 18:32). ** "Now this
time’ (‘atta happa‘am) will my husband be joined
to me’’ (Gen 29:34). ‘‘*Many times’ (p° ‘dmim
rabbét) he delivered them’’ (Ps 106:43).

Hebrew pa‘am is a blend of Ugaritic p’m
‘‘time’’ and p‘n (Phoenician p'm) *‘foot’’ (Gor-
don, UT 19: nos. 1998, 2076).

V.P.H.

vvp (pa‘dmon). See no. 1793b.

1794 “Y5 (pda‘ar) open wide (the mouth) (e.g.
Isa 5:14; Job 16:10).
1795 MED (pasa) part, open (e.g. Gen 4:1];

Num 16:30).

1796 M¥B (pdsah) cause to break or burst forth,
break forth with (e.g. Isa 14:7; 55:12).

MSD (p’sira). See no. 1801a.

1797 *5%p (pasal) peel. Occurs only in the
Piel (Gen 30:37, 38).
Derivative
1797a m9xb (pisla) peeled spot or stripe
(Gen 30:37).
1798 ®8$5 (pdsam) split open. Occurs only in
Ps 60:4.
1799 Yep (pdsa‘) bruise, wound by bruising.
Derivative
1799a YED (pesa‘) bruise, wound (e.g.

Ex 21:25; Isa 1:6).

730

1800 *?¥5 (pdsas) break. Occurs in the Poel
(Jer 23:29) and Pilpel (Job 16:12).

180! “85 (pasar) push, press (e.g. Gen 19:3;
Jud 19:7; Arabic cognate possibly means
‘appoint, prescribe"’).

Derivative

180la =k D (psirad). Occurs only in 1
Sam 13:21. BDB calls this text **in-
curably corrupt, but see pim.
Modern translations, price, charge.

1802 “%2— (paqad) number, reckon, visit, punish,
appoint.

Derivatives

1802a imM3pB (p'qudda) mustering.

1802b EPH (p’qidim) allocation.

1802c TPB (pagqid) officer, overseer.

1802d ANB (p*qidit) oversight (Jer
37:13, only).

1802e tE°I2B (piggudim) precepts.

1802f NPB (piggadén) deposit.

[802g tp! (mipqdd) number.

paqad occurs primarily in the Qal, Niphal, and
Hiphil stems. It also occurs a few times in the
Piel, Pual, Hophal, Hithpael, and Hothpael
stems. The basic meaning is to exercise oversight
over a subordinate, either in the form of inspect-
ing or of taking action to cause a considerable
change in the circumstances of the subordinate,
either for the better or for the worse.

It has been said of this verb, which occurs
more than three hundred times in the oT: ‘‘There
is probably no other Hebrew verb that has caused
translators as much trouble as pgd’’ (Speiser,
BASOR 149:21). KB wrongly asserts that pgd
originates from the idea of missing. The only
basis for such a statement is a similar word in
Arabic, which, as far as most of our available
texts are concerned, represents a late develop-
ment in Semitic languages. The verb occurs in
Akkadian, usually with the meaning of appointing
a governor or other official.

Speiser considers the root meaning to be ‘‘at-
tend to with care’’ or “‘take note.”’ It is tmpossi-
ble to prove whether this ts the actual origin, but
the fact that at least half of the occurrences in-
volve positive action by a superior in relation to
his subordinates strongly suggests that such ac-
tion is a vital part of the meaning of the word, an
idea that is supported by the fact that the Lxx
most frequently translates it by episkeptoé or a
similar word.

The word is translated **to number’’ 110 times
in the KJv, but the fact that the Lxx renders it by
arithmein in only eight of these occurrences, and
usually uses episkeptein or a related word

731

1802 "DB (paqad)

suggests that in this usage its real meaning 1s to
muster troops or to ascertain the available man-
power. It usually concerns soldiers, Levites or
priests. There are a number of other Hebrew
words that express the simple idea of counting or
numbering.

[It may be noted that the so-called census in
Num | concerns only the adult men ‘‘able to go
forth to war’ (v. 20). It was more than a census:
it was an organizing of the troops for battle **by
their armies** (v. 3). It was the mustering of the
troops in preparation for Moses’ invasion of Ca-
naan from Kadesh Barnea. The similar number-
ing of Num 26 is not a duplicate account or froma
Separate source. It was another mustering of the
troops, this time for Joshua's invasion from the
east.

It is probable that David's *‘census”” of 1] Sam
24 was also not just a head count to satisfy a
monarch’s pride, but was again a preparation for
some ill-conceived military adventure. Notice
that Joab, the commander of the army, was
charged with the mustering and that he had
strong objections to it. R.L.H.|

When translated ‘‘visit,’ as fifty-seven times
in the Kv (rSsv the same in many of these occur-
rences), this word almost always has the sense,
now largely obsolete, of ““making a visitation”
and points to action that produces a great change
in the position of a subordinate either for good or
for ill. Speiser suggests a close parallel to the
phrase ‘‘to raise the head.’ used in Gen 40:13, 19
for Pharaoh's treatment both of the butler and of
the baker, one to be restored to his position in the
court and the other to be hanged. The word
paqad is similarly used in what might seem to be
two opposite senses in Jer 23:2. There are many
instances where “‘visit’” means to inflict injury or
harm and rsv translates many of these as
**punish.’” However, in a considerable number of
cases it is clear that the ‘visitation’ produces a
beneficial result, e.g. Gen 50:24-25, Ruth 1:6,
I Sam 2:21: Ps 8:4 [H 5]: Jer 15:15; 29:10. In Isa
24:21 the evil forces that God imprisons for a
season are ‘‘visited’’ by him after many days.
Scholars divide about equally as to whether
**visit’’ here means punish or release, with De-
litzsch and Calvin leaning toward the latter
interpretation.

There is only one occurrence where the pre-
sent usage of ‘‘visit” (make a call) would seem
appropriate (I Sam 15:2). In view of all the cir-
cumstances here, and of the many occurrences
with quite a different idea, one may reasonably
suggest that this passage is not an exception to
the general usage.

Such translations as **miss,’* ‘lack,’ “*want,”
and their passives (altogether about sixteen oc-
currences) seen at first sight to suggest quite a
different idea, but on examination prove to come

1803 MBB (paqah)

under the general meaning of the verb. Thus ref-
erences in I Sam 20:6, 18, 25, 27 to David's seat
being empty or to David being missed involve the
idea of Saul’s oversight over his subordinate. The
references to cattle or sheep not being missed in
] Sam 25:7, 15, 21 relate to David's protection of
Nabal’s flock. A similar reference to God's over-
sight of his people and finding none missing ts
contained in Jer 23:4. In Num 31:49 and II Sam
2:30 reference is made to oversight of the sur-
vivors of a battle with a check on the number that
had been lost. In II Kgs 10:19 there is a demand
by the king that the pnests of Baal be watched
over so that all will be assembled and none found
to be absent. In Jud 21:3 there is a reference to
God's care of his people and the importance that
no tribe be lacking.

The Hiphil is often used for a king’s appoint-
ment of officers: also for committing Jeremiah to
prison (Jer 37:21) and for committing one’s spirit
into the hand of God (Ps 31:5 [H 6]).

p‘qudda. Visitation, office, officer, account,
charge, custody, ordering, oversight (Rsv similar,
but usually substitutes ‘punishment’ for **visita-
tion, except in Job 10:12 where it substitutes
‘‘care’’). This noun corresponds closely to the
verb pdqad and has just about the same range of
meanings. Its commonest use is to express the
primary idea of that verb—intervention by a
superior power (usually God or a king) in order to
make a great change in the situation of a subordi-
nate. In most of the occurrences of p“giadda of
this type the change is for the worse, but Job
10:12 shows that this noun, like the verb, can also
have the idea of a change for the better. While the
noun, like the verb, may simply involve over-
sight, it more generally represents an active in-
tervention to help or injure the one visited.

pqudim. Sum _ (rsv the same), is used in the
pl. to mean “‘appointments”™ or ‘‘allocation.”’ It
occurs only in Ex 38:21, where it indicates the
amount designated for the tabernacle.

paqid. Officer, overseer (rSvV_ similar, adds
‘‘leader’’). This word designates a subordinate
who has been placed in a position where he has
the oversight of others, whether assigned for a
special duty (Gen 41:34; Est 2:3) or in a perma-
nent position in charge of soldiers, priests, Le-
vites, or Singers.

piqqtdim. Precepts, statutes, commandments
(used only in pl.) (Rsv “‘precepts™’ in all twenty-
four occurrences), used only in Ps (all but three
of its occurrences are in Ps 119), is a general term
for the responsibilities that God places on his
people.

mipqad. Number (gate of commandment, ap-
pointed place; rsv “numbering, ‘‘appoint-

732

ment, *‘Muster’’ Gate, ‘‘appointed place’’). Al-
though this word occurs only five times, it covers
a wide range of meanings, all related to the gen-
eral idea of pagad.

Bibliography: Beyer, Herman Wolfgang,
ENLOXEMTOMAL, ENMLOXOMEW, EALOXONN, EMLOXONOS,
ahkdotoOLemioxonmoc, in TDNT, Il, pp. 599-622.
Blatklock, E. M., *“Census,’* in ZPEB, I, p. 771.
Coenen, L., ‘Bishop, Presbyter, Elder,” in The
New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology, I, ed. Colin Brown, Exeter: Paternos-
ter, pp. 188-201. Esser, H. H. *‘Command, Or-
der,’ in TDNT, I, pp. 330-39. Gehman, H. S.,
Envoxéurmoua, énioxewig énioxonog and énvo-
xomy in the Septuagint in Relation to 35 and
other Hebrew Roots,’ VT 22:197-207. Middel-
koop, P., °°-A Word Study: The Sense of PAQAD
in the second Commandment and its general
background in the or in regard to the translation
into the Indonesian and Timorese Languages,’
The South East Asia Journal of Theology, 4:33-
~47. Scharbert, J., ‘Das Verbum PQD in der
Theologie des Alten Testaments,” Biblische
Zeitschrift 4:207—-27. Snaith, Norman H., *‘Time
in the Old Testament,” in Promise and Fulfill-
ment, ed. F. F. Bruce, T&T Clark, 1963, pp.
175-86. Speiser, E. A., ‘Census and Ritual Ex-
piation in Mari and Israel,"*" BASOR, 149: 17-25.
THAT, II, pp. 466-85.

WIP (piqgdddn). See no. 1802f.

mapp (p*qidut). See no. 1802d.

DPD (p*qudim), BPD (pigqudim). See
nos. 1802b,e.

1803 MPD (paquh) open (the eyes).

Denivatives
1803a MPS (pigéah) seeing (Ex 4:11;
23:8).
1803b so M33-MBB (p’qah-qoah) opening (of

eyes (Isa 61:1).

The verb paqgah occurs twenty-one times tn the
oT. Most often in IT Kgs (4:35; 6:17; 6:20; 19:16)
and Isa (35:5; 37:17; 42:7, 20; 61:1). Eighteen
times pdgah is in the Qal: three in the Niphal
(Gen 3:5, ‘‘your eyes shall be opened’’; 3:7; Isa
35:5).

paqah refers to the opening of the eyes with
two exceptions (Isa 42:20, the opening of the
ears; Isa 61:1, the opening of a prison to those
who are bound (cf. Lk 4:18-19}).

The eyes may be God's (Job 14:3; Dan 9:18;
Zech 12:4; I] Kgs 19:16=Isa 37:17: Jer 32:19) or,
as in the other passages, man’s. The references to
God's eyes, an anthropomorphism, may suggest
the idea that God Its attentive and aware, as op-
posed to passive and uninvolved (II Kgs 19-
:16=Isa 37:17, “Lord, open thy eyes, and see

(ra'a) the words of Sennacherib™). Or, it may
suggest not only awareness, but more, loving
compassion (Zech 12:4, “‘but on the house of
Judah (as opposed to God's enemies) | will open
my eyes.’’).

When payah refers to the opening of man's
eyes, more often than not God is the subject of
the verb: Gen 21:19: the six passages in II Kgs
referred to above; Isa 35:5 (and cf. Mt 11:5: Lk
7:22); 42:7; Ps 146:8. Only in II Kgs 4:35 does
paqah seem to refer to the opening of the eyes in
a physical miracle (the son of the Shunemite wo-
man). One is reminded of Jesus’ healing of the
man with congenital blindness (Jn 9) and espe-
cially Jn 9:39, “It is for judgment that I have
come into the world so that they which see not
might see, and that they which see might be made
blind.”

V.P.H.
"99 (pdqid). See no. 1802c.
1804 yop (pqg'). Assumed rvot of the following.
1804a OED (p'qda'im) carved wood or
metal ornaments, either ball or knob-
shaped (1 Kgs 6:18; 7:24).
1804b MYED (paqqi'ot) gourds (Il Kgs
4:39).

DYvos (p'qa@im). See no. 1804a.
Pypp (pagqqi@ oat). See no. 1804b.
"2 (pur). See no. 183la.

[805 835 (pr). Assumed root of the following.
1805a =STD (pere’) wild ass (e.g. Hos
8:9: Jer 2:24).

1806 “I5B (parad) 1, divide, separate.
Derivative

1806a IND «(pt ridda) grain of seed (Joel
1:17).

The verb pdrad appears twenty-six times in the
ot in a number of stems: Qal (only Ezk 1:11),
Niphal, Piel (only Hos 4:14), Pual only (Est 3:8),
Niphil, and Hithpael.

In the sense of “to separate,” pdraud may re-
fer: (1) to the separation of a river into tributaries
(Gen 2:10): (2) the separation of the wings of a
bird (Ezk I:1t: cf. Job 41:17 (H 9]); (3) the sep-
aration of friends on an amiable basis (Gen 13:9,
11, 14; Ruth 1:17: IT Sam 1:23: (4) the dispersal of
peoples (Gen 10:5, 32: 25:23; Deut 32:8).

The verb has an interesting nuance in Prov,
where it occurs five times. Here it may mean to
drive a wedge between solid friendships. Thus,
Prov 16:28 refers to the man who destroys other
people's friendships by creating discord. pdrad 1s
used in Prov 18:1 to describe the unsociable man.

733

1809 M55 (para)

He is the abominable no-man. Proverbs 18:18
says that the lot “‘separates’’ powerful parties
locked in a legal contest.

Bibliography: Wieder, A., ‘* Ugaritic- Hebrew
Lexicographical Notes,” JBL 84:160—64, esp.
pp. 163-64.

1807 “5B (prd) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1I807a TB (pered) mule.
1807b =6S5D (pirda) she-mule (I Kgs
1:33, 38, 44).

pered. Mule (xx, hémionos “the separated
animal**). The mule is the offspring of a mare and
a male ass (the offspring of a stallion and she-ass
is called a hinny). Because Lev 19:19 forbids the
crossbreeding of animals we must assume that
mules were imported into Israel. The mule was
ridden (II Sam 13:29; 18:9; Isa 66:20) and served
as a beast of burden (II Kgs 5:17).

From the time of David mules function as
transportation for members of the royal family
(II Sam 13:29; 18:9: I Kgs 1:38, pirda, 18:5).
They were received by kings as gifts (I Kgs 10:25:
II Chr 9:24). Until recently the word pered was
unique to biblical Hebrew. It has now appeared
in the Ugaritic phrase (2102:12) rt! qld yvbl prd “a
garment for the courier who is borne by a mule.’

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ’*Hebrew-
Ugaritic Lexicography VIII,° Bib 51:391-404,
esp. p. 400.

V.P.H.

1808 oe3sD (pardés) park, enclosed garden.

The word from which comes (through the
Greek) the word ‘paradise.’ This is a loan word
into Hebrew as well as into Greek from the Zend
Avestan. It is never in the Hebrew ot applied to
the Garden of Eden, although the Lxx uses it to
translate “garden” (gan) in Gen 2:8. Used only
three times (Neh 2:8: Song 4:13 and Eccl 2:5), it
does not prove that Song and Eccl were wnitten
in exilic times. The Zend Avesta, a holy book of
Zoroaster, is indeed from 600 B.c. (or later), but
its language is a branch of old Indo-Iranian and
the word may easily have been borrowed by Sol-
omon’s wide-ranging traders. Just as the few
Greek words in Dan may have been borrowed
before the Greek age of Alexander so this word
may have been borrowed before the Persian age
of Cyrus. Extensive Persian borrowing came
later. It is of interest that the several Persian loan
words in the Hebrew ot are found in Ezra, Neh,
Est, Dan, Song, and Chr. None occur in the Pen-
tateuch.

R.L.H.

1809 SSB (para) bear fruit, be fruitful, branch

off.

1810 "395 (parwar)

Derivative
1809a 9B (pri) fruit.

The verb para is used twenty-nine times in the
oT, most often in Gen (fifteen times). pdrd ap-
pears twenty-two times in the Qal, seven times in
the Hiphil (with the meaning ‘‘make fruitful”’).
Quite often it appears in conjunction with the
verb rdba ‘‘to increase, multiply.’* It either fol-
lows raba (Jer 3:16: Ezk 36:11) or, more fre-
quently, it precedes it (Gen 1:22, 28: 8:17; 9:1, 7:
35:11: 47:27; Ex 1:7; Jer 23:3; in the Hiphil, Gen
17:20; 28:3: 48:4; Lev 26:9).

The root para is at the heart of the name of
one of the tribes of Israel. Genesis 41:52,
‘‘{Joseph| named the second son Ephraim ('ep-
rayim) because God has made me fruitful (/ip-
rani) in the country of my affliction."’ The same
promise and sustenance came to Jacob at Bethel
(Gen 28:3; cf. 48:4). Even the banished Ishmael
received this promise of God (Gen 17:20). Most
interesting of all is the word of the Lord to Ab-
raham in Gen 17:6, °*f will make you fruitful and
will make you into nations.’ Two things are of
special interest here. First, in Gen !7 Abraham
was ninety-nine years old. Twenty-four years had
elapsed after God’s original promise to him (Gen
12:4). Second, at the time of this promise of fruit-
fulness Sarah was post-menopausal and Abraham
was impotent (Gen 17:17; Rom 4:19). Unwaver-
ing faith!

pri. Fruit. Three primary meanings are cov-
ered by Hebrew pri: (1) the fruit of a tree (Gen
1:12); a vine (Zech 8:12): or a fig tree (Prov
27:18); (2) the fruit of the womb, 1.e. children
(Gen 30:2; Deut 28:4, 11; Ps 21:10{H It]; 127:3);
(3) fruit as consequences resulting from an ac-
tion, e.g. “*reward’’ (Ps 58:11 [H 12]: Prov 11:30).
Six times pri is juxtaposed with shdresh “root”
(II Kgs 19:30; Isa 14:29; 37:31; Ezk 17:9: Hos
9:16; Amos 2:9). Ginsberg has suggested that in
these passages p‘ri does not mean ‘‘fruit,’* but
‘*branch, bough.”’ Such may also be the meaning
of para in verses such as Deut 29:18 [H 17], “‘lest
there be among you a stock ‘branching out into’
(i.e. “Sprouting’) gall and wormwood."’ Isaiah
11:1, a famous messianic passage, may be trans-
lated, ‘‘and a shoot shall ‘branch’ off from his
stock.”

Of the three usages cited above, the third, 1.e.
fruit as being tndicative of consequences, occurs
most frequently (especially in Ps, eleven times,
and Prov, ten times). Proverbs refers to the *' fruit
of one’s speech/mouth”’ (12:14: 13:2; 18:20: also,
18:21), and twice to the ‘fruit of one’s hands” in
the sense of achievements (31:16, 31). Proverbs
1:31 says that the heedless will eat of *‘the fruit of
their way.” There is a relationship between ac-
tion and consequence as there is between seed
and plant.

Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., °° ‘Roots
Below and Fruit Above’ And Related Matters,’
in Hebrew and Semitic Studies, Oxford: Claren-
don, 1963, pp. 72-76. Tolkowsky, S., “‘The
Meaning of p°ri ‘es hadar (Lev. XXIII, 40),”’
JPOS 8:17-22.

V.P.H.

1810 “395 (parwar). Structure attached to the
west side of Solomon’s temple (II Kgs
23:11: I Chr 26:11). Perhaps a colonnade.
See no. 1750b.

abbr) (pariar).

1811 85 (perez) warriors, leaders (Hab 3:4).

Meaning dubious.

1812 5D (prz). Assumed root of the following.
I8i2a = MINB (p* raza) open region, hamlet.
1812b 0 9B (p*rdzon) rural population,

rustics. This word occurs only in
Jud 5:7. Its meaning is dubious.
I8l2c 80 INE (p'razi) open region.
W9B (p*razon). See no. 1812b.
“95 (p'razi). See no. 1812c.
1813) mas (parah) I, bud, sprout, shoot.
Derivatives
[813a tm9B (perah) bud, sprout.
1813b =oMANB (pirhad) brood (Job 30:12).
1813c MSDN (‘eprdah) young ones (of

birds (Deut 22:6; Job 39:30).

The meaning of this verb is connected with
growing objects in nature. Its two basic transla-
tions are to sprout; to blossom/bud.

parah always occurs in the Qal, except for five
usages in the Hiphil. Of spectal interest 1s Ps
92:12-13 (H 13-14] which illustrates the use of a
verb in different conjugations in the same con-
text. Thus, 92:12 (H 13] “the righteous shall
flourish (yiprah) like the palm tree’; 92:13 [H 14]
‘‘they shall flounsh (yapriha) in the courts of our
God.’ Dahood (in AB, Psalms, II, p. 338) under-
stands the latter form as a Hiphil elative and
translates, ‘“‘they will richly flourish,’ to bring
out the force of the Hiphil stem.

Many times the verb is used metaphorically to
describe, for example, the **flourishing’* of God’s
people, specifically, Israel (Isa 27:6), both in
numbers and in influence. It also refers, more
generally, to the righteous (saddig; Ps 72:7;
92:12-13 [H 13-14]: Prov 11:28; cf. Prov 14:11).

perah. Bud, sprout. This substantive refers to
either buds or blossoms (Num 17:8 [H 23]; I Kgs
7:26; Isa 5:24: 18:5; Nah 1:4). It may also refer to
bud-shaped ornaments (Ex 25:23, 31, 34; 37:17,
19, 20; Num 8:4: I Kgs 7:49; II Chr 4:5), a decora-
tive piece.

734

1814 map (parah) I, break out (of leprosy).

This verb describes the eruption of skin dis-
eases such as leprosy (?) and boils (Ex 9:9-10).
Apart from Ex 9:9-10, pdrah I¥ occurs only in
Lev 13 and 14 (13:20, 25, 39, 42, 57; 14:43).

It is questionable whether or not parah II, ‘‘to
break out’’ (of diseases) is to be distinguished
from the root pdrah I, ‘“‘to bud, spring up,
flourish."” BDB, p. 827, separates the two. KB,
pp. 777-78, treats them as one.

Leprosy might “break out’’ in place of an old
boil (Lev 13:20), or it might ‘‘break out’’ in place
of a burn which had not healed (Lev 13:25). Skin
which had *‘broken out” in bright spots might be
diagnosed as psoriasis or eczema (KJV, ‘‘tetter,””
Lev 13:39). Leprosy might **break out’* on a bald
head, the symptom being a whitish-red spot (Lev
13:42). Leprosy might “break out’’ on clothing
(Lev 13:57) (probably mildew or fungus). Finally,
leprosy, spread by dry rot, could ‘*break out” in
one’s home (Lev 14:43). See tdmé’ and sara‘at
for the view that other communicable diseases
were also so designated.

There are two kinds of leprosy: (1) nodular lep-
rosy in which the patient exhibits eruptions
which develop into nodules which subsequently
become ulcerated; (2) a more severe kind,
anesthetic leprosy, which involves degeneration
of the nerves, loss of sensation and muscular
movement, progressive paralysis, and eventually
the loss of extremities.

Few lepers are mentioned in the ot. They in-
clude: (1) Moses, Ex 4:6ff.; (2) Miriam, Num
12:10ff.; (3) Naaman, II Kgs 5:1ff.; (4) Gehazi, II
Kgs 5:27; (5S) Uzztah/Azariah, II Kgs 15:5; (6) the
four lepers at the siege of Samaria, II Kgs 7:3ff.
Only the leprosy of Uzziah and the four de-
manded exile and banishment.

Leprosy, like all sicknesses described in the
OT, came not from the realm of impurity or the
demonic, but from the realm of God. It is the
Lord who made Moses (his hand) and Miriam
leprous. He infected houses with defiling leprosy
(Lev 14:34). Elisha, the Lord's prophet, made
Gehazi leprous on account of his avarice. Uzziah
was smitten by the Lord (II Kgs 15:5).

‘While the leper was regarded as ceremonially
unclean, the Bible never refers to leprosy as a
type of sin. Its incidence was regarded as an act
of God, and in consequence the healing of the
leper was invariably interpreted as a miracle of
divine grace,’ (Harrison, see bibliography).

According to Lev 14 the priest visited the leper
during his sickness. He examined the diseased
area (not as a physician, but as an interpreter of
the Law). He quarantined him, and later pro-
nounced him pure or infected. Most important,
the priest performed no therapeutic or exorcistic
activity. A purification rite was carried out only
after the leprosy healed.

1820 O55 (paras)

In the ot healing pertains to the man of God,
not the priest. Miriam’s leprosy was cured not by
Aaron, but by Moses’ prayer (Num 12:10ff.).
Naaman was healed when he followed a remedy
prescribed by Elisha.

Bibliography: DeVaux, R., AI, pp. 462-64.
Harrison, R. K., ‘“‘Leprosy,”’ in IDB, II], pp.
111-13. Browne, S. G., “‘Leper, Leprosy,” in
WBE. Harris, R. L., Man—God's Eternal Crea-
tion, Moody, 1971, pp. 142-43.

V.P.H.
1815 map (parah) IH, fly. Occurs only in Ezk
13:20.
1816 855 (pdrat) improvise carelessly (Amos
6:5). Meaning uncertain.
Derivative
1816a 5B (peret) the broken off, i.e. fal-
len grapes (Lev 19:10).
"5 (pri). See no. 1809a.
yp (paris). See no. 1826b.

1817 “S55 (prk) 1. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
I8i7a 398 (perek) harshness,
(Lev 25:53; Ex 1:13).

severity

1818 3955 (prk) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1818a (e.g. Ex

M2"_ (paroket) curtain

26:31; Lev 4:6).

no 1p (paroket). See no. 1818a.

1819 8935 (pdram) tear, (Lev

21:10; 10:6; 13:45).

rend garment

1820 595 (paras) Persia, the equivalent of
Greek Peris, both derived from the Per-
sian designation Parsa.

Its designation, the Achaemenian Empire, re-
flects the name of Achaemenes (700-675 B.c.),
the eponymous ancestor of the dynasty.

Cyrus II (559-530 s.c.) is the first Persian
monarch referred to in the ot. He promulgated
the famous edict (in 539 B.c.) allowing the Jews
(and other captured peoples) to leave Babylon
and return to their native soil. He is referred to,
by implication, in Isa 41:1-7, as the future
liberator of the Judeans. In Isa 44:28 he is called
God's ‘‘shepherd’’ and in 45:1 God's
‘‘anointed,’’ literally, “*messiah.*’ Far from being
an independent power’ bent. on _ self-
agegrandizement, he is an instrument whom God
has raised up for deliverance, one of the actors on
the stage of God’s unfolding drama.

735

1821 O55 (paras)

Two other Persian kings also figure promi-
nently in the Bible. If Cyrus II authorized the
restoration, then it was Darius I ($22-486 B.c.)
who confirmed it. Both Haggai and Zechanah re-
ceived their call in the second year of Darius’
reign (i.e. 520 B.c.), each of whose prophecies
deal with the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the
temple. Secondly, it was under Artaxerxes I
(465424 B.c.), who sponsored and authorized the
ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah, that the resto-
ration plans in Jerusalem were bolstered and
completed.

There is no doubt but that the cruelty and
rapacity demonstrated by the Assynans and
Babylonians on their subject peoples is missing
with the Persians. They have become famous for
their remarkably humane treatment of their vas-
sals. Two factors may account for this benign
policy. One, the Persian respect for other's au-
tonomy may have had an ulterior motive. That ts,
the Persians were prepared to respect national
sensibilities only to the extent that they served to
weld together a new empire greater even than its
Babylonian and Assyrian predecessors (cf. Est
1:1). Two, the religion of Persia, Zoroastrianism,
was itself geared to tolerance, for it made a place
for foreign gods as helpers of Ahuramazda, the
chief god. The strategy in the political administra-
tion of the empire may have been a spillover from
this mentality.

V.P.H.

1821 O55 (paras) divide, break (in two).

Derivatives

O15 (peres)
vulture.
1821b tMOND (parsa) hoof.

182la bird of prey, perhaps

The verb is used twice in the Qal to describe
the ‘breaking’ of bread for the hungry (Isa 58:7)
or at a funeral meal (Jer 16:7). Every other time it
is in the Hiphil, used of those particular animals
which ‘separate’ or *‘split’’ the hoof.

parsa. Hoof. Found in (prophetic) passages to
describe the might of an enemy raised by God
himself against his people (Isa 5:28) or against
Israel's neighbors (Jer 47:3, Philistines: Ezk
26:11, Tyre), or even the strength of Israel herself
(Mic 4:13).

Of more important interest is the use of parsda
in Lev 11:3-7 (seven times) and Deut 14:6-8 (five
times) to describe the animals with cloven hoof.

Leviticus I! begins the third section in Lev
which discusses the theme of legal purity, that is,
what the covenant of God with Israel meant for
the latter in terms of daily living. Other items
discussed in this unit beside chapter | 1 (clean and
unclean animals) are childbirth (chap 12), leprosy
(chaps 13-14), sexual uncleanness (chap I5).

736

1822 Yas (para')

Specifically, Lev 11:1-8 identifies clean and
unclean beasts on land. What is permissible for
food and consumption are only those who ‘'part
the hoof’ (mapreset parsad) and chew the cud (a
ruminant). Thus, Lev 11 forbids the pious to eat
the camel, the hyrax, the hare, the pig, the first
three because of the absence of the cloven hoof,
the swine because it is not a ruminant. The list in
Deut 14:3-8 begins, unlike the list in Leviticus,
with the permissible and then moves to the out-
lawed.

It is interesting to trace man’s relationship to
animals in the oT, at least as the latter being a
source of food (companionship aside!). It is quite
clear that before the fall man was a vegetanan
(Gen 1:28-29). Only after the flood is man specif-
ically given permission to eat meat, and that
without blood (Gen 9:3-4). By the time of Lev
and Deut man's meat menu is largely narrowed to
a few living creatures of the tame, herbivorous
species.

Perhaps the most important thing is not the
specifications of what ts clean and unclean, but
the underlying motivation that prompted the
drawing of such a distinction. One obvious truth
here is that God is concerned with the total life of
his people, and nothing is beyond his concern or
purview. Whether the categorization of animals
is based on pagan associations or simply on
hygienic concerns is difficult to say. Perhaps
both.

Conceivably this is one illustration of how the
OT unites hygiene and religion, or health and holl-
ness (II Jn 2}. It is noteworthy that no punish-
ment for violating these laws is ever mentioned.
The prohibited animals are declared unclean, and
it is understood that anyone absorbing their im-
purity would be cut off from all contact with the
holy and therefore from God. So then, Israel's
total life is to be brought into conformity with
God's demands.

Bibliography: Harris, R. L., Man-God's
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 139-44.
V.P.H.

I, act as leader, lead. This
denominative verb occurs only in Jud 5:2.

Parent Noun

1822a yap (pera') leader (Jud 5:2; Deut
32:42).
1823 ysd (pr') II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1823a Yad (pera') long hair of head,

locks.

1824 yd (pdra‘) Wl, let go, let loose, ignore.

This verb, used sixteen times in the oT, has
three basic meanings. The first is “*to let loose,”’

used of the hair in the sense of ‘‘cutting’’ (Lev
10:6, 13:45; 21:10), or ‘‘unbraiding’’ (Num 5:18).
The second is *‘to let loose’’ in the sense of ‘‘to
let run wild’* (Ex 32:25 [twice]), ““when Moses
saw the people ‘so out of hand’.’’ The third is “‘to
let loose’’ in the sense of ‘‘to let slip through the
fingers,’ 1.e., ‘“‘to ignore, reject’’ (Prov 1:25;
8:33; 13:18; 15:32).

Twice para‘ is used in the Hiphil (Ex 5:4;
II Chr 28:19). Once it is used in the Niphal, Prov
29:18, ‘‘where there is no vision the people ‘per-
ish’ ** (ksv). On the basis of the use of pdra‘ in the
Qal a possible translation for Prov 29:18 1s,
‘where there 1s no vision (revelation from God),
the people are ‘undisciplined/get out of hand’.’’

V.P.H.

1825 mY"p (par'dh) Pharaoh. The Hebrew
par‘oh (in Akkadian, pir‘u) represents the
transcnption and vocalization from the
Egyptian per a‘o ‘‘the Great House.”’

Onginally the Egyptian designation did not
refer to the king of Egypt, but rather to his
palace. Not until the middle of the eighteenth
Dynasty (1575—1308 B.c.) did the expression be-
come the appellative title of the king. As a cir-
cumlocution used to specify the king, the phrase
per a‘o may be analogous to the phrase ‘the
White House,’ or to the title ‘tthe Sublime
Porte,’’ 1.e. the Turkish sultan of the Ottoman
Empire. There is no indication that Egyptian
texts ever used **Pharaoh”’ as part of the official
titulary of the king.

There are several pharaohs named in the Bible:
(1) Necho, II Kgs 23:29, (the twenty-sixth
Dynasty) who killed Josiah (609 B.c.) at Megiddo.
If Chronicles 35:22 says that Josiah met his death
because he would not listen to God’s word from
Necho’s mouth! (2) Hophra, Jer 44:30, who suc-
ceeded Necho, is an object of Jeremiah’s
prophecy; (3) Shishak, I Kgs 11:40 (twenty-
second Dynasty) who harbored Jeroboam when
the latter escaped the wrath of Solomon; (4) So,
king of Egypt to whom Hoshea sent envoys
(II Kgs 17:4). H. Goedicke argued that this is not
the name of a king but of a city (BASOR 171:64—
6). K. Kitchen holds that it is Osorkon IV (The
Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, Aris & Phil-
lips, 1973, pp. 372-75).

There are also a number of pharaohs in the
Bible who are incognito. Some of these are: (1)
the Pharaoh visited by Abraham (Gen 12:10~-20);
(2) the Pharaoh under whom Joseph served, pre-
sumably one of the Hyksos kings (Gen 39ff.): (3)
the Pharaoh of the oppression of the Exodus,
either Thutmose HII and Amenhotep II, (eigh-
teenth Dynasty), or Ramesses II and his son
Merenptah (nineteenth Dynasty), depending on
whether one dates the Exodus events in the fif-

737

1825.1

1826 PSB (paras)

teenth or early thirteenth centunes B.c. Concern-
ing the Pharaoh whose heart **God hardened”
(reflecting perhaps the monistic way in which the
Hebrew put the facts of history), see Rom 9:14—
29. To use the unfaithful man providentially as a
means of revealing God's gracious redemption to
others so that they may become redeemed Is it-
self an act of mercy; (4) the father-in-law of Sol-
omon (I Kgs 3:1; 9:16, 24; 11:1). Solomon’s mar-
riage with Pharaoh’s daughter signifies, possibly,
Egypt's inferior status as a political power vis-a-
vis Israel at this time. The Pharaoh's donation of
Gezer is most likely a terntonal concession made
in the guise of a dowry. This Pharaoh has been
identified, tentatively, as Siamun or Psusennes
II, the last two kings of the twenty-first Dynasty.
Bibliography: Gardiner, A., Egyptian Gram-
mar, London: Oxford University, 1966, pp.
71-76. Redford, D., **The Pronunciation of Pr in
Late Toponyms,’* JNES 22:119-22. Wilson, J.,
**Pharaoh’”’ in IDB, HI, pp. 773-74.
V.P.H.

WYN (par'dosh) flea.

1826 P35 (paras) I, break (through, down, over),

burst.
Derivatives

1826a +P (peres) breach.
1826b =ysaB (paris) violent one.

The verb is used some fifty times in the or,
often in a military or disaster situation. The sub-

ject may be God or man. When God is the sub-
ject, paras describes his punitive activity upon

Israel herself (I Chr 15:13; Isa 5:5; Ps 60:1 [H 3];
80:12 [H 13]; 89:40 [H 41]); upon one of her
priests (Ex 19:22, 24); upon the individual (II Sam
6:8; Job 16:14); upon a recalcitrant king (II Chr
20:37); upon Israel’s enemies (II Sam 5:20: I Chr
14:11).

When paras is associated with man it often
connotes malicious and destructive activity, for
example, to describe what the Babylonians did to
the walls of Jerusalem. In Neh 4:3 [H 3:35] and
Eccl 3:3 paras is used in contrast to band ‘to
build, erect,’’ showing that pdras does not mean
simply *‘to punch a hole through”’ but “‘to level,
raze.’

Another important nuance of paras is *‘to in-
crease’’ (explained by KB, pp. 780-81, as ‘‘to
break over (by plenty), 1.e., increase’’). Some
have suggested that there are actually two roots
here ‘‘to break’’ and ‘‘to increase’’ (Guillaume;
see bibliography) or ‘“‘to break through’’ and
‘‘command’’ (Driver; see bibliography). When
paras means “‘to increase’ it refers to an in-
crease either in produce (Job 1:10; Prov 3:10) or
in progeny (Gen 28:14; I Chr 4:38). This increase

1827 PSB (prs)

may be due to the assistance of a friend or rela-
tive (Gen 30:30, 43) but more often is due to
God's grace (Ex 1:12; Isa 54:3). The inability to
make increases, conversely, is indicative of
God's wrath (Hos 4:10).

A third sense for paras is “to urge, be insis-
tent’ (I Sam 28:23, “‘they ‘pressed’ Saul to eat’’
i.e., they broke his abstinence; also, II Sam
13:25, 27, David by Absalom; II Kgs 5:23, Gehazi
by Namaan).

peres. Breach, gap, mostly in a wall (I Kgs
11:27; Isa 58:12; Amos 9:11; Neh 6:1). God looks
for a man "‘to stand in the breach/gap”’ in front of
him when he views the idolatry in Jerusalem (Ezk
13:5; 22:30; cf. Ps 106:23). peres may also de-
scribe the breaking of a dike (II Sam 5:20; I Chr
13:11); a rupture between tribes (Jud 21:15); a
perineal rupture (Gen 38:29, the birth of Perez
and the sudden and unexpected priority of his
birth over that of his brother Zerah).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., ‘‘Some Hebrew
Roots and Their Meanings,’ JTS 23:69-73, esp.
p. 72. , ‘The Root prs in Hebrew,’ JTS
25:177-78. , “Studies in the Vocabulary
of the Old Testament III,’ JTS 32:361-66, esp.
pp. 365-66. Gltick, J., “‘The Verb PRS in the
Bible and in the Qumran Literature,” RQum
5:123-27. Guillaume, A., ‘‘Paranomasia in the
Old Testament,’ JSS 9:282-90, esp. pp. 284-85
(on ‘Perez’ in Gen 38:27ff.). , ‘Some He-
brew Roots and their Meanings: pp,’ JTS
24:318.

V.P.H.

1827 Yb (prs) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1827a Pap (mipras) landing place (Jud
5:17).
1828 935 (pdraq) tear apart, away (e.g. Gen
27:40: Lam 5:8).

Derivatives

1828a 258 (pereq) parting of ways (Ob
14); plunder (Nah 3:1).
1828b 8235 (paradq) fragment (Isa 65:4).
1828c APB (mapreqet) neck (1 Sam
4:18).

1829 *"555 (parar) I, break, destroy, frustrate,
invalidate.

The verb appears fifty-three times in the or,
most often in the Hiphil stem (forty-six times),
never in the Qal. It can be used only transitively.
The suggestion of KB, p. 782, to distinguish be-
tween pdrar ‘‘to break’’ and pdrar II “‘to stir,
rouse’ (Isa 24:19; Ps 74:13) seems unnecessary.

In the sense of *‘to break’’ pdrar may take the
following objects: (1) a vow, néder, in the sense

738

1830 “755

of *‘to make invalid” or ‘“‘annul’’ (Num 30:9, 13,
14, 16). These all deal with vows taken by
women, be she newly married, a divorcee, or a
widow. They may be ‘‘annulled’’ only by the
bridegroom/husband, and must be done so im-
mediately (v. 16). The opposite in Num 30 of
pGrar 1s qum “‘to rise’’ with the meaning here of
‘*validate, endorse.’’ The same relationship be-
tween these two verbs is found in Prov 15:22:
‘‘Without deliberation plans ‘come to nothing’
(hadpér), where counsellors are many plans ‘suc-
ceed’ (tdgum)’*: (2) counsel/advice, ‘ésa@ (II Sam
15:34; 17:14; Ps 33:10; Ezr 4:5; cf. also Isa 14:27);
(3) sign/omen, ot, ‘‘foiled’’ by God; (4) the fear
(of God) yir'ad (Job 15:4); (5) the command-
ment(s), miswda, (Ezr 9:14); (6) God's judgment,
mishpat (Job 40:8):

It will be seen that in all these instances pdrar
has a moral overtone. It does not mean ‘‘to
break’’ in the sense of an exhibition of physical
strength, but to violate or renege on revealed
truth. Only in Ps 74:13 do we find a reference to
parar and strength: **You have ‘broken’ the sea
by your strength,’’ a reference not to the Exodus
events (Ex 14:21) but to the primeval actions of
Gen.

This is borne out by the fact that of the fifty-
three uses of pdrar, in twenty-three the direct
object is ‘‘covenant’’ b° rit. Of course, usually
man is responsible for ‘‘breaking’’ the covenant.
On a few occasions, however, the possibility of
God’s ‘‘breaking’’ the covenant is alluded to:
Lev 26:44; Jud 2:1; Jer 14:21; Zech 11:10. Simi-
larly, Ps 89:33 [H 34]. Possibly then here in this
covenant relationship was that of annulment.
Yet, “though the expectation of God’s punitive
intervention was very real, it looked on the whole
for individual divine acts of punishment, the aim
of which was not an annihilating judgment that
would dissolve the covenant, but rather the main-
tenance of that relationship by the removal of
disturbing elements” (Eichrodt).

Bibliography: On parar in Eccl 12:5: Dahood,

.. °'Canaanite-Phoenician Influence in
Qoheleth,’’ Bib 33:216. On Job 15:4: Driver
G. R., ‘“‘Problems in the Hebrew Text of Job,”’
Supp VT 3: 77. Eichrodt, W., ETOT, I, pp. 457ff.
THAT, II, pp. 486-87.

V.P.H.

(padrar) II, split, divide
Ps 74:13).

(Isa 24:19;

1831 "<"5 (prr) III. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
183la 952 (par) young bull, bullock.
1831b fA93 (para) heifer, cow.

par. Young bull, bullock, referred to 132 times
in the ot (KB, p. 775, derives par from pdarar III,

“turn away, be untamed, unmannerly’’). It is a
type of cattle (bdgdr), a category which sub-
divides into: (1) ’elep/Glapim and shér, the male
working ox used in tillage, ploughing: (2) par
‘bull’; (3) para “‘cow’’: (4) ‘égel ‘calf’: ‘egla
“heifer.”

Only in Ps 22:12 {H 13] is par used as a figure
of strength and power. Mostly it is mentioned as
a sacrificial victim, especially in Lev and Num.
Often par is followed by the phrase ben baqar
(e.g. Ex 29:1; Lev 4:3, 14: Num 7:15).

In the Hebrew sacrificial system the bull (par)
figured prominently as a sacrificial animal, used:
(1) at the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Ex
29:1, 3, 10, 11, 14); (2) as the sin offering either
for the sins of the high priest (Lev 4:3, 4, 5, etc.),
or the community in Israel (Lev 4:14, 15, 16, 20,
21; in both cases the bull was to be immolated. Its
remains were burned ‘‘outside the camp,’’ the
animal having served as a substitute for the guilty
person who should be expelled); (3) on the Day of
Atonement, when the high pmiest offered a bull
for himself (Lev 16:6, 11, etc.); (4) at the in-
vestiture of priests when a bull was offered for
their sin (Lev 8:2): (5) at the feast of tabernacles
(Num 29:20, 36); (6) at the feast of weeks (Num
28:28); (7) at the feast of the new moon (Num
28:11). Most frequently par is used in the de-
scription of the offering for the dedication of the
tabernacle’s altar (Num 7:15, 21, etc.).

para. Cow. Unlike the par “‘bull,’ the cow
was never used in the oT as an animal of sacrifice.
The only exception is the red heifer, which was
slaughtered and burned outside the camp (Num
19: 1ff.). Its ashes were mixed with the water of
purification (vv. 17-22), which removed defile-
ment incurred through contact with the dead
(Num 19:11-—16). Hebrews 9:13 refers to this cus-
tom when speaking of the effectiveness of
Christ’s blood for the remission of sin.

Of interest is the story of the Philistines’ re-
turning the ark to Israel (I Sam 6). The presence
of God its always a problem for the sinner! The
Philistines were instructed to send the ark back
on a new cart, drawn by two previously un-
worked cows that had just calved (I Sam 6:7).
The calves were to be separated from the cows
(I Sam 6:7). The striking evidence that God is
leading them is that the cows, though separated
from their calves, go forward and head for Beth-
shemesh (I Sam 6:12).

Twice, pdrd is used symbolically, Hos 4:16,
comparing Israel’s backsliding to a stubborn
cow, and Amos 4:1, symbolizing the reckless
luxury of the women of Samaria.

V.P.H.

1832 wp (pdras) spread out, stretch.

739

1832 Wb (paras)

Derivative

1832a 9 =9wspr (mipras)
spread.

spreading out, thing

This verb appears sixty-nine times in the oT
(Qal, fifty-seven times: Niphal, once; Piel, eleven
times). There are a number of direct objects that
follow pdras. Those which appear most often
are: (1) Adnap (thirteen times: twice in the singu-
lar, Ruth 3:9: Ezk 16:8, ‘‘skirt,’° and eleven times
in the plural, *‘wings’*). Many of these references
are to the cherubim spreading their wings above
the Ark (Ex 25:20: 37:9; I Kgs 6:27; 8:7; I Chr
28:18; I] Chr 3:13; 5:8). God’s ‘“*wings’’ may act
as a net to trap the wicked (Jer 48:40; 49:22) or
act as a protection and a covering to the righteous
(Deut 32:11).

(2) A second frequently found object of pdras
is reshet “net,” nine times. The net may be
spread by God himself over his own backslidden
people (Ezk 12:13; 17:20; 32:3; Hos 7:12). Or the
net may be spread over Israel, by an invader
(Ezk 19:8), or over an individual (Ps 140:5 [H 6))
by hostile men. Cf. Prov 29:5; Lam t:13: Hos
5:1.

(3) Most frequently the direct object of paras is
‘*hand” (kap ‘‘palm,” thirteen times; vad, five
times). This is, of course, a reference to the
spreading of one’s palms before God in prayer.
The oT data would indicate that the prayer could
assume a number of different postures in his
prayer time: (1) standing, I Sam 1:26: I Kgs 8:22;
Jer 18:20; (2) kneeling, I Kgs 8:54; Ezr 9:5; Dan
6:11; (3) prostration, Josh 7:6; (4) head bowed,
Gen 24:26; Neh 9:6: (5) face between the knees,
I Kgs 18:42; (6) sitting, I] Sam 7:18.

It may be of no special significance, but the
word used after paras in the Qal when the verb
refers to prayer is always kap, more literally,
‘‘the palm.’* In the Piel, however, the object, if
the reference is to prayer, is yad (Ps 143:6; Lam
1:17) except for kap in Isa 1:15.

Some whose prayers are physically accom-
panied by the raising of or spreading before God
the palms are: (1) Moses, Ex 9:29, 33; (2) Sol-
omon, I Kgs 8:22, 54; II Chr 6:12, 13; (3) Ezra,
Ezr 9:5; (4) Job, on advice by Zophar, Job 11:13;
(5) the prayer of the pious who spread their hands
toward the temple, I Kgs 8:38; II Chr 6:29; (6)-
those who degrade prayer to a cover-up for in-
justice and oppression, Isa 1:15; (7) those who
stretch their palms to an alien God, Ps 44:20
[H 21].

It would appear that in most cases where up-
lifted hands are involved it ts in a spint of suppli-
cation. The same idea may be found, though,
with the verb nasa ‘‘to lift, raise’’ in Ps 28:2;
134:2; 141:2. Cf. the Ugaritic 3a ydk §mm *'lift up
your hands toward heaven"’ (Krt: 75-76). Paul
reflects this practice in I Tim 2:8.

1833 wap (parash)

The odd form parsez Job 26:9 is called a Pi‘le/
of paras by BDB and GB.
V.P.H.

WHE (parse:). See discussion under no.

1832.
1833) wad (parash) 1, make distinct, declare.
Derivative
1833a "WB (pardshd) exact statement

(Est 4:7; 10:2).

This verb is found five times in the ot (or four if
in Ezk 34:12 the mt is changed from niprashot to
niprasoét, “his sheep that are ‘scattered’.* that is
from paras instead of pdrash). The one use of the
verb in the Hiphil is Prov 23:32, “it ‘stings’ like
an adder.” KB, p. 782. 83 includes this under
parash 1, but BDB, p. 831, relegates this Prov
passage to a separate root pdrash II.

The three passages we are left with then are:
(1) Lev 24:12—in the case of blasphemy it is said
of the culprit that he is to be placed under guard
until the will of the Lord **should be made clear”
unto them. (2) Num 15:34—in a case of Sabbath
breaking the violator is to be kept in custody until
his penalty should be “determined” or *‘fixed.”’
(3) Neh 8:8, ‘So they read in the book in the law
of God ‘distinctly’ “* (kJv), or In some versions,
‘they read from the Law of God, ‘translating’,
i.e. from Hebrew to Aramaic. Conceivably the
form of the verb in Hebrew here, m‘ pordsh, is
the equivalent of the Aramaic form in Ezr 4:18,
**The document you sent to me has been ‘trans-
lated’, mpdrash, and read before me.” (Ezr
4:6-6:18 are written in Aramaic, the rest in
Hebrew.)

The basic meaning still remains. **to make/be
made clear’ (by revelation, explication, or trans-
lation).

It is from this Hebrew root that the term
**Pharisee’’ is derived. The origin both of the
movement and the designation itself, Pharisee, is
somewhat puzzling. [t has been suggested that
the Pharisees, under the Hasmonean prince John
Hyrcanus (135-104 s.c.), himself an ex-Pharisee.
were expelled from the Sanhedrin and were sub-
sequently branded with the name the °‘Peru-
shim,” 1.e., “the separators.”’ In other words,
the term was originally one of opprobrium, akin
to that attached to the Holy Club at Oxford, the
**methodists.’ And like the Methodists, the
Pharisees took the name as their own but used its
alternative Hebrew meaning. “the exponents™
(of the Law). The Pharisees are, then, the
‘separators’ in that they are the expositors of
the Law, both written and oral.

V.P.H.

1834 *wsp (pdrash) UH, pierce, sting. This
verb occurs only once, in the Hiphil (Prov
23:32).
1835 wae (prsh) Ul. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
1835a wae (peresh) fecal matter.
1836 wns (prsh) IV. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
1836a TWSD (pdrash) horse, horseman.

Both of these translations are covered by the
one Hebrew word. The various lexica differ radi-
cally among themselves as to how often and
where pardsh ="*horse’’ and where *‘rider."* Some
have suggested that the proper translation of
parash is always “horse” and if *‘horsemen” is
ever allowable, the reference is to those who were
charged with managing the horses (as in a
chariot), not to those who mount for riding
(Mowinckel).

The word occurs fifty-seven times in the oT and
all but three are in the plural. Since the singular
form is pdrash, one would expect the remaining
fifty-four instances to have the plural form
prdshim. Instead the form is pdrdshim. The mt
presupposes an original purrash.

The heaviest clusters of paérdsh are found in
the Solomon cycle in reference to his vast re-
sources (ten times), and in the account of the
death of the Egyptians at the Red/Reed Sea, Ex
14 (six times).

Bibliography: Gurney, O. R.. “Hittite
Paras-Horse??’” PEQ 69:194. Mowinckel, S..
‘Drive and/or Ride in O.T.,°° VT 12:278-99, esp.
pp. 289-95. Sayce, A., “Origin of the Hebrew
PARASH," JTA 24:175.

1837 Yaw (parshegen) copy. This Persian

loan word occurs only in Ezra 7:11.

[838 Meswsp (parsh’dona). Meaning unknown.
Onlv Jud 3:22. BDB connects with peresh
fecal matter. LXX takes it as part of Eg-

lon’s palace.

1839 BMRSEB (part’mim) nobles. Only in Est

and Dan. Loan word from Old Persian.

1840 MWB (pasa) spread.

1841 yw (pasa') step, march (isa 27:4).

Derivatives

(I Sam 20:3).
hip or buttock

YW (pesa’) step
mvwp (mipsa'a)
(I Chr 19:4).

740

1842 SWE (pdsaq) part, open wide (Prov 13:3;
Ezk 16:25).

1843 we (pash) folly (Job 35:15). Meaning
uncertain.

1844 *mwp (pdshah) tear in pieces. Occurs
only in the Piel (f Sam 15:33; Lam 3:11).

1845 BWR (pashat) strip, invade.

The verb occurs forty-two times in the or,
twenty-three times in the Qal; three times in the
Piel (1 Sam 31:8; IT Sam 23:10; I Chr 10:8, always
‘“to strip the slain’* after a battle); fifteen times in
the Hiphil; once in the Hithpael (I Sam 18:4,
‘Jonathan ‘took off the cloak he was wearing’).

In the Qal stem pdshat has two basic transla-
tions. One is to “strip off’ (clothing), the second
is ‘to invade.’* The meaning “‘to strip off’ is not
unique to the Qal stem but may be found also in
the Piel (where the object of the verb is *‘armor’”’
of a fallen warrior) and in the Hiphil (primarily
with the object ‘‘clothing’’ but also ‘‘armor”’
(I Sam 31:9) or **skin”™’ in the sense of ‘to flay,
dismember” (Lev 1:6; II Chr 29:34; 35:11; Mic
3:3). Of the fifty-two occurrences of pdshat,
twenty-three times the meaning is ‘‘to strip, re-
move, make naked."

In such a context padshat may denote violent or
judgmental action—those passages which refer to
the stnpping off of one’s armor—but also, the
stripping off of one’s clothing when Israel/Judah
is overrun by an alien power (Ezk 16:39; 23:26;
Josh 2:3 [H 5]). Micah 2:8 observes that Judah
“pulls off,’ 1.e. “‘steals’’ the coats of others.
Similarly Joseph was “‘stripped’’ of his coat by
his brothers (Gen 37:23). Aaron is to be
‘stripped’ of his vestments, before he dies, on
account of Israel’s past sins (Num 20:26, 28).

On other occasions ‘‘to remove’ the clothing
simply means to make a change in one’s dress, at
a sacred occasion (Lev 6:11 [H 4]; 16:23); at the
end of a day's work (Neh 4:23 [H 17}): as a sign of
repentance and mourning over one's sins (Isa
32:11); in an act of ecstatic prophecy (I Sam
19:24).

Bibliography: On pashat in Hos 2:5: Gordon,
C. H., **Hos. 2:4—5 in the Light of New Semitic
Inscriptions,’ ZAW 54:277-80.

V.P.H.

1846 Ywe (pasha') rebel, transgress, revolt.
Derivative
1846a tywe (pesha') rebellion.

The fundamental idea of the root ts a breach of
relationships, civil or religious, between two par-

741

1846 pwe (pasha’')

ties. In Ugaritic the substantive ps’ ‘‘sin™ is
found (UT 19: no. 2128).

In a context of international relationships, the
verbal form designates a casting off of allegiance,
a rebellion against rulers. This secular concept of
revolt appears in I and II Kgs and parallels in
If Chr. By analogy, but in a religious sense, Is-
rael was accused of rebelling against her divine
king and the established covenant between them
(Isa 1:28; 48:8; Ezk 2:3; Hos 8:1). Obviously,
God is never guilty of committing this act since
there is no higher authonty than himself; hence,
this is a trait of human activity (Hos 14:9), and is
sometimes Set in contrast to the actions of faithful
(Prov 28:21: and righteous (Ps 37:38) men. In one
instance, Israel is accused of engaging in rebel-
lion “‘since your birth” (Isa 48:8). The acts of
transgression, i.e. going beyond the limits of
God's laws, have impact on inner attitudes which
create deceitfulness (Isa 59:13) or a distorted love
for this ‘*independence’’ from God (Amos 4:4). It
may dull one’s knowledge of the right (Hos 8:1:
Ps 51:13) and be a rigid refusal to accept correc-
tion (Jer 2:8, 29; Hos 7:13; Zeph 3:11; Amos 4:4).

God's reaction to transgression may be judg-
ment (Ps 37:38: Isa 1:28; Dan 8:23), but his deep
desire is really to provide salvation from this way
of living. Through Isa (46:8) he gave a ringing call
to remember and turn, and through the Suffering
Servant made provision for a change (Isa 53:12).
Those who would cast away, and acknowledge
these sins (Jer 3:13: Ezk 18:31), God would for-
give and redeem (Jer 33:8: Hos 7:13; Zeph 3:11).
At least one so redeemed desired to tell others
how to be converted (Ps 51:13).

pesha‘. Rebellion, revolt, transgression. This
masculine noun designates those who reject
God's authority. In the indictments of the first
two chapters of Amos, pesha’ is done by non-
Israelites to other people, but overwhelmingly
the Hebrew people were the ones who were
guilty of pesha’ against the authority and cove-
nant of their God. In a few Psalms, the book of
Prov and a few instances in Ezk the individual is
emphasized, instead of the corporate body, guilty
of this sin. Lam personifies Jerusalem three times
and Isa says the earth (a figure for its inhabitants)
was involved in pesha’.

In a few secular contexts, this term refers to
violations of personal and property rights of oth-
ers (Gen 31:36; 50:17: I Sam 24:11: 25:28). In a
religious context, this term refers to involvement
in fertility cult practices (Isa 57:4), active perse-
cution of God's people (Ps 5:10 [|H 11]; 59:3 [H 4])
and telling falsehoods (Prov 12:13: 17:9). Predom-
inantly pesha’ is rebellion against God's law and
covenant and thus the term is a collective which
denotes the sum of misdeeds and a fractured rela-
tionship.

1847 "We (pésher)

The measure of this kind of sin ts the character
of God himself, for if there were no such God,
there could not be pesha’. Some passages high-
light the contrast between God and man’s rejec-
tion of him, especially his desire to correct the
estrangement (Ex 34:7: Num 14:18; Josh 24:19;
I Kgs 8:50: Prov 19:11; Mic 7:18).

Not only does pesha‘ create a gulf between
God and man, it generates distortions within him-
self, i.e. a tendency to hide his actions (Job 34:6),
deceitfulness (Prov 28:24), apathy (Ps 36:1 [H 2]),
illness (Ps 07:17), a love for strife (Prov 17:19), a
sense of enslavement (Prov 12:13), easily angered
(Prov 29:22), hypocritical worship (Isa 58:1) and
a sense of defilement (Ezk 14:11). In one case,
pesha’ is depicted as a heavy, crushing weight
(Isa 24:20).

As far as God is concerned, there are two ways
the rebellion may be ended: it may end with
punishment or a renewal of the relationship.
God's first step is to indict hts people and expose
their sin as a rebellion. Some key passages with
this theme are Job 36:9; Mic 3:8. Through his
servants, God warns his people of their danger
(Ps 89:32 [H 33}; Amos 3:14), and takes pains to
designate their transgression as the cause for
their punishment (Ezk 39:24; Mic 1:13; Dan
8:12—13),

The references given above on the character of
God indicate that God wants to pursue a different
course of action: he wants to save his people. In
the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement he pro-
vided a scapegoat (Lev 16:16, 21) and in Isa 53:5,
8 promised redemption through the Suffering
Servant. Through his servants he promised for-
giveness (Job 7:21; Isa 43:25; Ezk 18:22; 37:23).
God also makes man’s role of choice clear (Ezk
33:12: cf. Job 8:4).

Before God actually grants his pardon, man is
called upon to act (Ezk 18:30-31) with a warning
attached and that man must personally repudiate
his rebellion and the idolatry that was an integral
part of it (Ezk 18:28, 37:23).

An examination of several prayers of supplica-
tion reveals that the one who prays does indicate
awareness of sin (Isa 59:12) and does engage in
confession of sin (Ps 51:3 [H 5]: Ezk 33:10). Yet,
it is clear that human effort can not bring salva-
tion, so these prayers also exhibit an earnest plea
for God to act (Job 13:23: 14:17; Ps 19:13 [H 14}:
25:7; S1:1 [H 3}). Best of all, testimonies are re-
corded that God did indeed pardon and redeem
his people (Ps 32:1: 65:3: Prov 19:11; Isa 43:25;
44:22; 53:5: 59:20).

Historically, Israel as a nation and as individu-
als knew God's acts of judgment and his acts of
salvation. Man's rebellion was the cause of the
judgments, but God's compassion was _ the
grounds for their salvation.

Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible,

742

1850 AB (pdt)

1852 pane

Desclee, 1964. Girdlestone, R. B., SOT, pp.
26-85. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the Old Testa-
ment, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin, Lon-
don: Adam and Charles Black. 1951. Smith,
C.R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Ep-
worth, 1953. TDNT, I, pp. 268-93. THAT, II, pp.
488-94.

G.H.L.
1847 “Wb (pésher) solution, interpretation.
Loan word from Aramaic (pishra’, Eccl
8:1).
1848 mwb (péshet) flax, linen. Derivation

uncertain.

1849 AWD (pishta) flax.

sockets (I Kgs 7:50; Isa 3:17).

See no. 1862a.
See no. 1859a.

MD (pat).
BNMD (pit’dm).

1851 aa*nS (pat-bag) portion (of food) for

king, delicacies (Dan 1; 11:26).

(pitgadm) edict, decree (Est 1:20;
Eccl 8:11). Persian loan word.

1853 "NB (pata) entice, deceive, persuade.

Derivative

1853a mB (peri)

The verb pata appears twenty-seven times,
primarily in the Piel and Pual stems. The basic
verb idea is ‘‘be open, spacious, wide,’ and
might relate to the immature or simple one who ts
open to all kinds of enticement, not having de-
veloped a discriminating judgment as to what is
right or wrong.

The verb usage is seen in the tactics of Sam-
son's bride-to-be in wrangling the secret of his
riddle (although in the end she lost her husband,
Jud 14:15-—16). Enticement is described in terms
of a man seducing a woman (Ex 22:15). The im-
mature are warned not be enticed by sinners
(Prov 1:10). Another arresting usage of entice-
ment is what happens when a man refuses to fol-
low God's direction. He is enticed to do wrong to
his ultimate hurt, a discipline or judgment for re-
jecting the Lord (II Chr 18:19-21).

To deceive carries almost the same idea as to
entice. Israel is warned not to be deceived by
turning to other gods in the midst of plenty (Deut
11:16). To be a witness against a neighbor with-
out cause is to deceive with one’s lips (Prov
24:28). Jeremiah in the depths of despair com-
plained that God had deceived him when his
ministry seemed so fruitless. The Lord was gra-

simple, foolish.

cious with him (as he is with all who serve him),
for Jeremiah could not escape the commission
(20:7-9). Even a prophet can be deceived by God
when a double-minded people ask guidance. The
Word already given (regarding idols) must be
obeyed before further light is sought or else it is
mockery (Ezk 14:9).

peti. Simple, foolish. peti generally describes
the naive (not deranged) in Prov who must be
well taught, since an immature person believes
anything (Prov 14:15). [But is not something
worse than immaturity implied when the p° tadyim
along with mockers /ésim and fools k° silim (Prov
1:22) are said to have ‘‘rejected me,’’ *‘ignored
my advice’’ and not to have ‘‘accepted my re-
buke”’ (1:24—25 niv)? R.L.H.] If the peri refuses to
learn he will go on to inherit folly (iwwelet, the
impairment of moral and spiritual values, Prov
14:18). To achieve moral and spiritual maturity,
the naive are encouraged to receive prudence
(Prov 1:4), to understand wisdom (Prov 8:5), and
to dwell where wisdom makes her home (Prov
9:4). Otherwise, he may drift into temptation and
then sin, immorality (Prov 7:7f.), robbery and
murder (Prov 1:10—14). Apart from godly tutel-
age, he is on the road to death (Prov 7:7; 22:3).

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 495-97.
L.G.
mins (pittiah). See no. 185Sa.
ming (patét). See no. 1862b.
1854 mms (pdtah) I, open.
Derivatives
1854a MHD (petah) opening, doorway.
1854b MDB (pétah) opening, unfolding

(Ps 119:130).

1854c IMM (pithén) opening (Ezk

16:63; 29:21).

mmmD (p*tiha) drawn sword (Ps

55:22; Ezk 21:33; Ps 37:14).

1854e MAD (miptah) opening, utterance
(Prov 8:6).

1854f tAApI (maptéah) key.

The verb appears 135 times in the oT, in the
Qal, 97 times; in the Niphal, 18 times; in the Piel,
19 times; in the Hithpael, once. In the Qal stem
the meaning ‘‘to open” remains standard. The
same is basically true in the Niphal except for Isa
5:27; 51:14 where the respective translations are
‘to loose’? and ‘‘to release.’’ In the Piel, how-
ever, the primary meaning is ‘‘to loose, untie,
strip off, undo,’’ either in the sense of “‘to
humiliate’* (Job 12:18; 30:11; Isa 45:1), but more
often ‘to liberate’’ (Isa 58:6; Jer 40:4; Ps 102:20
[H 21]; 116:16).

patah is a transitive verb always with a direct
or implied direct object. Most commonly the ob-

1854d

743

1854 MMB (patah)

ject of pdtah is a part of the body—forty-one
times (the mouth: twenty-three times; the eyes:
seven times; the hands: six times; the lips: three
times; the ears: twice).

Since patah is followed most frequently by
peh **mouth,”’ it will be instructive to see what
are the various nuances behind the phrase, ‘‘to
open the mouth.”’ In some places this combina-
tion is simply a literary device to draw attention
to what follows as in ‘‘Job opened his mouth,”
(Job 3:1). This is comparable to the introduction
in the NT to the Sermon on the Mount, **And
Jesus opened his mouth,’ (Mt 5:2) or **Then
Peter opened his mouth and said”’ (Acts 10:34).
Quite often it is simply a circumlocution for
“*talk,’’ or ‘‘speak.’’ ‘‘When she ‘opens’ her
mouth, she does so wisely,’ (Prov 31:26; cf.
24:7). Thirdly, it may mean ‘“‘to make an an-
nouncement™ (Ezk 21:22 [H 27]). Fourth, “‘to
open the mouth’’ sometimes denotes ‘‘to slander,
to attack with words”’ (Ps 109:2). Fifth, one may
open his mouth to eat (Ezk 3:2).

Sixth, one who does not open his mouth is
compared to one afflicted with dumbness (Ps
38:13 {H 14]). He refuses to give back to his ac-
cusers the sharp answer or to retaliate orally.
This can be seen too of the suffering Servant in
Isa 53:7, **He opened not his mouth.”* In the sev-
eral instances of this phrase in Ezekiel the mean-
ing is “‘to function and speak prophetically’’;
thus, Ezk 3:27, *‘When I speak to you, I shall
‘open your mouth’ and you will tell them."’ When
Ezekiel was struck dumb (3:26) it is very unlikely
that this means he lost his capacity for speech.
What he lost was his capacity to function as a
prophet and to act as an intermediary or inter-
cessor. Cf. too Ezk 24:27; 33:22.

Finally ‘‘the opening of the mouth”’ is applied
to something other than humans: (1) a cave: Josh
10:22; (2) the earth: Num 16:32; 26:10; (3) a don-
key: Num 22:28.

petah. Opening, entrance, 164 times. It may
describe the opening/entrance of: (1) a tent, Gen
18:1; (2) a house, Gen 19:11; (3) a city, I Kgs
17:10; (4) an **open’’ place, Gen 38:14; (5) a cave,
I Kgs 19:13; (6) a gate, Ps 24:7, 9. The word is
used figuratively in Hos 2:15 [H 17], *‘a door of
hope.’’ Only in Mic 7:5 is petah connected with
the mouth, ‘‘keep the ‘doors’ of your mouth.”

mapteah. Key an opening instrument, Jud
3:25; | Chr 9:27; Isa 22:22.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., ‘‘Hebrew and
Ugaritic Equivalents of Akkadian pita puimnda,”
Bib 39:67-69 (Isa 45:1, ‘*I shall ‘loose’ (patah) in
the Piel) the loins of kings’* does not mean, *']
shall disarm kings’’ but “*I shall make the kings
run’’). Emerton, J., °*Binding And Loosing: For-
giving And Retaining,” JTS 13:325-31. (patah
may throw light on *‘whatsoever you loose on

1855 *nnp (patah)

earth,’’ Mt 16:19). Gertner, M., ‘‘Terms of Scrip-
tural Interpretation: a Study in Hebrew Seman-
tics,” BSOAS 25:1-27, esp. pp. 14-16 (Patah
means ‘interpret/interpretation’ in Ps 49:4 [H 5];
119:130). Wilson, R. R., **An Interpretation of
Ezekiel’s Dumbness,’’ VT 22:91-104.

V.P.H.

1855 *mnp (patah) II, carve, engrave.

Derivative
1855a MIMD (pittiah) engraving.

This verb appears eight times in the Piel and
once in the Pual (Ex 39:6). It may refer to engrav-
ings on buildings (Solomon’s temple, I Kgs 7:36:
I] Chr 3:7; and the worker, Huram, who did the
engraving on that temple (II Chr 2:7, 14 [H 6,
13}). Secondly, it refers to engravings on the
priestly vestments, specifically (1) the two stones
on which the names of the tnbes of Israel are to
be inscribed, which are then to be attached to the
shoulder straps of the Ephod (Ex 28:9, 11), and
(2) the diadem (Ex 28:36). Cf. also Zech 3:9.

V.P.H.
MAND (pit°héon). See no. 1854c.
‘mS (peti). See no. 1853a.
1856 99a9MB (p‘tigil) rich robe (Isa 3:24).

mons (ptiha). See no. 1854d.
“md (patil). See no. 1857d.

1857 om (pdtal) twist.

Derivatives
1857a ND (patil) cord, thread.

1857b -OROND (p taltdl) tortuous (Deut
32:5).

1I857c = BS PNAD] «(naptilim) wrestlings
(Gen 30:8).

2FH7nD (p'taltdl). See no. 1857b.

1858 IMD (ptn). Assumed root of the following.

1858a IB (peten) venomous serpent, per-
haps cobra.
1I858b IME «(miptdn) threshold.

1859 YARD (peta') suddenness.

1859a teNMD (pit’é6m) suddenly, — surpris-
ingly,
pit’?om. Suddenly, surprisingly. The word ap-

pears twenty-five times in the ot, most often in
the prophets, ten times (Isa, four times: Jer, five
times; Mal, once) and in Wisdom Literature,
eight times (Prov, four times: Job, three times:
Eccl, once). The one dubious passage is Prov
7:22 which translates, "““‘He goes after her

744

*straightway (KJv)"° or ‘impulsively.’ ~~ The Lxx
reads for ‘‘straightway’’ kepphotheis **simple-
tons’’ suggesting that behind the mT pt'm is
p*ta’im. We retain the Massoretic vocalization
(W. McKane, Proverbs, p. 340) as more in line
with the context.

The final -m in pit’6m is in biblical Hebrew and
Ugaritic frequently an adverbial indicator. Com-
pare such words as: hinnadm “‘in vain’’: réqgam
‘‘empty-handed’’; yémam ‘‘daily’*; ‘etmol shil-
shém “‘previously.*’

Of the twenty-five uses of pit'ém all of them
occur in connection with disaster or judgment.
The one exception where pit'dm has a pleasant
sense is II Chr 29:36. After describing the rededi-
cation of the temple by Hezekiah the writer says,
‘‘And Hezekiah rejoiced and all the people over
what God had prepared for the people, for the
thing was done ‘suddenly,’ most likely a refer-
ence to the reforms of Hezekiah which were so
speedily and happily executed.

The word first appears in the oT in Num 6:9.
Because a Nazirite had to avoid contact with any-
thing deceased, if anyone died **suddenly” in his
presence, the Nazirite had to present a sacrifice
to God. Cf. also Num 12:4.

The adverb appears for the first time in a mili-
tary context in Josh 10:9; 11:7, describing the
blitzkrieg attack of Joshua on the Amorite kings
and Hazor. This is preponderantly the motif in
the prophetic references too: Isa 47:11; Jer 51:8
for example.

Malachi's proclamation (3:1) of the Messiah's
appearing is well known, “And the Lord, whom
you seek, shall ‘suddenly’ come to his temple.”
This sudden coming will be a combination of
judgment and vindication, curse and blessing.
Who can remain standing on that day”

Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., UT 11:4 (for
the adverbial -m); Daube, D., The Sudden in the
Scriptures, Leiden: Brill, 1964, pp. 1-8.

V.P.H.

1860 “HS (padtar) interpret (dreams).

Derivative

1860a 729NB (pitron)

The verb occurs nine times in the oT, always in
connection with the interpretation of dreams, and
here it is confined exclusively to Gen 40-41,
Joseph's dream interpretations while in Egypt.

pitron. I/nterpretation. Only in Gen 40-41. The
Aramaic equivalent for pdatar is p'shar which 1s
found as a noun and a verb in Dan 2-5. It has
been speculated that the place of residence of
Balaam-Pethor (Num 22:5) is not a Hebrew loca-
tive at all but instead is Balaam’s Aramaic pro-
fessional title-pathorah-a regular numen agentis

interpretation.

of pdtar ‘‘the interpreter,” (Yaure; see bibho-
graphy).

Among the literature from Qumran there have
been discovered *‘commentaries”’ on several of
the canonical books. The characteristic feature of
these compositions is that the gloss after the bi-
blical verse quoted is preceded by the phrase
pishro ‘al, “its interpretation concerns.’ Hence,
because of the use of the root pshr, these com-
mentaries (better, apocalyptic expositions of bi-
blical passages, for the most part from the
prophets) are known as p° sharim.

The technical name for dream interpretation Is
oneiromancy. An individual who engages in such
an activity is called an oneirocnitic. It is well
known that in the ancient Near East there existed
a whole discipline of dream interpretation even to
the existence of manuals on the subject. In these
cultures dreams were always understood caus-
ally. By magic one could induce good dreams.
The local deity could be petitioned to turn a
dream to good. Or, the ill effect of a bad dream
could be cancelled by a counterspell.

It is of no little importance that a science of
dream interpretation failed to emerge in Israel.
Only two Hebrews engage in oneiromancy—
Joseph and Daniel—and that while they belong to
the court of heathen kings. The biblical Hebrews
never need interpreters to explain their dreams,

745

1862 MDD (patat) break up, crumble.

1862 AND (patat)

although individual Hebrews may _ interpret
dreams for foreigners. And even when they do,
the Scripture emphasizes that neither was able to
solve the dream through his own wisdom. It was
God who revealed the interpretation to them
(Gen 40:8; Dan 2:7ff.).

Bibliography: Ehrlich, E. L., Der Traum im
Alten Testament (Beihefte ZAW 73), Berlin: Ver-
lag Alfred Topelmann, 1953. Oppenheim, A. L.,
The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient
Near East, Philadelphia: American Philosophical
Society, 1956. Yaure, L., *‘Elymas-Nehelamite-
Pethor,’’ JBL 79:297-314, esp. pp. 310ff.

V.P.H.

TMB (pitrén). See no. 1860a.

1861 wwNP (patshegen) copy (Est 3:14; 4:8;

8:13). A variant of parshegen (q.v.).

Occurs
only in Lev 2:6.

Derivatives
1862a MB (pat) fragment, bit, morsel of
bread.
1862b «MIND (pater) fragment (Ezk
13:19).

MNZ (sé'ad). See no. 1884a.
MS¥ (96'd). See no. 1884b.
NE (9077). See no. 1884c.

1863 B°NE (se’élim) a kind of lotus (Job
40:21-22).

1864 JINX (s'n). Assumed root of the following.
1864a HSE (s6’n) flock, sheep. (asv and
RSV very similar.)

so'n is the generic term for ‘‘small cattle”
comprised mostly of sheep and goats, but the
emphasis in the word is on sheep (cf. Gen 38:17;
I Sam 25:2). Flocks were the staple animals
throughout Israel’s history, especially during the
patriarchal period (Gen 46:32). They provided
milk (Deut 32:14) and food. Their wool was
woven into cloth that served numerous purposes
and their hide had many functions, including tent
covering (Ex 26:14). A man’s wealth was mea-
sured by the size of his flocks (I Sam 25:2). Abra-
ham had a large flock (Gen 12:16), and the flocks
of Jacob and his sons were so large that they
grazed from Hebron to Dothan (Gen 37:12-17).
King Solomon’s household consumed 100 sheep
a day. Finding water for the flocks was a major
concern. Wells were thus both a major gathering
place and yet a source of deep contention (Gen
24:11-27; 26:17-22). Sheep were protected in
caves and folds made from rock (cf. Num 32:16).
A shepherd was responsible for the sheep; he had
to stand the loss of his negligence (cf. Ezk 34:10).
But if he fulfilled his task faithfully, any sheep
lost was the loss of the owner (cf. Gen 31:39).

The firstborn of the flock belonged to Yahweh
(Ex 13:12; Deut 15:19), and the tithe of the flock
was given to him (Lev 27:32). A sheep remained
with its dam seven days before being presented
on the eighth (Ex 22:29). In addition, sheep
served for numerous offerings. Their most prom-
inent place was on the day of the passover. A
year old, male lamb without blemish was offered
up by each household (Ex 12:5f.). The animal
could be either a sheep or a goat. In addition,
they served for burnt offerings (Lev 1:10), sin
offerings (Lev 5:6), guilt offerings (Lev 5:15) or
peace offerings (Lev 3:6). To qualify, the animal
had to be perfect, without blemish, except minor
defects were allowed for a freewill offering (Lev
22:21—25). When Israel was faithful to the coven-
ant, God promised to bless them; this blessing
included an increase in flocks (Deut 7:13: 28:4);
conversely when they were disobedient, a part of
their curse would be the loss of their flocks (Deut
28:18, 31, S51).

749

Sheep frequently serve as a symbol for the
people of God (Num 27:17). The imagery indi-
cates the people are naive and must be led and
protected by a compassionate shepherd (Ps
100:3). The sheep too have the responsibility of
responding to the voice of their master (Ps 95:7).
When they are wayward, they must confess their
wrong and return to the Lord (Isa 53:6).

A compassionate leader is called a shepherd
(cf. Jer 3:15). When the people lack leadership,
they are considered as sheep scattered on the
hills; i.e., without leadership they do not have the
direction to work together to overcome obstacles
(I Kgs 22:17; Num 27:17). Two of Israel's
greatest leaders, Moses and David, learned to
lead people by tending flocks (Ex 3:1; Ps 77:20
[H 21]; 1 Sam 16:11; I] Sam 7:8; Ps 78:70ff.).
Amos, a prophet, also was taken from tending the
flock to preach in Northern Israel (Amos 7:14f.).
Yahweh is pictured as the good shepherd (Ps
23:1; 80:1 [H 2]; Ezk 34:15, 31), and the people
are the sheep of his pasture (Ps 95:7; 100:3; Ezk
34:31; Jn 21:15ff.). When he brings salvation, he
will tenderly and strongly gather them into his
arms (Isa 40:11). The coming Messiah is also an-
ticipated as the true shepherd of the sheep (Ezk
34:23f.; cf. Jer 23:3-6; Jn 10:11, 14). Conversely,
false shepherds scatter the sheep (Jer 23:1-3;
50:6; Isa 56:11f.; Jn 10:12f.). They feed them-
selves and not the flock (Ezk 34:2f.). The sheep
flee and are threatened with destruction by nu-
merous dangers (I Kgs 22:17; Ezk 34:5f.). The
people under distress and sensing that they have
been forsaken by God describe their condition as
sheep led to the slaughter (Ps 44:11, 22 [H 12, 23];
cf. Jer 12:3). This same feeling was to be encoun-
tered literally by the suffering servant (Isa 53:7).
These shepherds will be judged and God himself
will search for his sheep, rescue them from
dangerous places, and bring them back to their
own land (Jer 23:3; Ezk 34:10ff.; Mic 2:12).
Therefore one description of the blessings of the
new age is that of flocks securely pasturing on the
hills of Palestine (cf. Jer 33:12f.; Zeph 2:6).

Bibliography: Cansdale, G. S., “Sheep,” in
ZPEB, V, pp. 385-88. Post, G. E., *“Sheep,’* in
IDB, IV, p. 486f. Post, G. E., °*Flock,’’ in IDB,
II, p. Sf. Napier, B. D., ‘‘Sheep,’’ in IDB, IV,
p. 315f.

J.E.H.

SY (sab). See nos. 1866a, 1867a.

1865 S3¥ (saba') fight, serve.

Derivatives
1865a N3¥ (sdbd') war, army.

1865 Nas (saba’

1865b MINZY (s°ba'ot) armies, hosts.
(RSV and asv are similar; ASV uses
‘‘hosts’’ more often while rsv has
‘army, “‘service,’” “‘company”™’
and for Lord of hosts, asv has
‘‘Jehovah of hosts’’: niv ‘‘Lord
Almighty’’—note Rev 4:8).

saba’ has to do with fighting, e.g. Israel war-
ring against Midian (Num 31:7). It has also a
wider use in the sense of rendering service. In-
terestingly four uses have to do with the work of
the Levites in the tent of meeting (Num 4:23;
8:24). No doubt service for Yahweh is seen as
involving total dedication and careful regimenta-
tion, and since God is Yahweh of hosts, en-
throned between the cherubim housed inside the
tent of meeting, work associated with the tent
may be considered spiritual war. In Ex 38:8 and
I Sam 2:22 a participle refers to the women who
ministered at the door of the tent of meeting.

Dhorme suggests that sdbad’ may denote the
length of time spent in the army. Such is its use in
Job 7:1 and 14:14. In the first passage man’s
earthly existence is likened to hard military ser-
vice. He must continually labor, endure suffering
and be subject to a destiny beyond his control. In
the latter passage man’s tenure of abode in Sheol
is described in terms of the restrictions and hard-
ships of military service.

Translated as host(s) saba@’ means army(ies). It
can refer to any arrayed army (Jud 4:2), the in-
habitants of heaven (I Kgs 22:19), or the celestial
bodies (Deut 4:19). The Israelites in their wilder-
ness journey were numbered in armies by their
tribal units (Num 1:52). Since they had been
slaves in Egypt, a concerted effort was made to
organize them into a company. Under the
monarchy the king maintained a formidable army
well equipped for war (e.g. II Chr 26:11-15). Is-
rael bore arms, but their victories resided in the
fact that Yahweh as head of armies fought for
them. When God fought for Israel, so did all the
forces of heaven. An angel known as the com-
mander (far) of Yahweh’s army appeared to
Joshua to give him directions for going to battle
against Jericho (Josh 5:13ff.). Unless Yahweh,
head of all the armies of existence, went to battle
with Israel’s army, the effort ended in failure (Ps
44:9 (H 10]; cf. Prov 21:31).

The heavenly bodies, including the sun and the
moon, are called the host of heaven (Gen 2:1).
When referring to them the word is always singu-
lar. God created this host by his breath (Ps 33:6),
and he preserves their existence (Isa 40:26). They
thus serve and worship him in complete obedi-
ence (Neh 9:6; Isa 45:12). The host are identified
as his ministers that do his will (Ps 103:21). Israel
is exhorted never to worship them (Deut 4:19).
Yet man has a tendency to worship those created

750

objects (II Kgs 17:16). Anyone who would lead
Israel astray in this regard was to be put to death
(Deut 17:2-7). Unfortunately both northern Israel
and Judah succumbed to this temptation during
various eras (e.g. II Kgs 17: 16ff.; 21:3; 23:5). Asa
result, both nations were eventually devastated
by their enemies. But there is a day coming when
this host will cease to exist (Isa 34:4).

Yahweh of Hosts is a special name for God.
Yahweh and ‘éléhim occur with s*ba’ét some
285 times (based on Mandelkern); most fre-
quently in Isa (62), Jer (77), Hag (14), Zech (53)
and Mal (24). It is absent from the Pentateuch.
Most often the word s°ba’ét follows Yahweh,
around 261 times; after 'é/dhé, 18 times; after
'él6him, 6 times. There is often a building of di-
vine titles as: yhwh s*ba'ot ’él6hé yisra’él, 37
occurrences; yhwh '&l6hé s° ba’ét, 13 (with arti-
cle 3, + 'éléhé yisra’el, 3 times; + ‘dddndy 1);
yhwh 'éléhim s*ba'dét, 4; 'addndy (ha’addén 5)
yhwh s¢ba’ ot, 20 (1 with article); "addnay yhwh
"@l6hé hass’ba’ét, Amos 3:13; yhwh s°ba’ét
"éléhéhem 2 (or 'élay 2, or ’éléhénad 1). For em-
phasis ‘‘his name”’ is sometimes added to these
divine titles (e.g. Amos 4:13; Isa 47:4; 54:5). It is
impossible to determine conclusively which for-
mula is the source of the other. The three part
formula shows that 'é/6hé stands in construct re-
lationship with hosts. But it is doubtful that
Yahweh is similarly in construct. Some have
proposed that 6t¢ is an abstract plural ending (cf.
GK 124d,e); then s°ba’6t is a noun in apposition
to Yahweh: Yahweh the mightiest Warrior or
Yahweh the all-powerful King. Therefore
Yahweh s°ba’dt has become a technical term.
The Lxx supports this possibility by translating
s°ba’ét with sabadth (especially in I Sam and
Isa; cf. Rom 9:29; Jas 5:4) and pantokrdator,
‘‘Almighty,’’ **All-Powerful.’’ The Lxx, how-
ever, employs kyrios ((ho) theds) t6n dynameén,
‘‘Lord of powers,’’ a few times; this translation
lends some support to taking hosts as a genitive
after Yahweh (but cf. GK 125h).

This divine name appears for the first time in
I Sam 1:3. Its origin appears to have been at the
close of the period of the judges and in the
vicinity of the sanctuary Shiloh, where the ark of
the covenant was housed. The ark itself sym-
bolized Yahweh’s rulership; for he is declared to
be enthroned between the cherubim (I Sam 4:4;
cf. Ps 99:1). This name certainly contains the af-
firmation that Yahweh is the true head of Israel’s
armies. The idea that more than Israel’s armies is
encompassed in this title is clear from David's
statement, *‘ Yahweh of hosts, the God of the ar-
mies of Israel’? (I Sam 17:45). Rather it affirms
his universal rulership that encompasses every
force or army, heavenly, cosmic and earthly.
Now that Israel was emerging as a nation with
international relationships, the language which

exposed the theology of its God needed to keep
pace. It was important to affirm that Yahweh was
not merely one warrior god among the leading
warrior gods of the nations, but that he was the
Supreme God. Particularly for Israel, located on
the landbridge between three major continents
which was constantly crossed by the armies of
the great world powers, it became essential to
emphasize that Yahweh was King even of the
armies of these mighty empires. As a result he
was sufficient to lead Israel to overcome any
crisis brought on by those armies. The prophets,
during the kingdom period, faced a further prob-
lem, namely that God used these mighty armies
to punish Israel in their rebellion against God.
Hence it was essential to point out that Yahweh
indeed was the king of those nations and that he
would judge them. Conversely, if Israel would
not return to God, then Yahweh could employ
those armies against her and reduce her to captiv-
ity (cf. Isa 10:5—34). Further for the prophets dur-
ing the time of the Babylonian crises when the
people were attracted to astral worship, this
name conveyed clearly to the people that it was
foolish to worship these stars which were merely
obedient creatures to Yahweh (cf. Isa 47).

When captured in all of its thrust the name
yahweh s° ba@’ét is a most exalted title. It is defi-
nitely associated with Yahweh's kingship as Isa
6:5 and Ps 84:3 [H 4] show. On a festive day
before a triumphal procession entered the temple
court, the chorus sang: ‘Lift up your heads, O
gates! and be lifted up, O ancient doors! that the
King of glory may come in. Who is this King of
glory? The Lorp of hosts, he is the King of
glory!’’ (Ps 24:9f.). The text here clearly shows
that Yahweh of hosts conveys the concept of
glorious king. Yahweh is King of the world (cf.
Zech 14:16) and over all the kingdoms of the
earth (Isa 37:16). This God is the source of all (Jer
10:16). His rulership necessitates a time when he
will visibly display that lordship. In the last days
the nations will wage war against Mount Zion.
They will think they have won, only to come to
the realization that their imagination has outdis-
tanced their accomplishment. At that time
Yahweh will lead a great army into battle aided
by the forces of nature. Every opponent in
heaven and on earth will be subjugated (Isa 13:4;
24:21ff.; 29:5-8; 31:4f.; 34:1-12). Then Yahweh
will visibly manifest a universal reign from Mt.
Zion. All kings and nations will acknowledge that
the Yahweh of hosts is the king of glory. His total
authority and lordship will be eternally estab-
lished.

Although the title has military overtones, it
points directly to Yahweh's rulership over the
entire universe. He continually rules, but at times
he directly intervenes to secure his own victory
and insure the direction of history for the salva-

1869 M3 (sbh)

tion of his people. In Amos 4:13 it is associated
with his creating the mountains and wind and his
ability to control nature (cf. Amos 5:8f.; 9:5f.).
He is master over every force; he alone secures
peace. To him prayer may be addressed (e.g. Ps
80:19 [H 20}). Special attention ts given to the
majestic splendor of Yahweh's rule in this title
(cf. Ps 84:1 (H 2]; Isa 28:5f.).

Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, Thomas Nel-
son, 1967. Eichrodt, Walther, Theology of the
Old Testament, 1, Westminster, 1961. Eissfeldt,
Otto, ‘‘Jahwe Zebaoth,’’ Kleine Schriften, 3,
Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1966.
McClellan, W. H., “‘Dominus Deus Sabaoth,”’
CBQ 2:300-307. Miller, Patrick D., The Divine
Warrior in Early Israel, Harvard University,
1973. Ross, J. P., ‘‘Jahweh Seba'ot in Sam and
Ps,’’ VT 17:76-92. Van Imschoot, P., Theology
of the Old Testament, I, Desclee, 1954. Oehler,
G. F., Theology of The Old Testament, tr. G. E.
Day, Funk and Wagnalls, 1883, pp. 437-44.
TDNT, VII, pp. 705-707. THAT, II, pp. 498-
506.

J.E.H.

MiSs (s°ba’dt). See no. 1865b.
1866 35% (sbb) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1866a 3% (sdb) litter, covered wagon (Num

7:3; Isa 66:20).

1867 35% (sbb) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1867a 3% (sab) lizard (Lev 11:20).
1868 3% (sadbda) I, swell, swellup (Num 5:27,
Isa 29:7).
Derivative
1868a may (sabeh) swelling, swollen
(Num 5:21).

1869 m33 (sbh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1869a f3% (s°bi) beauty. (ASV, RSV Simi-
lar; most often ‘‘glory’’ or ‘‘glori-
ous’’; ASV once ‘‘goodly,”’ Jer
3:19.)

The best in regards to splendor and honor is
referred to as beautiful or glorious: the promised
land (Ezk 20:6, 15; Dan 11:16, 41), the temple
mount (Dan 11:45), the strategic cities of Moab
(Ezk 25:9), Babylon, the greatest nation (Isa
13:19). Yahweh will destroy all beauty that has its
own source (Isa 23:9; 28:1-4). But he will be a
crown of beauty to his remnant (Isa 28:5). His
branch also will be beautiful in his reign (Isa 4:2;

751

1870 M33 (sbh)

cf. 24:16; I] Sam 1:19 ‘‘glory’’ refers to King
Saul).
J.E.H.

1870 ms% (sbh) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1870a

1870b

3% (sbi) gazelle.
m3% (s*biyd) gazelle (Song 4:5;
7:4).

vIs¥ (sdbiia‘). See no. 1872b.

393% (sibbar). See no. 1874a.

‘33 (s°D?). See nos. 1869a, 1870a.

1871 63% (sdbat) reach, hold out (Ruth 2:14).

1872 ys (sb‘) I. Assumed root of the following.

1872a se (seba‘) dye, dyed stuff (Jud
5:30).

1872b =yIsy (sabua‘) colored, variegated
(Jer 12:9).

1873 pss (sb‘) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1873a tY338 (Cesba’) finger (asv and Rsv
identical.)

The word is used in a normative sense for
measuring width, about three-quarters inch (Jer
52:21), and for the priestly activity of sprinkling
blood or oil (Lev 4:6, 17; 14:16; 16:14). In addi-
tion, ‘‘finger(s)’’ refer to work artfully produced,
especially in regard to God. They refer to the
handiwork of his creative power, e.g. the
heavens (Ps 8:3; [H 8:4]), the plagues (Ex 8:19),
and the Law on the stone tablets (Ex 31:18; cf.
Lk 11:20). In regard to man, it often deals with
his artistic work which is contrary to God, as the
making of idols and cultic objects (Isa 2:8; 17:8).
These and other sins defile the finger; this ex-
pression means man is separated from approach-
ing God, especially cultically (Isa 59:3). Rather,
the fingers should have the instructions of the
wise teacher bound to them (Prov 7:3). Further,
‘‘pointing of the finger’’ is a gesture of contempt
made by the self-righteous (Isa 58:9; cf. Prov
6:13, which some, as McKane, interpret as a
practice of magic).

Bibliography: WLuering, H. L. E., ‘*Finger,”’
in ISBE, II, p. 1111. McKane, W., Proverbs,
Westminster, 1970. Mixter, R. L., ‘‘Finger,’” in
ZPEB, II, pp. 536-37.

J.E.H.
1874 “3% (sabar) heap up (Gen 41:35; Ps
39:7).
Derivative
1874a 38 (sibbar) heap (Il Kgs 10:8).

752

1875 ASB (sbt).

1878 *m3% (sada) II, lay waste.

1879 8% (sadéq) be just, righteous.

Assumed root of the following.
Ones (s°batim) bundles of grain
(Ruth 2:16).

187Sa

B’n3y (s°batim). See no. 1875a.
S¥ (sad). See no. 1876a.

1876 "3 (sdd). Assumed root of the following.

1876a “¥ (sad) side.
1877 m3 (sada) ZI, lie in wait (Ex 21:13;
I Sam 24:11).
Derivative
1877a = 58 (5 diya) lying in wait (Num

35:20, 22), with malicious intent.

This verb oc-
curs only in the Niphal, in Zeph 3:6.

See no. 1877a.
See no. 1879c.

mI (s°diya).
PIS (saddiq).

Denomi-
native verb.

Parent Noun

1879a = IX (sedeq) justice, rightness.

18796 =MBIE (s*daqgad) justice, right-
eousness.

1879c 3°58 (saddiq) just, lawful, righ-

feous.

This root basically connotes conformity to an
ethical or moral standard. It is claimed by Snaith
(N. Snaith, Distinctive Ideas of the OT, Schock-
en, 1964, p. 73) ‘the original significance of the
root sdq to have been ‘'‘to be straight.’’ But he
adds that it stands for a “‘norm.’’ Perhaps the
origin of the word is not so clear or even signifi-
cant. Words having a secular origin often are bap-
tized into special meanings and a word originally
meaning straight may develop easily into a moral
term just so canon ‘‘rod,’’ *‘measuring rule’’ be-
comes a standardized list of sacred books. sedeq,
then, refers to an ethical, moral standard and of
course in the or that standard is the nature and
will of God. ‘‘The Lord is righteous (saddiq) in
all his ways and holy in all his works’’ (Ps
145:17).

The masculine sedeq occurs 118 times, the
feminine s°daqg4 156 times. The two forms do not
differ in meaning, as far as we can prove (Snaith,
ibid., p. 72).

The earliest usages of sedeg or s° ddqa (except
Gen 15:6; 18:19; 30:33, s°ddqda) occur in relation
to the functions of judges. All of their deliver-
ances or decisions are to be according to the truth
and without partiality (Lev 19:15). It is applied
similarly to weights and measures (Lev 19:36).

Commercial fraud and deception are not allowed.
In both these usages is seen the basic sense of
‘‘not deviating from the standard.’’ The word de-
scribes three aspects of personal relationships:
ethical, forensic, and theocratic.

The ethical aspect involves the conduct of men
with one another. It is held by some (Achtemeier,
The Gospel of Righteousness, pp. 68-70) that
righteousness is the quality of relationships be-
tween individuals. What follows from this view,
however, is that righteousness is a matter of cur-
rent norms. Actually, nghteousness is exhibited
only through conformity to standards set out in
the word of God.

The man who is righteous tries to preserve the
peace and prosperity of the community by fulfil-
ling the commands of God in regard to others. In
the supreme sense the righteous man (saddiq) is
one who serves God (Mal 3:18). Specifically, he,
like Job, delivers the poor and orphan, helps the
blind along the way, supports the weak and Is a
father (provider) to the poor (Job 29: 12-15). This
was the righteous ‘‘clothing’’ of Job’s life. To
return the poor man’s pledged coat before sun-
down so that it may serve as his night clothes is
righteousness (Deut 24:13), the purpose in this
case being the man’s comfort. But the ‘‘nght-
eousness’’ consisted in obedience to God's law
and conformity to God’s nature, having mercy
for the needy and helpless. Among other nght-
eousnesses of Job were his care for the traveler
(Job 31:31-32), eschewing wealth for its own sake
(31:24-25), thus not victimizing himself or others
in its pursuit. Nor did he squeeze out of his ser-
vants the last ounce of effort (31:13) having their
limits of strength and comfort in mind. Job’s long
oath of innocence was a declaration of nghteous-
ness as the three friends recognized (32:1).

The saddig gives freely (Ps 37:21), without re-
gard for gain. The presence of this kind of people
is the exaltation of the nation (Prov 14:34), and
the memory of the righteous man is a blessing.
When men follow God, nghteousness is said to
dwell in the city (Isa 1:21). But when sin rules, it
becomes a harlot. To rule on behalf of the wicked
for a price is perversion of righteousness, for it
takes away the righteousness (decency, God-
likeness) of the righteous (Isa 5:23). David was
(more) righteous than Saul because he refused to
Slay Saul when unprotected (I Sam 24:7), al-
though God seemingly had given Saul into his
hands. The source of all this righteous conduct is
the bestowal of God's judgments (or laws) and
righteousness on his people (Ps 72: 1-2).

The above discussion elucidates the message
of the prophets, whose cry for righteousness rang
throughout the land. Amos cned for justice in the
gates (5:15, 24) that 1s, that mght institutions be
rightly administered. All who function in public
areas are to be righteous in all they do—not for all

753

1879 pI¥ (sadéq)

they do. Beautiful singing will not persuade God
to accept cormupt religious practice (Amos 5:23-
24). Jeremiah declares that justice and nghteous-
ness together means to deliver the weak, to do no
violence to them, nor to shed innocent blood.
This righteousness will preserve the city (Jer
22: 1-4).

Whether by nations or individuals, righteous
conduct can only be secured by plowing up fal-
low ground, sowing in righteousness, and reaping
in mercy, i.e. making a new base for righteous-
ness (Hos 10:12). All must become new persons
whose actions are governed by the law of God.
Righteous conduct issues from a new heart (Ezk
36:25-27). Habakkuk puts it another way: the just
shall live by his faith (Hab 2:4). Isaiah (32:15-17)
couples righteousness with the work of the Spint,
all resulting in peace and therefore eternal, as-
sured quietness. It is possible that this thought
lies behind the figure in Ps 85:10 [H 11], **Righ-
teousness and peace have kissed each other.”’
Because there has been reconciliation between
man and God, peace comes to bless his way.
Isaiah apparently refers to the state of these
people: ‘‘thy people shall all be righteous.’* True
ethics derive from imparted righteousness.

The forensic aspect of sedeq applies to the
equality of all, rich and poor, before the law. The
righteous one, the saddiq, is not to be put to
death (Ex 23:7) for the law does not condemn
him. The man who has the position of right (the
righteousness of the righteous, sid‘ gat saddiq) in
litigation must not be turned aside, (Isa 5:23). It
should be emphasized that in Israel’s law the
judge was not considering a man’s innocence
with regard to breaking a human law, but a man’s
righteousness in regard to God's law. Today a
man may transgress a Statute but be innocent be-
fore God. In the oT law, to be innocent and to be
righteous were one and the same. The mainte-
nance of righteousness is frequently expressed by
the Hiphil stem. This construction refers to mak-
ing righteous or to declaring righteous.

The comparative status of right is expressed by
Judah in comparison to Tamar (Gen 38:26), 1.e.
she was within her rights to act as she did, Judah
was not. But this is not a total approbation of her
actions. A just or true claim is a ‘‘righteousness”’
(Ps 17:1; 18:20 [H 21]), always opposing the lie
(Ps 37:6). In terms of an individual involved in
litigation, to be righteous means to be free from
guilt in relation to any infraction of law (Gen
30:33). One is righteous who is declared to be
right (Ex 23:7; Deut 25:1). Such is Job’s affirma-
tion (Job 19:7) (cf. The Argument of the Book of
Job Unfolded, W. H. Greeves [New York: 1891],
p. 188. It is the duty of judge and king to maintain
righteousness in the community; Ex 23:7-8; I Chr
18:14; Prov 16:12).

Noah, Daniel, and Job were mghteous (Ezk

1879 25% (sadéq)

14:14, 20). Good conduct by an individual estab-
lishes a claim on the Lord of deliverance from
calamitous judgment. Similarly, Gen 15:6 teaches
that Abraham received Isaac as his heir because
his trust in God’s promises was accounted as
righteousness.

sedeg is used attributively when applied to
God himself as to his character. The Lord is the
just judge (II Chr 12:6; Ps 11:7; Jer 12:1; Lam
1:18) even to the utmost degree as the judge of all
the earth (Deut 32:4; Ps 119:137; Isa 5:16). There-
fore his standards, his judgments set out in his
word are righteous (Ps 119:144, 160, 172). Being
everlasting, they are the confidence of his people
and will not fail. God’s hate of sin and love of
righteousness (Psa 45:7 [H 8]) express his essen-
tial righteousness. Therefore mghteousness and
judgment are the habitation (“‘foundation’’ NAsB,
Niv) of God’s throne, i.e. they always charac-
terize his actions (Ps 97:2).

Corollary to the forensic aspect of God's righ-
teousness is the concept of salvation as vindica-
tion (cf. Isa 1:27; 46:13, in which t° sha‘da ‘‘salva-
tion’’ occurs in parallelism with s° daqa. The sal-
vation of God appears in this righteousness, for
God delivers his people (Isa 51:1ff.). God is
characterized as right in delivering his people (Ps
85:9-11 [H 10-11]; 97:2). Cyrus is summoned to
deliver God's people and is therefore termed
righteous (Isa 42:6; 45:13). Because God is al-
ways righteous, his saving action is properly sig-
nified by his righteous right hand (Isa 41:10). His
saving righteousness is expressed with judgment,
fidelity, and love (Ps 36:6—7 [H 7-8]) and with
power (Ps 71:19). Those who experience this de-
liverance celebrate it in song (Ps 40; 10 [H 11];
71:15—16).

The covenant or theocratic aspect involves the
nation of Israel. The covenant requires obedience
to God by the nation and is the way of his people
(Ps 1:1-6; Deut 6:25), a way of righteousness.
God is righteous, under the covenant, when he
delivers his people from trouble (Ps 31:1 (H 2]),
their enemies (Ps 5:8 [H 9]), the wicked (Ps 37:6)
and when he is vindicating Israel before her foes
or executing vengeance on them (Jer 11:20). It is
appropmiate that Israel be assured of ultimate
victory over her foes (Isa 54:14—17). In this last
event the Lord is both righteous and the savior
(Isa 45:21).

Yet God is just to deliver the national
sanctuary to the sword of Israel’s enemies on ac-
count of her sins. God's judgment is just and Is-
rael's evil conduct can in no way be justified 1.e.
considered righteous. But the righteous ones re-
member the covenant to do it, and God's promise
to them ts their restoration (Isa 51:1-8). For Is-
rael to look to her maker involved repentance and
reform. On the basis of this new righteousness
came a deliverance. Israel in exile was far from
righteousness (Isa 46:12) but God would bring her

754

back according to his own righteousness (Isa
46:13). Rather than finding here a meaning of de-
liverance, salvation or tnumph for s°*ddaqa as
some do, it is better to find God’s solution of the
problem of justification for the sinner in the
teaching of Isa 53 where the suffering servant jus-
tifies sinners by bearing their sin. This same
forensic meaning of justification of the ungodly is
a real precursor of Rom 3:26. So Israel's restora-
tion to the land of promise is righteousness (Isa
46: 12-13) and it is in mghteousness that the Lord
raises up Cyrus to restore Israel to the land
(45:13). Such nghteousness will be set out before
all the world, for God will help Israel. In this
fulfillment of the covenant God is declared right-
eous (Isa 54:14), and Israel’s status is that of
being righteous, saddigq.

The root presents a development or variety of
usage. |. The abstract meaning of conformity to
some standard (Gen 15:6), Abraham measuring
up to the requirement of trust. 2. As a descrip-
tive characteristic of God (Deut 32:4), as just and
righteous, the standard being his own will and
nature as the supreme being. The illustration of
the potter and the clay, (Isa 45:9-12) points to the
appropriateness of the divine decision. 3.
s*daq@ or sedeq when applied to God mean
righteousness, his characteristics then becoming
the ultimate standard of human conduct. 4.The
visitation of punishment on moral infractions is
an example of righteousness, as were God’s
judgments on Pharaoh for refusing to release the
Israelites (Ex 9:27). To judge sin is, one may say,
a divine necessity for a righteous God 5. God
shows his nghteousness in vindicating the de-
serving among his people (Gen 18:25). Although
that nghteousness may require punishment, it is
followed by mercy on repentance. 6. The work
of justification is seen when David pleads for for-
giveness (Ps 51:14 [H 16]), calling on God to be-
stow deliverance without regard to merit to fulfill
his obligation to his own standards. Implicit in
this justification is the substitutionary sacrifice
for sin sincerely offered as noted in Ps 51:16—19
{H 18-21]. These verses are no later addendum to
the Psalm. They give the oT parallel to Rom 3:26.
7. The word describes the righteous standing of
God's heirs to salvation, with no charge to be laid
against them (Isa 54:17), this righteousness, actu-
ally possessed by Messiah (Jer 23:6), is bestowed
by him, thus pointing toward the nt doctrine of
Christ our righteousness. The righteousness of
God’s heirs of salvation is the righteousness of
the Messiah attributed to them by God through
faith in the redemptive work of Messiah in which
God declares them righteous only because of the
grace provided through that redemptive work. 8.
Finally in post-exilic times the root develops to
mean benevolence, alms-giving etc. as acts of a
godly man (cf. Ps 112:9).

There are different concepts of the meaning of

this root. G. Schrenk cites Diestel and Kautzsch
as working out “‘thoroughly the idea of the con-
sistent and normative action of God (God himself
being the norm rather than standing under it)”
(TDNT, II, p. 195). Schrenk himself, however,
declares that ‘‘s*ddadqda implies relationship. A
man is righteous when he meets certain claims
which another has on him in virtue of relation-
ship’’ (ibid.). He does not attempt to prove this
concept of relationship, but he bases much on the
idea that ‘‘Deutero-Isaiah’’ always uses the
image of a legal dispute whereby God defends the
people under covenant to him much as an ancient
eastern suzerain promised to do in a suzerainty
treaty. This covenant concept is so paramount in
Schrenk that he can say: “‘This linking of right
and salvation is most deeply grounded in the co-
venant concept. s°ddqa is the execution of co-
venant faithfulness and the covenant promises.
God's righteousness as His judicial reign means
that in covenant faithfulness to His people He
vindicates and saves them’’ (ibid.). By this em-
phasis on the covenant, God's righteousness be-
comes fidelity to promises and there is no eternal
justice of God to be satisfied by a substitute. In-
deed, rescue of the covenant people from trouble
is both righteousness, salvation, and victory.

Snaith writes from a similar viewpoint. He
holds that ‘‘the eighth century prophets use the
word sedeq-s‘ ddqa (righteousness) in an ethical
sense.... Second Isaiah thought of sedeg more
from the point of view of that which actually ts
established in this world. It is that which
triumphs and prospers”’ (op. cit., p. 87). In a note
(p. 89) he argues that only in the very late pas-
sages of Isa 26:19 (Trito Isaiah, third century) and
Dan 12:2 (which he holds is Maccabean) is there
any teaching of a “‘resurrection life beyond the
grave.’ Therefore (since the other verses on
resurrection are retranslated and their teaching
denied) he says that righteousness, i.e. salvation,
for the Israelite ‘‘must involve the blessings of
honor from men and general prospenity.’’ The bi-
blical declaration of the personal nghteousness of
the living God is thus evaporated by critical
theory.

Bibliography: Bollier, John A., **The Righ-
teousness of God,’ Interp 8:404—13. Girdlestone,
R. B., SOT, pp. 158-69. Snaith, N., The Distinc-
tive Ideas of the Old Testament, Philadelphia,
1946. Payne, J. B., The Theology of the Older
Testament, Grand Rapids, 1962. Jones, Edgar,
The Greatest Old Testament Words, London,
1964. Kautzsch, E., Der Derivate des Stammes
tsdq im altentestamentlichen Sprachgebrauch,
Tiibingen, 1881. Heerboth, L. A., *‘Der Begriff
Gerechtigkeit in A.T., besonders in den Psal-
men,’ Concordia Theological Monthly, 7:497-
508. Lofthouse, W. F., ‘The Righteousness of
Jahweh,'* Exp T 50:341-45. Jacobs, L., **The
Concept of Hasid in the Biblical and Rabbinical

1883 SA¥ (shr)

Literatures,’ JJS 8:143-54. Swetman, James,
‘‘Some Observations on the Background of °53
in Jeremias 23, Sa,’’ Bib 46:29-40. TDNT II, pp.
212-14; II, pp. 174-78; 195-98. THAT, II, pp.
507-29.

H.G:.S.
1880 *3my (sahéb), IM¥ (sahdb) gleam. Occurs
only in the Hophal, in Ezr 8:27.
Derivative
1880a 3m (sadhdb) gleaming, yellow (of
hair, Lev 13).
1881 %my (sadhal) I, neigh, cry shrilly (Est
8:15; Isa 24:14).
Derivative
188la mmx (mishala) neighing (Jer
8:16; 13:27).
1882 *9my (sdhal) HH, make shining. Occurs

only in the Hiphil, only in Ps 104:15).

1883 “mk = (shr). Assumed root of the following.
1883a +388 (sdhar) I, noon, midday.
1883b sm¥ (sdhar) Il, roof (Gen 6:16).
1883c =f5S¥° (yishar) fresh oil.
1883d *"3m¥ (sahar) press oil. Denomina-

tive verb. Occurs only in the Hiphil,
only in Job 24:11.
sohar. Noon, midday. (ASV, RSV similar; they

use ‘“‘noonday’’; asv also ‘‘noontide.’’) Noon,
being the hottest part of the day, ts siesta time
(I1 Sam 4:5). The brightness of that hour sym-
bolizes the intense purity of justice (Ps 37:6; cf.
Job 11:17) and the blessing that dispels gloom (Isa
59:10). It is also viewed as a time of security; thus
a conquest carried on at this time indicates a con-
queror’s superior strength (Jer 6:4; 15:8; 20:16;
Zeph 2:4). Conversely, the rebellious grope in
darkness even at noonday (Deut 28:28f.; Isa
58:10; Job 5:14). Since the sun will set at noon on
the day of judgment, the troubles of that day will
be very severe (Amos 8:9).

yishar. Fresh oil. (asv and rsv identical.) Oil
provides light, is used for cooking, and serves as
an ointment. BDB considers it to be ‘‘fresh oil,”’
the unmanufactured product of the olive tree. It
almost always appears with grain (ddgdan) and
new wine (firdsh) (q.v.) these three agricultural
products were the staples for the inhabitants of
Palestine. Therefore the government had
storehouses built for them (II Chr 32:28). These
three products were guaranteed to Israel as
God’s blessing for fulfilling the covenant (Deut
7:13; 11:13f.), but were withdrawn when Israel
failed to obey (Deut 28:49ff.). The first fruits of
the grain, new wine, and oil were presented to the

735

1884 SIE (sw’)

priests as God's representatives (Deut 18:4; Num
18:12f.). Under the reforms of King Hezekiah
and of governor Nehemiah, the people demon-
strated their desire to follow the covenant by
bringing abundantly of their first fruits to the
priests (I1 Chr 31:5; Neh 10:35-39 {H 3640]:
13:12). Unfortunately during other periods the
people forgot that Yahweh gave them the grain,
new wine and oil (Hos 2:8 [H 2:10]). Since they
forsook Yahweh, he in turn forsook them by
bringing drought and loss of crops (Joel 1:10). Yet
God never completely forsook his _ people.
Through his prophets he foretold of a coming
time when he would restore Israel to their land
and bless them with abundance of grain, new
wine and oil (Joel 2:19, 24; Hos 2:22 |H 24]; Jer
31:12 Niv). The blessing would be so abundant
that Israel’s needs would be satisfied and their
reproach would be completely removed (Joel
2:19). Only in Zech 4:14 is yishar used in the

sense of anointing: ‘‘sons of oil” = *‘anointed
ones. '
J.E.H.
3% (saw). See no. 1887c.

1884 S3¥ (sw’). Assumed root of the following.
1884a ANE (sé'a) filth, i.e. human
excrement (Deut 23:13; Ezk 4:12).

1884b «ASE (s0'a) filth (Isa 28:8: Prov
30:12).
I884c NSE (s0'%) filthy (Zech 3:3).

"81¥ (sawwa'r). See no. 1897c.

1885 33 (sad) ZT, hunt.

Derivatives

I88Sa WE O(sayid)

I885b 0 SB (sayyvdd)
only).

1885c 0 TBD sGd) «TS (m" sad) fast-
ness, stronghold (1 Chr 11:7: 12:8

hunting, game.

hunter (Jer 16:16,

[H 9]).

885d W3 (mdsdd) 1, siegeworks (Eccl
9:14).

188S5e 90 3x (madsod) TT, hunting imple-
ment, net (Prov 12:12; Job 19:6).

1885f aE (m’séda) I, net (Eccl
9:12; Ezk 19:9).

1885g 0 omTE On sada) I, net prey (Ezk
13:21: Ps 66:11).

1885h 9 TR Cm" sdda) OH, fastness,

stronghold (Isa 29:7; Ezk 19:9).
188510 tAR Cm" sttda) i, fastness.
stronghold.

Hunting was a means of supplementing the
food supply and also provided a pleasant change
of menu. Nimrod, the founder of a kingdom in

756

Babylon and Assyria, was known as a mighty
hunter, and his skill became the basis of the
proverbial saying, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter
before the Lord’ (Gen 10:9). Esau distinguished
himself from Jacob, especially in his father’s
eyes, as a good hunter (Gen 25:27f.). Hunting
was often done with nets and various types of
traps, as the two derivatives meaning ‘‘net’* indi-
cate. Under the Levitical code hunting of clean
birds and beasts was permitted; the hunter had to
prepare the game that was killed by pouring out
its blood and covering it with dirt (Lev 17:13:
Deut 12:15; 14:5 (a list of clean game)). In addi-
tion, Prov points out that the hunter must be dili-
gent, for the “‘slothful man will not catch his
prey’ (Prov 12: 27 Rsv).

This root is used metaphorically to indicate one
who pursues the life of another to destroy it. The
adulterous woman stalks a man’s very life: i.e.
she yearns for more than he can provide and she
holds power over his whole life (Prov 6:26). Even
more intense than she is is the woman who
through magic hunts the souls of God's people
(Ezk 13:18). God is against them and will free the
hunted souls (Ezk 13:20). God too pursues man,
especially in judgment (Jer 16:16: cf. Job 10:16).
Because of Israel's waywardness God decreed,
**] will send for many hunters, and they shall hunt
them from every mountain and every hill, and out
of the clefts of the rocks” (Jer 16:16). Lam says
that this assertion became the experience of the
people, ‘"I have been hunted like a bird by those
who were my enemies without cause’> (Lam
3:52).

m‘sada J. Stronghold, fortress. (ASV and RSv
similar: aSv also “high tower.) Apparently re-
lated to m sdd which means **mountain-height”™
or ““summit’’: then ‘‘fortress, castle’’ (Arabic
masddun) so Masada, the fortress-palace plateau
of Herod near the Dead Sea. In the rocky crag the
eagle makes his stronghold (Job 39:28). But man
erects his fortress out of stone or brick to protect
himself from external dangers. Nevertheless with
great strategy a stronghold may be taken: e.g.
David captured the stronghold of Zion (II Sam
5:7). For the believer, especially David, God
himself was the stronghold in whom he trusted
throughout his trials (Ps 18:2 [H 3]: 91:2).
Bibliography: McKane, W., °*Proverbs,”* in
Old Testament Library, Westminster, 1970.
J.E.H.

1886 3X (swd) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1886a) = SE) «((sayid) provision, food (Neh

13:15: Job 38:41).

1886b 3=6oaty (séda) food (Josh 1:11; Gen
42:25).
1886c *S (sid) supply oneself with pro-

visions. This denominative verb

occurs only in the Hithpael (Josh
9:4, 12).

1887 *™1¥ (sdwad) command, charge. Occurs
in the Piel and Pual.

Derivatives

1I887a =X (sivun) signpost, monument
(II Kgs 23:17; Ezk 39:15).

1887b tk (miswd) commandment.

1887c TE (saw) command.

Command is used for the instruction of a father
to a son (I Sam 17:20), a farmer to his laborers
(Ruth 2:9), a king to his servants (IJ Sam 21:14).
It reflects a firmly structured society in which
people were responsible to their right to rule by
God's command (cf. II Sam 7:7; I Kgs 1:35). The
leader was then in a position to command the
people and to expect their obedience (Josh 1:9,
16). God commissioned Joshua to succeed Moses
(Num 27:18f.; Deut 31:14f.). When God chose
David to be king, he ‘‘commanded him’’ (com-
missioned him as) prince (ndgid, 1 Sam 13:14).
The prophet’s word possesses authonty, because
he speaks whatever God commands him (Jer 1!:7;
cf. Deut 18:18).

God *‘commanded"™ the world into existence
(Ps 33:9; Isa 45:12). All creatures and elements
therefore obey his command (cf. I Kgs 17:4; Job
37:12; Ps 78:23). God also directs the course of
history by decreeing crucial events; indeed no
determinative event happens without God's or-
daining it (Lam 3:37). Indeed he decrees that his
people be victorious (Ps 44:4 [H 5}).

What God commands to be done, he provides
the means to accomplish, e.g. he instructed
Moses concerning the building of the cultic furni-
ture and buildings; then he inspired Bezalel and
Oholiab with the Spirit of wisdom to be able to
accomplish the work (Ex 31:2-6; 35:30—36:1).
Regarding the making of these objects the text first
details the instructions and then describes Israel’s
careful fulfillment of God’s commandment (Ex
25-30; 36-39; Lev 8; cf. Ex 39:5, 7, 32, 42f.).

God insures the truth of his word by command-
ing it; he commanded the covenant (Ps 105:8;
111:9) and will command blessing to those faith-
ful to the covenant (Deut 28:8; Ps 133:3). God
remembers what he has commanded and is care-
ful to fulfill every part of his side of the command
decreed (I Chr 16:15).

Blessing accompanies obedience to God's
commands; rebellion, however brings curses
(Deut 11:26ff.). Adam and Eve disobeyed and
encountered curses (Gen 3:16—19). In contrast,
God commanded Noah to build an ark; Noah did
all that God commanded and survived the flood
(Gen 6:22; 7:5). Israel obeyed the commands of
God at the Exodus, particularly regarding the
Passover, and they escaped their enslavement

757

1887 *M¥ (sawa)

(cf. Ex 12:28, 50). But unfortunately Israel was
prone to leave the way God directed (cf. Deut
31:29). To follow his commandments results in a
good and long life (Deut 5:33). Therefore, Israel
was not to deviate to the right or to the left from
what God commanded them (Deut 5:32). Obedi-
ence to God's command becomes the obedient
one’s righteousness (Deut 6:25).

God instructed Hezekiah, who was suffering
from a fatal iliness to command his house; i.e. he
was to make sure all his responsibilities were
executed or properly entrusted to his successors
(If Kgs 20:1). Jacob also gave orders to his sons
concerning his burial (Gen 49:29, 33).

miswa. Commandment. In a deed of purchase
for a plot of land, misw4a refers to the terms of the
contract (Jer 32:11). It is also the word used by
the wisdom school for the instruction of a teacher
to his pupil (Prov 2:1; 3:1). More frequently the
commandments are the particular conditions of
the covenant. It is used for the Ten Command-
ments in Ex 24:12.

God clearly reveals his commandments in
order that they be available to all the people. No
one has to spend a lifetime in search of them
(Deut 30:11). They are right at hand. The Lord
reaches out to man long before man seeks him.
God’s commandments are considered pure (Ps
19:8 {H 9]), true (Ps 119:151), reliable (Ps 119:86),
righteous (Ps 119:172). The man of faith has his
delight in God’s commandments; and he is called
blessed (Ps 119:47; 112:1). The commandments
of Yahweh provide insight into the meaning of
life in order that it may be lived to its fullest sig-
nificance (Ps 19:8f. (H 9f.}; cf. Deut 5:29; 6:2;
8:11). Following God’s commandments gives one
wisdom and the respect of his neighbors (cf. Deut
4:5f.). Consequently the one who follows them
often rises to a place of leadership. So too, Israel
would become a leading nation if she remained
true to the Lord’s commandments (Deut 28:13).
The splendor which it experienced under David
and Solomon bears witness to the validity of this
affirmation. The reason Israel was to obey the
commandments rests in God himself (Lev 22:31).
By his very nature he knows what is best for his
people and by his very position they are bound to
serve him. The one who loves God keeps his
commandments (Deut 11:1). Thereby he shows
his reverence for (or fear of) God and develops a
walk with God (Deut 8:6; 13:4 [H 5]). God ex-
tends his love (hesed) to those who obey him
(Deut $:10).

To do the commandments, man must re-
member them. The Hebrews were to make
fringes (or tassels) on the corners of their gar-
ments to remind them of the law (Num 15:39).
Also they were to bind God’s words on their
foreheads and on their hands and write them on
the doorposts of their houses. The fathers were to

1888 M3 (sawah)

teach them to their sons and to speak of them
frequently (Deut 6:6-9). And they were pre-
served by being written in the book of the law
(Deut 30:10). However, the commandments pos-
sess no real value if they are considered only a
human document learned by rote (Isa 29: 13f.).

Furthermore, man in his depravity is tempted
on the one hand to reject God’s commandments
and on the other hand to add to them by interpret-
ing them very minutely. The latter leads to the
sense of secure arrogance that one is even doing
God a favor. Therefore God declares that one is
not to add to or to diminish from the command-
ments given (Deut 12:32 [H 13:1]; cf.5:32).

The violation of any commandment results in
guilt and the need for atonement (cf. Lev 4). But
whoever goes so far as to spurn God's com-
mandments is cut off from God’s people (Num
15:31). Solomon’s failure to follow the com-
mandments in his later life resulted in the division
of the kingdom (II Kgs 11:31-39; 14:8). Then the
continued disobedience of various kings, espe-
cially Manasseh, led to the end of David's
dynasty. But God extended his mercy to Israel
even in captivity (cf. Neh 1:8f.). And he will ful-
fill his promise to David through the Messiah.

In the postexilic period the scribal class de-
veloped. They were skilled in the command-
ments, i.e. they interpreted the law for the people
(Ezr 7:11).

The writer of Eccl searched every possibility
for meaning to life and came to this conclusion:
‘*The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear
God, and keep his commandments; for this is the
whole duty of man’’ (12:13).

saw. Command. (aSv, RSV “precept” in Isa
28:10, 13.) In Isa 28:10, 13 the word appears
parallel to gaw (‘‘line,”’ q.v.). Some suggest
these are elliptical sarcastic mimicnes mocking a
prophet’s speech. One suggestion is the sound of
a teacher and pupil constantly reciting the al-
phabet. Another possibility is a sound alluding to
the root s-w-h, *“‘command.”’ Another is that it is
baby talk. The context is clear; the people are
ridiculing Isaiah's message as meaningless tidbits
(v. 10); he in turn announces that these tidbits
will be the standard by which they will be judged
(v. 13). In Hos 5:11 saw (‘he was content to walk
after man’s command”’ asv) is emended with Lxx
to shaw’ (‘he was determined to go after vanity”
RSV). If saw means worthless and qaw is a
measuring line used to mark off something for
destruction, then the play on sounds in Isa 28:10,
13 draws from the vocabulary of judgment.

Bibliography: Kaiser, Otto, Isaiah 13-39,
Westminster Press, 1974. Young, E. J., The Book
of Israel, 11, Eerdmans, 1969. Wolff, Hans Wal-
ter, Hosea, Fortress, 1974. THAT, II, pp. 530
35.

J.E.H.

758

1890 *asy

my (swh). See no. 1909.
1888 mix (sadwah) cry aloud (Isa 42:11, only).
Derivative
1888a MS (s'wahd) outcry (Jer 14:2.
Ps 144: 14).

1889 SX (swi). Assumed root of the following.
1889a = M218) (sald) ~ocean-deep (Isa 44:27).
1889b -O3x7 Cm’ sdla), MIR (Mm sala)

depth, deep (Job 41:23; Ex 15:5).
1889c = mOxm «(mm salad) basin, hol-

low (Zech 1:8). Meaning doubtful.

(sim) fast. (asv and rsv identical.)
Derivative

Dis (sdm) fast, fasting.
RSV identical.)

1890a (ASV and

Fasting is depriving the body of nounshment as
a sign that one is experiencing great sorrow.
Mourning ‘is further expressed in weeping and
lamentation and in putting on sackcloth and ashes
(Est 4:3). He who fasts claims to afflict himself or
his soul, i.e. his inner person. One could fast in
behalf of another, e.g., the Psalmist for his
enemies during their illness (Ps 35:13). The fast
most often lasted from sunrise until sunset (cf. II
Sam 1:12), and it could be total or partial absti-
nence (Ps 35:13; Dan 10:3). Fasting accompanied
mourning for the dead, and for severe grief it
lasted seven days (1 Sam 31:13). One also fasted
to gain the attention of God on behalf of his suf-
fering in sickness. David's illegitimate son by
Bathsheba was critically ill; therefore David
fasted and mourned many days (II Sam 12:16ff.).
On the seventh day David learned that the child
had died; then he arose, washed, anointed him-
self and changed his clothing, for he perceived
that he could accomplish nothing now that the
child was dead (II Sam 12:20-23).

Another occasion for fasting was making a crit-
ical decision or following an ominous course of
action. Esther, intending to seek the king's favor
in reversing the decree of Haman, placed herself
under the king's mercy and possible wrath which
could end in her death. Therefore she requested
that all the Jews fast and entreat God for her
mission (Est 4:16). Nehemiah fasted upon learn-
ing of the sorrowful condition of Jerusalem (Neh
1:4), and then proceeded to work to correct the
situation. Apparently before a person was stoned
for blasphemy, the people mourned the sin and
coming execution with fasting. Jezebel pro-
claimed such a fast for Naboth (I Kgs 21:9, 12).
Also upon learning of one’s sin, fasting is in or-
der. When Elyah condemned Ahab for Naboth’s
death, he mourned in sackcloth and fasted. God

had mercy on him and delayed the punishment on
his house (I Kgs 21:27ff.).

An individual could intercede in supplication
and fasting for an entire nation. Daniel confessed
his sin and his people’s sins that had led them into
captivity (Dan 9:3-19). Gabriel answered his
prayer, assured him of the ending of the captivity
and promised the establishing of a new covenant
(Dan 9:22-27).

National fasting was called during times of ex-
treme crisis, such as a plague, a military threat or
the death of a king. Jehoshaphat proclaimed a
fast because the kings of Moab and Ammon were
planning a campaign against Judah. The people
assembled at Jerusalem. Jehoshaphat led the as-
sembly in prayer. Then Jahaziel, a Levite, under
the inspiration of the Lord’s Spirit, proclaimed an
assurance of salvation. Prayer and enthusiastic
praising followed. Afterwards Jehoshaphat led
the army to war, but Yahweh had already dis-
comfited the enemies; the army had only to col-
lect the spoil (11 Chr 20:1-29). In 604 when the
Babylonian army was camped against Ashkelon,
about a three day march from Jerusalem, King
Jehoiakim proclaimed a fast. Jer used this occa-
sion to have Baruch read his prophecies from a
scroll before the people near the New Gate of the
temple (Jer 36:1-10). Jer wanted the people to
move from an outward show of contrition to true
repentance. On another occasion, Joel forsaw the
coming of the Day of Yahweh; therefore he
exhorted the people to sanctify a fast and call a
solemn assembly (Joel 1:14; 2:15). He proclaimed
that if the people would truly repent in mourning
and fasting, then God would be gracious and
postpone the day of judgment (Joel 2:12-14). The
case of Nineveh shows God's desire to extend
mercy and not judgment. On hearing the procla-
mation of judgment by Jonah, the Ninevites pro-
claimed a fast and repented. Thereby they
averted for a time the day of judgment (Jon 3:5-
10).

Certain days in the calendar were for national
fasting, the most prominent being the Day of
Atonement (Lev 16:29, 31; 23:27-32; fasting Is
indicated in the phrase ‘‘afflict oneself,’ ‘nh
npsh). The number of these days appears to have
grown in the post-exilic period. Zech 8:19 lists
four fast days during the year. A fast day pre-
cedes the celebration of Purim (Est 9:31). By the
time of the nT the pious fasted on Monday and
Thursday of every week (cf. Lk 18:12).

Fasting in itself did not cause Yahweh to turn
to his people. He did not succumb merely to the
afflictions of the body. A true fast had to indicate
that the people were intent on seeking righteous-
ness, which included taking care of the poor and
needy (Isa 58; cf. Jer 14:12; Zech 7:5). However,
when the Lord brings final salvation to his
people, the months of fast will be turned into
feasts of joy and gladness (Zech 8:19).

759

1891 pie (sw).

1892 "IB (sup) flow,

1893 PIB (sis)

Bibliography: Guthne, Jr., H. H., ‘'Fast,
Fasting,’ in IDB, II, pp. 241-44. Lewis, J. P.,
‘Fast, Fasting,’ in ZPEB, II, pp. 501-4. TDNT,
IV, pp. 927-31. THAT, II, pp. 536-37.

J.E.H.

Assumed root of the following.
(sa‘asu‘im) things formed,
(II Chr 3:10, only).

189la oS ysps

images

overflow (Lam 3:54;

Deut 11:4).

Derivatives
AIX (sip) honeycomb (Prov
16:24; Ps 19:11).
MP¥ (sadpad) outflow (Ezk 32:6).

1892a

1892b

1893 ys (sus) TI, blossom; shine, sparkle.

Derivative
1893a TPS (sis)

The verb sas refers to the growth of plants and
to the gleam of a crown. The crown of the ruler of
Zion shall shed its luster in contrast to the shame
with which his enemies will be clothed. Injustice
too may blossom forth, but God comes to destroy
it on the day of doom (Ezk 7:10).

blossom, flower, plate.

sis. Blossom, flower, plate. Within the temple
built by Solomon, the cedar was carved in the
form of gourds and open flowers (I Kgs 6:18).
Also on the wall were carved figures of cherubim,
palm trees and open flowers (6:29). The two
doors of olivewood which led to the inner
sanctuary (6:32) and the folding doors of fir or
cypress which led to the nave (6:34f.) were simi-
larly carved.

sis also refers to the plate made out of pure
gold and engraved with ‘Holy to Yahweh”’
which was placed on a lace of blue and put as a
sacred diadem on the high priest's turban (Ex
28:36f; 39:30). Aaron thereby bore the iniquity of
the holy offerings in order that they might be ac-
cepted before Yahweh (Ex 28:38).

During the wilderness sojourning the tribes
challenged the priestly role of Aaron’s house
(Num 17:1-11 [H 16—-26]). The contest was settled
by each tribe's placing its rod before the tes-
timony in the tent of meeting. God demonstrated
in finality that solely Aaron’s house was chosen
as priests, for his rod alone budded, produced
blossoms, and bore ripe almonds (Num 17:8
(H 23)).

The length of man’s life ts compared to the
flourishing flower of the field, which is soon gone
and fades when it encounters the winds (Ps
103:15f., cf. Ps 90:5f.; Job 14:1f.). In Isa the fad-
ing flower is contrasted to the enduring word of
God (Isa 40:6ff.). The wicked too for a season

1894 *P38 (sas)

may prosper abundantly and receive magnificent
splendor, but although they flourish like the
sprouting grass, they are doomed to eternal de-
struction (Ps 92:7 [H 8}). Similarly Ephraim’s
flower of his glorious beauty will fade and be de-
stroyed before Yahweh's fierce anger; 1.e. his
rich valleys will be trodden down (Isa 28: 1-4). In
contrast, during the reign of the righteous king,
men will blossom in the cities (Ps 72:16). Israel
too shall blossom abundantly and fill the whole
earth with its produce (Isa 27:6). Its rich produce
will easily support the people.

J.E.H.

1894 *pse (sas) II, gaze, peep. Occurs only in
the Hiphil, only in Song 2:9.

1895 *s3¥ (sig) JI, constrain, press, bring into
straits. Occurs only in the Hiphil.
Derivatives
1895a S38 (séq) constraint, distress
(Only in Dan 9:25).

1895b MIDIS = (suqa) distress, pressure.
1895c = BD (muisaq) constraint, distress.
1895d = 5899 (maséq) _ straits, distress.
1895e 9 8=6mpIea «(Mm suqa) distress.

sag refers to strong inner motivation or great
external pressure. Elihu described the strong in-
clination within him to address Job and his com-
forters as ‘“‘the spirit within me constrains me”
(Job 32:18). Samson twice succumbed to the ex-
ternal pressure put on him by two importuning
Philistine women (Jud 14:17; 16:16). It includes
the distress created by an enemy in besieging a
people. The enemy may be called literally ‘‘one
who brings distress’’ (Isa 51:13).

God may distress his people in an attempt to
bring about their repentance and salvation (Isa
29:2). The strongest curse of judgment that God
brings against his disobedient people is the dis-
tress of siege and captivity. The distress will be-
come so severe that they will even eat their chil-
dren (Deut 28:53, 55, 57; Jer 19:9 [mdsdq}).
Isaiah declares that during such a time Israel will
unfortunately fail to seek comfort in the Creator
God, but will instead continue to fear the destroy-
ing oppressor (Isa 51:13). But fortunately God is
able to bring relief to his people (Isa 51:14).

The Day of the Lord is described as a day of
great distress, anguish, and gloom (Zeph 1:15,
msuqa@). It will be a time of thick darkness, but
into that darkness will break the light that comes
from God himself intervening in human history
through his Messiah (Isa 8:22—9:2 [8:22—9:1]).

J.E.H.

1896 98 (sag) HH, pour out, melt.
by-form of ydsaq.

Probably a

760

Derivative

TPIS (masigq)
lar.

1896a molten support, pil-

Man's ingenuity is demonstrated in his great
technological skills. One such skill as Job points
out, is his ability to recover precious ores from
the ground (Job 28:1-4); he has discovered how
to smelt copper ore (v. 2). But true wisdom ex-
ceeds these skills and can not be purchased (Job
28:12-19). It belongs to God alone and is discov-
ered by man when he fears Yahweh (Job 28:23-
28). In Job 29, Job describes the honors and
blessings he had before his great trial. One bless-
ing was that the rock poured out oil for him (v. 6).
The abundance of oil for anointing the body was
the property of the rich. (For these two passages
Dhorme argues that yasuq is Qal passive partici-
ple of ydsag = ‘‘hard.’’) Isaiah 26:16 is also dif-
ficult; sdgin is variously emended. But !IQIs?
reads the same text and E. J. Young argues that
its root is stg. The passage describes the distress
of God's people during a time of punishment.
They pour out their hearts in prayer, but they are
sO oppressed they only utter a whisper (Isa
26: 16).

mastiq. Molten support, pillar. 1 Sam 2:8 as-
serts that God owns the pillars of the earth, there-
fore, he has control over everything that happens
on the earth. The word also describes a rocky
crag near Michmash, which most likely was pillar
shaped (I Sam 14:5).

Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, London:
Thomas Nelson, 1967. Young, Edward J., The
Book of Isaiah, 1, Eerdmans, 1969.

J.E.H.

1897 “8 (swr) I. Assumed root of the following.

1897a t3831¥ (sawwa'r) neck.

1897b 998) (sawwarén) necklace (Song
4:9).
sawwa’r. Neck. (asv and rsv identical except

Job 15:26, rsv emends to ‘‘stubbornly.’’) The
prominence of the neck makes it the place to bind
jewelry (Gen 41:42; Song 1:10). Hard work may
be described as putting the neck to the work (Neh
3:5). The total subjugation of an enemy is pic-
tured as standing with a foot on the neck of a
prostrate foe, e.g. Joshua’s treatment of the five
southern kings of Canaan (Josh 10:24). The ten-
der compassion of reunion is expressed by em-
bracing one and weeping on his neck (Gen 33:4;
45:14). In contrast the proud may express their
arrogance through the bearing of the neck (Ps
75:5 (H 6]; cf. Job 15:26, neck connotes strength
and arrogance).

The neck is considered to be a place of
strength, no doubt because animals are harnessed
for work by a yoke laid on the neck. Both the
horse and Leviathian have great strength in the

neck (Job 39:19; 41:22 [H 14]). When a people
submit to the authority of a more powerful na-
tion, they are described as wearing a yoke. a
symbol of a suzerainty covenant (Jer 27:8, 12:
28:14). God and his people are bound by such a
yoke. At first God in his kindness spared Eph-
raim the yoke, but because of their rebellion,
they had to submit (Hos 10:11: cf. Mic 2:3).
Lamentations puts it thus, ““My transgressions
were bound into a yoke... they were set upon
my neck; he caused my strength to fail” (1:14: cf.
5:5). In contrast, liberation from a foreign gov-
ernment is described as breaking the yoke. God
promised to break the yoke of Babylonian captiv-
ity (Jer 30:8; cf. Isa 10:27: Gen 27:40). Similarly
in anticipation of the great deliverance the suffer-
ing servant was to accomplish, Isa exhorted,
‘*Arise, O captive Jerusalem; loose the bonds
from your neck”* (52:2).

J.E.H.

1898 “3% (sur) Hl, bind, besiege.
Derivatives

[898a T5183 (masér) siege, entrenchment.
1898b tAI¥ «(Mm sara) stronghold.

This root means to make secure a valuable ob-
ject, such as money (II Kgs 5:23), similar to sarar
I (q.v.). Applied to military action it means to
relentlessly attack an opponent's stronghold.
Every effort was made to shut off supplies (espec-
ially water, cf. II Sam 12:27) from the city and to
prevent the people from escaping. The tactics in-
cluded building a mound to reach the wall and
using battering rams and towers to breach it (cf.
II Sam 20:15: Ezk 26:8f.). The inhabitants of a
besieged city were threatened by both sword and
famine; therefore, some surrendered to the
enemy in order to preserve their lives (Jer 21:9).
Without great discipline, tension inside the city
mounted as prices for anything resembling food
soared (II Kgs 6:25). It took the Assyrians three
years to capture Samaria (II Kgs 17:5). Some-
times armies lacked the capacity to move from
victories on the battlefield to take a stronghold
(II Kgs 16:5).

The law restricted Israel from the wanton de-
struction of fruit trees while besieging a city
(Deut 20: 19f.).

masér. Siege, bulwarks, defense, besieged (ASv,
RSV similar also using siegeworks, fortified).

m‘sdra. Stronghold, fenced. These nouns,
which may also be used adjectively, refer to a
siege itself or to seige works, either defensive or
offensive. The Psalmist draws on the image of a
besieged city to describe the tremendous blessing
the Lord gave him by manifesting his steadfast
love so that the siege by his troubles was lifted
(Ps 31:21 [H 22}).

761

1900 "33 (sar)

Metaphorically this verb expresses God's full
effort to confront the Psalmist on every side,
leaving no place for escape from his presence (Ps
139:5). In Song 8:9 it figuratively refers to the
defense a young girl must develop to keep her
morality secure.

The walled cities were an important factor in
ancient warfare. The walls were a welcome pro-
tection and the surrounding population crowded
into the cities in times of attack. But if the siege
were not soon relieved, the walls became a trap
and the people endured agony. The general
practice—nght up to the Middle Ages—was to
offer amnesty to a besieged city. If it was refused,
all the inhabitants were subject to slaughter if and
when the city fell. This type of total war caused
many a city to give in, rather than face destruc-
tion. (Cf. the willingness of the men of Jabesh
Gilead, I Sam 11:3.) Israel was to follow this con-
cept of total war in the conquest of Palestine
(Deut 20:16—18). But the individual Israelite was
not to profit from the pillage—all was dedicated
to the Lord (Josh 6:24). However, in warfare out-
side the land, Israel was to offer amnesty and if
that were refused would not kill non-combatants
(Deut 20: 12-15).

The punishment for breaking God's covenant
was that Israel herself would be heavily besieged
(Deut 28:47-57; Isa 29: 1-4; Jer 19:8f.).

Bibliography: Yadin, Yigael, The Art of War-

fare in Biblical Lands, 1, 11, McGraw Hill, 1963.

JEW:

1899 =93 (sur) I, show hostility to, be an ad-

versary. (ASV and Rsv quite vamried, e.g.
ASV ‘‘vex, “‘constrain,’” “‘assault’’; RSv
‘*harass,’” ‘‘attack.’*)

This root describes the act of inciting someone
into an outward conflict or battle (cf. Jud 9:31).
Israel was not to provoke Ammon or Moab into
war, for God had not allotted Israel any of their
land (Deut 2:9, 19). On the other hand, God
promised his people that when they were obe-
dient then whoever acted hostile toward them
should experience his hostility (Ex 23:22). This
verb is similar in meaning to sdrar II to which it
probably is a by-form.

J.E.H.
1900 “33% (sar) IV, form, fashion. Possibly a
by-form of ydasar.
Derivatives
1900a tA¥ (sara) form, fashion.
1900b “3°38 (sir) image (Isa 45:16; Ps
49:5).

‘*To form’’ regards the making of an object ac-
cording to a certain style, especially a metal that
can be molded. Hiram of Tyre cast two pillars of
bronze for the temple (I Kgs 7:15). At Mount

1901

1901 SS¥ (swr)

Sinai Aaron fashioned the gold with a graving
tool into a calf (Ex 32:4). The text in Jer 1:5,
where God asserts that he formed Jer in the
womb, is debated; the K supports sar as the root
and Q ydsar, but evidence from the Dead Sea
Scrolls supports the possibility that a wadw can
stand for a games hatuph; then K and Q are from
yasar.

sara. Form. Four times in Ezk 43:11; (three
times RSv emends on the basis of the Greek text).
It refers to the form of the temple. Its form is
carefully described because God desires that the
people make sure the physical objects conform
exactly to their description. Although the text in
Ps 49:14 [H 15] is difficult, ‘‘form’’ (asv
‘‘beauty’’) most likely refers to the substance
that survives the corpse and which is consumed
in Sheol (but see sh°’dl).
Bibliography: Briggs, Charles, and Briggs,
Emilie, The Book of Psalms, in ICC.
J.E.H.

“33 (swr) V. Assumed root of the follow-
ing
190la and

TIE) (sur) rock. (ASV RSV

same.)

sar appears about seventy-five times. Rock
stands for boulders or formations of stone and for
the material which composes mountains (Job
14:18 rock parallel to mountain). Rock may serve
as a toponym, e.g. Wildgoats’ Rocks (I Sam 24:2
{H 3]; cf. Jud 7:25; I] Sam 2:16). The rock may
house pleasant surprises for man such as wild
honey (Ps 81:16 (H 17]}) and precious jewels (Job
28:10). Rocks provide refuge, but in the day of
judgment people will unsuccessfully seek refuge
in the caves of the rocks (Isa 2:19ff.). Men en-
graved into various rock formations pictures and
writing pertaining to all aspects of his life. Such
writing in stone remains forever (Job 19:24).

Rock, by reason of its magnificence and hard-
ness, affords many metaphorical uses. People
who confidently occupy their habitation so that
an enemy cannot defeat them are referred to as a
rock (Jer 21:13). The gods of the nations are
called a rock (Deut 32:31, 37); to them are attrib-
uted qualities of strength and reliability. Perhaps
the Scripture in some places is playing on the fact
that some of these idols were only statues hewn
from stone. Wayward Israel went so far as to
claim that a stone ('eben) gave her birth (Jer
2:27).

Albright, who prefers’ the _ translation
**mountain,’’ claims that sar was a common
name for deities in Syria and Anatolia and is an
old appellation (AYGC pp. 24, 188f.). He rightly
adds that these appellations were used by the Is-
raelites with no borrowing of the heathen deities
to whom the words were applied by the surround-
ing nations.

®

1902 sme (shh).

Yahweh himself is many times called a Rock; |
Sam 2:2 says, ‘There is no rock like our God.”
Yahweh is a Rock, not in being represented as an
idol carved from stone, but in that he is totally
reliable. He is a sure source of strength and he
endures throughout every generation. There is no
unrighteousness found in him; he its completely
upright (Deut 32:4; Ps 92:15 {H 16]). God is a
Rock of salvation (Deut 32:15; Ps 89:26 [H 27]).
He is a strong refuge in which his people may
take shelter from any difficulty (cf. Ps 94:22). In
distress the psalmists cry out to Yahweh so that
they may experience the secuntty of his steadfast
endurance (Ps 27:5; 28:1). sar thus appears in
theophoric names: Zuriel (Num 3:35, *‘my Rock
is El’); Zurishaddai (Num 1:6, ‘“‘my Rock is
Shaddai’’). The man who relies on God as his
Rock will not be greatly moved (Ps 62:2, 6, 7
(H 3, 7, 8]). When Israel strays, Isaiah exhorts
them to “‘look to the Rock from which you were
hewn’”’ (Isa 51:1). Perhaps he is alluding to Deut
32:4. Yahweh gave birth to Israel through Ab-
raham’s faith in him. Isaiah encourages the
people to trust in Yahweh; as a result they shall
have perfect peace (Isa 26:4f.). The quality of
strength connoted by ‘‘rock’’ applies not only to
defense but also to aggressive leadership in battle
(Ps 18:31-48 [H 32-49]; 144:1). The quality of au-
thentic endurance assures Habakkuk that
Yahweh will bring the wicked to judgment (Hab
1:12). Yahweh’s ability to protect and to help his
people as a Rock sets him apart as the only true
Rock (II Sam 22:32; Isa 44:8).

The coming Messiah is called ‘‘a rock of
stumbling’’ (Isa 8:14). He cannot be ignored; all
who come into contact with him are made aware
of their sin and misunderstanding about God's
way of providing salvation. Some stumble and
are broken to repentance; others fall and are
crushed by the rock itself (cf. Mt 21:42ff.; Rom
9:32f.; I Pet 2:8).

In the desert Moses struck the rock and water
came forth to quench the people’s thirst (Ex 17:6;
Deut 8:15; Ps 78:15, 20; 105:41; 114:8; Isa 48:21).
Paul identifies this rock typically with Jesus
(I Cor 10:4).

Bibliography: Boston, James R., The Song of
Moses; Deut 32:1-43, Ann Arbor, University
Microfilms, 1967. THAT, II, pp. 538-42.

J.E.H.

NF (sawwarén). See no. 1897b.
mY (sah). See no. 1903a.

Assumed root of the following.

1902a AMX (siheh) parched (Isa 5:13).

1903 mmy (sahah) be dazzling. Occurs only in

762

Lam 4:7.

Derivatives

1903a mY (sah) dazzling, glowing, clear
(Isa 18:4; Jer 4:11).

mms (sadhiah) shining, glaring
(Ezk 24:7-8; 26:4, 14; Neh 4:7).
1903c = MINE «(s°hiha) scorched land (Ps
68:7).

MMAEMS (sahsahad) scorched region
(Isa 58:11).

1903b

1903d

mmk (sahiah). See no. 1903b.

1904 mx (shn).
1904a

Assumed root of the following.
MIMS (sahdnad) stench (Joel 2:20).
MM¥MS (sahsdha). See no. 1903d.

1905 me (sahaq) laugh (Qal); play, mock (Piel).

Derivatives
1905a teme (s°hdq) laughter, laughing
stock.

1905b fPM¥9 (yishadq) Isaac.

1905c temw (sahaq). Alternate form of
sahaq.

190Sd Mw OS“ hdgq).
s°hog.

1905e = Mwy = (yishdaq).
yishagq.

1905f = smwm (mishdq) object of derision
(Hab 1:10).

Alternate form of

Alternate form of

The simple stem of sdhaqg conveys the idea of
laughter, whether in joy or incredulity. The
stronger Piel stem connotes positively, play and
sport, or negatively, mockery and derison.
Sahaq reproduces Ugaritic shg ‘‘to laugh.’’ Of its
thirteen biblical occurrences, one is in Jud and
the rest are in the Pentateuch (eleven in Genesis).
In documents of later periods, the verb used for
“laughter” is Sdhaq.

The thirty-six occurrences of Sdhagq parallel its
earlier equivalent, with the additional ideas, in
the Qal, of laughing in achtevement, smiling, and
deriding, (especially with ‘a/ ‘over,’ or I[°
‘‘at’’). In the Piel it is used for playing musical
instruments or rejoicing. In the Hiphil to laugh to
scom is an alternate to s“hdg (cf. mishaq Hab
1:10, a “laughing matter’), with added ideas of
sport or games.

sahdq first occurs in the Qal stem, describing
the reactions of the patriarch Abraham (Gen
17:17) and his wife Sarah (18:12-13) as they
laughed incredulously at God’s promising them a
son. But the promise was fulfilled, and Sarah
exclaimed, *‘God has made laughter (s°hdq) for
me, so that all who hear will laugh with me”’
(yishagq-li, 21:6; KB, p. 800); cf. the child’s name,
yishaq ‘Isaac.’

In Solomon’s wisdom literature the verb Sahaq
designates the opposite of weeping (Eccl 3:4).

763

1905 pm¥ (sahaq)

Job smiles (in AB, Job, p. 187) at his retainers
(Job 29:24). The able and virtuous woman can
live without concern and ‘“‘smile [rejoice, K)v] at
the future’’ (Prov 31:25, Nass).

The Qal of sdhagq also has a negative usage.
Young men laugh at Job (Job 30:1). While the
righteous can laugh at destruction (5:22), so can
the Chaldeans, at the fortifications of their help-
less foes (Hab 1:10) or at Jerusalem’s fall (Lam
1:7). Metaphorically, the ostrich laughs at
horsemen for she can outrun them (Job 39:18);
wild donkeys laugh at (scorn, KJv) cities (v. 7);
the war horse mocks at fear (v. 22); and
Leviathan, the crocodile, laughs at human
weapons (41:29 [H 21]). God laughs, sdhagq, at
rebellious sinners (Ps 2:4; 37:13; 59:8 [H 9]), so
does divine Wisdom (Prov 1:26); and so may the
righteous (Ps 52:6 [H 8]). Similarly the Piel of
sGhadq represents the charge brought by
Potiphar’s wife against Joseph, that he was
‘*brought in to mock us”’ (Gen 39:14, 17; see ICC,
Genesis, p. 458, which interprets this euphemis-
tically as does ‘‘to make love to us,’ AB,
Genesis, pp. 202—3). Sarah insists that Ishmael be
driven away because he was ‘“‘mocking’’ Isaac
al (Gen 21:9). The rsv innoccuously renders this
participle *‘playing.’’ Yet in the light of Gal 4:29,
on Ishmael’s persecuting Isaac, KJv, ASV, NASB,
Niv prefer mocking. Observe that the Hiphil of
§adhaq (II Chr 30:10) describes the mockery by
Israelites of the Northern Kingdom at Hezekiah’s
invitation to share in the Passover at Jerusalem.

The Piel of sahag does, however, progress to-
ward more positive concepts. Samson was sum-
moned by the cruel Philistines to ‘*make sport,”’
l.e. entertainment, before them (Jud 16:25). At
Sinai faithfless Israel rose up ‘‘to play’’ (Ex 32:6).
Jeremiah disdained the company of ‘‘them that
make merry” (Jer 15:17, asv, as in I Kgs 4:20).
When Lot warned his sons-in-law of the impend-
ing destruction of Sodom (Gen 19:14), he seemed
to them not so much as ‘‘one that mocked,”’
(KJV), aS One simply jesting (rSv; cf. Prov 26:19,
NASB, “‘joking’’). Isaac was observed ‘‘sporting
with Rebekah his wife’’ (Gen 26:8: Rsv,
‘fondling’, Niv “‘caressing;’’ ICC, Genesis, p.
364, *‘to exchange conjugal caresses’’). The Piel
of Sdhaq depicts children playing (Zech 8:5; cf.
Job 41:5 (H 40:29]), or even God’s wild creatures
‘*playing on the mountains’’ (Job 40:20) and in
the ocean (Ps 104:26). It may mean to perform
combat (II Sam 2:14; KB, p. 918), to play tam-
bourines and dance (I Sam 18:6~7), or to cele-
brate (Il Sam 6:5, 21, Nass) the restoration of the
ark. Above all, the personal wisdom of God (cf.
the descnption of Christ in I Cor 1:24) rejoices
before God the Father and delights in men upon
earth (Prov 8:30-31).

s*hoéq. Laughter, laughingstock (cf. KB, p.
918). Feasts are made for s° hdq (Eccl 10:19), and

1906 <Mx (shr)

laughter is a gift of God (Job 8:21; Ps 126:2). Yet
wickedness is as ‘sport to a fool,’’ like a game
(Prov 10:23). The laughter of fools is vanity (Eccl
7:6); whereas sorrow may lead to a better wisdom
(v. 3). At her fall, Judah was made a s*hdq
‘‘laughingstock’’ (Ezk 23:32; cf. Lam 3:14;
likewise Moab, in Jer 48:26, 39). Twice in one
verse Job complains that he has become a joke to
his friends (Job 12:4, Nass, cf. Jer 20:7).

yishaq. Jsaac, ‘he laughs.”’ While the name
‘*Isaac’’ (Gen 17:19) arose out of Abraham’s in-
credulity, way-yishdgq (v. 17), it could yet become
a symbol of blessing (21:6) and ultimately an
identification for the entire nation of Israel (Amos
7:9, 16).

Sahaq. An alternate form of sahaqy. Both appear
in Jud 16:25. sahag became popular after the
time of David (hence even yishagq for yishaq (Ps
105:9; Amos 7:9, 16; Jer 33:26).

Bibliography: Beauchamp, Paul, ~**Laugh-
ter, in DBT, p. 263. Leupold, H. C., Exposition
of Genesis, Baker, 1958, pp. 599-601.

J.B.P.

1906 “mk (shr). Assumed root of the following.
1906a “M¥ (sahar) reddish-gray, tawny
(Ezk 27:18).
“MY (sahor)

1906b tawny (Jud 5:10).

1907 %% (si) I, ship. An Egyptian loan word.
1908 °% (si) JI, a wild beast, desert-dweller (Isa
13:21; Jer 50:39).

See nos. 1885a, 1886a.
See no. 1886c.
See no. 1885b.

TY (sayid).
WE (sid).
WE (sayyad).

1909 S38 (syh), MY (swh). Assumed root of
the following.

1909a = E (sivd) dryness, drought (Hos

2:5; Ps 105:41).
1909b = 8X) (sdyon) dryness, parched land.

1910 39% (siyén) Zion.

It is possibly related to Arabic sdna from root
S-w-n, Meaning protect, defend: hence siyén may
have meant place of defence, fortress. Others
suggest derivation from root saha ‘‘be bald’’; cf.
Syriac spelling sehyvén for this name.

Zion is the fortified mound between the Kidron
and the Tyropean valleys that David captured
from the Jebusites (II Sam 5:7). Subsequently, it
became known as the city of David. With the
building of the temple to the north, that hill later
became known as Mount Zion. Zion may even
refer specifically to the temple vicinity or more
generally to Jerusalem itself; sometimes it in-

764

cludes the entire nation, the covenant community
itself (Isa 1:27; Ps 97:8). **Zion’’ appears fre-
quently in Ps and Lam. It seldom refers to the
political capital of Judah, but much more often
stands for the city of God in the new age.

From the time Solomon built the temple, Zion
became the center of Yahweh's activity. Yahweh
identified himself as ‘‘the One who dwells on
Mount Zion’ (Isa 8:18). Here he initiates his
work of salvation and here he begins his judg-
ment against sin (Amos 1:2).

Zion frequently occurs in poetic passages, re-
ferring to the temple area where Yahweh dwells.
Psalm 48 renders great praise to Mount Zion. It is
called **the joy of all the earth’’ and ‘‘the city of
the great King’’ (v. 2 (H 3]). It is also said to be
located in the far north (v. 2 [H 3] but cf. nrv). In
Canaanite religion the assembly of the gods was
thought to meet in the far north. Therefore the
Psalmist is using poetic language to show that
Zion is the religious center, not only for Israel,
but for the entire world. Since the city of Yahweh
is in the same place as the assembly of the gods, it
means these gods have no existence or power
outside of Yahweh. Ezekiel even seems to refer
to Zion as the “‘navel’’ of the earth, the place
Where God sustains this planet (38:12, though
‘eres here may refer only to the land of Pales-
tine). Its sanctity, however, does not rest in loca-
tion, but rests solely in the fact that Yahweh has
chosen to dwell there. The crucial distinguishing
factor between mythical ideas and the biblical
expressions concerning Zion resides in the fact
that Zion was not set apart as holy at creation. It
possesses no intrinsic holiness. It became impor-
tant to the Lord and to Israel only within history
(cf. Ps 78:68). Hence it acquired meaning and
sacredness. This fact is further verified in that
**Zion’’ is not mentioned in the creation account
nor in the Pentateuch at all, except that Mount
Moriah is specified as the place where Abraham
offered up Isaac (Gen 22:2, 14: II Chr 3:1); the
first reference to Zion is If Sam 5:7.

Nevertheless because of Israel's disobedience
even Zion would not be spared; it actually fell to
the Babylonians in 587/6 s.c. Lamentations fre-
quently refers to Zion and “the daughter of
Zion’ to express overwhelming sorrow at Zion’s
destruction (Lam 1:4, 6, 17; etc.). In captivity the
Psalmist was so despondent that he could not
bring himself to sing any of the songs of Zion (Ps
137:1ff.). But even in exile the people still had
faith and prayed for Yahweh to rebuild his city
and to restore its fortress (Ps 102:13, 16
[H 102:14, 17]; 69:35 [H 69:36}).

In some of the prophets, especially Isa, Jer,
Joel, Zech, Zion appears as the central location
for Yahweh's great deeds of salvation in the fu-
ture. He will cleanse away Zion's sin by judg-
ment (Isa 4:4). That is, the city will be redeemed

by justice and righteousness (Isa 1:27; 33:5). God
will build the city by laying a precious cor-
nerstone in Zion (Isa 28:16). The glory of Yahweh
which was present in the Exodus shall return to
protect its inhabitants from the elements (Isa
4:5f.). God shall firmly secure the city from its
enemies (Isa 33:20). God's people shall return in
joy and singing to Zion from the various places of
their exile (Isa 35:10: 51:11). Then they shall
weep no more (Isa 30:19). The land will become
as fruitful and lush as the Garden of Eden (Isa
51:3). The scope of this restoration is for all
peoples: foreign nations shall come to Mt. Zion to
worship (Isa 2:3: Mic 4:2). All of these fantastic
changes in Zion will give her the new name **My
delight is in her’ (Isa 62:1—5). But the greatest
difference is that God himself will reign there in
that day (Zech 8:3; Isa $9:20).

Bibliography: Fohrer and Lohse, ‘*Zion-
Jerusalem’ in TDNT, VII, pp. 292-338. Payne,
J. B., “Zion,” in ZPEB, V, pp. 1063-66.
Roberts, J. J. M., “The Davidic Origin of the
Zion Tradition,’ JBL 92:329-44. THAT, II, pp.
543-50.

J.E.H.

See no. 1887a.
See no. 1909b.
See no. 1941a.

MY (siyun).
WY (sayon).
PE (sindg).

19tl PS (sis). Occurs only in Jer 48:9. Mean-
ing dubious.

1912 AR’
lock.

It is debated whether sist indicates the fringe
around the edges of a garment or a tassel at each
corner; Snaith suggests the threads were twisted
in groups to form ‘‘a fringe of tassels.”’ A cord of
blue was to be placed on each tassel. Tra-
ditionally they were woven out of eight threads
tied into five knots. These tassels served to re-
mind the people to keep Yahweh's command-
ments and not to follow their own desires (Num
15:38ff.; cf. Deut 22:12: Mt 9:20; 14:36; 23:5). For
a faith based on a saving history and a law, mem-
ory is crucial to preserving its integnty. It also
means ‘a lock’ ’; in a vision the Spirit transported
Ezekiel by a lock of hair to Jerusalem (Ezk 8:3).

Bibliography: Driver, S.R., Deuteronomy, in
ICC. Hayman, H., "‘On the Law of Fringes in
Num and Deut,’ BS 51:705ff. Kennedy,
A.R. S., Fringes,’ in IDB, p. 68ff. Snaith, N.
H., Leviticus and Numbers, in New Century Bi-
ble, Attic Press, 1967.

(sisit) tassel (RSV, fringe (ASV);

a on «

rs (sis). See no. 1893a, 1911.

765

1913) “9% (syr)

1915 m9 (sala)

I. Assumed root of the following.
1913a os (sir) ZI, envoy, messenger (Jer
49:14; Isa 18:2).

1914 3°93 (syr) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1914a 3 (sir) II, pivot of door, hinge
(Prov 26:14).

1914b 0 «S93 (sir) HT, pang (Isa 13:8; Dan
10:16).

3"°% (sir). See nos. 1900b, 1913a, 1914a,b.

Se (sél). See no. 192la.

1915 M98 (sala) roast.

Derivative

1915a = *8¥ (sali) roasted, roast. (Rsv and
ASV are the same except in Isa 44:16
RSV has ‘‘meat’” and asv “‘roast.’’)

This root appears in connection with the
Passover lamb, the offerings desired by the sons
of Eli, and Isa’s argument against idolatry. The
Passover lamb was to be roasted whole, including
its head, legs, and inner parts. It could not be
boiled or eaten rare (Ex 12:8f.). Roasting permit-
ted the lamb to be cooked entirely without being
butchered. The wholeness of the animal as a
means of redemption for the firstborn was crucial
to the significance of the ceremony. Being quick
and easy, roasting also coincided with the theme
of haste. It also consumed the fat which accord-
ing to later legislation was forbidden to be eaten
(Lev 3:17: 7:24f.). And perhaps it anticipated that
the judgment on the lamb of God would be total.

The sons of Eli flagrantly violated the stan-
dards for making sacrifices to Yahweh. One
example is their requesting only raw flesh to
roast, rather than accepting it boiled as was ap-
parently customary (I Sam 2:15: cf. Ex 29:31f.:
Lev 6:28f. [H 21f.]). No doubt they desired the
flavor added by the fat.

Isaiah ridicules idolatry by describing the pro-
cess of making an idol. One cuts down a tree;
with part of it he makes a fire and roasts meat
over it. He is warm and his stomach is full. With
the rest of the wood he carves an idol. He wor-
ships tt and prays to it saying, **Deliver me, for
thou art my god’’ (Jsa 44:17). His prayer comes
after he himself has met all his needs. Isa argues
that such worship of idols is completely absurd.

Bibliography: Pedersen, Johs, /srael, Its Life
and Culture, WI-I1V, London: Oxford, 1963.
Segal, J. B., The Hebrew Passover, London: Ox-
ford, 1963.

J.E.H.

9% (slwl). See no. 1922a.

1916 M28 (salah)

1916 m2x (salah) I, rush (1 Sam 10:6; Amos

5:6).

1917 mox (saléah) HI, prosper, succeed, be profit-

able; Hiphil, make prosperous, expert-
ence prosperity (ASV and Rsv are similar.)
(Cf. Aram. s‘lah **cleave through,’’ ‘press
through,”’ *‘succeed’’; used especially in
Haphel stem. The Arabic salaha means
‘thrive,’ ‘‘be well,”’ or ‘‘be righteous.’’)

The root means to accomplish satisfactorily
what is intended. Real prosperity results from the
work of God in the life of one who seeks God
with all his heart (II Chr 31:21; cf. Josh 1:8; Ps
1:3), As II Chr 26:5 says, *‘As long as (Uzziah]
sought Yahweh, God made him prosper.’’ Joseph
is called a prosperous man, for Yahweh turned all
of his misfortunes into benefit for Jacob’s sons
(Gen 39:2-3, 23). The devout man earnestly peti-
tions God to grant him success in his work (Ps
118:25).

Its use with a negative describes the worth-
lessness of a rotten cloth (Jer 13:7). Those who
refuse to worship Yahweh are just as rotten (Jer
13:10).

God expresses his purposes through his word.
Therefore his word will not prove empty, but it
will prosper in its fulfillment (Isa 55:11). God ac-
complishes salvation for man through the suffer-
ing of his obedient servant (Isa 53). Isaiah says,
**The will of Yahweh shall prosper in his hand’’
(53:10).

Although true prosperity comes only from
God’s blessing, externally it often appears that
the wicked prosper. This appearance causes the
righteous to question God’s involvement in
human affairs (Jer 12:1). In the last days those
who are opposed to God shall prosper for a time
through cunning and deceit (Dan 8:12, 24f.). But
their success will be only temporary, for God is
preparing a time of judgment against all evil to
accomplish his indignation (Dan 11:36). It must
be clearly affirmed that transgression of God's
law will never finally succeed (Num 14:41; cf. the
argument in Ps 37:7-11 and Ps 73:12—20 where,
however, the word is shaléw ‘‘be at ease.”’

Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp. 110-12. THAT,
II, pp. 5S51-SS.

J.E.H.

1918 moe (sik) ILI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1918a ommox (sélahad) cooking pot (11 Chr
35:13).
1918b mmos (sallahat) dish (II Kgs
21:13; Prov 19:21; 26:15).
1918c «oo mem?E (sldhit) jar (II Kgs 2:20).

766

memoy (sldhit). See no. 1918c.
mmey (sallahat). See no. 1918b.
%%¥ (sali). See no. 1915a.

1919 55% (sdalal) I, tingle, quiver.

Derivatives
1919a Oe Sy (silsal) I, whirring, buzzing
(Isa 18:1).
1919b -9E5% (silsal) I, spear (Job
40:31).

1919c = 8898) (s*ldsal) whirring
(Deut 28:42).

1919d toxosSe (s¢lselim) cymbals.

1919e im>y~ (m°silla) bell (Zech 14:20).

1919f toxmox (m*siltayim) cymbals.

locust

sels‘lim. Cymbals. These instruments were an
integral part of an ancient orchestra that played
especially on high occasions such as David's
bringing the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem
(II Sam 6:5). In Ps 150:5 two kinds of cymbals are
distinguished: *‘sounding cymbals’ (shadma‘) and
‘‘loud clashing cymbals” (¢° ra‘a). KB interprets
them as small, tinkling cymbals and large, clash-
ing ones. Sachs considers them to be ‘‘clear,”’
broad-rimmed with small bosses, struck softly
and ‘“*harsh,’’ narrow-rimmed with large bosses,
struck forcefully. Both were used to render
praise to the Lord.

m‘sill4. Bell. (Only in Zech 14:20; asv and rsv
identical.) Zechariah is describing the nature of
life in Jerusalem when the righteous king reigns.
Then the bells of the horses will be inscribed,
‘*Holy to Yahweh.’’ Formerly this inscription
was engraved on a gold plate fastened to the high
priest’s turban (Ex 28:36ff.). The contrast indi-
cates that everything shall be holy in that time;
the distinction between the sacred and profane
shall be eliminated.

m‘siltayim. Cymbals. (asv and rsv the same.)
The distinction between this word and sels¢ lim is
not clear; Sachs conjectures that this word may
be ‘‘cymbals on clappers’’ or at least those with a
stronger gemination. Cymbals, some made out of
bronze, were used to make a loud melody of
praise to Yahweh on occasions of rejoicing (I Chr
13:8; 15:19). According to I Chr 16:5 nine Levites
were appointed to play the harps and lyres, but
only two the trumpets, and one the cymbals; in-
terestingly he is named chief. They played on
special occasions, e.g. at the dedication of Sol-
omon’s temple (II Chr 5:11-14). They also played
on the day when Hezekiah completed the
sanctification of Yahweh's house (II Chr 29:25-
30). This order established by King David and
Nathan the prophet (II Chr 29:25) continued into
the second temple period (Ezr 3:10). They played
at the laying of the foundation of that temple (Ezr

3:10f.) and at the dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh 12:27-30).

Bibliography: Sachs, Curt, The History of
Musical Instruments, Norton, 1940, p. 12Iff.
Sellers, O. R., ‘‘Musical Instruments of Israel,”’
BA 4:33-47.

J.E.H.

1920 %2¢ (sdlal) HI, sink, be submerged (Ex
5:10, only).

1921 99% (salal) III, be or grow dark (Neh
13:19; Ezk 31:3).

Derivatives

1921a 5% (sél) shadow.
1921b tnve>% (salmdwet) deep darkness.

sel. Shadow. In a positive sense, ‘shadow’
conveys the ideas of shade, protection, and de-
fense. Shade, even that of a boulder, gives some
relief from the heat of the day, especially for the
slave (cf. Job 7:2). ‘‘Under the shadow of one’s
roof’ connotes that the head of the house pro-
vides protection for his guests (Gen 19:8, asv).
Similarly a strong nation may offer someone or
another nation shelter (Isa 30:2f.; cf. Ezk 17:23).
But God may remove a nation’s shelter or de-
fenses in order to enable his people to conquer
them (Num 14:9). On the other hand, shadow
serves aS a negative metaphor when it is viewed
as ephemeral and fleeting. Man's life is compared
to a shadow, for it has no permanence and flees
quickly away (I Chr 29:15). Shadow also de-
scribes the failing condition of one who is endur-
ing a sickness (Job 17:7).

Yahweh is the shade or the source of protec-
tion for his people (Ps 121:5f.; Isa 25:4). There-
fore the Psalmist prays that God may hide him
under ‘‘the shadow of his wings’’ (Ps 17:8; cf.
36:7 (H 8]; 91:1). God promises to hide the suffer-
ing servant in the shadow of his hand in order that
he can proclaim his penetrating message for a
period of time (Isa 49:2). And in the latter days
Yahweh's glory will return to Jerusalem. It will
be a shade from the heat and a shelter from the
other elements (Isa 4:6; cf. Hos 14:8).

salmawet. Deep darkness. (asv prefers ‘‘the
shadow of death’’ and also has ‘thick darkness,”’
‘thick gloom’’; rsv prefers ‘‘deep darkness’’ and
also has ‘‘gloom.’’) Some treat it as a combina-
tion of salamu ‘‘be dark’ (Akkadian, also
Arabic) plus at as an abstract ending. Most ver-
sions understand it as combination of ‘‘shadow”’
and ‘‘death.’’ D. W. Thomas accepts the latter,
but convincingly argues that mat possesses
superlative force: ‘*‘very deep shadow,” ‘‘thick
darkness.’’ M. Dahood agrees, vocalizing it sal-
mawet and citing other compound nouns in
Ugaritic (Psalms 1, AB, p. 147). It describes the

767

1923 ook (sim)

darkness of eyelids tired from weeping (Job
16:16), the thick darkness present in a mine shaft
(Job 28:3), the darkness of the abode of the dead
(Job 10:21f.; 38:17), and the darkness prior to
creation (Amos 5:8). Emotionally it describes the
internal anguish of one who has rebelled against
God (Ps 107:10-14; cf. 44:19f. [H 20f.]). Thus it
is the strongest word in Hebrew for darkness.

Since sinful man uses darkness as an aide to
accomplish his woeful deeds, the terror as-
sociated with thick darkness becomes his experi-
ence in the morning (Job 24:16f. asv). Yet there is
no place dark enough for them to hide from God's
eyes (Job 34:22). Further, God is never threat-
ened by deep darkness; it causes him no terror.
No matter how dark a place is, God will lead his
people through so that they fear no evil and are
comforted by his rod and staff (Ps 23:4). The ap-
plication in this Psalm to the experience of death
is apt and has comforted multitudes of dying
saints. The people could trust this statement of
the Psalm, for God had proven his ability by lead-
ing his people through the drought and deep
darkness of the wilderness from Egypt to Canaan
(Jer 2:6). He can always bring light to dispel the
power of deep darkness (Job 12:22; cf. Amos
5:8). The most dramatic demonstration was to be
when God would send the Messiah as a light to
those who dwell in a land of deep darkness (Isa
9:2 [H 9:1]). Conversely, in judgment, God is able
to turn light into thick darkness (Jer 13:16).

Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, Nelson,
1967. Thomas, D. W., ‘‘salmdwet in the Old Tes-
tament,’’ JSS 7:191-200.

J.E.H.

1922 55% (sill) IV. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1922a 398 (slwi) Kethib, 35% = (s°lil)
Qere, cake, round loaf (Jud 7:13).

1923 BS (sim). Assumed root of the following.

1923a fB°X (selem) image.

Used sixteen times. The Aramaic is used simi-
larly in Dan 2 and 3. The word basically refers to
a representation, a likeness. Five times it is used
of man as created in the image of God. Twice it is
used of the golden copies of the mice and swel-
lings that afflicted the Philistines (I Sam 6:5, 11
and see ‘dpel). Mostly it refers to an idol.

There are a number of words used for idol (see
under gillal and ‘@sadb). Some, like gillil, refer to
their shape; others, like hebel, (kJv vanity) may
be just a derogatory substitute (Deut 32:21; Jer
8:19 Niv). selem refers to the image as a repre-
sentation of the deity. As such, images were
strictly forbidden. Notice, not all sculpture was
forbidden (cf. the golden cherubim), only the
idols.

1924 poe (s/')

Man was made in God's image (selem) and
likeness (d° mit) which is then explained as his
having dominion over God's creation as vice-
regent. Ps 8:5—8 [H 6-9] is similar citing man’s
God-given glory, honor and rule. God's image
obviously does not consist in man’s body which
was formed from earthly matter, but in his
spiritual, intellectual, moral likeness to God from
whom his animating breath came. The emphasis
of the prohibition of idols is that they are all ma-
terial created things. God is non-material, the
creator (Deut 4:15-19). This spiritual aspect of
man has been damaged by the fall and is daily
tarnished by sin. But it was seen in perfection in
Christ and will be made perfect in us when salva-
tion is complete (Heb 2:6—15).

Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 303-308;
on God’s image in man: Buswell, J. O., Systema-
tic Theology of the Christian Religion, vol. I,
Zondervan, 1962, pp. 232-238. Miller, J. M. “‘In
the ‘Image’ and ‘Likeness’ of God,’ JBL
91:289-304, THAT, II, pp. 556—62.

nyvess (salmdwet). See no. 1921b.

1924 poe (s/‘) I. Assumed root of the following.
1924a tye (séla‘) side, rib (aSv, RSV are
almost identical.)

séla‘ is used once for a man’s side (Gen 2:21f.)
and once for the side of a hill, perhaps a ridge or
terrace (II Sam 16:13; BDB); elsewhere it is an
architectural term. It refers to the sides of an ob-
ject, e.g. the sides of the ark of the covenant (Ex
25:12, 14). It is also employed to describe a loca-
tion within a building (cf. Ex 26:35). Further it
means a side chamber. There were three levels of
these chambers around the temple proper (I Kgs
6:5; Ezk 41:6). It also indicates a board of wood
used for a wall or a floor (I Kgs 6:15). And it
stands for the leaves of a folding door (I Kgs
6:34). For I Kgs 7:3 KB gives “‘girder’’ or
‘*moulding’’; but others (as J. Gray) understand
that it continues to mean *’side chambers” in this
passage.

The most crucial passage in which séla‘ ap-
pears is, of course, the one explaining the origin
of woman (Gen 2:21f.). God created woman by
taking **a rib’’ from Adam while he was in a very
deep sleep (cf. tardémd). Conceivably this means
that God took a good portion of Adam’s side,
since the man considers the woman to be “‘bone
of hts bones’’ and flesh of his flesh (Gen 2:2If.).
This picture describes the intimacy between man
and woman as they stand equal before God.
Since God made the woman, she ts responsible to
him in worship. She is not a mere extension of
man; she possesses a unique individuality in her
own right. There is no indication that woman is
inferior. On the other hand, since her body is
made from man’s, there is a continuity between

768

1925 yoy (sala‘) WH, limp

the two with the result that they can find a fulfil-
ling relationship only in one another, but never
with the same intensity in any other part of crea-
tion. Therefore woman's origin makes it possible
for a man and a woman to establish a dynamic
relationship in which they become “‘one flesh”’
(cf. Gen 2:24).

The text of Job 18:12 is debated as to whether
the text is sé/a‘ or sela‘ (‘‘limping’’; rsv ‘‘for his
stumbling’’). The latter could be ‘‘at his side”
as Dhorme and asv take it; but KD rejects this
possibility.

Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, London:
Thomas Nelson, 1967. Renckens, S. J. Henricus,
Israel's Concept of the Beginning, Herder &
Herder, 1964.

J.E.H.

(Gen 32:32; Mic
4:6-7, Zeph 3:19).

Derivative
1925a poe (sela‘) limping, stumbling
(Ps 38:18; Jer 20:10).
289% (silsal). See nos. 1919a,b.
9¥9¥% (slasal). See no. 1919c.
peoe7x (sels*lim). See no. 1919d.
1926 NM (samée’) be thirsty.
Derivatives
1926a NX (sama’) thirst.
1926b NOY (samé’) thirsty.
1926c MN (sim’a) parched condition
(Jer 2:25, only).
1926d NY (simma’dn) thirsty ground

(Deut 8:15; Isa 35:7).

Israel is a dry land, with some desert regions
and hot dry summers. Whoever travels in this
land, especially in the wilderness or the Negeb,
experiences parching thirst. Such thirst can drive
one to extreme distress. The Psalmist was driven
to intense agony by his enemies, for they gave
him vinegar for his thirst, an accepted drink but
one which would increase his thirst (Ps 69:21
(H 22]); Jesus’ thirst on the cross and the offer of
vinegar parallels the Psalmist’s experience (Jn
19:28ff.; Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36; Lk 23:36). (The
vinegar which Jesus took however may have
been the dilute vinegar drink used by Roman sol-
diers. It was called posca and was a cheap acidu-
lated thirst quencher. rR.L.H.} Thirst was espe-
cially felt during the siege of a city. With the
major water supplies cut off the besieged had to
ration their water. The terrible pain the children
encountered heightened the distress (Lam 4:4).
Thus thirst was considered a means of judgment
(Hos 2:3 [H 5]; cf. Ps 107:5; Isa 29:8). But a far
greater thirst is for God (Ps 42:2 [H 3]; 63:1

(H 2]). Amos tells of a future thirst brought by a
lack of hearing the words of Yahweh (Amos
8:11ff.).

One of the ways to show hospitality was to give
the thirsty a drink; e.g. Abigail brought food and
drink to relieve the weary men attending David in
the wilderness (I] Sam 17:29). One was even to
give water to his thirsty enemies (Prov 25:21; cf.
Isa 21:14). God too provides water for his
people’s thirst (Ps 107:4-9). In the journey across
the Sinai desert God provided water from a rock
on two different occasions (Ex 17:1-7; Num
20:2~13; Isa 48:21; Neh 9:15, 20). God promises
to meet the thirst of his people once again in a
new Exodus (Isa 41:17f.; 49:10). Therefore Isa
cries, ‘‘Ho everyone who thirsts, come to the
waters; and he who has no money, come, buy
and eat’’ (55:1), an invitation reminiscent of Jn
7:38. This indicates God is able to meet the
deepest longing of his people. Further, the bless-
ing of the latter days is pictured in terms of the
desert blossoming forth abundantly, because at-
tending the outpouring of the Holy Spirit is abun-
dance of rain on the thirsty land (Isa 44:3; cf.
32:15; 35:6f.).

J.E.H.
WNDS (simma’dn). See no. 1926d.
1927 “MY (samad) bind, join.
Derivatives
1927a +t (semed) couple, pair.
19276 SMO¥ (samid) 7, bracelet (Num

31:50: Ezk 16:11).
1927c 80% (sdmid) IT, cover, of vessel-
(Num 19:15).

The verb relates to fastening a sheath for a
sword to the loins (I1 Sam 20:8). Another use
describes the tongue’s deliberate production of
deceit; it frames deceit (Ps 50:19). Three times
the verb is used to describe the seduction of the
Israelites to idolatry at Baal-Peor under Balaam’s
suggestion to Balak, the king of Moab (Num 25:3,
5; Ps 106:28; xx has teléo, used by Herodotus
(4.79) for “to initiate into the mystenes,”’
Snaith). The people sacrificed to their gods, ate,
worshiped, and participated in cult prostitution.
The entire activity is powerfully described as
yoking oneself to Baal-Peor. Perhaps the verb in-
dicates that the people even bound themselves to
this false worship in covenant. This verb con-
notes how flagrantly obstinate their rebellion
against Yahweh was.

semed. Couple, pair, yoke. (aSv and rsv the
same, but Rsv “‘team’’ (Jer 51:23).) It refers to
two animals yoked together or to those that ride
side by side, like horsemen riding in pairs (Isa
21:7). Oxen were yoked for plowing; e.g., Elijah

769

1928 max (samah)

plowed with twelve yoke of oxen (I Kgs 19:19).
Very wealthy, Job owned five hundred yoke of
oxen (Job 1:3). semed also stands for a measure
of land, perhaps the amount that a span of oxen
can plow in one day (i.e. around a half acre (Isa
5:10; I Sam 14:14)).

Bibliography: Scott, R. B., ‘“‘Weights and
Measures of the Bible,” BA 22:22-40. Snaith,
N.H., Lev and Num in New Century Bible,
Greenwood, S. C.: Attic Press, 1967.

J.E.H.
mas (samma). See no. 1929a.
pve (simmag). See no. 1930a.
1928 may (sGmah) sprout, spring up.
Derivative
1928a tme¥ (semah) sprout, growth,
branch.

There are thirty-two occurrences of this verb
and half as many different translations involving
the ideas of growing, budding, and sprouting.
Some connect it with the Arabic and Syniac root
‘*to shine forth,’’ but the word is never so used in
Hebrew. Rather it is limited to the realm of grass,
plants, and trees in the Qal and Hiphil forms (e.g.
Gen 2:5, 9; Ex 10:5; Gen 41:6, 23: Gen 2:9; Ps
104:14; 147:8), and the abundant growth of hair or
the beard (in the Piel stem, Jud 16:22; Il Sam
10:5; and Ezk 16:7).

In addition, the Qal and Hiphil forms are used
metaphonically in connection with other objects:
a posterity springing up (Isa 44:4), trouble (Job
5:6), the future (Isa 42:9), the restoration (Isa
58:8), and righteousness and praise (Isa 61:11).

Especially significant are the passages related
to the coming up of a shoot from the root or seed
of David, i.e. the future messianic person (II Sam
23:5: Jer 33:15: Ezk 29:21: Ps 132:17; Zech 6:12).

semah. Sprout, growth, branch. The noun ap-
pears twelve times and is used as a messianic
term in at least five passages.

A late Phoenician inscription discovered at
Larnaka, Cyprus dating from the third century
B.c. contains the phrase semah sedek **the nght-
ful shoot’’ which meant that the individual was
the legitimate heir to the throne. A similar idea is
found in the fifteenth century B.c. Ugaritic Keret
epic which calls Keret §ph Itpn, 1.e. **the shoot or
progeny of Ltpn.’* Thus semah is a technical
term signifying a scion or son. While the idea is
attested in Ugaritic with the root sph, so far the
only use of the root smh attested in Uganttic is in
several personal names.

As David reflects on the everlasting covenant
which Nathan previously announced to him, he
asks rhetorically; ** Will not God cause all my sal-
vation and all my desire to sprout?’’ (IJ Sam

1929 prs (smm)

23:5). The later biblical writers take up this theme
and answer, as did one of the Psalms of Ascent
(132:17), with a ‘tyes!’ In Jerusalem God will
cause the horn of David to sprout up; in fact, it
will spring forth for the whole house of Israel
(Ezk 29:21).

The first wniter to take up the thought of II Sam
23:5 and use the root smf as a noun to designate
the Messiah is Isaiah (4:2). Many deny that Isaiah
is referring to the Messiah when he speaks of
‘the Branch or Shoot of Yahweh” because it is
paralleled by the expression “‘the fruit of the
earth.’” Therefore, 4:2 is simply a reference to the
agricultural prosperity of the land. But this view
fails to notice that both of these expressions are
elsewhere messianic. It also neglects to account
for the unusual limitation of this fruitfulness ‘‘in
that day’’; the fruitfulness is for the survivors of
Israel. Furthermore, they overlook the progress-
ive nature of revelation, for certainly II Sam 23:5
and perhaps Ps 132:17 are controlling ideas when
we come to the eighth century s.c. Thus the
‘Sprout of Yahweh”’ (or as clarified by the cog-
nate studies, “‘the son of Yahweh’’) is an obvious
reference to the divine nature of the semah. Yet
his human nature is also in view, for he is ‘‘the
Offspring or Fruit of the Earth.’’

In Jer 23:5-6 and 33:15—16, he is *‘the Righ-
teous Branch [or Sprout]”’ raised up for David to
reign as King. While focusing on his human, but
regal nature, this passage also stresses his deity
by calling him “the Lord our Righteousness.”
Note that the context of both passages is the
promise that Israel will return to the land. Even
more pointedly, Jer 33:19-26 sets the semah
promise in line with God’s previous promises to
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, the Levite priests, and
David!

Zechariah (3:8) pictures the Branch (semah) as
the Lord’s Servant. No doubt the allusion is to
Isaiah’s archetypal statements concerning Yah-
weh’s Servant, Jesus Chnst. In Zech 6:12 the
prophet proclaims, ‘‘Behold the Man’”’ who is ‘‘a
priest on his throne,” a ruler, a counselor of
peace, whose name ts Branch. Zechariah sees the
high priest Joshua as a type of the promise, but
only a pledge of God’s future fulfillment in Jesus
Christ.

The DSS use the phrase semah dadwid as a
Messianic term in explanation of the Davidic co-
venant of II Sam 7:14 (JBL 77:353).

The nt makes at least two references to this
messianic title ‘‘Branch’’ using the Lxx transla-
tion of the root smh: anatolé and anatelld. He-
brews 7:14 is to be translated *‘our Lord sprang
forth (or sprouted) from Judah.’’ But in Luke
1:78 with its anatolé exhypsous the equation of
semah YHWH is complete. Therefore we trans-
late the verse, ‘‘Because of the tender mercy of
our God by which the Branch from on High shall
visit us.’’ The only change needed is to convert

the term ‘‘height"’ into the divine name and the
OT expression appears again.

Additional evidence for this messianic concept
may be found in néser “‘branch’’ and hdter
‘*shoot’’ (Isa 11:1) and yénéq **young plant’’ and
shoresh ‘‘root’’ (Isa 53:2).

Bibliography: Baron, David, Rays of Mes-
siah’s Glory: Christ in the OT, Zondervan, nd,
pp. 72-150. Beecher, Willis J., The Prophets and
The Promise, Baker, 1963, pp. 335-40. Buda,
Joseph, ““Semah Jahweh: Investigationes ad
Christologism Isaianam Spectantes,’’ Bib
10:10-26. THAT, II, pp. 563-65.

W.C.K.

way (samid). See nos. 1927b,c.
B°2y (sammim). See no. 1929b.
Ane (s*mitat). See no. 1932a.

1929 Bm (smm). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
1929a ME (samma) woman’s veil (Isa
47:2; Song 4:1, 3; 6:7).
1929b BNS¥Y (sammim) snare, trap (Job

5:5; 18:9). Meaning uncertain.

1930 (2% (samaq) dry up, shrivel (Hos 9:14,
only).
Derivative
1930a = 39¥ (simmiiq) bunch of raisins
(I Sam 25:18; 30:12).
1931 7% (smr). Assumed root of the following.
193la "<8 (semer) wool (Isa 1:18, Ezk
27:18).
1931b ANMS (sammeret) treetop (Ezk

17:3, 22; 31:3, 10).

mie (sammeret). See no. 1931b.

1932 Mme (samat) putanend to, cut off, destroy.
(ASV and rsv vary frequently; asv also
‘‘consume’’; RSV “‘vanish,’’ ‘them in,”’
‘*wipe out.’’)

Derivative

PMS (s mitt) completion, finali-
ty (Lev 25:23; 30).

The word sdmat occurs fourteen times. The
verb is a very strong word for destruction or for
completely silencing someone (KB; cf. Job
23:17); e.g. friends vanish under stress like snow
before the heat (Job 6:15ff.). It describes the in-
tense desire of one to obliterate completely his
enemies (cf.:Ps 143:12). David was able to van-
quish his foes, because God had caused them to
turn their backs (Ps 18:40 [H 41)) // madhas (Ps
18:38 |H 39} as in Ugaritic ‘nt 11:7f. Ais WUS no.
2330). The Psalmist too was attacked by those
who wished to eliminate him. The method of at-

1932a

770

tack included false charges of committing a theft
(Ps 69:4 [H S]). Consequently in his justice God
seeks to cut off from his city those who slander
the righteous and those who possess an arrogant
heart (Ps 101:5f.; cf. Ps 73:27). When the Psalmist
encounters God's fierce assaults, he too feels that
he is being destroyed (Ps 88:16 [H 17)}). Similarly
one who serves God zealously is consumed by
that very zeal, especially when he sees his adver-
saries forgetting God's word (Ps 119:139). He
who lamented the destruction of Jerusalem also
had his life jeopardized by being ‘‘flung... alive”
(Rsv; ‘‘cut off my life’’ asv) into a dungeon with
water that reached up to his head (Lam 3:53f.).
Yet in faith these men continue to make their
prayer to Yahweh confident of deliverance (Ps
88; Lam 3:55ff.).
J.E.H.
%% (sén). See no. 1936a.
1933 MY (sdneh), SIZ (sdne’) flocks
(Ps 8:8; Num 32:24). A by-form of s6’n.

mx (sinnd).
VII (sania').
"32% 0 (sinnor).

See nos. 1937a, 1938a.
See no. 1939a.
See no. 1942a.

1934 MY (sdnah) descend (Jud 1:14; Josh
15:18; Jud 4:21).
ANY (sanip). See no. 1940a.
1935 83% (s@nam) dry up, harden (Gen
41:23).

ME (sanin). See no. 1936c.

1936 338 (snn) I. Assumed root of the following.

1936a 3S (sén) thorn, barb (Prov 22:5;
Job 5:5). Meaning uncertain.

1936b «38 (sinnad) hook, barb (Amos
4:2, only).

1936c = IF (sanin) thorn, — prick (Num

33:55; Josh 23:13).

1937 328 (snn) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1937a mad (sinnd) coolness (Prov 25:13,
only).

1938 33% (snn) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

1938a 33 (sinnd) large shield (I Sam
17:7; II Chr 11:12). The smaller

shield was called mdgén.

19386 «=MIBIS = (sinsenet) jar (Ex 16:33,
only).
1939 *y3I¥ (sana’) be modest, humble. Occurs

only once, in the Hiphil (Mic 6:8).

771

1943 “YS (sa‘ad)

Derivative
1939a -YII¥ «(sdniia') modest (Prov 11:2,
only).
1940 FI (sadnap) wrap, wind up _ together

(Lev 16:4; Isa 22:18).

Derivatives

1940a A$ (sanip) turban (e.g. Zech
3:5; Job 29:14).
1940b MBIE (s‘népad) winding (Isa 22:18
only).
1940c TMI (misnepet) turban of the
high priest.
misnepet. Turban; also a sign of royalty. (kKJv

renders it ‘‘mitre’’ and ‘‘diadem’’; asv, *‘mitre”’
throughout; rsv, ‘‘turban.’’)

The term occurs twelve times, eleven in Ex
and Lev and once in Ezk (21:31). It was the dis-
tinctive headgear of the high priest. The refer-
ence in Ezk vividly foretells the cessation of
Davidic kings and Aaronic priests. The transla-
tion turban is supported by the derivation of the
word from sdnap meaning “‘to wrap around.”’

C.L.F.
PIZIY (sansenet). See no. 1938b.
194] (3% (snq). Assumed root of the following.
194la $2°¥ (sindg) pillory (Jer 29:26,
only).
1942 "33 (snr). Assumed root of the following.
1942a “338 (sinnér) pipe, spout, conduit
(II Sam 5:8; Ps 42:8). See Madvig,
D. H., *‘Gutter,’’ in ZPEB, II, p.
854.
1942b =MINMIZ (sant*rot) pipes feeding

lamps with oil (Zech 4:12).

MISMIZ (sant'rdt). See no. 1942b.

1943 S¥y (sd'ad) step, march.
Derivatives

1943a "YE (sa‘ad) step, pace (e.g. Prov
30:20; Jer 10:3).

1943b omIYt (9°'ada) I, marching (II
Sam 5:24; I Chr 14:15).

1943c «60 ANYS (s°'ada) HN, armlet,
anklet (Isa 3:20; II Kgs 11:12).

1943d “yea (mis‘dd) step (Dan 11:43;
Ps 37:23; Prov 20:24).

1943e mIVEN ('es‘'ada) armlet, ankle chain

(Num 31:50; II Sam 1:10).

sa'ad means to walk in cadence (cf. II Sam
6:13). It describes the manner in which one is
brought before the king (Job 18:14). It pictures
how one methodically takes the path to the house
of the harlot, fully conscious of his direction but

1944 mpy (sa‘a)

totally ignorant of its consequence—Sheol (Prov
7:8; cf. 5:5). The teacher instructs his student in
the way of wisdom in order that his pattern of
living (steps) will not bring him hardship and sor-
row (Prov 4: 10ff.).

Yahweh watches the path that man takes (Job
34:21). God gives the Psalmist a wide place to
step on in order that he will not slip and fall
(II Sam 22:37). Proverbs 16:9 states, ."A man’s
mind plans his way, but Yahweh directs his
steps.’ This proverb carefully balances the
interplay between God and man in directing a
person's destiny. Man must initiate his course of
action, but the full consequence of the outcome
belong to Yahweh. But the believer realizes that
he needs God's direction. Jeremiah in a repentant
mood and seeking Yahweh's favor profoundly af-
firms, ‘‘I know, O Yahweh, that the way of man
is not in himself, that it is not in man who walks
to direct his steps’* (Jer 10:23).

In military terms it is used primarily for
Yahweh. He marches before Israel’s army, sec-
uring the battle for them (Jud 5:4). As God goes
forth, all the natural elements respond, acknow-
ledging his lordship and supporting his effort (Ps
68:7f. [H 8f.}; Hab 3:12; cf. Jer 10:5).

J.E.H.

1944 MY¥ (sa'a) stoop, bend, incline (e.g. Isa
51:14; Jer 2:20).

See no. 1946a.
See no. 1948a.

AVS (saip).
VY¥ (sar).

1945 WS (sa'an) wander, travel (Isa 33:20,
only).

1946 Hye (s‘p). Assumed root of the following.
19464 SYS (sa'ip) wrapper, shawl or
veil (Gen 24:65; 38:14).

Devs (sa'dsa'im). See no. 189 la.

1947 SyE (sd'aq) cry, cry for help, call. (Asv
and rsv similar, except Niphal rsv ‘‘call
out,’ asv ‘gather together.’’)

Derivative
1947a

BDB suggests the onginal meaning in Arabic
was “sound as thunder.’’ This root means to call
out for help under great distress or to utter an
exclamation in great excitement (cf. II Kgs 2:12).
E.g., immediately on realizing that the pottage
they were contentedly eating was poisonous, the
sons of the prophets cried out in anguish (II Kgs
4:40). A woman who is raped is exonerated as
long as she cnies for help. If she does not, she ts
guilty of consenting to adultery (Deut 22:23-27).
Israel's leaders often had to petition God ear-
nestly for help. As a leader, Moses faced numer-

Meye (s'aqa) cry, outcry.

772

ous difficult situations which caused him to cry
out in desperation to Yahweh for direction (cf.
Ex 17:4). One time God's response to Moses was
simply for Moses to cease crying and get into
action (Ex 14:15). Further it describes the re-
sponse of Esau to the loss of his blessing and of
the nation Israel to the loss of the ark of the
Philistines (Gen 27:34; I Sam 4:14). This word
often refers to the cry of those plundered and
ravaged in war (cf. Jer 49:21).

A strong outcry frequently indicates that righ-
teousness is absent or judgment is being exe-
cuted. Even though Yahweh established Israel as
a nation to produce justice and righteousness, he
discovered bloodshed and acry; 1.e., the city was
oppressing the unfortunate (Isa 5:7). The righ-
teous lament in loud cries over the loss suffered
by their nation (cf. Isa 33:7; Lam 2:18). They
intercede for forgiveness by repenting of the sins
which led to this calamity and seeking God's help
for the future. God listens to the cries of men,
particularly when the mghteous cry out under
affliction. The Hebrews cried under the weight of
their bondage in Egypt (Ex 3:7). God heard their
cry and came to deliver them through the mighty
deeds at the Exodus. Because of the cry of the
oppressed in Sodom and Gomorrah, God came to
judge the oppressors (Gen 18:21; 19:13). God
especially promises to hear the cry of the aff-
licted, the alien, the orphan, and the widow (Ex
22:22f. {H 21f.]; cf. Ps 9:12 [H 13]). The fact that
God hears the cries of his people and delivers
them from their distress distinguishes him as the
true, living God; for men cry to idols, but they do
not respond (Ps 107:6, 28: [sa 46:7).

God, however, returns punishment to the
wicked in kind. In response to the outcry of the
Hebrews, the Egyptians uttered a great cry be-
cause of their sorrow over the death of their
firstborn (Ex 11:6; 12:30). In the end times a por-
tion of the punishment of the wicked will be cry-
ing from a painful heart (Isa 65:14).

God's suffering servant accomplishes his task
differently than earthly rulers who seek reform
and office. He will not cry in the streets (Isa
42:2): i.e. he will not seek through rhetoric to
arouse the multitudes to move against their pre-
sent rulers.

In the Niphal and Hiphil sd‘ag means “‘to be
called into assembly” (cf. Jud 7:23f.). A leader
may summon the people together to pursue their
enemies. Saul was the first leader since the Con-
quest who was able to assemble the entire nation,
to go to battle against their enemies (I Sam 13:4).
The people could also be called into assembly in
order for their leaders to present an important
matter. Samuel gathered such an assembly at
Mizpah in order to install Saul as king (I Sam
10:17).

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 568-74.

J.E.H.

1948 “YE (sd'ar) be or grow insignificant (e.g.
Job 14:21; Jer 30:19).

Derivatives
1948a t79YE (sda‘ir) little, insignificant,
young.

1948b TYR (stra) «youth (Gen 43:33;
Jer 14:3; 48:4).

1948c = SRD (mis'ar) a small thing (e.g.
Gen 19:20; Job 8:7).

sa‘ir. Little, etc. ASV and rsv translate simi-
larly. In some cases the rsv is superior (cf. 1 Sam
9:21: Jer 14:3; cf. Jer 48:4; Ps 68:27 (H 28]). Our
root denotes that which is smallest in age and,
therefore, least in significance, privilege, and de-
sirability (I Sam 9:21; hence, Jer 14:3). There are
Akkadian and Arabic cognates; its Ugaritic
equivalent is sgr (UT 19: no. 2182). For
synonyms see qgaton; dal (poor, weak, Jud 6:15),
baza (despised, Ps 119:141). Its antonyms are
bakér/bakir (firstborn), rab (elder, Gen 25:23),
y*shish (old, Job 32:6), and ‘dsam (strong, Isa
60:22).

This word for last born child (the opposite of
bakér/bakir) also connotes insignificance. Even
as the firstborn received the double portion and
blessing, the second born of two received a lesser
portion and blessing. Similarly, Saul protested
his unworthiness on the grounds that his family
was the least significant (cf. Ps 68:27 [H 28])
among the small/little Benjamites (Gen 43:33;
note that the scepter was not to depart from
Judah, although not the firstborn, Gen 49:10).
Thus, our word connotes last born and/or insig-
nificant (Jer 49:20). The young (insignificant) are
the unwise (Job 32:6) and the disdained (Job
30:1). Sometimes our word refers to servants or
slaves (Jer 14:3: 48:4). The Psalmist affirms his
humble estate and his obediance to God (Ps
119:141; cf. ‘and).

LJ...

1949 “BY (sdpad) draw
(Lam 4:8).

together, contract

1950 Sp8 (sadpa) I, look out or about, watch.

Derivatives

1950a BX (sippiya) lookout post (Lam
4:17).

1950b MBS «6(mispeh) watchtower, lookout
point (Isa 21:8; Il Chr 20:24).

1951 MbY¥ (sapa)

31:27). So too Yahweh is alert to what happens
on earth in order that he may properly judge its
inhabitants (Prov 15:3: cf. Ps 66:7). It also ex-
presses the posture of faith: Micah says, *‘As for
me, I will look to Yahweh, I will wait for the God
of my salvation; my God will hear me” (7:7).
Dhorme takes the form in Job 15:22 as a passive
ptc. (sdpi%) meaning the result of being looked
over, ‘‘choice’’ or **marked.”

As a ptc. (sépeh) tt means "“‘watchman,”” one
who was stationed on the wall and was responsi-
ble to inform the nation’s leadership of any
danger (cf. | Sam 14:16; 11 Sam 18:24ff.; 1] Kgs
9:17~-20). Failure in his duties often carried the
death penalty. The prophetic office is sometimes
described in this language..To Ezekiel God says,
*‘] have made you a watchman for the house of
Israel: whenever you hear a word from my
mouth, you shall give them warning from me”
(3:17: cf. 33:7: Jer 6:17: Hab 2:1). If Ezekiel failed
to give them God's warning he was liable for their
lives; but if he faithfully proclaimed the message,
he was free from any further responsibility re-
gardless of the people's response (Ezk 3:18-21).
Although God was faithful in sending Israel
watchmen, many became blind to their mission
(Isa 56:10). The failure of these watchmen and
the rejection of the true ones were major reasons
for the downfall of Israel. Conversely, the true
prophets will be the watchmen who are first to
sing of the advance of God's new saving deeds
(Isa 52:7-10).

The use of the name Mispah in Gen 31:49 is of
interest. It has given its name to a Mispah bene-
diction, ‘““The Lord watch between me and thee.”
But originally it was far from a benediction. It
was a sign of a kind of boundary between Jacob
and his hostile father-in-law. Both parties here
promised to keep the peace.

J.E.H.

1951 MBS (sdpa) HM, overlay.

Derivatives
19Sla “MBS (sippy) metal plating (Isa
30:22; Ex 38:17, 19: Num 17:3-4).
MSS (sapit) rug, carpet (Isa
21:5).
1I9S5ic MBX (sepet) plated capital of pil-
lar (II Chr 3:15).

Many of the furnishings in the tabernacle were

1951b

to be overlaid with pure gold, including the ark of

sadpad conveys the idea of being fully aware of a
situation in order to gain some advantage or keep
from being surprised by an enemy. The verb ap-
pears in the sense “‘to lie watching in ambush’’;
the wicked watches the righteous to slay him (Ps
37:32). Conversely the wise woman watches
(looks to) the ways of her household; i.e. she
diligently takes care of its every need (Prov

773

the covenant inside and out (Ex 25:10f., 13, 28),
the table (Ex 25:23f.), and the altar of incense (Ex
30:3, 5). The horns of the altar of burnt offering
were overlaid with bronze (Ex 27:2, 6).
Solomon overlaid the inside of the temple with
gold (I Kgs 6:20ff.) and many of its furnishings
(I Kgs 6:20, 22, 28, 30, 32). He also adorned the
house with precious stones (II Chr 3:6). Even his

1952 MBX (sph)

great ivory throne was overlaid with gold (1 Kgs
10:18). Apparently the gold overlay sometimes
had to be replaced. Hezekiah is said to have over-
laid the doors and the doorposts of the temple
(II Kgs 18:16). This gold was not the thin gold
leaf used today; it could be stripped off and used
as tribute (II Kgs 18:16).

This root also is used for laying a wood floor
and panelling (I Kgs 6:15). Proverbs compares a
person with smooth speech but an evil heart to a
pot glazed with silver dross (Prov 26:23). (But see
sig for the possibility that silver dross in this
verse iS One word, witnessed to in Ugaritic,
meaning white glaze).

A difficult text is Isa 21:5; sapdéh hassopit,
which is taken by various scholars from either
sadpa@ I, “‘they set the watch’”’ (asv), or sapa Il,
‘‘they spread the rugs”’ (rsv). The latter seems to
fit the context better. The nobles, engrossed in
their own pleasure, continued to feast during the
darkening hours which threatened their nation’s
existence.

EH.

See no. 1892b.
See no. 195la.
See no. 1953b.
See no. 1953c.
See no. 1959a.

mex (sapa).

“BY (sippuy).
IBY (sapon).
NDS (s“pdni).
"IBY (sippor).

1952 MBE (sph). Assumed root of the following.

1952a AMBS (sappahat) jar, jug (e.g. I
Kgs 17:12; I Sam 26:11).

1952b 0 «=AMDE (s*pihit) flat cake, wafer
(Ex 16:31, only).

AM_BS (sappahat). See no. 1952a.

mpe (sippiyad). See no. 1950a.

AMSY (s*pihit). See no. 1952b.

TDF (sdpin). See no. 1953a.

V°PY (sapia'). See no. 1955a.

“BY (sapir). See no. 1962a.

MIDS (s*pird). See no. 1960a.

M°py (sapit). See no. 1951b.

1953 IBY (sapan) hide, treasure, store up.
Derivatives
1953a SY (sdpin) treasure (Ps_ 17:14,

only).
1953b TBE (sdpdn) north (e.g. Gen
13:14; Jer 26:26).

1953c DE (s*pdni) northern (Joel
2:20, only).
1953d 3px = (maspén) hidden treasure

(Obadiah 6, only).

sapan occurs thirty-six times. It means to con-
ceal something with a definite purpose, either for

774

protection or for sinister reasons. Moses was hid-
den at home for three months to protect him from
Pharoah’s death decree against all Hebrew male
children (Ex 2:2). The wicked hide themselves in
order to ambush the innocent (Prov 1:11), but in
the end it is their own lives for which the ambush is
set (1:18). The wicked cannot conceal their in-
iquitous deeds from God (Jer 16:17). Sins are said
to be stored up in the sense that they will receive
their appropriate punishment on a day of judgment
(Hos 13:12; cf. Job 15:20; 21:19).

Amidst trials and plots of men, God hides his
people in his presence (Ps 27:5; 31:20 [H 21)).
Israel's God displays his special concern for his
people in giving them security and shelter. In fact,
his people are referred to as the hidden ones (Ps
83:3 [H 4], rsv ‘‘[thy] protected ones’’).

The word also connotes storing or treasuring
things on account of their value (Jer 36:29). There-
after Jeremiah refers to Judah’s foe as Babylon.
He goes on to prophesy that Babylon shall be
defeated by a nation from the north (Jer 50:9;
51:48). Ezk too places Israel's foes who will fight
the last climactic war as coming from the far
places of the north (Ezk 38:6, 15). The north, then,
becomes a harbinger of evil. In various
mythologies it is the seat of demons.

sapon. North. In Canaanite mythology the
north was considered to be the place for the meet-
ing of the assembly of the gods. The gods assem-
bled on Mount sapdn; sapan may be taken as a
proper name. Here Baal reigned supreme. The
mountain is usually identified with Mount Casius,
Jebel el Agra‘, to the north of Ras Shamra. Kapel-
rud suggests that the tower for sacrifices in Baal’s
temple may have been called Sapan, a mythical
connection between the mountain and the cultic
shrine (p. 58). This concept of the divine assembly
on Mount Sap4n is alluded to in Isa’s oracle
against Babylon in which he pictures the proud
king saying, ‘‘I shall sit on the mount of assembly
in the far north’’ (14:13). The king asserts for
himself both universal and divine lordship. Such
arrogance was soon to encounter the fury of God's
wrath.

The fact that Ps 48:2 (H 3] places Mt. Zion
figuratively in the far north means that God is the
sole ruler of the universe. He alone is to be rev-
erenced and praised. It is also possible that this
verse should be taken more locally. yar’ ka can
mean merely ‘‘side’’ (Ex 26:22 cf. yarek Num
3:35). The temple was located on the north side of
David’s city. God is sometimes pictured as ap-
pearing out of the north to one of his servants (Job
37:22); he moves from his throne to communicate
his splendor directly. Ezk was overwhelmed by a
stormy wind coming out of the north, and from the
midst of the cloud he had a vision of Yahweh's
glory (Ezk 1:4ff.).

God promises to bring his people back from the
north (Isa 43:6; 49:12; Jer 16:15). There is no loca-
tion where an earthly power can banish them from
his concern (Jer 31:8). Job says that God stretches
out the north over the void (26:7). This statement
shows that God created even the sinister places or
the mountain of the gods from nothing. No evil
power or god or divine assembly, therefore, has
any existence co-eternal with God or any power or
existence outside of God's creative power (cf. Ps
89:12 [H 13]).

Bibliography: Gaster, Theodore H., Thespis,
Doubleday, 1961. Kapelrud, A. S., Baal in the
Ras Shamra Texts, Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad,
1952. Morgenstern, Julian, *‘Psalm 48,"° in He-
brew Union College Annual 16:1-96. Oldenburg,
U., The Conflict Between El and Baal in Canaan-
ite Religion, Brill, 1967. Rowley, H. H., Job,
London: Thomas Nelson & Son, 1970. de Savig-
nac, J. **Note sur le Sens du Therme S4phon trans
quelques Passages de la Bible,’ VT 3:95f. THAT,
II, pp. 575-81.

J.E.H.

1954 yes (sp‘) I. Assumed root of the following.
1954a YE (sepa') poisonous serpent
(Isa 14:29, only).
1954b S33YEX = (sip'6ni) poisonous ser-
pent (e.g. Isa 11:8; Prov 23:32).

1955 Yb (sp‘) IL. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1955a Yy°S¥ (sdpia') dung of cattle (Ezr
4:15).

1956 YEE (sp‘) HI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1956a MyDE (s*pi'a) offshoot (Isa
22:24, only). Meaning uncertain.

VEY (sip'dni). See no. 1954b.

1957 *"B¥ (sapap) chirp, peep.
Derivative

1957a MEDS (sapsapad) a kind of wil-
low (Ezk 17:5, only).

sdpap occurs only four times, in Isa. It appears
in the Pilpel and is onomatopoetic. It stands for the
chatter of an angered bird (Isa 10:14). In that pas-
sage the Assyrian king boasts of his great prowess
and wisdom in conquering the nations and taking
their wealth quite easily just as a man who robs a
nest without any bird making a sound. For this
boastful arrogance God is about to destroy As-
syria (Isa 10:15-19). According to Isa 38:14
Hezekiah expressed his mourning for a fatal sick-
ness in sounds like those from a swallow or a
crane. In a different line of thought the word indi-

7715

1959 SBS (spr)

cates the sound produced by the dead (Isa 29:4)
and also by wizards and mediums perhaps
mimicking the sound of the dead in their attempt to
arouse them (Isa 8:19). When Ariel, the city of
David, is defeated, her end will be merely to let her
voice peep from the dust (Isa 29:4). Isaiah claims
that when God hides his presence from Israel, the
people are advised to turn to the occult for direc-
tion and counsel, but he asserts that Israel is to
find her meaning in the teaching and the testimony
given by God only (Isa 8:19f.).

J.E.H.

MPSS (sapsapa). See no. 1957a.

1958 “b¥ 6 (sdpar) I. Meaning uncertain; oc-

curs only in Jud 7:3.

1959 “bY (spr) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1959a T"IBS (sippér) bird. (asv and Rsv
identical, except Ps 102:7 (H 8] asv
has *‘sparrow.’’)

This word for bird is related to the **chirping”’
sound that a bird makes. God is concerned for the
birds. He created them and gave them a place to
nest (Ps 104:17). He preserved them during the
flood (Gen 7:14). The sparrow makes its nest
even at Yahweh’s altars (Ps 84:3 (H 4}). A part of
man’s invested lordship is over the birds of the
air (Ps 8:8 (H 9]).

Certain birds are considered clean. They are
edible (Deut 14:11) and some of them, such as
doves, were even specified as acceptable sac-
rifices. The majority, if not all, of the unclean
birds are birds of prey.

An Israelite was bidden to show kindness even
to birds; if he found a nest with eggs or young
ones, he could not take both young and the
mother bird as well (Deut 22:6f.). Apparently
some birds were domesticated as pets (Job 41:5
(H 40:29]). A bird, however, was never to be
used to represent the deity (Deut 4:17), as was
done in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

The bird served to convey many different pic-
tures: 1) quick flight for safety (Ps 11:1); 2) one
being hunted (Lam 3:52); 3) one being snared un-
suspectingly (Prov 6:5; cf. Ps 124:7; Eccl 9:12);
4) straying from home (Prov 27:8); 5) flightiness
(Prov 26:2); 6) a strong feeling of loneliness (Ps
102:7 [H 102:8]); 7) the manner of the return of
Israel from exile (Hos 11:11); 8) the peoples of
the various nations who shall inhabit the noble
cedar, the Kingdom of God (Ezk 17:23); 9)-

Yahweh's protecting Jerusalem as a hovering
bird (Isa 31:5).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., ‘Birds in the
Old Testament,’> PEQ 87:5-20; 129-40.

J.E.H.

1960 "5B (spr)

1960 “BE (spr) HUI. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1960a - MNSDE. (s“pira) plait, chaplet (Ezk
7:7, 10; Isa 28:5).

196] “BS (spr) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1961a IN_BY (sipporen) fingernail, — stylus
point (Jer 17:1; Deut 21:12).

1962 “DR (spr) V. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1962a DS (sdpir) he-goat. (asv — and
RSV the same.)

sapir appears only in late texts (Dan, Chr and
Ezr). The he-goat was one of the animals used for
a sin offering: e.g., twelve were offered at the
dedication of the second temple (Ezr 6:17; cf.
II Chr 29:21). In a vision, Daniel saw a he-goat
with a horn between its eyes arise from the west
(Dan 8:5-8). The goat is identified as the king of
Greece, Alexander (Dan 8:21). Sometimes fierce,
it is a symbol of power especially in domineering
sheep (cf. Ezk 34:17: Zech 10:3).

Bibliography: Montgomery, James A.,
Daniel, in ICC.

1963 YINDE (s“pardéa') frogs.

INBY. (sipporen). See no. 196la.
MDE (sepet). See no. [95Ic.

1964 39=% (sigqgalon). Meaning doubtful,
perhaps garment (II Kgs 4:42).

1965 “38 (s6r) Tyre. (asv and Rsv the same.)

Tyre was one of the main city-states of the
Phoenicians in the area of Lebanon. The center
of Tyre was located on a rocky isle, a short dis-
tance from the coast. Such a location provided an
excellent defense. With a long breakwater it
boasted one of the best harbors along the Pales-
tine coast. Its history paralleled the Hebrew oc-
cupation of Canaan. The Phoenicians were excel-
lent merchants of the seas and traders in purple.
They worshipped many gods, including Baal.

At various periods they interacted with Israel,

commercially and religiously. David entered into s 9¢¢

covenant with Hiram, King of Tyre. He sent the
famous cedar trees of Lebanon for the building of
the palace (II Sam 5:11f.). Hiram continued the
agreement with Solomon and supplied him
lumber and gold needed for building the temple
and his own house (I Kgs 5). Another Hiram, a
skilled craftsman, was sent to instruct and help
the Hebrew craftsmen in the varnous aspects of
building (1 Kgs 7:13f.). In return Solomon fur-
nished King Hiram with large supplies of food.

776

Later he had to add twenty cities in Galilee to the
payment, but Hiram was not satisfied (1 Kgs
9:11-14). Solomon also joined with Hiram in
merchant ventures to the Afncan coast in search
of all sorts of exotic goods (I Kgs 10:22);
Jehoshaphat unsuccessfully tried a similar joint
adventure (I Kgs 22:48f.). The greatest impact of
Phoenician religion on Israel was under the zeal-
ous efforts of Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King
of Tyre, married to Ahab. Her efforts created a
crisis for Yahwism, which was championed by
Elijah and Elisha (I Kgs 16:29—II Kgs 10:35).
And her impact was extended to Judah with the
marriage of her daughter Athaliah to Jehoram,
King of Judah (II Kgs 8:16ff.: 11:1-20). Later
Tyre and Sidon once again supplied cedar trees
for the building of the second temple in exchange
for food, drink and oil (Ezr 3:7). But the mer-
chants of Tyre violated Jewish law by selling fish
and other goods on the Sabbath (Neh 13:16).

The prophets composed many oracles and la-
ments of destruction against Tyre for its arrogant
pride as the greatest merchant of the sea who
handled the finest and richest goods (Isa 23: Jer
25:22; 47:4; Ezk 26-28; cf. Ps 45:12 (H 13]). They
had gained enormous wealth through their out-
standing wisdom (Joel 3:1-8 [H 4:4~8]; Zech
9:3f.; Ezk 28:3ff.). Skill and success had led its
prince to assert that he was a god (Ezk 28:2, 9). In
a lament Ezk describes him as perfect in the Gar-
den of Eden, but he became corrupt with vio-
lence in his trade. Therefore God had him cast
out of the garden and punished (Ezk 28:12-19).
But through Isaiah God extended the hope of re-
storation to Tyre. Her merchandise and her hire
then would be dedicated to Yahweh and she
would supply food and fine clothing to those who
dwell before him (Isa 23:17f.).

Bibliography: Blaiklock, E. M., “Tyre,”’ in
ZPEB, V, 832-35. Harden, Donald, The Phoeni-
cians, Praeger, 1963. Kapelrud, T. S.,°°*Tyre,”* in
IDB, IV, p. 721ff. Moscati, Sabatino, The World
of the Phoenicians, Praeger, 1970.

J.E.H.

=% (sdr). See no. 197Sb.
"3 (sar). See nos. 1973a,b, 1974a, 197Sa.

*39% (sadrab) burn, scorch. Occurs only
once, in the Niphal (Ezk 21:3).

Derivatives

1966a = 3938 (sarah) burning, scorching
(Prov 16:27, only).

1966b = Nm3SNk (sarebet) scab, scar of a
sore (Lev 13:23, 28).

M35¥ (sdrebet). See no. 1966b.

1967 M5X (srh). Assumed root of the following.
1967a “38 (sari) a kind of balsam (e.g.
Gen 37:25: Ezk 27:17).

M3¥ (sara). See nos. 1973c, 1974b.
“In (s*rér). See nos. 1973e, 1975c.

1968 mak (sarah) I, cry, roar (Zeph !:14; Isa
43:13).

1969 mak (srh) IL. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1969a MANY (s"riah) excavation, under-
ground chamber (e.g. Jud 9:49;
I Sam 13:6).

1% (sari). See no. 1967a.
mag (sriah). See no. 1969a.

1970 33% (srk). Assumed root of the following.
1970a 35% (s6rek) need (II Chr 2:15, only).

1971 Yk (sdra’) be diseased of skin, leprous.
(asv and rsv similar). This denominative
verb is used chiefly in the Pual.

Parent Noun

1I97la thYS¥ (sdra‘at) malignant skin dis-
ease, leprosy. Strictly, leucoder-
mia and related diseases. (asv and
RSV similar: “‘leprosy’’).

I971b MYAE (sir'a) hornet.

While usually rendered leper or leprous, the
term “‘leper’’ is not correct medically, since sa-
ra‘at refers to a wider range of skin diseases (cf.
“malignant skin disease,’’ NEB). For conve-
nience, however, the term “‘leper’’ can be re-
tained.

A person with leprosy, apart from the telltale
malignant raw flesh and white hair, was to be
otherwise identified by tom clothes, announce-
ment of **unclean” when in the streets and was to
live isolated from the community. Four persons
are named in the ot as becoming leprous. Not
counting Moses (Ex 4:6: cf. also II Kgs 7:3),
there were Miriam (Num 12:10), Uzziah (II Kgs
15:5), Gehazi (I1 Kgs 5:27) and Naaman, the Sy-
nan (II Kgs $:1).

God may inflict the disease of sdra‘at as
punishment for sins such as jealousy (cf.
Minam), anger, and lack of full compliance with
God’s commands (cf. Uzziah), and covetousness
(cf. Gehazi). One must not conclude, however,
that all sickness is a result of an individual's sin
(cf. Job; Lk 13:1-—5; Jn 9: 1-7).

sdra‘at was not necessanly incurable (cf. I]
Kgs 5:7). Leprosy by contrast, was likely tncura-
ble (Lev 13). In any event, healing of sdra‘at

777

1972 3% (sarap)

could serve as a sign of divine power (Ex 4:6; I
Kgs 5:8).

The isolation of a leprous person was doubtless
a Sanitary measure in order to avoid further con-
tagion. That a priest in Israel's theocracy was to
diagnose the illness does not mean that today’s
clergy should become health officers. But the
principle of God’s concern for the health of
bodies is not only self-evident but remains an en-
during principle (cf. Jesus, Mt 8:2-3).

Diseases with eruptions affecting the skin are
sometimes mild, sometimes, as in smallpox, scar-
let fever, etc., both dangerous and highly con-
tagious. The only effective control in antiquity
would have been isolation. Only the Hebrew laws
had this very valuable provision.

sdra‘at is found primarily (twenty times) in the
two chapters that govern the diagnoses and the
cleaning measures for one who had become un-
clean (tamé’, Lev 13, 14). In the nature of a con-
tagion, sara‘at refers not only to eruptions on the
skin but to mildew or mold in clothing (Lev 13-
:47-52) or in houses (Lev 14:34-53); therefore
obviously the word is not specific for leprosy.
The determination by the priest of an individual
as unclean meant separation from the commu-
nity, and ceremonial unfitness to enter the temple
(cf. I] Chr 26:21). The cleansing measures to be
performed upon recovery involved a ritual with
two birds, which ritual according to KD was
necessary for restoration to the community (Lev
14:2-9). An additional set of offerings followed,
notably the guilt offering, perhaps because dis-
ease is ultimately to be linked with sin (Lev
14:10—20).

There is no Scriptural warrant for regarding
leprosy as a type of sin, though the analogy can
be helpful for illustrative purposes.

Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, Man—God's
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 142-43.
Browne, S. G., **Leper, Leprosy,’ in WBE, II,
pp. 1026-27.

E.A.M.

mysy (sara‘at). See no. 1971a.

1972 ASX (sarap) smelt, refine, test. (asv and

RSV sometimes identical, others varied;
both also ‘‘goldsmith,’* ‘‘refine,”’ “*try”’;

ASV also ‘founder,’ ‘“‘purge’’; Rsv also
‘*stlversmith,” “‘cast,’” ““smelt,’’ “‘prove
true.’ ’)
Derivatives
1972a ps (sdr*pi) goldsmiths (Neh
3:31, only).
1972b =9¥% «(masrép) crucible (Prov
13:3; 27:21).

sarap is primarily used for goldand sil-
versmiths and for the process of refining metals

1973 33 (sarar)

before they were worked into fine vessels (Prov
25:4). One of the great demands for the smith's
skill was for the making of molten images (Jud
17:4). An idol could be gold plated and fitted with
silver chains which were cast for it (Isa 40:19).
The smith who practices his skill in making idols,
however, will be put to shame by his work, for
these images are nothing but a delusion (Jer
10:14; 51:17).

Various aspects of the refining process are
vividly used for judgment on and purification
from sin; e.g. a blazing furnace, bellows, lead,
dross, refuse silver (e.g. Isa 1:25; Jer 6:27-30;
Ezk 22:18-22). God seeks to remove from his
people all wickedness and sin so that they can
endure his holy presence. Man has the responsi-
bility of punfying himself so that he can be re-
fined; i.e. he must respond obediently to God's
word in order to experience cleansing (Dan
12:10). Further, when his people are wayward
and violate the covenant, God seeks to bring
them back by refining them (Jer 9:7 [H 6]). God
tries them in the furnace of affliction (Isa 48:10).
Although they have to endure difficult circum-
stances, as long as their faith in him remains firm,
they will eventually experience deliverance (Ps
66:6—-12). Between the promise and its fulfillment,
the word itself tests and refines the one who has
heard it (Ps 105:19). However, sometimes the
people become so obstinate that no matter how
intense the refining fire becomes, it is in vain (Jer
6:27-30). Then God must come against his people
in judgment. But in the midst of this judgment,
God is still preparing a people for himself. Those
who undergo the judgment as a refining shall turn
to God and enter into covenant with him once
again (Zech 13:9). According to Mal, God shall
refine the Levites as gold and silver; then they
will offer the sacrifices correctly and these sac-
rifices will be accepted (Mal 3:2ff.). The climax of
God's refining process will result in the estab-
lishment of a city over which he has complete
rule; that city shall be called ‘‘the city of righ-
teousness, the faithful city’’ (Isa 1:25f.).

The upright man endures Yahweh's faithful
testing without despising it. He confidently af-
firms that the trial has discovered nothing amiss
(Ps 17:3). In fact, when he seeks God's protec-
tion, he even prays that God will test or refine his
innermost thoughts and attitudes so that his peti-
tion may indeed be worthy of being answered (Ps
26:2).

God’s word also is tried; or according to the
RSV ‘‘the promise of Yahweh proves true’’ (Ps
18:30 (H 31]). That is, what God says is authen-
tic; since it has been refined, it is completely reli-
able. Psalm 12:6 [H 7] compares Yahweh's
speech to “‘silver refined in a furnace on the
ground, purified seven times’ (RSV). Therefore
those who serve Yahweh love his word (Ps

778

119:140) and take refuge in him as their shield
(Prov 30:5).

Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., ‘Metals and
Metallurgy,’ in ZPEB, IV, pp. 206-12. Forbes,
R. J., Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. 8,
Brill, 1964. Garber, P. L., **Refining,”’ in IDB,
IV, p. 23f. Singer, Charles; Holmyard, E. J. and
Hall, A. R., A Aistory of Technology, vol. 1,
Oxford: Clarendon, 1965S.

J.E.H.

‘pS (sdr‘pi). See no. 1972a.

1973 39% (sarar) I, bind, be narrow, be in dis-

tress (Qal): make narrow, cause distress,
besiege (Hiphil).

Derivatives

1973a t3% (sar) TI, narrow, tight.
1973b t5¥ (sar) UI, distress.
1973c TANS (sara) straits, distress.
1973d *59% (sdrar) suffer distress. This
denominative verb occurs only in
the Piel (Jer 48:41; 49:22).
1973e =os§5% (s*rdr) bundle, parcel, pouch,
bag (e.g. Gen 42:35; Hag 1:6).
"3%? (mésar) Straits, distress (Ps
116:3; 118:5; Lam 1:3).

sdrar may refer to anything which is narrow or
confining. A place may become too small for
people to inhabit when they increase in number
(II Kgs 6:1; Isa 49:19f.). Isaiah speaks of a blan-
ket too narrow to wrap oneself (28:20). It also
refers to being restricted (II Sam 20:3), and it may
signify *‘to hamper something”’ (Prov 4:12).

sGrar means ‘‘to bind up” or “‘to tie.’’ It is
used for binding a stone in a sling (Prov 26:8),
tying a kneading trough to a mantle (Ex 12:34), or
mending an old torn wine skin (Josh 9:4, Pual).
God is said to bind up the water in thick clouds
(Job 26:8; cf. Hos 4:19). Hosea describes the sin
of Ephraim as bound up; 1.e. it was kept in store
for the time of judgment (13:12). Since the people
reject his message, Isaiah exhorts his disciples to
preserve his teaching among themselves saying,
*‘Bind up the testimony, seal the teaching among
my disciples’’ (8:16). It further is used for pre-
serving one’s life (I Sam 25:29); **the life of my
Lord will be bound in the bundle of the living.”’

It also may refer to the strong emotional re-
sponse that one experiences when pressed-exter-
nally by enemies or internally by wrong decisions
or passions; e.g. Jacob’s confrontation with Esau
(Gen 32:7 [H 8]). Israel was frequently placed in
sore distress by her enemies during the period of
the Judges (Jud 2:15; 10:9). Even a great leader
may be distressed by reaction to controversial
decisions (cf. I Sam 30:6). One can be obsessed
with a passion and be so bound up emotionally

1973f

that he becomes ill; e.g. (Amnon’s distorted de-
sire for his sister (I] Sam 13:2).

One curse for violating the covenant states that
enemies will besiege Israel’s towns (Deut 28:52).
Similarly God brings distress on any who have
sinned (Zeph 1:17; Jer 10:18). Some under such
distress become more faithless, as did Ahaz (II
Chr 28:22), while others humble themselves and
seek Yahweh, as did Manasseh (II Chr 33:12; cf.
Deut 4:30f.).

This root or a very similar one describes the
emotional distress of a woman in travail (Jer
48:41; 49:22).

sar J. Narrow, tight. (asv and Rsv are similar
for rest of derivatives). sar 1 describes something
as narrow, e.g. a place where one can travel in
only one direction (Num 22:26). A narrow river
has a rushing current (Isa 59:19). Strength that is
narrow has too short a span (Prov 24:10).

sar I], Distress, trouble. Describes the per-
sonal anguish one encounters in adverse circum-
stances; e.g. the great distress which comes from
the death of a close friend (I1 Sam 1:26) or from
God's refusal to give help or direction (Job 7:11;
cf. I Sam 28:15; Isa 25:4; 63:9).

sara. Straits, distress. It indicates intense in-
ner turmoil (Ps 25:17). It describes the anguish
of a people besieged by an enemy. It is compara-
ble to the pain of a woman bearing her first child
(Jer 4:31). It refers to terror at the approach of a
raping army (Jer 6:24). It defines the quality of
time when Judah suffers her severest punishment
for violating the covenant (Jer 30:7; cf. Ps 78:49).
The land of a people that reject the Lord’s word
is described as full of distress, darkness, and the
gloom of anguish (Isa 8:22; cf. 30:6). Into such
darkness Yahweh will bring the light of his salva-
tion (Isa 9:1—2 [H 8:23—9:1]).

A brother provides help in adversity (Prov
17:17). Similarly the Lord helps his people out of
the times of affliction (Ps 50:15; 37:39). God
graciously promises to save Israel from the trou-
ble of the Day of the Lord (Jer 30:7).

1974 "5% (sdrar) HU, show hostility toward.

Derivatives

1974a "8 (sar) adversary, enemy.

779

1975 35% (srr)

1974b MOR (sara) vexer, rival
wife (I Sam 1:6, only).

"3% (sdrar) make a rival wife.
This denominative verb occurs
only in Lev 18:18.

1974c

This root deals with the harassment and tor-
ment engendered by an enemy. God promised
Israel victory over all her adversaries (Num
24:8). However, if she should fail to drive the
foreign nations from Canaan, those nations
would remain to vex Israel like thorns and pricks
(Num 33:55). Their weapons included wiles such
as enticing the Hebrews into licentious idolatry
(Num 25:18). In the postexilic period Haman,
who sought to destroy the Jews by a decree from
a Persian King, is called **the enemy of the Jews’
(Est 3:10; 8:1, etc.).

Whenever a foe defeated Israel, he scoffed at
Yahweh (Ps 74:10, 17, 23). So too the believer
under oppression is taunted by his enemies. They
ask, ‘‘Where is your God?” (Ps 42:10 (H 11); cf.
31:11 [H 12]). In response the people entreated
God to deliver them for the sake of his honor or
reputation (Ps 74). His help on the basis of his
mercy and love demonstrates that he is the living
God (cf. Ps 143:12). He also uses unexpected
ways to confound his foes, even through the ut-
terance of the mouth of babes (Ps 8:2 [H 3]: Ps
105:24).

God executes justice against his adversaries in
order to cleanse (kippér) the land (Deut 32:41 ff.).
Israel, as God's instrument of punishment against
other nations, is sometimes commanded to be-
come hostile toward one of her enemies and
strike them (Num 25:17). The Day of the Lord
will be his climactic day of vengeance against all
his enemies (Jer 46:10).

J.E.H.

1975 35% (srr) Ill. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1975a S$ (sar) hard pebble, flint (Isa
5:28, only).

19756 «658 (sor) flint (e.g. Ex 4:25; Ezk
3:9).

197Sc |= INS (s°rér) pebble (Ih Sam

17:13: Amos 9:9).

ND (gé’). See no. 2013a.

1976 AND (qa'at), ANSP (gaat) a bird, per-
haps pelican or a kind of owl (e.g. Lev
11:18; Deut 14:17).

3D (qab). See no. 1977a.

1977 33> (qbb) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

1977a 3D (gab) a dry measure (Il Kgs
6:25, only). Probably 1/6 of a seah,
1/18 of an ephah (q.v.).

19776 3D (qubba) large vaulted tent

(Num 25:8, only).

1978 333 (qabab) H, curse.
late similarly.)

(ASV, RSV trans-

This word connotes the act of uttering a for-
mula designed to undo its object. For a treatment
of synonyms see the article on galal. Our word
occurs fifteen times. Distinguished from gbb, |
(BDB).

This word may well be a loan word since it
appears either on the lips of (or is applied to)
Gentiles (or persons of mixed parentage, Lev
24:11), or in poetical passages. At times it is dif-
ficult to tell whether the text represents gbb or II
nqb (the lexicons and grammars disagree).

The most frequent use of our root relates to the
incident involving Baalam and Balak. Certainly
the ‘‘magical’’ belief and intent of Balak is prom-
inent here. (For the effect of such cursing and
Balaam’s understanding of it, see gdalal and the
discussion of Num 23:8.) Perhaps the same over-
tone is present in Lev 24:11, where the man of
mixed parentage may have used the name of God
as a magical formula. Elsewhere our root is used
apart from any magical connotation and as the
uttering of a formula (as compared to ‘d@rar and
qalal, q.v.), although the usage in Job 3:8 has
been disputed. Job there requests conjurers (7?) to
excise the day of his birth from history (see
Michael Fishbane, ‘‘Jeremiah, IV, 23-26 and
Job, II, 3-13°'; also **A Recovered Use of the
Creation Pattern,’ VT 21:152.

LIC.

1979 39 (qbh). Assumed root of the following.
1979a =632 (qéba) stomach, belly (Deut
18:3; Num 25:8).

PI32 «6(gibbis).
m3 (q‘ bard).

See no. 1983a.
See no. 1984b.

783

1980 *>3

1981 psp

1982 nmysp (qubba‘at) cup

(qabal) take, receive (Piel and

Hiphil only).
Derivative
%32 (q° bol)

tacking engine

1980a something in front, at-

(Ezk 26:9).

The basic idea represented by this verb 1s re-
ceiving something given. The usual Hebrew word
is laqah (q.v.). Our root appears to be a loan
word, perhaps from Aramaic (as suggested by
KB). It occurs only in clearly late texts except for
the technical sense of Ex 26:5; 36:12. Our root
occurs twelve times (its derivatives occur only in
Ezk 26:9 and II Kgs 15:10).

This root can be used of receiving even though
circumstances might move one to reject the offer.
David received without prejudice Amasai and his
companions because of their oath of fealty (I Chr
12:18 [H 19]) even though their tnbe opposed
him. The Levites took the uncleanness (even
though it was uncleanness) and carried it from the
city (II Chr 29:16). Even gifts from the heathen
were accepted to be used in the new temple (Ezr
8:30). At other points the thing received has no
negative overtones (IJ Chr 29:22). One can re-
ceive such intangible things as instruction (Prov
19:20, parallel to “*hear counsel’’), punishment (1
Chr 21:11), good and evil (without complaint, Job
2:10), and observance of a new holy day (Est
9:23).

| Oen Ge

(qaba‘) rob (Mal 3:8; Prov 22:23).
Meaning uncertain.

(Isa 51:17, only).
Perhaps a loan word from Assynan

kabu' tu.
mysp (qubba‘at). See no. 1982.
1983 p32 (qabas) gather, assemble. (asv and
RSV translate similarly.)
Derivatives
1983a psa (qgibbus) assemblage (cf. the
Israeli kibbutz).
1983b =MB32 (q°busd) gathering.

Our verb refers primarily to gathering people
into one place. Cf. Ugaritic gbs (AisWUS no.
2386).

The following Hebrew synonyms should be
compared: ‘asap *‘to gather together, up,”’ (much
broader than our root, but is paralleled to it),

1984 339 (qabar)

qahal *‘to assemble, congregate, especially for
worship,’’ gddad ‘‘to muster troops,’’ and yd‘ad
‘‘to meet, gather together, by appointment.’’ The
root occurs 127 times.

A few occurrences of our root denote gathering
in general (cf. ’dsSap), e.g. to gather food (Gen
41:35), money (II Chr 24:5), etc. The most com-
mon use, however, relates to the gathering of
people.

First, people are gathered together for various
social reasons: to ask Samuel for a king (I Sam
8:4), to recognize David as king (II Sam 3:21; I Chr
11:1). God reflects on the return from the exile (or
in the eschaton [?]) saying they will gather to
select a king (Hos 1:11). Also note: gathering to
work on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 5:16); gather-
ing nobles, etc., to enlist them according to
genealogy (God is concerned about covenant
(church) rolls—Neh 7:5), and gathering virgins to
select a queen (Est 2:3).

Second, the root often denotes the mustering of
troops (e.g. Josh 10:6; Jud 12:4). The people are
assembled (as an army?) to stop the water sources
outside Jerusalem (II Chr 32:4). During attack a
trumpet (qgeren) served as the rallying point (Neh
4:20 [H 14]). After a battle Joab gathered his
troops to take account of his losses (II Sam 2:30).
Does Elijah possibly ask Ahab to gather the
people and false prophets as an army to do battle
(II Kgs 18:19)?

Third, people are gathered for religious
functions. Jacob assembles his sons to deliver the
blessing (Gen 49:2). David gathers the priests and
Levites to transport the ark to Jerusalem (I Chr
13:2). The people assemble to renew their coven-
ant with God (I Sam 7:6; II Chr 15:9-10), ask his
help (II Chr 20:4), to serve him (Ps 102:22 [H 23)),
to vow to put away their foreign wives (Ezr 10:1,
7, 9), etc. In the prophetic writings (Qal and
Niphal) divine convocations are for judgment and
blessing (including salvation, Isa 43:9; Joel 3:11 [H
4:11)).

Finally, God pledges to assemble his people
from the places where he had scattered them
(Deut 30:3—4). Even before the Babylonian exile
David cites this promise as the cause of his
victories (IJ Chr 16:35; cf. Ps 106:47). During the
great exile this promise is repeatedly recalled by
the prophets (e.g. Isa 11:12). This hope they offer
the captives is rooted in the sovereignty of God
(Isa 40:11). Contrariwise, God condemns Babylon
to ‘‘captivity’’ with no deliverer (Isa 13:14). In the
eschaton this divine gathering is to extend to all
peoples (Isa 66: 18)}—even the Gentiles (Isa 11:12).
By so accomplishing such a clear prophecy, God
exhibits his sovereignty and, therefore, sanctifies
himself in those gathered (Ezk 20:41). After the
return God tells his people to remember his an-
client promise (Neh 1:9), and so they did (Ps
107:3).

LJ.C:

784

1985 "39 (qddad) I, bow down.

1984 "32 (qdabar) bury. Used 132 times, al-

ways of human burial.
Derivatives

1984a 5332 (qeber) grave, sepulcher.
1984b M952 (q‘bard) 33:32 © (q*bara)
grave, burial.

The verb gdbar is translated with unusual uni-
formity as *‘bury’’ in the KJV and other versions.
It is not used figuratively of concealing or of caus-
ing horror. It is seldom used in poetry, only once
in the Pss (79:3) where it is used of burial after a
battle at Jerusalem.

qeber. Grave, sepulcher. This word also is
mostly used just for the literal tomb. It is used only
three times in Pss (out of sixty-seven) and not
often in poetry elsewhere. It is used for the cave of
Machpelah, the graves of Egypt and the sepul-
chers of the kings as mentioned in Chr. The phrase
‘‘open geber’’ is applied to the throat of a wicked
man in Ps 5:9[H 10}. Its usage in Ps 88 is interest-
ing. The Ps concerns those approaching sh°’él
(q.v.) (Vv. 3[H 4]), those who go down to the pit bor
(q.v.) (v. 4[H 5}), the dead métim (v. 5 [H 6]), the
pit beneath bdr tahtiyyét (v. 6 [H 7]), the dead
r° pa’im (v. 10 [H 11]), destruction 'abaddé6n (v.
11 {H 12]}), the place of darkness and the land of
oblivion (v. 12 [H 13]). It seems that geber is used
both in v. 5 and v. 11 [H 6 and 12] as a synonym
needed to give a parallel to the other words more
often used in poetry. It serves, however, to
suggest the meaning of the other words. A similar
usage with these same synonyms is found in Ezk
32 (given in some detail under sh°’6/). Isa 14:19,
like Ezk has sh°’odl in parallel with bér which is
parallel with geber and q‘buara. geber appears to
be the prose equivalent of these other words,
which are used more in poetry.

R.L.H.

(ASV and RSV
translate the same.)

This root refers to the bowing of one’s head
accompanying and emphasizing obeisance (cf.
shaha = hwy). Hence, it has a very restricted use,
unlike its Akkadian cognate gadddu. It 1s to be
distinguished from all other words for ‘‘bow’’ by
this restricted use (cf. kdra‘). Our root occurs
fifteen times (perhaps sixteen; cf. gadar).

This root is used to emphasize devotion and
thus occurs at especially crucial times. When
Joseph’s brothers return to Egypt with Benjamin,
their obeisance is notably and understandably
pronounced (Gen 43:28). Similarly, when Saul
sees the vision of Samuel he is especially respect-
ful (I Sam 28:14). The deepest awe and reverence
typifies one’s attitude toward God at crucial
times, for example, when Eliezer’s prayer is mi-
raculously answered (Gen 24:26), and when the

people celebrated at Hezekiah’s consecration of
the temple (II Chr 29:30). Israel reacted in this way
when they saw Aaron’s signs (Ex 4:31) validating
the announcement that God had sent Moses to
deliver them from Egypt, and when the Passover
was initiated (Ex 12:27).

God's giving the law a second time in spite of
Moses’ anger (sin) in the face of Israel's idolatry
elicited this deep reaction from Moses. Each re-
corded dedication of the temple met with this
deepest worship (I Chr 29:20; II Chr 29:30; Neh
8:6).

Lac.

1986 “SS (qgdd) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

19862 IP3P (qoqdd) head, crown of

head (e.g. Deut 33:20; Jer 2:16).

M32 (qidda) a spice, cassia (Ezk
27:19; Ex 30:24). Derivation un-
certain.

1986b

See no. 1986b.
See no. 1988g.
See no. 1990b.

m1 (qidda).

B82 (gadam).

wine (qadésh).
1987 M33 (qddah) be _ kindled, kindle
Deut 32:22; Jer 15:14).

(e.g.

Derivatives
1987a AMSIP (gaddahat) fever (Deut
28:22; Lev 26:16).
1987b =mIPR ('eqdah) fiery glow, sparkle

ofagem (Isa 54:12, only).

mm3p (gaddahat). See no. 1987a.
Bs (qadim). See no. 1988d.

1988 *o3 (qadam) meet, confront, go before

(Piel and Hiphil only). Denominative
verb.
Parent Noun
1988a O12 (gedem) east, antiquity, front.

1988b {B52 (gédem) east.

1988 tM (qadmda) antiquity, former es-
tate, before.

1988d fa°I> (qddim) east wind, east.

1988e 752 (gadmén) eastern (Ezk 47:8,
only).

1988f f37%2 (gqadmoni) former, ancient,
eastern.

988g aie (qdadiim) antiquity.

The root gdm incorporates two basic concepts:
first, (and most often) ‘‘to confront (meet) some-
one with either a good or bad intent,’’ second,
‘‘to precede someone or something either tem-
porally or geographically.’’ It occurs in Ug.
(gdm) meaning ‘precede, draw near’’ (also **in
front of (before),’” and ‘*east wind(?)’’ UT 19: no.

785

1988 *B39 (qadam)

2208). Our verb occurs twenty-six times. It is to
be distinguished from the more common gq4arda’
‘*meet’’ (q.v.). See also mdsa’ ‘‘find.”’

The verb gddam is most often used against a
possible martial background. The confrontation
thus set forth is either peaceable or hostile. In
Deut 23:4 [H 5], Israel’s ‘‘relations’* did not meet
them (and hence their God) as relatives and allies
should have, so they incurred God's judgment
(Neh 13:2). David tells how his enemies came
against him in his calamity (II Sam 22:19). He
prays God to confront his enemies, and cast them
down (Ps 17:13). A peaceable confrontation is
often in view. For example, Job complains about
the help he received which caused him to live
(3:12). More important, God brings lovingkind-
ness (covenantal concern, Ps 59:10 (H 11]) and
tender mercies (cf. raham, Ps 79:8) to the faith-
ful. But man cannot reciprocate by aiding God
(Mic 6:6), for God lacks no resource (Job 41:11
[H 3)).

qedem. East, antiquity, front. The noun gedem
has either a geographical meaning, ‘‘east,’ or a
temporal notion ‘‘ancient time, aforetime.’’ This
noun occurs sixty-one times. It denotes an idyllic
state whereas ‘6lam, ‘ad denote perpetuity, zd-
qgén, agedness, and ri’shén primacy (q.v.)

The *‘East’’ may have either good or bad con-
notations. On the one hand it is the location of
Eden, but on the other hand, it was the habitat of
the men who built Babel (Gen 11:2). When denot-
ing the dwellers E or NE of Canaan, it frequently
refers to tribes hostile to Israel (Num 23:7; Jud
6:3, 33). But the prophets envision a day when
they will be subject to Israel (Isa 11:14).

H. W. Wolff likens the Hebrew conception of
time to the situation of a man rowing a boat. He
sees the past as before him (qedem); the future is
behind his back (‘ahdrit). There is truth in this,
except that this was not necessarily the concept
of time of the Hebrews, for this etymological
usage was determined before the Hebrews
adopted the language (H. W. Wolff, lecture
notes).

In poetic passages gedem describes the
created state. So Joseph is blessed with the chief
things of the ancient (idyllic) mountains (Deut
33:15), and God is enthroned (abides) of old
(since creation, Ps 55:19 {H 20}). Our word is
used of the Exodus as typifying the intended ideal
(Mal 3:4). The Psalmist recalls the glorious works
of God performed then (Ps 44:1 [H 2]), especially
in his times of distress (Ps 77:5 [H 6}). Surely,
these references recall the divine covenant (Ps
74:2).

qedem is also used of the Davidic period (Neh
12:46). All three ideas (creation-Exodus-Davidic
reign) are joined in Ps 74:12. So we see that the
three form a theological model. This is further
emphasized in statements about the Messiah

1989 53 (qadar)

(Mic $:2 (H 1]; Ezk 36:11), and the eternal cove-
nant (Mic 7:20). Finally, Isaiah applies this model
(from creation to perfection) to the Lord’s com-
ing (Isa 45:23) according to the counsel of God.
All is known and done by him (Isa 45:21).

qedem. East. This noun may be simply gedem
plus a final he expressing direction toward (GKC
sec. a,c,) with which it always occurs. This noun
occurs twenty-six times. It should be compared
with mizrah (where the sun rises), which em-
phasizes location rather than direction.

qadma. Antiquity, former estate. This is the
_abstract noun form of the derived meaning (an-
cient, former) of gedem. An exception is the
temporal use in Ps 129:6, “‘before,’’ which ap-
pears to employ the locative he extended to time
(GKC 90 h, gedem plus the locative he(?). Our
word occurs five times.

qadim. East wind, east. This noun denotes the
desert wind which brings feared destruction (Job
27:21; Ps 48:7 [H 8]), and which is, nonetheless,
absolutely controlled by God (Job 38:24; Ps
78:26) even for good (Ex 14:21) when he so de-
sires. Occurring in Ezekiel fifty-two times, its
most frequent usage is ‘‘east’’ (cf. Hab 1:9)—
perhaps a dialectical variant for gedem. The
word occurs sixty-nine times.

qadmoni. Former, ancient, eastern. This is the
adjectival form of gedem (GKC, sec. 86f). It oc-
curs ten times.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 587-88.
L.J.C.
Wes (qadmén). See no. 1988e.
W232 (qadmoni). See no. 1988f.
1989 "33 (qddar) be dark, mourn.
Derivatives
1989a = NIN (gadriit) darkness, gloom
(Isa 50:3, only).
1989b myst (g’ddrannit) mourners

(Mal 3:14).

ASV and rsv translate this verb similarly, except
in Jer 14:2 and Job 30:28 (in both cases the con-
text supports the rsv). This root denotes black-
ness (the absence of light, Jer 4:28; cf. v. 23) as
well as the preparations surrounding mourning
rites. It occurs nineteen times. Compare the more
usual hashak which is restricted to blackness
‘kaha,’ growing dim, and ‘drab ‘‘become eve-
ning.’’ Other roots relating to mourning are da-
‘ab: inward attitude, 'and, baka, and ’anah, the
sounds of mourning; sdpad, ‘dbal: observing
mourning rites 1n general.

The root ts used in contexts of judgment where
the heavens and heavenly bodies are to be black-
ened (Jer 4:28). There is clearly an overtone of

786

mourning in such contexts. Hence, the great and
terrible day of the Lord is associated with mourn-
ing by the heavenly bodies (Joel 2:10). This day,
in tum, is directly connected with the
eschaton—as is the blackening of the heavenly
bodies (Joel 3:15 {H 4:15]). [Conzelmann cor-
rectly notes that in the ancient Near East bright-
ness and darkness were regarded as very impor-
tant for life, thought, and religion (TDNT, VII, p.
427). Darkness denotes the whole range of what
is harmful or evil. Our root connects darkness
and sorrow—a connection not limited to the an-
cient Near East. Conzelmann says of this passage:
‘*Here it is no longer meant figuratively but liter-
ally’’ (ibid., p. 430). For eschatological darkening
see Isa 13:10; Joel 2:30-31 [H 3:3-4]}; 3:15 (H
4:15] (Acts 2:20); Zeph 1:15; Rev 6:12, 17; 8:12.
But in spite of its threatening aspect, darkness is
only a penultimate entity with God. B.K.w.]

In the midst of oppression David confesses that
he is mourning, i.e. in an objective, noticeable
sense: he was dirty, unattended, and in mourning
attire (KB). Jeremiah goes to such lengths of
mourning over his people in view of the en-
croaching judgment (8:21).

Job 5:11 seems to attest the d/r interchange (cf.
Akk. gadddu).

Bibliography: Delekat, L., ‘‘Zum Hebrai-
schen Worterbuch,’’ VT 14:7-66.

1J<G:

mosp (qadrit). See no. 1989a.
mo (q°doranit). See no. 1989b.

1990 wap (qadash) be hallowed, holy, sanctified;

to consecrate, sanctify, prepare, dedicate.
Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

1990a twp (qddesh) apartness, holiness,
sacredness.

1990b twine (qdaddsh) holy, Holy One,
saint.

1990c tWI> (qadésh) male temple prostitute
(Deut 23:18; IT Kgs 23:7).
1990d tw (qgedesh) Kedesh.
twI2 (qddésh) Kadesh.
twp (migdash) holy place, sanc-
tuary.

The verb gddash in the Qal connotes the state
of that which belongs to the sphere of the sacred.
Thus it is distinct from the common or profane.
In the Piel and Hiphil it connotes the act by which
the distinction is effected. It is a denominative
verb.

The suggestion that the root gdsh is derived
from an original biliteral gd (‘‘cut’’) is attractive
but tenuous in view of the uncertainties surround-
ing the transmission of biliteral roots to the trilit-
eral form. The meaning ‘‘to separate’’ is favored

by many scholars, but the fact that gdsh rarely, if
ever, occurs in a secular sense makes any posi-
tive conclusion in this regard difficult because of
the limited evidence on which to base philological
comparison.

The word occurs in several dialects of Akka-
dian with the basic meanings “‘to be clean, pure,
consecrated. In the Canaanite texts from
Ugarit, the basic meaning of the word group is
“holy, and it is always used in a cultic sense.

A definitive use of the term occurs in Num
16:38 (H 17:3]. The censers of the Korahites were
regarded as holy because they had been devoted
to the Lord. They were thus regarded as having
entered the sphere of the sacred by virtue of cul-
tic ritual (v. 17 [H 16:18]) and were accorded a
special place in the sanctuary. The devotion of
the censers seems to have created a condition of
inviolable holiness that could not allow for their
being treated in a common way. It seems best to
see the root gdsh as serving to delineate the
sphere of the ‘holy.’

In the Qal the verb gadash is used most fre-
quently to describe the state of consecration ef-
fected by Levitical ritual. In Ex 29:21, 37; 30:29
certain articles used in the Levitical service were
consecrated to God and were thus recognized as
belonging to the realm of the sacred. Transmis-
sion of the state of holiness to anything that
touched a person or object so consecrated (Ex
29:37: 30:29; Lev 6:18 [H 11], 27 [H 20]) does not
necessarily imply that a transferable divine
energy exists in the “holy.’’ Rather, it seems that
the person or object entered the state of holiness
in the sense of becoming subject to cultic restric-
tions, as were other holy persons or objects, in
order to avoid diffusion of the sacred and the
profane (cf. the state of holiness of the priesthood
[Lev 21:1-8] and the strictures applied to a gar-
ment accidentally sprinkled with the blood of the
sin offering [Lev 6:27, H 20)).

In the Piel the word is used most frequently of
the act of consecration. In Ex 19:23 the consecra-
tion of Mt. Sinai by establishing boundaries
around it served to keep out all that might have
profaned God's holy presence.

The ethical connotations of the concepts of holi-
ness find their basis in the proscriptions against
diffusing the realms of the sacred and the profane
(Lev 22:32).

In the Niphal the verb g@dash may connote the
concept ‘‘to prove one’s holiness.'’ God proves
his holiness by judging sin (Lev 10:3; cf. 1-2;
Num 20:13: Ezk 28:22). His holiness is also dem-
onstrated in his adherence to his promises (Ezk
20:41; 28:25; 39:27).

qodesh. Apartness, holiness, sacredness, hal-
lowed, holy (asv, RSV, Similar). The noun gédesh
connotes the concept of ‘*holiness,’* 1.e. the es-
sential nature of that which belongs to the sphere

787

1990 ws (qadash)

of the sacred and which is thus distinct from the
common or profane. This distinction is evident in
Lev 10:10 and Ezk 22:26 where gddesh occurs as
the antithesis of 4d/ (‘‘profane,’’ *‘common’’).

There is some truth in the idea of R. Otto (see
bibliography) that the word “holy”’ refers to the
mysterium tremendum. it speaks of God with a
measure of awe. It can be used almost as a
synonym of deity. **His holy name” is the name
of God. The inner room of God's dwelling ts
called the Holy of Holies—the most holy place.

But the biblical viewpoint would refer the holi-
ness of God not only to the mystery of his power,
but also to his character as totally good and en-
tirely without evil. Holy objects therefore are
those with no cultic pollution which is symbolic
of moral pollution. They are not merely dedi-
cated, but dedicated to what is good and kept
from what is evil. The separation of men from
what defiles ceremonially is but typical of the hol-
iness that is spiritual and ethical. *‘Be ye holy for
I am holy”’ is quoted from the ot (I Pet 1:16; Lev
19:1; 20:7, etc.) and the so-called holiness code is
heavily ethical. *‘Man was made in the image of
God and capable of reflecting the Divine likeness.
And as God reveals himself as ethically holy, he
calls men to a holiness resembling his own’
(ISBE, **Holiness’’).

A basic element of Israelite religion was the
maintenance of an inviolable distinction between
the spheres of the sacred and the common or pro-
fane (Num 18:32). That which was inherently
holy or designated so by divine decree or cultic
rite was not to be treated as common. The sab-
bath was holy, and the restrictions connected
with that day served to maintain its distinctive
nature and to guard against its being treated as
common (Ex 16:23-26: Isa 58:13, 14). Special re-
strictions were placed on the priests to guard
against profanation of its holy status (Lev
21:6ff.). Sexual intercourse was not considered
inmoral in the oT but it did effect a state of Leviti-
cal defilement (Lev 15:18) which prohibited con-
tact with that which was holy (I Sam 21:4). The
same principle applied to the peace offering (Lev
19:5-8), the holy oil (Ex 30:32-33), and holy in-
cense (Ex 30:37).

That which was dedicated to God was con-
ceived of as entering the sphere of the “holy.”
This included the various elements of Levitical
worship called **holy things’’ in Lev 5:15-16, the
produce of the land (Lev 19:24), personal prop-
erty (Lev 27:28), and spoils obtained in military
action (Josh 6:19). The sacrifices that were to be
eaten only by the priests were denominated
‘*holy’” by virtue of their absolute dedication to
the sphere of the sacred as represented by the
priesthood (Lev 19:8).

While the realm of the holy was conceptually
distinct from the world with its imperfections, it
could nevertheless operate within the world as

1990 ws (qadash)

long as its integrity was strictly maintained. The
maintenance of the integrity of the ‘‘holy’’ was a
function of the Israelite cultus. The holy God
came to man in redeeming love within the context
of regulations and proscriptions that were de-
Signed to maintain the purity of holiness that
characterized God's essential nature. Even be-
fore the establishment of the Levitical system,
this principle was recognized (see Ex 3:5).

The cultus also effected the holiness of those
who participated in it. This was essential to the
concept of redemption for, by definition, holiness
is Separate from all that is sinful and profane.
God, therefore, calls man to holiness because he
himself is holy (g@désh) (Lev 19:2; cf. I Pet 1:15).

Because of his holiness, God is above the
weaknesses and imperfections of mortals and
thus can accomplish the deliverance of his people
(Ex 15:11—12). Only those who are holy will dwell
in God’s holy hill (Ps 15:1ff.). Because God is
holy by nature and separate from moral imperfec-
tion, he can be trusted to be faithful to his prom-
ises (Ps 33:21).

Inherent within the redemptive work of God is
the promise of the ultimate manifestation of
God’s holiness in the glorification of his people
and the deliverance of the creation from the im-
perfections resulting from the edenic curse (Rom
8: 18-23).

qadésh. Holy, Holy one, saint (ASV, RSV simi-
lar). The adjective gddésh (holy) denominates
that which is intrinsically sacred or which has
been admitted to the sphere of the sacred by di-
vine rite or cultic act. It connotes that which is
distinct from the common or profane.

God is intrinsically holy and he calls his people
to be holy, providing for them the standard of
obedience whereby that holiness may be main-
tained (Lev 19:2ff.). Because God is holy, he is
free from the moral imperfections and frailties
common to man (Hos 11:9) and can be counted
on to be faithful to his promises (Ps 22:3-S). This
aspect of God’s character forms the basis of
Habakkuk’s hope that his people would not per-
ish (Hab 1:12).

The title ‘The Holy One of Israel’’ is applied
to God numerous times in the oT, but is especially
frequent in the prophecy of Isaiah (in all parts). It
serves to place the sins of Isaiah’s society in stark
contrast to God’s moral perfection (Isa 30:11) and
expresses God's absolute separation from evil
(Isa 17:7).

The inviolability of the spheres of the sacred
and the profane forms the ground for the ethical
aspects of the concept of holiness. Because God
is holy, the Israelites could not serve him when
they persisted in their idolatrous practices (Josh
24: 19ff.). They were to be separate from all that
was unholy (Lev 11:44-45; Deut 14:21). Stipula-

788

tions were imposed on them that they might not
engage in practices common to other peoples
(Lev 19:2; 20:7; Num 15:40). Their call to holi-
ness was based on the fact that they had become
God's possession by virtue of his separating them
from the nations (Lev 20:26; Deut 7:6; 14:2;
26:19).

It is unthinkable that a holy God could condone
sin; such a concept would involve a diffusion of
the sacred and profane, thus destroying the na-
ture of holiness. The call to be holy was accom-
panied by the imposition of certain restrictions
that served to ensure the continuing holiness of
those who believed (Lev 11:44—45; 19:2ff.; Deut
14:2, 21; Num 15:40).

Various aspects of the cultus were denomi-
nated holy by virtue of their being conceived of
as belonging to the realm of the sacred and were
not to be treated as common. This included por-
tions of the sacnfices (Lev 6:16; 7:6), the temple
and its aspects (Ps 65:4 [H 5]; Lev 6:16, etc), and
the priests (Lev 21:6, 8) and Levites (IT Chr 35:3).

The presence of God within the world de-
lineated a sphere that was holy, for God's holli-
ness cannot be diffused by the common (Deut
23:14).

That which is “‘holy”* is not only distinct from
the profane but in opposition to it as well. God,
therefore, hates and punishes sin (Josh 24:19; Isa
5:16, 24). In the light of God’s holiness, Isaiah
saw himself and his people as sinners (Isa 6:3: cf.
v. 5).

qadéesh. Temple prostitute, male or female. The
adjective gqddésh, like the name Kadesh, means
‘holy,’ but holy to what? The _ female
functionaries in the pagan shrines were called
q‘ déshd, temple prostitutes, because that is what
they were. The name is a sad commentary on the
licentiousness of Canaanite worship. The mas-
culine form is used similarly for the male coun-
terpart (Deut 23:17 [H 18]). In Gen 38:21-22 the
usage may be extended to refer to prostitution in
general.

qedesh. Kedesh. The name of several cities
cited in the oT. The name kedesh means “‘holy.”’

1. Kedesh in Naphtali. A settlement located in
upper Galilee in the hill country of Naphtali. It is
generally identified with the modern Tell Qades.
Kedesh was designated as one of the cities of
refuge in the list in Josh 20 (v. 7), and it was one
of the Levitical cities of the Gershonite clan of
Levites in the parallel lists in Josh 21:27-—33 and |
Chr 6:71-76. It was one of the fortified cities of
Naphtali according to Josh 19:37.

The king of the Canaanite city of Kedesh is
cited in the list of kings defeated by Joshua (Josh
12:22). It is generally thought that this Kedesh
was the birthplace of Barak, but for another view
see Y. Aharoni, The Land of the Bible, p. 204.

However, some identify it with Kedesh (see 2
below).

Kedesh is mentioned in II Kgs 15:29 as one of
the Israelite cities conquered by Tiglath-pileser.

2. Kedesh in Issachar. In I Chr 6 a Kedesh is
listed in the territory of Issachar (v. 72) as well as
in Naphtali (v. 76). In the parallel list in Josh 21,
the city of Kedesh is omitted and replaced by
Kishion. It is possible that this is a different name
for the same site (cf Jud 4:11, 13).

The location of the Kedesh in Josh 15:23 is
uncertain. It has been identified with Kadesh
Barnea and Kadesh in southern Judah.

qadesh. Kadesh. The name of two cities in the
oT. The name ‘‘kadesh’’ means “‘holy.”’

1. Kadesh Barnea. An area of desert springs
located fifty miles southwest of Beersheba. It is
sometimes called simply Kadesh. One of the
springs, “Ain Qedeis, preserves the ancient
name. The Masoretes made a vocalic distinction
between this gadesh and the other name gedesh,
but doubtless they came from the same form. The
name refers to a holy spot, but of course a spot
holy to the heathen pre-Israelite worship. Such
‘‘holiness’* would be an abomination to Israel.

Kadesh Barnea Is cited several times in con-
nection with the patriarchs. In Gen 14:7 Kadesh
occurs in what is evidently a very ancient tradi-
tion describing a full-scale military action in
which Lot, Abraham’s nephew, was captured.
The more ancient name of Kadesh, according to
this account, was ‘én mishpar (‘‘spring of judg-
ment’).

Kadesh Barnea was in the urea to which Hagar
fled (Gen 16:14) and Abraham settled there for
some time (Gen 20:1).

Kadesh figured prominently in the wilderness
period of Israelite history. It was the site of a
prolonged stay in the wilderness (Deut 2:14) and
the place to which the spies returned from Ca-
naan (Num 13:26). It is also one of the sites men-
tioned in the southern boundary of Canaan (Num
34:3-6; Josh 15:1-4; Ezk 47:19; 48:28). According
to Josh 10:41 it was the southernmost boundary
of the Conquest.

2. Kadesh on the Orontes. A Hittite capital
situated on the Orontes River eighty miles north
of Damascus. The rsv accepts a reading of the
Lucianic recension of the Lxx that includes
Kadesh in the extension of the Davidic empire (II
Sam 24:6).

miqdash. Holy place, sanctuary, chapel, hallowed
part. (ASV and RSv similar except that rsv trans-
lates ‘‘holy things’? in Num 10:21, Ezk 44:8;
“sacred area’’ in Ezk 43:21 and ‘'temple’’ in Dan
11:31.

The noun miqdash ts used most frequently in
the ot as the designation of the tabernacle and the
temple. It is frequently translated ‘‘sanctuary,”’

789

1990.1

1991 *9m5 (qdahal) assemble.

1991 *5p (qahal)

in these cases. In keeping with the basic meaning
of the word group that it represents (gdsh), migq-
dash denotes that which has been devoted to the
sphere of the sacred. When it refers to the
sanctuary, it connotes the physical area devoted
to the worship of God. This area was sacred be-
cause it was the place where God dwelled among
the people (Ex 25:8) and its sanctity was not to be
profaned (Lev 12:4; 19:30; 20:3; 21:12, 23).

The word also designated sanctuanes that were
devoted to false worship (Lev 26:31; Isa 16:12;
Ezk 21:7; Amos 7:9).

The word is used for the articles of the taber-.
nacle that were devoted to the Levitical worship
(Num 10:21). The portions of the sacrifices that
were particularly holy were called miqddsh
(Num 18:29). The word migddadsh may refer to the
abode of God in Ps 68:35 [H 36], but some com-
mentators seethis as the temple in Jerusalem.
Metaphonically the word is used to refer to a
place of refuge (Isa 8:14; Ezk 11:16).

Bibliography: Wood, A. S., “Holiness,” in
ZPEB, III, 173-83; Girdlestone, R. B., SOT, pp.
175-78. Jones, O. R., “‘The Concept of Holi-
ness,’ in TDNT, V, pp. 489-93. Lambert, J. C.,
‘*Holiness,’’ in ISBE. Muilenberg, J., ‘‘Holli-
ness,’ in IDB. Otto, Rudolph, The Idea of the
Holy, London: Oxford, 1926. Snaith, Norman,
The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament, Lon-
don: Epworth, 1953. Walker, Norman, ‘‘The
Origin of the Thrice Holy,’ NTS 5 (1958, 1959).
THAT, HH, pp. 589-608.

T.E.M.

m2 (qaha) be blunt, dull.
Denominative

verb.

Parent Noun

1991a t9mp (qahal) assembly,
congregation.

company,

1991b MPR (qhilla) assembly, congrega-
tion (Neh 5:7; Deut 33:4).

1991c m2NP (qohelet) speaker in an as-
sembly, Qoheleth.

1991d °mp% =(maqhél) assembly.

The verb gahal conveys the idea of assembling
without regard to purpose. It is used in the Niphal
and the Hiphil. The Lxx often translates this root
as ekkaleo.

The Niphal carnes the reflexive idea of a group
assembling themselves. The assembling may be
for mutual defence (Est 8:11; 9:2; 15-16, 18), to
make war (Josh 22:12; Jud 20:1), to worship (II
Chr 20:26), to ask for idols (Ex 32:1), for the
anointing of Aaron (Lev 8:4), for erecting the tent
of meeting (Josh 18:1), for the transporting of the
ark to the temple (I Kgs 8:2; II Chr 5:3), for the

1991 *953 (qahal)

assembling of a mob (Jer 26:9) for rebellion (Num
16:3; 20:2; I] Sam 20:14).

The Hiphil, used for assembling of groups,
such as the people (Deut 4:10), the officers and
elders (Deut 31:28), and the tribes (I Kgs 12:21),
shows a similar variety in the purposes of assem-
bly. In addition there is an assembly for the cen-
sus (Num 1:18), for the purification of the Levites
(Num 8:9), for the consecration of Aaron (Lev
8:3), to bring water from the rock (Num 20:8), to
hear the words of the law (Ex 35:1; Deut 31:12,
28); and to hear Moses’ farewell (Deut 4:10).

qahal. Assembly, company, congregation. Usu-
ally gahal is translated ekklésia in the Lxx, but in
thirty-six instances it is sunagogé.

qahal is a masculine noun from which the de-
nominative root qdhal derives, but it is some-
times conjecturally derived from qéd/ *‘to speak,”’
hence a convocation (so KB suggests). The noun
occurs twenty-two times in the prophets, most
frequently in Ezk. The verb occurs thirty-nine
times in the Niphal and the Hiphil forms meaning
‘*to assemble”’ or ‘‘to gather.’’ The root ghl oc-
curs thirteen times in the nonbiblical Qumran ma-
terials for gatherings and for groups of various
sorts, only one case of which (Hodayot 2:20) is in
a worshiping context, paralleling the use in Ps
22°23;

An assembly of any sort and purpose may be
designated by qahal. It may be for evil counsel or
deeds (Gen 49:6; Ps 26:5), civil affairs (I Kgs 2:3;
Prov 5:14; 26,26; Job 30:28), or war (Num 22:4;
Jud 20:2, etc.). The assembled armies see the
fight between David and Goliath (I Sam 17:47).
The term may in other contexts designate an as-
sembled multitude of nations (Gen 35:11),
peoples (Gen 28:3; 48:4), and even the dead (Prov
21:16). It may be of the returning exiles (Jer 31:8;
Ezr 2:64), and then the restored community in
Jerusalem is a gahal (Ezra 10:12, 14; Neh 8:2,
17).

But the gahal 1s especially an assembly for re-
ligious purposes. The experience at Horeb for re-
ceiving the Law was ‘‘the day of assembly’’
(Deut 9:10; 10:4; 18:16). There were also as-
semblies on other occasions for feasts, fasts, and
worship (II Chr 20:5; 30:25; Neh 5:13; Joel 2:16).
In these cases qahal designates a gathering less
than the totality of the people of Israel. Such was
the assembly when David exhorted the people to
build the temple (I Chr 29:1, 20). We encounter
the idea of gathering (haghil) the assembly (q-
Ghal) (Num 10:7; 20:10), which seems to distin-
guish between the assembly gathered and un-
gathered.

A distinction between ‘éda and qahal seems to
be intended in ‘if the whole congregation (‘éda)
commit sin... and the thing is hidden from the
eyes of the assembly”’ (gah Lev 4:13). Here the
qahal is the judicial representatives of the com-

790

munity. There is also the case where certain Is-
raelite persons cannot enter the gdahal (Deut
23:2). But elsewhere the two words are used in
successive clauses in the same sense (Num 16:3)
and are joined together (Prov 5:14). In general,
the terms are synonymous.

qahal may also designate the congregation as
an organized body. There is g* hal yisra’él (Deut
31:30), gthal YHWH (Num 16:3, etc.), and
q‘ hal ’élohim (Neh 13:1) and then at other times
merely “the assembly’ (hagqahal). We en-
counter “‘the assembly of the congregation of
(q‘ hal ‘ddat) Israel’ (Ex 12:6), and the ‘‘assem-
bly of the people of God’’ (Jud 20:2). Of special
interest is the phrase ‘congregation of the Lord”’
(q’ hal YHWH) of which there are thirteen in-
stances (Num 16:3; 20:4; Deut 23:2-4; Mic 2:5; I
Chr 28:8). It is the nearest ot equivalent of
**church of the Lord.’ The txx ekklésia kuriou
for this phrase.

qohelet. Preacher, speaker in assemblies.
qohelet is a Qal feminine participle from gahal,
which in the Niphal means ‘‘to come together’’
and in the Hiphil *‘to bring together.’’ The Qal
form is used only here. The word is related to the
noun gdhdal (assembly). The Lxx_ chose
ecclesiastes (a member of an assembly) as a
translation due to the alleged relation of gadhal to
ecclésia (assembly, see above). The English re-
ndering **Preacher’’ follows Jerome's Latin con-
cionatur (“‘speaker before an assembly’’), how-
ever the meaning of the Hebrew name is by no
means clear. The content of the book fits the wis-
dom literature category rather than the sermonic
category. A second conjecture contends that the
Qal form gdhelet is used as though it were a Hiph
] and means ‘‘one who convenes an assembly.”’
The word has the definite article in Eccl 12:8
which lends credence to the claim that the word
is intended to be a description, not a personal
name.

qohelet occurs seven times in the book of
Ecclesiastes (1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10) and
nowhere else in biblical literature. As a noun de-
signating the speaker, it also gives the Hebrew
name Qohelet to the book itself. The noun is or-
dinarily construed with masculine forms of verbs.
The exception in Eccl 7:27 may be due to an er-
roneous word division, since qgdhelet identifies
himself as a son of David, king in Jerusalem (1:1,
12).

Bibliography: Campbell, J. Y., ‘“‘The Origin
and Meaning of the Christian Use of the Word
‘ekklesia,’ >’ JTS 49: 130-42. Dahl, Nils A.,
Das Volk Gottes, Darmstadt: Wissenschaft
Buchgesellschaft, 1963, p. 8. Zimmerman, F.,
‘‘The Root kahal in Some Scriptural Passages,’
JBL 50:311. TDNT, III, pp. 527-31. THAT, IH,
pp. 609-18.

J.P.L.

nom (qoheler). See no. 1991c.
iP (gaw). See nos. 1992, 1994a.
1992 19 (gaw). Mimicry of Isaiah's words, per-
haps senseless.

The word occurs in Isa 28:10, 13. Its meaning is
debated. It may mean “‘line’’ as gaw II, espe-
cially a measuring line for judgment. Others (e.g.
BDB) take it as an onomatapoetic mimicry of
Isaiah's prophesying. Cf. saw.

1993 vain (qgdba‘') helmet (Ezk 23:24; 1 Sam
17:38). Perhaps Philistine loan word.

1994 m> (gawd) I, wait, look for, hope.
Derivatives
1994a 33 (gaw) line.
1994b ID3D (gawqaw) might (Isa 18:2,
Ty:
1994c = MPI (miqweh) hope.
994d MIPM (tiqwa) I, cord (Josh 2:18,

21, only).

1994e mpm (tiqwa) I, hope.

This root means to wait or to look for with
eager expectation. It is used for the wicked who
make an attempt to destroy the life of the right-
eous (Ps 56:6 [H 7]: 119:95). Waiting with steadfast
endurance Is a great expression of faith. It means
enduring patiently in confident hope that God will
decisively act for the salvation of his people (Gen
49:18). Waiting involves the very essence of a
person's being, his soul (nepesh; Ps 130:5).
Those who wait in true faith are renewed in
strength so that they can continue to serve the
Lord while looking for his saving work (Isa
40:31). There will come a time when all that God
has promised will be realized and fulfilled (Isa
49:23; Ps 37:9). In the meantime the believer sur-
vives by means of his integrity and uprightness as
he trusts in God's grace and power (Ps 25:21).
His faith ts strengthened through his testings, and
his character is further developed (Ps 27:14). Is-
rael is encouraged to hold fast to love and justice,
i.e. they are to follow the law faithfully and main-
tain consistently the standards of justice, at the
same time preserving an attitude of godly love
(Hos 12:6 [H 7]; cf. Ps 37:34; Job 4:6).

During times of visitation and judgment, the
righteous must exercise great faith (Isa 26:8: Lam
3:19-33). Thus Isa confidently asserts, “I will
wait for the Lord, who is hiding his face from the
house of Jacob, and I will hope in him’’ (Isa 8:17).
When God arrives on the scene with redemptive
power, the response of those who have waited
will be jubilant joy and great singing (Isa 25:9).

Job amid his intense trial claimed that God was
pulling up his hope like a tree (Job 19:10).
Perhaps this statement is a response to his asser-
tion of faith: ‘*For there is hope for a tree, if it be

791

1994 MID (qawa)

cut down, that it will sprout again, and that its
shoots will not cease’’ (Job 14:7). But his com-
plete frustration had been expressed in exclaim-
ing, “My days... come to their end without
hope’’ (Job 7:6; cf. Prov 11:7).

The wicked too have hope. But since it has a
false basis, it shall end with their death (Prov
11:7, 23; cf. 10:28). God himself will cut them off
(Job 8:13; 27:8). Job says, ‘‘Their hope is to
breathe their last’ (Job 11:20).

Hope has an eternal home in man’s heart. As
long as there is a future, there is hope (Prov
23:18; probably an eternal future is intended).
But only the believer can really express his hope
in the future, for it belongs to Yahweh alone. And
God supplies wisdom to insure that future
(‘ahdrit) and to substantiate hope (Prov 24:14).
The wicked have no such future, 'ahdrit (Prov
24:20), nor hope, tiqwa (Prov 10:28). God is the
source of hope for his people, and he has prom-
ised them a future and a hope (Ps 62:5 [H 6}; Jer
29:11). Jer says to besieged Judah, ‘*There is
hope for your future’ (31:17). Zechanah calls
God's people, “‘prisoners of hope.’’ And he
summons them to look forward to experiencing
God's restoration (Zech 9:12). Therefore,
Yahweh himself is called ‘‘the hope of Israel"
(Jer 14:8; 17:13; 50:7; cf. Ps 71:5).

God expresses hope in man. He planted Israel
and made her a fully prepared vineyard. His hope
or purpose was for her success, i.e. that she yield
fruit; this was parabolically expressed by placing
a wine press in the vineyard (Isa 5:2ff.). How-
ever, She only yielded wild grapes. Therefore he
had to judge her severely (v. 5f.). But his hope
continued, for he planned a new vineyard that
could some day be productive (Isa 27:2-6).

qaw. Line. asv, RSv translate the same; except
Ps 19:4 [H 5] rsv reads emended text ‘‘voice’’ but
cf. the discussion of Dahood, in AB, Psalms I, p.
122. It is used about seventeen times (cf. Isa 18:2,
7 ASV margin). A line is basically a measuring line.
It stands parallel to plummet (Isa 28:17). A line
was used to measure long linear distances (e.g.
Jer 31:39), and it served to measure round sur-
faces; (e.g. I K 7:23); e.g. the craftsman who
carved a figurine to be his god used the line to
mark his raw material (Isa 44:13). Yahweh de-
scribed his creation of the earth as stretching out
a line over it (Job 38:5) i.e. everything about the
earth's constitution was subject to his exact spec-
ifications. Zechariah speaks about the rebuilding
of Jerusalem, “‘the measuring line shall be
stretched out over Jerusalem” (Zech 1:16; cf. Isa
34:17). No doubt he means the city will be zoned
for construction projects once again. Many times
the idea of a measuring line connotes destruction
at hand. The line represents justice (Isa 28:17).
Since the people or the nation against whom the
line is laid do not measure up to the standard of

1995 *myp (qawa)

justice, they come under judgment. The line de-
lineates exactly who and what will be destroyed
(cf. Lam 2:8; II Kgs 21:13). In Isa 34:11 the line is
called a line of confusion (t6hiz); i.e. the land
returns to the chaotic condition described in Gen
1:2.
Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 583-85; VI, pp.
193-202. THAT, II, pp. 619-28.
J.E.H.

1995 *mB (qawa) UH, collect. Occurs in the
Niphal (Jer 3:17; Gen 1:9; Isa 60:9).

Derivative

1995a mi (miqweh) collection, collected
mass (e.g. Gen 1:10; Ex 7:19).

1996 63> (git) be grieved, loathe. (asv and RSV
translate similarly, except Job 10:1.)

Our root denotes the deep emotional reaction
of the subject issuing in a desired repulsion (or
destruction) of the object. For synonyms, see
qus, the etymological equivalent; cf. the same
shift from s in Hebrew sir ‘‘rock’’ to ¢ in
Aramaic tar ‘“‘rock.”’ Our word occurs seven
times.

In the midst of his affliction Job says he is so
distressed and irritated that he ‘‘loathes”’ his life
(Job 10:1; Sarah’s statement, in Gen 27:46).
David says he reacts thus toward the treacherous
(Ps 119:158) and the enemies of God (Ps 139:21).
This confession is interesting since historically it
is sandwiched between God's description of his
similar deep irritation with the sinful Canaanites
(Lev 20:23, qas,) and his description of Israel's
contriteness of heart while in exile (Ezk 6:9; cf.
Deut 30:1ff.), upon their restoration to the land
(Ezk 20:43), and in the eschaton (Ezk 36:31). The
last reference is relevant to the restoration, of
course, but it is especially meaningful in the age
of fulfillment (cf. Heb 8:8ff.). True repentance
and contntion come from God's work in the heart
as Paul reveals in Rom 7-8.

LJ:€.

1997 859 (gét) break, snap (Job 8:14). Deni-
vation uncertain.

1998 539 (qwi). Assumed root of the following.

1998a 2 (qél) voice, sound, noise. (ASV
and Rsv are similar. RSV renders into
a better idiom [e.g. I Sam 15:1].)

kél primarily signifies a sound produced by the
vocal cords (actual or figurative). In poetical pas-
sages (for the most part) the denotation embraces
sounds of many varieties. Infrequently, gd/ de-
notes the thing said whether spoken (Gen 3:17) or
written (If Kgs 10:6). Our word also serves as an
exclamative “‘hark’’ (cf. GKC, 146b; Isa 13:4;

792

66:6, etc.). gé/ should be distinguished from and
compared to hegeh, higgdyoén (a low noise or ut-
terance), hamon (a tumultuous, agitated noise or
uttering), ré‘a, t°ra‘d (a shout of alarm, or joy).
Also see sh@’6n ‘‘roar”’ t’shi’a “*noise.”’ Our
word is a common Semitic root (Ugaritic gi, UT
19: no. 2213). Biblical occurrences number 506
(with the possible exception of Jer 3:9 which may
reflect Uganitic ‘‘fall’’ gi (AisWUS no. 2408; see
KD, in. loc.).

The phrase ‘'to lift up the voice and weep’
embraces a wide diversity of emotions and situa-
tions, e.g. crying out for help (Gen 39:14); mourn-
ing for real or expected tragedy (Gen 21:16), the
sound of disaster (Ex 16:34) or joy (Gen 29:11).
God having indicated that the ark was not to be
considered a palladium by speaking to Moses
from the mountain and, later, from above the
mercy seat (Ex 25:22: Num 7:89; cf. Ex 20:22)
confirmed it (I Sam 4:6, 14). Later God's voice
dispersed the Philistines (I Sam 7:10).

The phrase ‘‘to hearken to one’s voice’’ in-
cludes: to take note of and believe (Gen 4:23), to
follow one’s suggestion (Gen 3:17), to obey a re-
quest (Gen 21:12), to obey a command (Gen
21:18), to answer (of God) a prayer (II Sam 22:7).

Theological themes in which our word figures
prominently are (for lack of better names): pro-
phetic, thunder, covenantal, trumpet. These
themes are often intertwined. In Ex the voice of
God and the voice of Moses (later, the prophets)
are interchangeable (cf. Ex 3:18; 4:1; 7:1). God
gave him certain signs which would, in effect,
speak (Ex 4:8), miraculously confirming the in-
tended identity (however, 5:2, cf. gasha). The
thunder symbolized God's absolute sovereignty
by effecting judgment and evoking fear and sub-
mission (Ex 9:23, 29; cf. Ps 29). God’s qdl is the
roar of thunder, while man’s gé/ in approaching
him is the tinkle of bells (28:35). The covenantal
theme is seen when, through Moses, God briefly
enunciated the principle that the commands
(voice) of his servant Moses are his commands
(voice) and if the people obey (hearken) and keep
his covenant (19:5) they will be blessed. If they
disobey they will be judged. All this is much evi-
denced at Sinai (especially in Deut; I Sam 12:14—
18; the uses in Jer). The sovereign power of God
which thundered judgment on Pharaoh now ap-
pears as a Sign of blessing (19:16; cf. II Sam 22-
:7-14; 3:16 [H 4:16], etc.). Finally, it is the sound
of the trumpet which Moses heard at Sinai. The
trumpet blast signals divine power (Josh 6:5) and
presence (I] Sam 6:15; I Kgs 1:40-45; I Cor
15:52).

In Elijah’s battle with the false prophets of
Baal (the thunder god of Canaan) it is God who
fills the claims with facts by bringing lightning,
thunder (I Kgs 18:41), and rain (I Kgs 18; cf. Ps
29). Yet God shows that he is more than just a

natural force (as was Baal) by speaking in the still
small voice (I Kgs 19:12). This battle with Baal is
part of a long complex confrontation between the
two religions (cf. W. F. Albright, Yahweh and
the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday, 1968), as is evi-
denced throughout the prophets and poetry of the
OT.
Finally, one might well consider that it was the
sound of God's voice going on the wind that
Adam heard in the garden (Gen 3:8; 1 Kgs 14:6).

Bibliography: TDNT, 1X, pp. 280-90. THAT,
Il, pp. 629-34.
LAG.
1999 BID (qim) rise, arise, stand.
Derivatives

1999a tA (goma) height.

1999b tmeP (gama) standing grain.

1999c tax> (qgim) adversary.

1999d tm. (qimad) rising up.

1999e fname = (qommiyat) uprightness.

1999f BID’ (y°qum) substance, existence

(Gen 7:4, 23; Deut 11:6).

1999g imam (f°qdama) ability to stand.

1999h tain = (mdqém) place.

Our root refers essentially to the physical ac-
tion “‘rising up.’ Derived denotations entail the
end of such action: standing. Also, our root 1s
used of figurative msing and/or standing. The
same usages appear in Ugaritic (cf. UT 19: no.
2214). Our root occurs 1085 times. It should be
distinguished from the more narrow shadkam
(=qgis), to rise from bed, ‘d/d, to go up, and
‘amad to take a stand, or stand (cf. yvdsab, to be
at one's place or station).

The verb gam appears in many and varied con-
texts. Basically, it denotes rising up from a pros-
trate position (e.g. Josh 3:16). In many instances
it refers to preparatory activity, especially (al-
though not exclusively) pursuant to traveling
(Deut 17:8, et al.). Thus in Gen 27:19 “‘arise, sit
down’’(') merely means ‘“‘now sit down.” This
root can connote an action showing respect.
Balaam tells Balak to “‘rise up” to receive God's
oracle (Num 23:18). God commands his people to
‘‘rise up’’ before the aged (i.e. honor old men,
Lev 19:32). This emphasis is carried over into the
cult. When Moses entered the tent every man
‘rose up”’ at his door and worshiped (Ex 33:10),
thus showing due respect for God. When God
delivers his people, even kings will rise up (paral-
lel to worship, Isa 49:7). Further cultic usage em-
braces the setting up and consecrating of holy
objects or shrines (Deut 27:4). God commands
that idols not be set up (Lev 26:1). Indeed, in the
eschaton he will see this commandment is fulfil-
led (Isa 27:9). Our verb also has an official usage.
That is, it applies to the assumption of a par-
ticular office, e.g. religious head of a clan (Gen

793

1999 BI (gum)

37:7), prophet (Deut 34:10), judge (Jud 10:1).
These offices are distinguished by their non-
hereditary succession (the word was not applied
to the priestly office). Our word has a legal usage
whereby it connotes the validity of one’s tes-
timony in a trial (Deut 19:15). A related usage is
the sense of the valid transfer of property (Gen
23:17). Perhaps, God reflects on this legal sense in
his statements that his word shall stand (Num
23:19; Isa 40:8; etc.). This usage often occurs in
contexts referring to covenants, and especially
the divine covenant. God announces his coven-
ant to men (Gen 9:11), and asserts that he will see
that it is accomplished (Gen 17:19). He notes at
various historical moments that he has estab-
lished (frequently a Hiphil of gam) his covenant
(Ex 6:4). He makes sure that men recognize that
covenantal blessings are contingent on their
obedience (Deut 28:9), although they should
never forget that blessing does not come because
of their merit (Deut 9:5). The interchange of
karat ‘“‘cut’’ and hégim ‘‘establish”’ with b° rit
‘*covenant’’ is not due to different sources, J/E
and P respectively, but due to the semantic dif-
ference between initiating or making (karat) a
covenant and confirming or establishing (hégim)
one. Throughout Israel's history these intercon-
nected themes emerge, and pious men affirm
God's faithfulness in carrying out his covenant
(e.g. I Kgs 8:20). Ultimately, all of man’s prom-
ises will fail and only God’s covenant will stand
(Isa 28:18). God's temporal covenants are stages
in the unveiling of his eternal covenant which is
the expression of his unbreakable counsel (Isa
46:10) and purpose (Isa 14:24). His will (coven-
ant) finds its most perfect and fullest expression
in the person and work of Jesus Christ (e.g. Gal 3:
Heb 9).

Finally, our word is frequently used in martial
contexts. It refers to preparation for (Jud 7:15),
engagement in (Ex 2:17), and victory in war (or
struggle, Josh 7:2). Sometimes, giam connotes
anticipated or realized victory. When God en-
gages in combat victory is certain. Thus the word
may denote his creative, saving, and judging ac-
tion. Pious men frequently beseech him to rise in
their behalf (Num 16:35). This enlightens many
Psalm texts in which this idea of victory is not
immediately apparent (Ps 3:7 [H 8]): 76:9 [H 10]);
35:2). When God ts on one’s side he prevails over
his enemies. Those who are against God are
warned of immediate (Ps 89:43 [H 44]) and ulti-
mate (Ps 1:5) failure.

qoma. Height, high. This noun modelled on
the Qal infinitive absolute (plus a feminine end-
ing) is used of vertical dimension, i.e. what a
thing has when it is raised upright.

qama. Standing grain. This noun (the normal
Qal participial form, plus feminine ending) is used

2000 433 (gdp)

of a cereal crop which can be harvested (Deut
23:25 [H 26]), ground to make meal, may or may
not have heads (Hos 8:7), and like grass may be
planted on rooftops (II Kgs 19:26).

qim. Adversary. This collective noun (partici-
ple) denotes those who stand up against. It oc-
curs only in Job 22:20, but this usage of the root is
not rare (see below).

qima. Rising. This noun (participle plus
feminine abstract ending) together with “sitting
down’ constitutes an expression denoting all ac-
tivity (Lam 3:63).

qommiydt. Upright. This substantive denotes
an upright position. In Lev 26:13, however, it is
an adverb (GKC sec. 864).

t‘qdma. Ability to stand and resist. This
abstract noun (GKC, 8S5Sr) represents the ability
to stand and resist one’s enemies.

maqom. Place. This mem preformative noun
represents the physical location where something
is or ought to be, i.e. its station. So, it is trans-
lated “place,” ““-home,” ‘‘room.”” Infrequently,
it applies to that where nothing is, hence, open
space (cf. | Sam 26:13; Isa 5:8).

Bibliography: Sawyer, John F. A., “‘Hebrew
Words for the Resurrection of the Dead,” VT
23:218-34. TDNT, VII, pp. 641-46. THAT, II,
pp. 635—40.

| Pan Ge

2000 "1 (gdp) ape (IKgs 10:22 = Il Chr9:21).

2001 "I> (quip). Assumed root of the following.

200la ABIDH (f° qupda) coming round, cir-
cult of time or space (Ex 34:22,
I} Chr 24:23 = 1 Sam 1:20: Ps
19:7),

2002. p> (quis) ZT, be grieved, loath. (asv and
rsv frequently translate differently, with
RSV introducing the idea of “‘fear’’ or
“*dread’’ [Ex 1:12] and probably [at least
in part] because of the seeming parallelism
with gar Hj.)

qus denotes the deep emotional reaction of the
subject issuing in a desired repulsion (or destruc-
tion) of the object. Compare the following
synonyms: bd‘ash “to be or become stinking,
odious, gd'‘al “to cast away as unclean, to
loathe, shdqas “‘to detest as unclean,” ftd‘ab
“to treat as an abomination’ in a ritualistic and,
also, a moral and general sense, déra’dn “object
of contempt.’ and gz, a variant spelling of our
root. The root occurs nine times.

Understanding the state of mind denoted by
this root enlightens many passages. Rebekah
complained to Isaac that she loathed her life be-

794

cause of Esau’s wives (Gen 27:46). If she is tell-
ing the truth perhaps their strange ways had so
irritated her that her life had become unbearable.
At least this is probably what Isaac believed. It is
such an irntation and loathing that is forbidden
toward God's fatherly reproof (gis is parallel to
ma‘as, q.v.). This word describes God's feelings
toward the Canaanites (Lev 20:23) and toward all
idolatry (cf. gut). Israel used it to describe their
feelings toward the manna after prolonged feed-
ing on it (Num 21:5). Several peoples are de-
scribed as having such an irritating abhorrence of
Israel (Ex 1:12: Num 22:3; I Kgs 11:25), and Is-
rael felt the same toward her enemies (cf. Isa 7:6,
16).

L.J.C.

2003 YI (qgws) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2003a PID (qgds) thornbush, thorn (e.g.
Gen 3:18: Hos 10:8).

mg (q’whssét) locks of hair-
(Song 5:2).

2003b

MINI (g°wassot). See no. 2003b.
WIP (qawqaw). See no. 1994b.

2004 339 (quar) I, dig for water.

Derivative
2004a = t532% «(madqor) fountain.

This root denotes the action of digging for
water, but not in the sense of digging a permanent
well (apparently). Due to the aridity of Palestine,
much attention was devoted to acquiring sources
of water. It occurs only in the report of Sen-
nachenib's boast (II Kgs 19:24).

magor. Fountain. asv and Rsv translate simi-
larly, with the rsv consistently (nghtly so) render-
ing fountain. Basically, this noun of place em-
phasizes the source of flowing water and the
product of one’s effort (or at least, of change). It
occurs eighteen times. Its near cognate ma‘ydan
emphasizes the place of an ‘ayin ‘spring’ (a
natural flow of water; cf. mabbiia‘). Cf. Ug. mgr
‘fountain’ (UT 19: nos. 2215, 2263).

This word is probably a loan word, since it
occurs primarily in poetical contexts (except Lev
20:18: 12:7). Interestingly, this word is usually
used figuratively. But its figurative use can be
best comprehended against the great importance
attached to water sources in Israel. The womb,
e.g. is referred to not only as a fountain of blood
but also as the fountain from which children issue
(Prov 5:18: cf. Ps 68:26 {H 27]). God punishes
nations by drying up their sources of water (Jer
51:36).

The major theological use of mdgqg6ér occurs in
the phrase ‘fountain of life.”” In wisdom litera-

ture it expresses the goal of prudent action. Thus
the phrase describes the blessing of the law of the
wise (Prov 13:14), understanding (Prov 16:22),
and the mouth of the righteous (Prov 10:11). It
can hardly be overlooked that the ‘fear of the
Lord’’ is so described (Prov 14:27). The source of
life (indeed, of all that precedes) in the godly is
God himself (Ps 36:9 [H 10]) whom the Israelites
forsook (Jer 2:13) for broken cisterns which
neither produce nor retain lifegiving water (Jer
17:13). In the covenant God reasserts his promise
(Deut 30) to restore his people, but this time he
would open to them a fountain of life which re-
moves sin and uncleanness (Zech 13:1): Jesus
(John 4:13-14). This is another of the many wit-
nesses to the deity of Chnist.

| els OF
2005 “3 (qwr) IT. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
200Sa 39 (quar) thread, film (Isa 59:5,
only).
m2 (qord). See no. 2068d.

2006 ws> (yush) lay bait or lure (Isa 29:21,
only).

2006.1 83 (qdt) asmall thing. Ezk 16:41, mean-

ing uncertain.

2007 385 (qtb). Assumed root of the following.
2007a =38> (yefeb) destruction (e.g.
Deut 32:24; Hos 13:14).
2008 982 (yatal) slay (Job 24:14; 13:15: Ps
139: 19).
Derivative
2008a = 98D 3 (qgetel) slaughter (Ob 9.
only).
2009 38> (qdton) be small, insignificant.
Derivatives
2009a T1)2 (gatan) young, insignificant.
2009b 18D (qdton) small, insignificant.

2009c «38 (q'ton) little finger (1

12:10 = If Chr 10:10).

The root gin denotes diminutiveness in quan-
tity or quality. For synonyms compare ‘eprdhim,
gozal (young of birds), dak (thin, scarce, fine),
z°'‘ér (little, short), tap (little children, as com-
pared to adults), ma‘at (few, little of quantity,
and infrequently, of quality), sa@‘ir (younger, lit-
tle, insignificant and less privileged and/or desir-
able), and baziy (despised). Its antonyms are
gadol (great, etc.), and bahur (fully developed,
vigorous, unmarried young man). The root oc-
curs (with the derivatives here listed) 107 times.

Kgs

2011 *"82 (qatar)

The root qtn is frequently contrasted with
gadol (e.g. II Chr 36:18). Israel was forbidden to
carry two sets of weights (Deut 25:13; cf. Amos
8:5). Rehoboam defiantly said that his small
(finger) would be more oppressive (cf. gdashda)
than Solomon's loins (I Kgs 12:10). God’s word
binds his messengers (Num 22:18). His sover-
eignty is seen as upholding all sea creatures (Ps
104:25), indeed, all things.

The concept “‘little in years’’ (young) is also
denoted by our root. Benjamin ts described as the
youngest (Gen 42:15, gdto6n; 44:20, gatan; 43:33,
sa‘ir), as are Ham (Gen 9:24) and David (I Sam
17:14). Leprous Naaman followed a young (little)
girl's (II Kgs 5:2) advice and ended up with skin
like that of a young child (v. 14). Elisha being
taunted (cf. galas, garah) by young lads (perhaps
teen-age ruffians) (11 Kgs 2:23) who as members
of covenant families ought to have been taught
God's law whereby cursing his servant was tan-
tamount to cursing him and rightly punishable by
death (cf. galal).

Often the little is the weak and the insignifi-
cant. Bathsheba seeks a not too insignificant
boon of Solomon (I Kgs 2:20). When Jacob bles-
ses Joseph's sons, he says the younger (qgdton
Gen 48:19: cf. 48:14, sa‘ir, q.v.) shall be greater
(not just larger, but more important) than the el-
der. God reminds Saul that when he was insignif-
icant and weak in his own eyes (1 Sam 15:17;
9:21), he made him king over the mighty ones of
Israel. In the eschaton God will make the weak
and insignificant among his people to be strong
and great (Isa 60:22), and it is the little child who
will lead the mighty (Isa 11:6). Our word is paired
with “the great’’ (ga@d6/) representing all (1 Sam
5:9) men in Israel (Deut 1:17), and Israel's army
(I Kgs 22:31). Josiah: summoned all of Israel from
small to great to hear the law read (II Kgs 23:2;
cf. Jer 44:12; 42:8; Ps 115:13).

qaton. Young, insignificant, little. This adjec-
tive basically modifies its subject in terms of lit-
tleness in quantity or quality. It occurs fifty-six
times.

qatan. Young, insignificant, little. This adjec-
tive parallels gdton in meaning. It occurs forty-
seven times.

2010 582 (qatap) pluck off or out
17:4; Deut 23:26).

(e.g. Ezk

2011 *389 (gatar) I, burn incense or sacrifices.
Denominative verb. Does not occur in the

Qal.
Parent Noun

20lla TH3OP (q"foret) incense.
201Ib T5589 (gitér) thick smoke
19:28: Ps 119:83; 148:8).

(Gen

795

2011 *"BP (qatar)

201Ic t5OP (qgittér) incense (Jer 44:21,
only).

201I1d 63 (migtar) place of sacrificial
smoke.

201le 798% (miqtar) incense (Mal
1:11).

2011f 9 tmser (migteret) censer.

20llg TAIBRM (m'qgattérd) incense altar.

The verb gGtar is used only in the Hiphil and
Piel, and their passives.

qatar means ‘‘to cause to rise up in smoke.” It
is generally used cultically, but is used once
non-cultically (of perfuming, Song 3:6). One
should compare the many Hebrew words for sac-
rifice; especially zdbah (to sacrifice by offering
blood), ‘a/a (in Hiphil, to offer up to a deity),
qarab (to approach, engage in offering; cf.
ndgash). Also compare words for “‘to burn,”
especially sarap (to destroy by burning), bd‘ar
(the burning of wood, lamps, etc.), ydgad (the
burning with fire, i.e., kindled), etc. The Babylo-
nian cognate is gatdru ‘to rise, cause to rise.”
Hebrew uses the root 190 times (115 times as a
verb).

Our verb is a technical expression denoting not
only the burning of incense but all other offerings
as well (KD, Jeremiah, p. 46). It may parallel
zabah (Hos 4:13; 11:2: etc.), or be used of burn-
ing (offering) burnt offerings and incense (IJ Chr
13:11). The purpose of such burning is to render
the thing offered into smoke which would ascend
(as the ethereal essence of the thing) to the deity
as a Sweet-smelling savor (KD, Pentateuch, i,
p. 288). Most of these sacrifices consisted of
common foods and as such served to consecrate
life (cf. dam, blood), one’s calling, and the fruits
(i.e. the blessings from God) of life to God
(OTOT, p. 262; cf. Jer 44:15). Hence, the best
parts (fat, Lev 4:10) and the firstborn of sacrifi-
cial animals (as representing both the best and the
whole, Num 18:17) always belong to God. The
offering represents both the surrender of the
thing offered to God and a vicarious substitution
(death penalty) of the offering for the offerer
(Vos, BT, p. 186f.). This answers to the fulfill-
ment in Christ (Jn 17:19; Eph 5:2).

The Hiphil stem is used for true (or at least
what is thought to be true) sacrifices. Because
man is a creature limited by creatureliness and
the fall (Gen 8:21; Rom 5:12), the sovereign gra-
cious Jehovah specifies the particulars of sac-
rifice. Almost every specification was broken at
one time or another and violators blasphemously
demanded (or assumed) acceptance in God's
sight. Eli's sons dishonored God by disregarding
his claim to the choicest parts (I Sam 2:16; Lev
7:31; 4:10). The kings of Israel changed both the
how and where apparently intending the result to
be acceptable before God (I Kgs 12:33: I] Chr
28:4; II Kgs 16:13; cf. Ex 9). Lest one think God

796

is concerned only about external conformity, the
prophets repeatedly emphasized that the spiritual
is the essence of true sacrifice (cf. Vos’s remarks
on Amos 4:4-5 in BT, p. 286). Love in practice
means obedience (Deut 6:4—6; cf. gdl).

The Piel stem (occurring only after the Pen-
tateuch) can also represent the total act of ritual
in worship (II Chr 25:14). Its occurrences trace a
downhill history through the kings of Israel and
Judah. Apparently those acts described by using
this stem either consciously (on the part of the
offerer) or judgmentally (on the part of the re-
corder) were acknowledged contrary to true wor-
ship. This certainly heightens the irony of
Amos'’s statement (4:5). Such false offering imita-
tive of Canaanite worship (Al, p. 438) was blas-
phemous (Isa 65:7), shameful (Jer 11:17), evi-
denced both forgetting (Jer 18:15) and forsaking
God (Jer 19:4), and offered no hope or help to the
idolater (Jer 11:12).

In the eschaton God promises an eternal (Jer
33:18; Heb 7:23f.) and universal (Mal 1:11; cf. II
Pet 2:9) priesthood.

Old Testament ritual was permeated with in-
cense burning (Isa 6:4). God orders that a special
gold-plated altar (the ‘‘golden altar’’) be placed
before the veil of the innermost sanctuary (hence,
Ex 30:10). Every morning and evening burnt of-
fering as well as the great offering of the annual
atonement was to be accompanied by burning in-
cense (Ex 30). Incense mixtures not divinely pre-
scribed were unacceptable (Ex 30:34), while the
divine prescription was not to be used for non-
cultic purposes (Ex 30:37). This holy incense was
to be ignited only by coals from the altar of burnt
incense (Isa 6:6) which had had the sacrificial
blood upon them. Use of other (strange) fire was
punishable by death (Lev 10: 1-2). Incense smoke
represents prayer (cf. Ps 141:2; OTOT, p. 273; cf.
Lk 1:10; Rev 5:8; 8:3f). Even the prayers of
God's people need atonement (Ex 30:10). Fi-
nally, unwitting sin is atoned by smearing blood

‘on the horns of the altar of incense (Lev 4:7).

These are the only two instances in the per-
petual rites of Israel where blood is smeared on
the horns of an altar. A comparison of the places
of the smearings in their respective rituals will
reveal that the sprinkling and smearing of blood
are reversed—the great atonement ritual (Lev
17:18) placing the smearing first. Furthermore,
the two rituals stipulate a different procedure of
the smearing with respect to which altar(s), etc.,
the blood is to be applied. The rite for unwitting
sin (Lev 4:7) symbolically restores the offender
to service in his proper covenantal role. The
sprinkling in the great atonement serves as a
purification of the respective altars, and hence,
symbolically what they represent. Their defile-
ment rests not upon any act of the nation, but
upon the nature of the nation itself, 1.e., it con-
sists of a conglomerate of humanity. Therefore,

2017 1° (qayin)

perhaps these smearing rituals are to teach the 2014 3 (qava) vomit (Jer 25:27). Probably a
people the close relationship, and yet distinct dif- by-form of qi’.

ference between original and unwitting sin.

"30° (qgitor). See no. 201 1b.

ee
q‘toret. Incense, perfume. asv and rsv the p°5 (gim). See no. 1999c.

same. This noun denotes that which produces a

sweet smelling odor (g"toret Sammim) when 5015
burned: a perfume (Prov 27:9) or (more com-
monly) an incense for cultic usage. Compare:

l* bond, a spice (frankincense) which may be used 1016
as an incense and rgh, perfume, ointment. Com-

pare Phoenician gtrt (H. Donner and W. Rollig

KAI, II, p. 21). The noun occurs sixty times.

> (qyn). Assumed root of the following.
2015a D3 (qgayin) spear (II Sam 21:16).

M2 (gayin), 30° «6(géni) Kenite, Ke-
nites, Kain. (ASV and rsv translate the
same.)

This tribe did not descend from Adam's son
Cain (whose descendants were destroyed by the
flood), but were perhaps so named because of
their occupation, metalworking. Their origin
cannot be determined (KD, Pentateuch, 1, p.
q‘tora. Incense. This hapax legomenon (Deut 218). Our word occurs fifteen times.

33:10) is a variant (ancient?) spelling for g° toret. These people appear as dwellers among the
Canaanites (Gen 15:19) and later among the
Midianites (Num 10:29), although probably not
physically descended from either (KD, loc. cit.).
The Kenites living in Canaan were among the
enemies of Israel cursed by Balaam (Num
miqtar. Place of sacrificial smoke. This hapax 24:21-22). The Kenites of Midian became allied

qitér. Smoke, vapor. asv and rsv differ only in
Ps 148:8, which rsv emends to “‘frost."” This
non-cultic term (occuring four times) usually de-
notes that which ascends from burning.

qitter. Incense. This hapax legomenon repre-
sents all the elements of idoiatrous worship (Jer
44:21). It may be the Northwest Canaanite spell-
ing for q“ toret, cf. Ugaritic gtr (UT 19: no. 2220).

legomenon (Ex 30:1) in conjunction with g° toret to Israel (ot election was selective but not exclu-
specifies an altar (mizbéah, q.v.) upon which to sive) when Moses married Zipporah and then
burn incense. Hobab went along to help Israel in the desert

ane Saat ; (Num 10:29). They also intermarried among the
migqtar. The kindling of incense. This hapax Calebites (I Chr 2:55). It appears that the Canaan

legomenon denotes either the burnt offering oe :
(KB), or (preferably) that which accompanies the Seah aa ee np nezal

sacrifice, viz., the kindling of incense (KD, in

loc.) Much has been fabricated regarding the so-

called Kenite origins of the Mosaic religion and
migteret. Censer. This word denotes the gol- documents (cf. R. K. Harrison, IOT: R. G.
den vessel held in the hand to carry coals (IJ Chr North, *‘The Cain Music,’ JBL 83:373-89). The
26:19) and incense (Ezk 8:11). Kenites figure prominently in the recorded his-
tory of Israel especially through Rechab and his
atic r the. Piel caiticinlé: 1eciecd OF tdolaicouccal- descendants. He was so well-known for his zeal

. ig nace Sand aad tots Oar ea data for God that Jehu accepted him as an ally and

tars. Canaanite altars shaped like the one in the . ; are
temple (but smaller) have been found from the oe ee ie ea peaches pe
Bs one Le, es “The Uses Johonadab established a nomadic and religious
of incehee cake Ancient Israelite ‘Ritual "VT oreer when abe peypetuated the godly zeal of Re-
10: 113-29 : chab even until Jeremiah’s day that the prophet
could use them as a living illustration of what
God required (Jer 35). Of course, the concern

.
2012 <> (qatar) II, shut in, enclose (Ezk eked zeal for God and not their zeal for

46:22, only). Meaning dubious. oF Ae

m‘qattera. Incense altar. This noun, modelled

L.J.C.

nye (q°toret). See no. 20! 1a. 2017 3%. (qgavin) Cain. (asv and Rsv translate

2013 N°2 (qi) vomit up, disgorge (e.g. Lev the same.)

18:28: Jon 2:11). This is the name of Adam’s murderous son (cf.
KD for fuller treatment). The root has a late (but

Derivatives clear) connection with metalworkers (G. A.

2013a =D (qé’) what is vomited up (Prov Cooke, A Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscrip-
26:11, only). tions, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, pp. 286~

2013b «=N%2 «(qi') ~vomit (Isa 28:8; 19:14, 87). Perhaps this explains its application to
Jer 48:26). peoples of Abraham's day (Gen 15:19). It occurs

797

2018 *359 (qin)

sixteen times of Adam's son. Cf. gayin I, spear,
and II, Kenite, Kenites, Kain. As is usually the
case In popular etymologies, however, the proper
name 1s probably not associated with this precise
etymological root gyn “to forge,” but, as Gen 4:1
shows, by assonance and word play with another
root, ganda’ “‘to possess” or *‘to bring forth.”’

| oe et

2018 *1 (qin) chanta dirge. This denomina-
tive verb occurs only in the Polel stem.

Parent Noun
2018a T7249 (gina) lamentation.

gin denotes that activity whereby mourners in-
toned (sung: cf. Amos 8:10), a poem of bereave-
ment. It differs from other words of mourning by
having this very limited use (cf. 'd@ba/, mourning
rites, mourning in general; sdpad, to perform the
lamentation; I Sam 25:1, etc.: Al, p. 60). Our
word occurs six times.

qina. Lamentation, dirge. ASV and Rsv simi-
lar. This noun represents a poem which is
chanted (sung). It is to be distinguished from
‘anivad (mourning by uttering various ejaculatory
sounds; cf. n° hi), mispéd (various acts of mourn-
ing, especially, beating the breast), etc. The noun
occurs eighteen times.

The lamentation was sung during the mourning
rites or prophetically of impending death and/or
destruction (Jer 7:19; Ezk 2:10). It constituted the
chief funeral ceremony. Simpler forms consist of
sharp repeated cnes (Mic 1:8; I Kgs 13:30). This
rite was performed by close relations (Gen 32:2),
close friends, everyone present (1 Sam 28:3), and
often by professional male or female mourners (II
Chr 35:25; Amos 5:16)—but, especially, women
(Jer 9:16f.). The lamentation is the closest He-
brew poetry comes to using meter (T. Weir, in
ISBE, p. 1836), although the gind meter could be
used for other purposes than mourning (cf. Ps
19:7-9). Some scholars note that biblical elegies
have no religious content (AI, p. 61), and al-
though this is true in some instances (II Sam
1: 19ff.), it is not always the case since in the best
example of gind meter (Lam) there is much reli-
gious content (R. K. Harnson, /ntroduction to
the Old Testament, Eerdmans, 1969, p. 1066.

Bibliography: Harrison, R. K., **Hebrew
Poetry,’’ ZPEB, III, pp. 76-87. TDOT, III, pp.
150-52. Gevirtz, S., Patterns in the Early Poetry
of Israel, University of Chicago, 1973, pp. 12-13.

| Pe i Se
‘0 6(qgéni). See no. 2016.
2019 ys (gis) I, awake. This verb occurs
only in the Hiphil (e.g. IT Kgs 4:31; Ezk
7:6). Used of resurrection in Job 14:12 (cf.
halap); Ps 17:15; and Dan 12:2.

798

2022 “9 (gir) wall, side.

2020 y> (qgvs) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2020a_ yp «(qavis) summer (Gen 8:22),
summer-fruit (Amos 8:1—2 where it
is used in a play on words with gés
‘‘end’’ from qgasas).
Vp (gis). See nos. 2019, 2020, 904.
13° (gisdn). See no. 2060b.

2021 19% (yigadyon) a plant (NIV, ‘‘vine,”

Jon 4:6, 7, 9, 10).

ND «(gigalén). See no. 2028f.
Derivation uncer-
tain. (ASV and Rsv translate the same.)

gir denotes a wide (proportionately) perpen-
dicular structure (especially the surface) usually
made of stone, but possibly of other matenals. It
occurs seventy-four times. Our word occurs in
Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2265), and extra-biblical
Canaanite (H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAT, II,
p. 22). Distinguish it from gadér, a wall of stones
without mortar, Oma, an enclosure, hayis, an
outside or partition wall, kdtel, the wall of a
house, and shar, the wall around a well or be-
tween fields.

‘*Wall”’ is frequently a symbol of refuge and
strength. Amos (5:19) depicts the baseless hope
of hypocrites who long for the day of the Lord:
entering a house to escape danger, they lean on
the wall and are bitten by a serpent. There is no
refuge for the ungodly when God judges. So,
Isaiah (22:5) declares that the walls will be hurled
down by siege artillery, and the echoing cries of
the unrepentant godless will be their only answer.
Nor is there refuge and strength in the thin walls
built by false prophecies (Ezk 13:12—15). On that
day an impenetrable iron wall will stand between
the true prophet(s) and the godless (Ezk 4:3).
Jehovah is the perfect wall which restrains all
danger (Isa 25:4). The Psalmist’s enemies seeing
his weakness (Ps 62:3 [H 4]) fail to see his real
strength, which is not himself but God (1-2, 6 (H
2-3, 7]).

L.JsG.
22 (qal),

“> (qol). See nos. 2028a,b.

2023 35 (qala) I, roast, parch.

Derivative

9p (qali), 8°92 (qali’)
grain,

2023a roasted

This root signifies what is done to cook grain.
It is to be contrasted with bdashal ‘bake, boil”
meats and/or bread dough, sa/a ‘‘roast’’ flesh (cf.
sali, the product, roasted flesh). Our root should
be distinguished from gala, II, disgrace, dis-

honor, insignificant. Also, cf. Akk. gala, (vS,
AkkH. I], pp. 895-96). Our root occurs ten times.

qali’, qali. Roasted grain. asv and rsv translate
the same. This noun represents the product of
qald, i.e. roasted grain. This was a staple in the
diet of the ancient Near East, and is still common
today.

Roasted grain ('abib qaluy) was the primary
element of the meal offering (minha, q.v.) of the
firstfruits (Lev 2:14). Israel was not supposed to
partake of the produce of Canaan until after such
an offering (Lev 23:14).

Our root is also used (as is its Babylonian cog-
nate) to mean ‘‘to roast flesh,”’ i.e. the manner of
Zedekiah’s and Ahab’s ignominious deaths. It 1s
to this end that the false prophets curse Jeremiah
(Jer 29:22: cf. Dan 3:6). Also, see Ps 38:7 (H 8}
where this word is applied to David's loins: it is,
perhaps, as though he had a fevered body.

EaeG,

2024 *m9D (qala) II, disgrace, dishonor (Niphal
and Hiphil only).

Derivative
2024a = t%D

This root signifies the lowering of another's so-
cial position; cf. galal (q.v.). Our root frequently
occurs as the opposite of glory and honor (kab-
éd). It occurs twenty-three times. Distinguish
qala I **parched, roasted."’

God orders his people not to punish a man who
starts a pugilistic duel with more than forty
stripes lest he be degraded (put in an unwarranted
social position) in their sight, because he is a
brother Israelite (Deut 25:3). In view of his mate-
rial and social inferiority (cf. rish), David de-
clined becoming the king’s son-in-law because
this would have degraded that position (I Sam
18:23). Fulfilling Saul’s request he advanced his
social position. Isaiah describes the ungodly
chaos of his day wherein covenantal relationships
were reversed. Brother oppresses brother, and
the young exalt themselves over the aged (cf. Lev
19:32, gam, q.v.), and the base (those who do not
deserve honor) against those who are worthy of
honor (Isa 3:5).

The Psalmist beseeches God to show his proud
enemies their place (Ps 83:16 [H 17]). Knowledge
of one’s true stance before God is required of all
who are to seek God. God says that he will
change Israel’s self-acclaimed glory into their
rightful social position—dishonor (Hos 4:7). He
will expose their true state for all to see (Jer
13:26). Man’s sinful heart leads him to self-
exaltation, claiming credit for the blessings
graciously bestowed by God. But God thrusts his
creations into an objective state more clearly re-
flecting reality and thus engenders repentance
(Deut 9:5).

(qalon) shame, disgrace.

799

2025 sno

2026 >>

2026 899 (git)

qalon. Shame, disgrace, abuse, dishonor. This
noun represents the effect on the object(s) of the
action exercised in the verb. It denotes a state
wherein its referent is as if he were in a lower
social position than he in fact occupies. This
noun occurs exclusively in poetical contexts, but
is not a late word. Cf. Uganitic git (UT 19: no.
2231).

L.J.C.

(gallahat) cauldron (1 Sam 2:14;
Mic 3:3). An Egyptian loan word.

(git) I. Assumed root of the following.
2026a te?p (miqlat) refuge, asylum.
(ASV, and rSv translate the same.

This noun denotes the place of refuge from the
blood-avenger (go'él, q.v.). It should be distin-
guished from mahseh, a place of refuge for man
and/or animals, manos, a place of escape to
which one flees, and misgab, a place which is
strong or high and, hence, inaccessible. miglat
occurs twenty times.

This noun is always used in connection with
the cities appointed to provide asylum for those
guilty of involuntary manslaughter. Such a provi-
sion prevented excesses in the law of retribution.
Murder constitutes **a transgression against the
Creator and Lord of human life.’’ The guilty per-
son must be executed in order to purify the
theocracy from blood-guilt (OTOT, p. 237). Ini-
tially, those not guilty of homicide could seek
asylum at the altar (Ex 21:12—14), but those who
killed with premeditation should be dragged from
the altar and executed (cf. I Kgs 2:28-31, and
geren). Once settled in Palestine, distance would
render successful flight difficult for many. There-
fore, divine wisdom ordered cities of refuge
throughout the promised land (Num 35:9-34).
The justice of God is merciful and practical.

The instruction to appoint cities of refuge is
first recorded in Num 35. Those who fled to such
cities were to receive temporary asylum until
they stood trial to substantiate their innocence
(regarding intentional murder) before the congre-
gation. If vindicated, the fugitive was to be re-
ceived into the city. He was to stay there until the
death of the high priest. Were the go’él to en-
counter him outside its environs, the fugitive
could be killed legally. After the death of the high
priest, the fugitive could return home a ‘‘free”’
man. Hence, one guilty of involuntary homicide
was imprisoned in a sense. To take life (even un-
intentionally) was to attack the image of God
(Gen 9:5-7), and therefore warranted death.
Some believe that the only significance of the
high priest’s death was to set a definite limit to
the period of incarceration. However, in view of
the specific note that no ransom (kdper, q.v.) was
to be exacted to effect the release (Num 35:32), it

2027 692 (qalat)

seems that the priest's death stood in lieu of such
a ransom—it propitiated for the offense. Ulti-
mately, the proper avenger was God himself (Gen
9:5-7). So, God the judge and avenger accepted
the death of the high priest as a propitiation for
such crimes. It can hardly be denied that in this
the priesthood constituted a type of Chnist.

Subsequently, the elders of a town were as-
signed (in addition to their other responsibilities)
to be judges on behalf of the congregation (Deut
19:12). For the New Testament application,
compare the system of elder-judges established
by Christ (Matt 18:17ff.) and the apostles (Acts
14:23; 15: I Tim 3; et al.).

The cities of refuge were designated in two
groups after each major stage of the conquest
(Deut 4:41-43; 19:2; Josh 20:7-8). There is no
record as to how (or whether) these cities
functioned, but this hardly proves that they did
not so function. Finally, all these cities were
made levitical towns.

Bibliography: Cf. R. deVaux, AI, p. 160-3;
N. H. Ridderbos, *‘Cities of Refuge,’ in NBD.

LLC,

2027 wos (qalat)
only).

II, be stunted (Lev 22:23,

2 (qali), 99 (qali’). See no. 2023a.

2028 495 (qgdlal) be slight, swift, trifling, of little

account.
Derivatives

2028a tp (gal) swift.

2028b % (qdl) lightness, frivolity (Jer
3:9, only).

2028c 492 (qalal) burnished (Ezk 1:7;
Dan 10:6).

2028d ie (q‘lala) curse.

2028e 9279 (q°loqgél) contemptible,
worthless.

2028f 95% (gigalén) disgrace.

The basic meaning of this root sets forth the
quality of “‘slightness’’ as to provision, speed
(where it means swift), or circumstance. In the
latter instance the condition described is less than
that deserved by or divinely intended for the ob-
ject. So, this root ts used (especially in the inten-
sive stems) of intending a lowered position, tech-
nically, to curse. Our root occurs 130 times.

The primary meaning ‘‘to be light or slight,”
applied to individuals, is used of Hagar’s esteem
for Sarah (Gen 16:4—5). Sarah was not lowered in
position. As a barren women, however, she was
‘‘lowered’’ in function and prestige. Hence,
Hagar’s attitude ‘“‘struck home.”’ A similar use
occurs where David (II Sam 6:22, Niphal) tells
Michal that he will lower himself even more
(paralleled by shapal). This idea is the exclusive

800

emphasis of the intensive stems. So Nehemiah
(13:25) asserted a curse formula and saw it ef-
fected on its objects (those who married foreign
women) by publicly disgracing them. The Psalm-
ist (Ps 109:28) contrasts his enemies’ vilification
of him with God's blessing and prays that the fate
they desire for him be applied to them, 1.e. that
they be put to shame (cf. Ps 62:4 [H 5}).

The noun q‘ /ala represents a formula express-
ing lowering from election. Thus, when informed
of Rebekah’s scheme, Jacob fears he will bring a
q‘ lala *‘a curse’’—removed from the blessing of
election—upon himself (see Gen 27:11-12; also
especially Jer 24:9). It is used similarly in Deut
27:13 as the opposite of covenantal blessing.
When actually enunciated as covenantal sanc-
tion, the word for ‘“‘curse’’ is ’arar (the state ac-
complished). So, our word represents the state
described and possible (as in Deut 11:26; 30:19)
where God sets before his people the result of
breaking the covenant. God does not destroy
humanity in his dealings with man (man is a
decision-making creation). Neither does God
give man the just recompense due his repeated
and essential rejection of the covenant. So with
Josiah, for example, God's grace is clearly oper-
ative (I Kgs 22:19; cf. Jer 26:6). The promise of
divine provision of eternal deliverance is, there-
fore, exhibited in this use. Finally, this noun in-
frequently depicts the end itself. According to
Deut 21:23 the corpse of a crucified person, im-
pure and defiling, is to be burned before dark in
order to avoid polluting the land.

The heathen felt that men could manipulate the
gods (God). Hence, Goliath cursed David (I Sam
17:43), and Balaam was called to curse Israel
(Num 22:6). The baseless curse, however, has no
effect (Prov 26:2). Only God’s formulas are effec-
tive (Ps 37:22). As God said to Abraham: ‘‘he
who curses (gala!) you’’ (pronounces a formula),
‘*T will curse ('drar) him*’ (put him in the state).
To curse God's prophet was to attack God and to
bring on one’s head divine judgment, as was the
case with the boys who vilified (cf. galas) Elisha
and were cursed (q4lal) by him (II Kgs 2:24). See
also Neh 13:J-3 where the descendants of Moab
and Ammon are barred from worship (a form of
Spiritual death).

To enunciate a baseless formula is to intend or
accomplish a violation (or reversal) of the created
structure and to intend real harm, as by sympa-
thetic magic. This is what children (or servants)
are forbidden to do with parents (or lords, life-
givers, Ex 21:17ff). Such an action is an attack on
God himself and is punishable by death (Lev
20:9). It is deep rebellion against God to curse
one’s parents and then assert one’s ethical purity
(Prov 30:11; cf. Ezk 22:7). The ultimate offense is
to rob God of his honor by using his name to
express anger or frustration (Lev 24:11-—23).

qal. Swift. This adjective qualifies its object as
to speed. When the Lord comes in judgment it is
upon a swift cloud (Isa 19:1). The Lord’s recom-
pensing is effected speedily and swiftly in the day
of judgment (Joel 3:4 [H 4:4]).

q’lala. Curse. The prmary emphasis here is
the absence (or reversal) of a blessed or rightful
state and lowering to a lesser state. g‘lald also
stresses the formula whereby this is expressed.
Our word should be distinguished from ‘ala con-
noting oaths in general and curses as part of that
larger category, from 'arar (which describes the
state of lifelessness (absence of blessing, Deut
27:16), from hadram which signifies devotion to
destruction or sacred use, and gadbab which has
to do with actually uttering the curse on some-
thing (used mainly in the Balaam narrative and
Job).

q‘logél Worthless or vile. Complaining Israel
thus descnbed the food which the Lord provided
(Num 21:5). This word occurs only once.

qgiqalén. Disgrace. The root idea ‘lowered’
honor predominates here and is intensified as ts
clear from the sole use of the word (Hab 2:16).
Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., ‘‘The
Curse, Blasphemy, the Spell, and the Oath,”’
HUCA 23 (73-95). THAT, II, pp. 641-46.
Ech.

19> (qalén), ND (galén). See no. 2024a.
2029 *p%>5 (galas) mock, scoff (Piel and Hith-
pael only).

Derivatives

20292 bop
2029b

This root denotes the scornful belittling issuing
from an attitude which counts as valueless that
which is of real value. It is to be compared to
hdtal, “‘trifle,” la‘ab ‘‘to make jest of,” /a‘ag
‘to scornfully mimic,”’ ‘dlal ‘‘to abuse, laugh
at,’ sdhaq/Sahagq *‘to make sport of, laugh at.”
Uganttic attests gis, a near cognate (AisWUS no.
2414). Our verb occurs four times.

The primary meaning of this word is seen in
Ezk 16:31 where Jerusalem is compared to a
whore (temple prostitute) who gives herself
freely, despising (gis) the money, i.e. she counts
the money as of no value.

(geles) derision.
mo?> (qallasd) mocking.

2030 yp (qala‘) I, sling, hurl forth
20:16; 1 Sam 17:49).

(e.g. Jud

Derivatives
2030a_ -y¥s «(qgela‘) I, sling.
2030b «yep (qalla') slinger (11 Kgs 3:25).

801

2032 we (qill*shén) forks.

2034 wip (qamat)

2030c yes (qgela') H, curtain, hang-

ing (e.g. Ex 27:9; Num 3:26).

2031 yop (qdla‘) H,carve (1 Kgs6:29, 32,35).
35).

Derivative

nyop (miqla‘at)
6:18; 7:31).

2031a carving (I Kgs

bees (q‘ldgél). See no. 2028e.

Meaning in de-
tail dubious (1 Sam 13:21).

Mae (qgoma), M22 (gama). See nos. 1999a,b.
wine (gimmos). See no. 2037a.

2033 Mm (qmh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2033a tmp (qemah) meal flour.
RSV translate the same.)

(ASV and

Our word denotes the product resulting when
grain (perhaps wheat) is ground. It should be dis-
tinguished from Ssdlet (q.v.), fine flour, and the
various unground grains. It occurs in Ugaritic as
qmh (UT, 19: no. 2237), and in Akkadian gému
(vs, AKkH. IL). Biblical usages number fourteen.

This word denotes the common people's flour.
It was the product of cereal grain plants and not
the plants themselves (Hos 8:7). It was made by
women (or slaves) using millstones (Isa 47:2). It
was the staple of the woman of Zerephath (I Kgs
17:12), and part of David's (1 Chr 12:40) and Sol-
omon's (I Kgs 4:22 [H 5:2]) provender. Appar-
ently, it was mixed with oil and cooked to make
biscuits (Gen 18:6). Abraham served these bis-
cuits to his mysterious guests and they ate. When
Gideon served a similar meal to the angel of the
Lord as a sacrifice the offering was consumed by
fire (Jud 6:19).

God makes it clear that he does not depend on
man's offerings for sustenance. How different
from the pagan concept of God as reflected, for
example, in the Enama Elish (Roland de Vaux,
Al, p. 448ff.). The usual flour involved in the meal
offering was sdlet, which was perhaps a finer va-
riety of gemah (cf. I] Sam 17:28). Hence, in Num
5: 15, since this ‘‘offering’’ was not to God, it
consisted of secondary (and cheaper) flour with
no incense or oil added. In Gen 18:6 Abraham
parenthetically (perhaps) tells Sarah to prepare
biscuits from not just gemah (ordinary meal) but
from sdlet (finely ground meal). It may well be
that this sdlet reflects Akkadian saladtu, crushed.

L.J.C.

2034 82 (qamat) seize (Job 16:8, 22:16).

2035 2232 (qamél)
2035 ‘S32 (qamél) be decayed (isa 33:9; 19:6).

mis (qommivit). See no. 1999e.

2036 pre (qamas) enclose with the hand,
grasp (Lev 2:2; 5:12; Num 5:26).
Derivative

2036a = y2 (qomes) closed hand,

fist (Gen 41:47; Lev 1:2; 5:12).

2037 wp (gms). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
‘2037a = wD Ss (gimmos) thistles or nettles
(Isa 34:13; Hos 9:6; Prov 24:31).

> (gén). See no. 2042a.

2038 *NJP (qand’) be jealous, envious, zealous
(Piel and Hiphil only). Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2038a ASI (gin'd) ardor, zeal.
2038b +832 (qannd’) jealous.
2038c +8332 (gannd') Jealous.

This verb expresses a very strong emotion
whereby some quality or possession of the object
is desired by the subject. This root occurs
eighty-seven times. There is a questionable oc-
currence(s) of the root in Ugaritic (UT 19: no.
2246). The verb is (perhaps) a denominative of
gin'd (BDB).

The term may be used in a purely descriptive
sense to denote one of the characteristics of liv-
ing men (Eccl 9:6), or in a derogatory sense to
denote hostile and disruptive passions (Prov 27:4)
or in a favorable sense to denote consuming zeal
focused on one that is loved (Ps 69:9 [H 10)}).

It may prove helpful to think of **zeal’’ as the
original sense from which derived the notions
‘*zeal for another's property’’ =‘‘envy’’ and
‘‘zeal for one’s own property’’ = “‘jealousy.”’

Accordingly, our root is often translated
‘‘envy.'’ It expresses the feeling which barren
Rachel had toward prolific Leah (Gen 30:1).
Joseph's brothers were similarly related to him
after his fateful dream (Gen 37:11). Edom’s deep
jealousy of Israel's favor before God accom-
panied anger and hatred (Ezk 35:11). So, this root
does not express superficial emotion. God says
the righteous are not to long deeply after the ap-
parent (but short-lived) prosperity of the wicked
(Ps 37:1). A consideration of their ultimate end
led the psalmist to cease his envy (Ps 73:3).

The central meaning of our word, however, re-
lates to ‘‘jealousy’’ especially in the marriage re-
lationship. Adultery was punishable by death
(Lev 20:10; Deut 22:22). By marriage the ‘‘two
become one flesh’’ (Gen 2:24). Hence, adultery

802

was a severing of the body—a form of murder.
Because woman usurped man’s position in Eden
the law was constructed to emphasize her subjec-
tion and man’s leadership (Gen 3:16). Hence,
provision was made for a husband to accuse and
discover suspected adultery (Num 5). Nor should
it be overlooked that this was also a means
whereby an accused but innocent woman could
escape the accusation and wrath of a jealous hus-
band inasmuch as God himself would pronounce
her guiltless. The law provides a fit end for jus-
tified jealousy, the death of the offender (IDB,
ITI, p. 332).

God is depicted as Israel’s husband; he is a
jealous God (Ex 20:5). Idolatry is spiritual adul-
tery and merits death. Phinehas played the faith-
ful lover by killing a man and his foreign wife, and
thus stayed the wrath of divine jealousy (Num
25:11). Joshua repeated the fact that God is a
jealous God who would not tolerate idolatry and
the people voluntarily placed themselves under
God’s suzerainty (Josh 24:19). Through idolatry
Israel incited God to justified wrath, e.g. in the
days of Ahab, and God punished them. UIlti-
mately, repeated warnings went unheeded and
God gave his people the justice due their spiritual
adultery (Ezk 5:13; 8:3, 5; 16:38). The Psalmist
identified the jealousy of God as the cause of the
exile and he besought his Sovereign to quench his
wrath against Israel (Ps 79:5). According to prom-
ise God rested his jealous wrath against Israel
(Ezk 16:42; cf. Deut 30) and turned against those
who had misused them (Ezk 36:5-6). So strong is
his disposition to vindicate his name (Ezk 39:25)
and his people, that all the earth felt his wrath
(Zeph 3:8). Thus it will be seen that the action
informed by this intensity may result in ill and
perdition and is associated with words denoting
wrath (Num 25:11; Ezk 16:38, 42; 36:6; 38:9) and
anger (Deut 29:19 [H 20]), and as a consuming
force with fire (Zeph 1:18; 3:8).

On the other hand the divine action accom-
plished with “‘jealousy’’ may result in good and
salvation. Thus this arduous love effected the re-
turn (Isa 42:13). The restoration of Israel does
not, however, exhaust God's gracious activities
in behalf of his people. He will effect their salva-
tion (the restitution of a perfect relationship be-
tween himself and his creatures), which they lost
in father Adam, by a second Adam—Immanuel
(Isa 9:7 [H 6]). Furthermore, the return from the
exile foreshadowed an even greater event—
God's creating and choosing a perfect bride
through his Servant (Isa 42:13). God's jealousy
when offended issued in just retribution, but
when stirred by his grace it resulted in eternal
love. Hence, the church is called the bride of
Christ. It is now being perfectly prepared and
preserved for the wedding.

God expects man to return his love. Love,

however, is not simply an emotion. It is a struc-
tured relationship. To love God is to obey him.
So the word is used to denote a passionate, con-
suming **zeal’* focused on God that results in the
doing of his will and the maintaining of his honor
in the face of the ungodly acts of men and na-
tions. Phinehas, Elijah and Jehu are particular
examples of this zeal (TWNT, II, p. 878). Saul (I]
Sam 21:2) and Jehu (Il Kgs 10:16) were prompted
by their ardent zeal (jealousy) for God to commit
acts violating his commands. Thus, they stirred
the wrath of God who is jealous for his name (Ezk
39:25)—that it be vindicated by the keeping of the
whole law (Deut 29:20 [H 19]). The godly (esp.
Messiah) are consumed, therefore, by an ardour
(jealousy) to exalt God by maintaining purity of
worship (Ps 69:9 [H 10]), and purity of obedience
respecting the whole of God’s word (Ps 119: 139).

qin’4. Ardor of jealousy, zeal, anger. This
noun, modelled after the Qal infinitive form, de-
scribes the state wherein the subject is dominated
by gana’ —either positive or negative. This word
is translated in the ksv in a bad sense in Song 8:6,
‘jealousy is cruel as the grave,’ but it could be
taken tn a good sense in parallel! with the preced-
ing, ‘ardent zeal is as strong as the grave.”

ganna’. Jealous. This noun, modelled after
the Piel infinitive, is used solely of God and in the
context of idolatry. It shows the parallel between
adultery and idolatry. As a husband holds his
wife to himself and is permitted to kill her and her
paramour in the case of adultery, so God relates
to his people. It occurs only in the Pentateuch
(five times).

qanno’. Jealous. This noun is also modelled
on the Piel infinitive. Its use is the same as
ganna’. It appears only twice and outside the
Pentateuch.
Bibliography:
II], pp. 647-49.

TDNT, IT, pp. 878-80. THAT,
L..C.

2039 "IP (ganda) I, get, acquire, create.
Derivatives

2039a 3920 (ginyadn) wealth.
2039b tmID% «(migneh) cattle.
2039c «tmp! «=(mignd) purchase.

These radicals involve three (KB), not two
(BDB) roots. In gana we discern one root denot-
ing a commercial financial acquisition of move-
able goods (except some uses in Prov where wis-
dom is to be acquired: 4:5, 7, etc.), and another
root denoting **creation’’ by God (bdard'). For the
third root, see gadneh “‘reed.’’ Distinguish gana
from rdkash (to get property by laboring, q.v.),
ga'al (to redeem, buy back: but, also see Lev
25:33, KD, in loc.). Both meanings of ganda occur

803

2039 "39 (gana)

in Ugaritic (where Gordon UT 19: no. 2245 and
AisWUS no. 2426 do not separate the two roots).
Biblical occurrences number 182.

The verb qana is the usual word for ‘*buying”™’
something. Commercial transactions were ac-
complished in several ways (cf. Al, pp. 167ff.).
Especially interesting is the ancient custom in-
volving the giving of one’s shoe (Ruth 4:8; Amos
8:6 [H 7]) to the purchaser symbolizing forfeiture
of the hereditary right of redemption. Transac-
trons could either be recorded (Jer 32:16) or, oth-
erwise, publicly witnessed (Ruth 4: cf. laws of
Nuzu, Al, p. 168).

Because sacrifices were to be offered for one-
self they must also come from one’s own pos-
sessions. Therefore, when David sought to make
a sacrifice to end the plague he felt compelled to
purchase the land (II Sam 24:21-24). As king and
perpetrator of the census it was his responsibility
to personally appease divine anger (IJ Sam
24:16). Temple repairs were not paid for from the
royal coffer but from the gifts of God's people (II
Kgs 12:12 [H 13); 22:6).

The laws of Israel safeguarded private owner-
ship and the right to amass private capital (for a
detailed study, see R. Rushdoony, J/nstitutes of
Biblical Law, Nutley, N.J.: Craig, 1973, pp.
448ff.). Since the land and all that is in it belongs
to God (Deut 25:23-24) it was not theirs to sell
but only to ‘‘rent."’ Other nations were not so
constituted. Hence, Abraham could purchase
land from Ephron and it became the perpetual
possession of his family (Gen 25:10; Josh 24:32).
In Egypt the Pharaoh bought all the land (Gen
47:19—20) except the land of the priests (v. 22).
God ordered the theocracy so that the onginal
allotment of the land (which represented the
eternal rest) would be reestablished every fiftieth
year (Lev 25:15ff.), the year of jubilee. This real-
lotment was to govern the real estate transac-
tions, as is evidenced by the injunctions regard-
ing purchase prices (vv. I[5—16). Land lost due to
poverty could be redeemed by a kinsman, or, if
the original owner prospered, he could redeem tt.
If no human redeemer was to be found, the land
was redeemed by God himself on the fiftieth year
(God being Israel's redeemer, Ps 74:2, and father,
Isa tl:11: see gd'al). This explains why houses in
walled cities could be sold into perpetuity (i.e.
they did not involve ancestral land rights, Lev
25:29-34), why Levitical houses were perpetually
redeemable (they were God's ‘‘personal’’ pos-
sessions either because they were his allotment
for his personal staff [the Levites], or because
they were “‘returned’’ [and holy] to him), and
why Levitical lands could never be sold at all
(they were eternally **redeemed’’).

Slavery was allowed in Israel under certain
conditions. Only non-Israelites could be true
slaves, i.e., property of an Israelite (Lev 25:44f.).

2040 732 (gana)

All Jews were brothers and servants (‘ebed, q.v.)
of God (Lev 25:42-43). Hence, they could not
‘‘own’’ one another. If because of poverty or
punishment (for theft) a Jew went into bondage,
he was to be treated as a hired servant. He could
be redeemed (bought out of bondage) either by a
kinsman or, if he prospered, by himself. If no
redemption was forthcoming he would be set free
the seventh year (Lev 21:2; Deut 15:12), or the
fiftieth year (Lev 25:39-46). Kinsmen were to
‘*‘buy back’” enslaved relatives (Neh 5:8). These
injunctions virtually establish the abolition of
Slavery for Jews. In the nt where there is neither
Jew nor Greek and the theocracy is co-extensive
with mankind (Gal 3:28; Eph 1:20—23) slavery is
also principally abolished.

In view of the above discussion it is significant
that God who redeemed (qgdnd parallel gd'al Ex
15:13, 16; Ps 74:2) Israel from Egypt promised to
bring unrepentant Israel back to Egypt to be sold
as bondsmen. But no one would purchase them
(Deut 28:68). However, God himself would pur-
chase them out of the exile (Isa I1:11). This was
by means of leaders of the exile like Nehemiah
(Neh 5:8). Certainly all this finds perfect fulfill-
ment in Christ (I Cor 6:19-20).

There are six places were ydnd appears to
mean ‘“‘create’’: Ps 139:13 (cf. Gen 4:1; in Akka-
dian the root can be used of man): Deut 32:6 (cf.
v. 13; Ps 74:2), and Gen 14:19, 22 (see Ugaritic
and Phoenician parallels, AI, p. 310). It is ques-
tionable whether Ps 78:54 attests ‘‘create’’ or
‘‘acquire’’ (in a general sense), although the
former is to be preferred. Most interesting is the
use in Prov 8:22. If we are right, then Prov tells us
of the eternal generation of Wisdom, i.e. Christ
(Jn 1; Lk 11:49). [The relation of these two roots
or the two meanings of the one root has been
much debated. It is of interest that all of the de-
rivatives show the usual meaning ‘“‘acquire,”
“*possess.’ The Ug evidence seems to prove the
possible meaning ‘‘create’’ although several of
the usages are found in broken and difficult texts.
The main usage in Ug is the title of Asherah as
‘‘creatress of the gods.’ But the title of El the
chief deity is ‘‘creator’’ (bny). It is probable that
the word gny in Ug should be interpreted as **one
who brings forth’ rather than ‘‘creator.’’ The niv
translates Prov 8:22, ‘‘The Lord possessed me™
with the footnote, *“Or, The Lord brought me
forth.” R.L.H.]

qinyan. Wealth, property, possessions. aASv and
RSV Somewhat similar with the rsv more correctly
preferring ‘property, possessions.’ This noun
denotes that which is acquired by purchase,
‘*movable goods.’ Six of its ten occurrences con-
trast it with miqneh (see below). Three times it
refers to wealth in general or property considered
as wealth (Lev 22:11; Ps 105:21: Prov 4:7). Once

804

it seems to be a form of ganda ‘‘create’’ (Ps
104:24). This word also is found in Old Aramaic
(H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAI, II, p. 41).

miqneh. Livestock, herd (or flock); purchase,
possession. asv and rsv translate similarly. This
mem-preformative noun denotes the thing pos-
sessed. Most usually it refers to livestock in gen-
eral (although it may refer to one or more
varieties thereof). It refers to valuables as distin-
guished from money (Gen 13:2). It also denotes
land fit for grazing (Num 32:1, 4), and owners of
livestock (II Chr 14:14: Gen 46:32). Genesis 49:32
may well be migna. Cf. Phoenician mqn’ (DR, p.
15).

miqna. Purchase, purchase price. AsV and RSV
translate almost the same. This noun denotes the
thing purchased, and the price whereby a thing
may be purchased.

Bibliography: Katz, Peter, **The Meaning of
the Root ™23,°° JJS $:126—-31. TDNT, III, pp.
1005-28. THAT, II, pp. 650-S8.

Lac,

2040 352 (qgnh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2040a +22 (qdneh) reed, stalk, bone, bal-
ances. (ASV and Rsv translate simi-
larly.)

This noun apparently denotes the Persian reed
Arundo donax. However, vS. AkkH II, pp. 897-
98 notes this root represents several reed-like
plants in Akkadian. From the primary denotation
derives the second meaning, that which ts shaped
like a reed, 1.e. a stalk, bone (only Job 31:22),
balance part (Isa 46:6, lever). This word also rep-
resents an aromatic spice used in sacred ministra-
tion (cannot be “‘calamus,’’ according to KD,
Isaiah, II, p. 199, n.1). Our word occurs sixty-
two times. It is to be distinguished from gdéme’
(Cypenus Papyrus), sa@p (an Egyptian loanword
meaning rushes in general), ‘ahi (marsh plant),
and ydrdq (green plant). Cf. gdand, I, “‘get, ac-
quire, create.”

Egypt is called a bruised reed—an undependa-
ble, weak staff (1] Kgs 18:21). God pronounces
judgment on Egypt because she boasted of her
selfmade power, and weaned Israel away from
trusting him. When the test came, Egypt proved
to be a weak support (bruised reed) and thus
caused Israel to suffer pain (Ezk 29:6-7). When
the Messiah comes he will gently lead his flock,
not setting on them more than they can bear. The
Lord's servant will establish justice even on a
bruised reed—either the poor of society or possi-
bly Egypt (Isa 42:3; cf. II Kgs 18:21). This expec-
tation found fulfillment in Jesus’ healing of the
crippled man, a truly broken reed, in the syna-
gogue on the Sabbath day (Mt 1!2:9-21).

The spice ganeh was one of the four which God
directed to be mixed and used as holy anointing oil.
With it the instruments and ministers of the tabernacle
(and temple) were anointed (Ex 30:23). Later God
berates his people for ignoring his appointed means of
worship in the midst of their great sin (Isa 43:24,
sweet cane AV, calamus NIV). Finally, he tells them
that external sacrifice apart from inward devotion is
useless (Jer 6:20). God’s worship is holy to him. He
intends men to follow his directions specifically. If
so, the result will be sweet smelling (acceptable) to
him. If not, the result is unacceptable: rite and attitude
must conform to his standard. LSC.

N33D (gannd’). See no. 2038c.
Ww? (ginyan). See no. 2039a.

2041 18793 (ginnaGmén) cinnamon (Prov Ty:
Song 4:14; Ex 30:23).

2042 *132 (qinnén) make a _ nest. This de-
nominative verb occurs in the Piel and
Pual only (e.g. Isa 34:15; Ezk 31:6).

Parent Noun

2042a 19 (qgén) nest (e.g. Deut 22:6; Job
39:27).
2043 y3 (qns). Assumed root of the following.
2043a = P22 «~(qénes) snare (Job 18:2).

2044 BD2 (qgdasam) practice divination. Denomi-
native verb.

Parent Noun

2044a tap (qesem) divination, witchcraft.
2044b =tEDp (migqsam) divination.

Like the noun gesem, this verb describes some
variety of divination. And as with all other mani-
festations of the occult, this practice was out-
lawed in Israel and spoken of with scorn.

The participial form appears in the long list of
such practices in Deuteronomy 18 (vv. 10, 14).

Balaam was such a ‘“‘soothsayer’’ or ‘‘di-
viner.’’ Both the participial and nominal forms
are used in connection with him (Num 22:7;
23:23; Josh 13:22).

Saul commanded the woman at En-dor to “‘di-
vine’’ for him with ’66 (q.v.) in | Sam 28:8. The
only other prose passages using gasam are | Sam
6:2 in reference to the Philistine ‘‘diviners’’ and
I] Kgs 17:17, a list of Israelite offenses which
prompted God to exile them.

The major prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel and the minor prophets Micah and
Zechariah all mention gdsam in a derogatory
sense. In Isa 3:2 the ‘“‘diviner’’ is grouped with
the honorable professions of soldier, judge, pro-
phet, and elder as well as enchanter (v. 3). But the
“diviners” receive God’s curse in Isa 44:25.

Jeremiah’s two uses are in 27:9 and 29:8. where
he compares his own prophecy with those who
would rather offer god omens.

805

2044 859 (qasam)

Ezekiel uses ga@sanr in 13:9, 21:21, 23, 29; and
22:28. The references in chap. 2] are to Nebuchad-
nezzar’s “divination” with arrows. Apparently he
chose the route of attack by flinging down a
handful of arrows. This is the only passage to hint
at the actual process involved in gd@sam.

Micah 3:6f. and Zech 10:2 also speak disparag-
ingly of the “diviners” comparing them with the
false prophets and dreamers.

qesem. Divination, witchcraft, sorcery, fortune-
telling, omen, lot, oracle, decision. The exact
meaning of this variety of occultism is unknown.
That fact accounts for the variety of translations.
The account in Ezk 21:21-22 {H 27-28] is the only
clue to exactly how gesem may have been prac-
ticed. Shaking or flinging down arrows, consult-
ing teraphim, and hepatoscopy (looking at the
liver) may be subcategories of yesem. In any
event, verse 22 (H 28] uses qgesem as if it were
one of the arrows to be thrown down. In fact, the
NEB translates the word as ‘‘augur’s arrow’’ and
the NAB as ‘“‘divining arrow.’’ The JB uses
‘‘omen’’ and “‘lot’’ in these two verses.

Another interesting use of gesem is at Num
22:7, where the word seems to indicate a ‘‘re-
ward” or “‘fee’’ for *‘divination’’ (Berkeley Ver-
sion, sorcery; Amplified, foretelling; NEB, au-
gury) to be paid to Balaam. Later in that account
(Num 23:23) gesem is parallel to nahash (cf. I
Kgs 17:17). In Jer 14:14 it is parallel to ‘‘lying
vision,’ ‘‘a thing of nought,”’ and *‘self-deceit’’
(cf. Ezk 13:6, 23).

A third noteworthy passage is Prov 16:10.
There the av has ‘‘divine sentence,” the Rsv ‘‘in-
spired decisions,’ and the sB, NEB, and NAB ‘‘ora-
cles." Whereas qgesem is generally forbidden
(Deut 18:10), or only used by non-Israelites, in
Prov [6:10 it seems perfectly permissible and
commendable. The best known occurrence of
qesem is in] Sam 15:23, where Samuel confronts
Saul for disobedience in the matter of the spoils
from the Amalekite victory. The prophet de-
clared:

To obey is better than sacrifice
and to hearken than the fat of rams.
For rebellion ts as the sin of gesem.

The traditional rendering ‘‘witchcraft’’ is fol-
lowed by the asv, Amplified and the NEB, while
the sp has *‘sorcery’’ and the Berkeley Version
has *‘‘fortune-telling.”’

migsam. Divination. Ezekiel 12:24 and 13:7
have the only occurrences of migsadm. In the
former reference the ‘“‘divination’’ is charac-
terized by the adjective Adl/daq (flattering or de-
ceitful) and in the latter reference by kazab (ly-
ing).

Bibliography: Davies, T. W. ~*Witch,”’ in In-
ternational Standard Bible — Encyclopedia,

2045 *DD2 (qasas)

Eerdmans, 1955. Guillaume, Alfred, Prophecy
and Divination, London: Hodder and Stoughton,
1938. Kitchen, K. A., ‘‘Magic and Sorcery,” in
NBD, pp. 766-71. Liefeld, W. ‘*Divination,”’ in
ZEPB, II, pp. 146-49. Summers, Montague, The
History of Witchcraft and Demonology, Univer-
sity Books, 1956. Reiner, Erica, *‘ Fortune Telling
in Mesopotamia,’ JNES 19:23-35.

R.L.A.

2045 *ppp (qasas) strip off. Occurs only once,

in the Poel (Ezk 17:9).
mde (qgeset). See no. 2080b.

2046 yop> (qg‘qg'). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2046a = YDYR (qa'dqga') incision, tattoo
(Lev 19:28).
2047 “Y> (qir). Assumed root of the following.
2047a =e (q*‘ard) dish, platter (e.g.
Num 7:85; Ex 25:29).
2047b «o MINYPw (shqa‘drird) depression
hollow.
2048 NDP (qdpd') thicken, condense, congeal
(e.g. Zech 14:6; Zeph 1:12).
Derivative
2048a TINDP (gippd’dn) congelation (Zech
14:6, only).
NNDP (gippa'dn). See no. 2048a.

2049 *"B2 (qdpad) gather together, roll up.
This verb occurs only once, in the Piel (Isa
38:12).

Derivatives

2049a 35> (qgippdd) porcupine (Isa

14:23: Zeph 2:14; Isaal).

2049b =m IDR (q' pada) shuddering (Ps
119:20; Ezk 7:25).
2050 ‘BP (qpz). Assumed root of the following.
2050a NBS (gippdz) arrow snake (Isa
34:15), or owl (Klotz, J. W.,
WBE I, p. 89).
2051 YES (qdpas) close, shut. (asv and RSV

translate the same.)

This root refers to the drawing together (shut-
ting, or closing) of the mouth or hands. It occurs as
Akkadian Aap/basu. Biblical occurrences number
five. The apparent occurrence in Job 24:24 is best
explained by assuming a b/p interchange (cf.
qabas), and in Song 2:8 by assuming the appear-
ance of Akk. kaubdasu (used of armies marching
upon mountains: cf. vS. AKkH. I, p. 443). Compare
the following: ‘adtar “shut a pit,’ sdgar ‘*shut a
door’ (the nearest Hebrew root), and ‘dsar *‘re-
Strain.

The basic meaning of this root is most clearly
discerned in Deut 15:7 (opposite of ‘‘open,”’
patah). A note of finality sounds there. This is
especially significant in considering the other bib-
lical uses (cf. Ps 77:9 [H 10]). Eliphaz having re-
counted the absolute sovereignty of God and his
love for the godly, concludes (rightly, cf. Ps
107:42) that this is the basis of hope for the godly
and thus closes the mouth of iniquity (Job 5:16).
Isaiah (52:15) contrasts the surprise of the many
and the awe of kings. Even the most exalted of
men will be struck speechless at the utter novelty
of the salvation they will come to experience and
the one who brings it (E. J. Young, /saiah, III,
Ferdmans, 1972, p. 339).

L.J.C.
rp (qgés). See no. 2060a.
2052 332 (qasab) cut off, shear (II Kgs 6:6;
Song 4:2).
Derivative
2052a = 382 (qeseb) cut, shape (I Kgs
6:25), extremity (Jon 2:7).
2053 MEP (qasa) I, cut off.

Derivatives

2053a TA (qgdseh) end, extremity.
2053b TR¥P (qdsd) end, extremity.
2053c «tMBD (géseh) end.

2053d 982 (gasu) end, border.
2053e TAMER (q°sat) end.

The asv and rsv translate variously, with the rsv
tending to present a superior translation. The rsv
translation is sometimes confusing. Why does it
render differently Neh 1:9, when it is obviously a
direct reference to Deut 30:4 which uses the same
Hebrew phrase. This verb denotes a cutting off. It
is difficult to determine if this is a denominative of
the noun forms which in turn are derivatives of
qasas, or if this is an onginal Canaanite root
(especially since gsh [originally gsw] occurs in
Phoenician; H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAI, I, p.
22). We opt for an original root. The verb occurs
only five times. Two of those occurrences (Lev
14:41, 43) may well be the result of later scribal
error confusing the verb gds‘a of similar meaning
with gasa. Our root occurs 152 times. Compare its
synonym qgdsas (q.v.), and contrast karat (q.v.)
which is considerably broader in meaning.

qaseh. End, extremity. This is what GKC (n.1,
p. 269) terms the regular Hebrew noun form of
lamed-he verbs. Jt stresses the point at which a
thing is cut off, and therefore its extremity. The
following derivatives are distinguished more by
their orthographic history than by their meanings.

qas4. End, extremity. GKC calls this an
Aramaised form (loc. cit.). Perhaps it would be

806

better to consider it a dialectical form since
Aramaised has connoted lateness to some. Its
meaning parallels ga@seh except that is applied to
time and qgdsd is not. Note that the two words are
applied to the same object (Ex 26:4 5).

géseh. End. In this noun the onginal waw is
resolved (GKC, Sec. 84% ce). It appears only with
a preceding ‘én meaning ‘'no limit.”

qasi. End, border. In this noun the original
waw becomes a strong consonant again (GKC,
Sec. 24d). The word is applied only to extremities
of land.

q’sat. End. This noun occurs only in the con-
struct. It, too, denotes extremity.

Compare this cycle of nouns to gés which
applies to immaterial extremities (e.g. time), sop
which applies to the “‘last’’ of a thing, ‘aharit
which denotes the “*hinder part,’’ and ’epes which
denotes “‘cessation, nothingness, limit’’.

The nouns denoting extremity may refer to the
tip of arod (I Sam 14:27) or wings (I Kgs 6:24), the
edge of a curtain (Ex 26:4—5), the end or outskirts
of a land (Num 20:16). This helps us better under-
stand I Kgs 12:30, where Jeroboam in establishing
his rival apostate cult disdained God's law by
choosing priests from other than Levitical lines,
thus rejecting the cultic stipulations of the Sinaitic
covenant. In Prov 17:24 we are told that fools fix
their eyes on the ends (horizon) of the earth—they
seek the never attained earthly goals and reject
wisdom (the fear of the Lord). The expression
should not be forced to imply an erroneous cos-
mology of a flat earth with edges to fall off of. The
phrase sometimes only refers to national bound-
aries “‘the ends of the land."* Sometimes it is poe-
tic for distant places. The extent of the earth from
India to Spain was well known in antiquity and
travel was extensive.

Especially significant is the recurring theologi-
cal theme: the end(s) of the world/heavens. It de-
notes both the source and place of Israel’s judg-
ment and the area of universal salvation. This is
the abode of the people who were to bring judg-
ment (destruction) if (and when) Israel threw off
the rule of the Lord (Deut 28:49). Such peoples
were summoned by God in fulfillment of Moses’
prophecy (Isa 5:26). Indeed, God used different
peoples to judge Israel's “‘judgers’* (Isa 13:5) and
Elam (Jer 49:36). This phrase also represents the
place of judgment and suffering to which God will
scatter rebellious Israel (Deut 28:64), and from
which he will gather them (Deut 30:4). David de-
scribing his suffering places himself in the ends of
the earth (Ps 61:2 [H 3]). Nationally, God tells
Isaiah to declare deliverance to his people in exile
at the ends of the earth (Isa 62:11). Nehemiah
confesses the justice of the exile (clearly recalling
Deut) and prays God to remember his promised

807

2055 MEP (qsh).

2055 MP (qsh)

deliverance. Isaiah sees the return from Babylon
as a reenactment of the call of Abraham from the
ends of the earth (Mesopotamia) to come to the
Holy Land (Isa 41:9).

On the other hand, the prophets foreseeing the
exile now predicted a salvation to all nations.
Even as Abraham was called from the ends of the
earth to begin a new program with a particular
people, so now when the exiles return, the Lord
will bring umversal salvation through his servant.
God informs his servant that only to save the Jews
is less than his calling (cf. galal), so the Gentiles
are also to be summoned into the kingdom ‘‘that
thou mayest be my salvation to the end of the
earth’’ (Isa 49:6). Indeed, in the eschaton the
end(s) of the earth are eternally pacified by God,
and they are transformed into the locus of songs of
praise to the Lord (Isa 42:10).

In view of the fact that the end(s) of the earth are
the source and place of judgment, it is noteworthy
that God is the only confidence of the ends of the
earth (Ps 65:5 [H 6]), and that those who dwell
there fear God's providential control of nature (Ps
65:8 [H 9]). There sounds the declaration of God's
glory (Ps 19:4 [H 5}). There God exercises abso-
lute control over war (Ps 46:9 [H 10]), and all
things (Ps 135:7; cf. Jer 10:13) according to what
pleases him. So when Israel complains that God is
unconcerned with their exile, Isaiah responds that
God's knowledge knows no bounds and that he
cares. He will remember his covenant (Isa 40:28).
Creation and many providential acts, however,
are inscrutable outskirts of God’s way (Job 26: 14).
Man depends on God to learn his way. God's
knowledge rests on his sovereignty and, hence,
embraces all that is (or may be) known (Job 28:28).

L.J.C.

2054 m%> (qsh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

2054a RD (gdasin) chief, ruler (e.g. Jud

11:6: Isa 3:67). asv and rsv translate
‘leader,’ “‘chtef.”’

This word is a military term. It signifies the man
responsible for recruiting, an administrator in the
army. It appears to denote the one at the head
(parallel to ‘““head ones,’ Mic 3:1, 9) of an army
(Josh 10:24), or people (i.e. as political ruler; cf.
Isa 1:10; Mic 3:1). The cognate root in Arabic is
used for a judge, the qadi. The word occurs twelve
times.

3D (gas). See no. 2053d.
Assumed root of the following.
M32 (qgesah) black cumin (Isa
28:25:21):

205Sa

PSP (qasin). See no. 2054a.

2056 *Y82 (qasa')

See no. 205S6a.
See nos. 2062a,b.

MY'ED (gesi'd).
32 (qasir).

2056 *Y8D (qgdsa’) I, scrape, scrape off. This
noun occurs only once, in the Hiphil (Lev

14:41).
Derivatives
2056a «—-MY*RD «(qg’si'ad) cassia (Ps 45:9).
2056b = YER «=6(magsi'ad) scraping tool,
used in fashioning idols (isa 44:13).

2057 *¥ER (qasa‘) II, cornered, set in corners.
This denominative verb occurs only in the
Hophal (Ezk 46:22; Ex 26:23; 36:28).
Meaning uncertain.

Parent Noun

20S7a_ = YER «=~ (migsoa') place of corner
Structure, inner corner-buttress

(e.g. Neh 3:19; Ezk 46:21).

2058 "XD (qdsap) I, be displeased, angry; fret
oneself.

Derivative

2058a tHED (gesep) wrath.

The verb qdsap is used to give pointed expres-
sion to the relationship between two or more per-
sons, one or both of which can be said to feel anger
(‘ap), have wrath (héma@), indignation (ka‘as), or
express anger (‘ebrad). Deuteronomy 9:19 pre-
sents a good case. Moses, referring to the golden
calf incident, says he was afraid of the anger ap)
and wrath (or displeasure) (héma) with which God
was wroth (ga@sap) against Israel. It can be said
then that here, as in most of the other thirty-three
instances where this verb appears, gdsap refers to
the relationship developed, held or expressed in
various ways when there is anger, heat, displea-
sure held or felt within one because of what
another has said or done. It is said eleven times
that men were wroth, (e.g., Pharoah, Moses,
Naaman, Philistine pmnces). Twenty-three times
it is said that God was wroth, whether against the
heathen or against his covenant people.

Of the six main synonyms referring to anger, the
strongest, probably, are yesep which often refers
to the Lord’s anger, and hémda and haroén both of
which refer to a burning and consuming wrath.
The noun ‘ap taking its meaning of *‘anger’’ from
the dilation of the nostrils is the most widely used
word of the class. It is used for anger both of God
and men and often with verbs like **kindle’’ hard.
The word ‘ebrad emphasizes the overflowing or
excess of anger. It and the weaker words za‘am
‘indignation’ and ka‘as “‘vexation’’ are not used
as often.

qesep. J/ndignation, wrath. qesep in Hos 10:7 1s
derived from a qasap II, related to Arabic “to

808

break, snap off.’’ BDB renders the noun as proba-
bly meaning ‘‘splinter’’ (as a simile for a helpless
king): GB as a ‘‘piece of wood” (Holzstitick); KB
as a ‘‘snapped-off branch (abgeknickter Zweig).
See gasap II below.

Three times this noun is used in reference to
men. In two of these instances (I Kgs 3:27; Est
1:18) tt can be said this wrath of men is righteous or
justifiable. Moses, Joshua, Isaiah, Jeremiah, the
Chronicler and Zechariah either warn of or speak
about the righteous wrath of God coming upon his
unfaithful covenant people.

The following should be read after the reader
has consulted the above discussion of the verb
qasap and its synonyms.

The subject of the wrath of God has been dis-
cussed by the Church throughout the ages. The
consensus of opinion has been, and that correctly,
that wrath in and of itself is not necessarily evil.
Lactantius, who does not clearly distinguish be-
tween the various synonyms, spoke of **anger as
the mind arousing itself for the restraining of
evil’*; ‘"wrath’’ is the expression of this anger in
various ways to restrain evil, to correct the sinner
and to punish the hardened and stiffnecked rebel.
However, wrath is not merely an energy of divine
justice which is concerned basically with the pres-
ervation of the divine order. Rather, wrath (from
which retributive justice cannot be separated) 1s
concerned with the protection of God’s holy inter-
ests; i.e. his holy nature, his Jove and the objects
of his love. Hence, wrath is inseparably related to
God's love, holiness and jealousy. Indeed, the
wrath of God speaks directly of God maintaining
himself completely and absolutely as a holy God
who loves his covenant people with an infinite
passion and therefore is very jealous over them.
When either people from without, or the covenant
people themselves, profane, thwart or reject this
love of the covenant God, God expresses his vexa-
tion, agitation, displeasure, anger and/or hatred:
he pours out his wrath.

The wrath of God, then, must not be considered
a permanent attribute of God; it is an ever-present
divine potential because of the ever-present divine
qualities of love, holiness, and jealousy. So,
whenever God reveals his wrath, he always man-
ifests his own “‘unsearchable greatness. It must
be that his wrath is expressed in harmony with his
justice. The guilt due to lawbreaking must be dealt
with according to the just demands of the law
(Deut 29:13). However, the working out of God's
wrath is tempered by his grace and mercy. In fact,
itis in the midst of wrath that God may reveal his
mercy (Hab 3:2), manifesting and bestowing his
grace upon guilty sinners (Gen 3:15). There is no
question of *‘despotic rage’ and there is nothing
of **the demonic in God's nature” (contra Eic-
hrodt, ETOT, 1, p. 262), which leads him to pour
out his wrath or to determine the object, method

and occasion for it apart from considerations of
condign justice.

Bibliography: Etchrodt, W., Theology of the
Old Testament, vol. 1, SCM, 1961, pp. 258-69.
Jacob, E., Theology of the Old Testament, New
York: Harper & Brothers, 1958, pp. 114-16. Lac-
tantius, *“On the Anger of God,** in Ante Nicene
Fathers, VII, reprint, Eerdmans, pp. 259-80.
Tasker, R.V.J., The Biblical Doctrine of the
Wrath of God, London, Tyndale, 1970. THAT, II,
pp. 663-65.

G.V.G.

2059 XD (qgsp) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2059a = MBE «= (qG’sapa) snapping or splin-
tering (Joel 1:7, only).

2059b =D (qesep) splinter, twig (Hos
10:7, only).
2060 PED (qasas) cut off.
Derivatives
2060a trp (qgés) end.
2060b 88°99 (gisdn) at the end, outermost

(Ex 26:4, 10; 36:11, 17).

This root means ‘‘to sever,’ 1.e. to separate in
two. It should be compared to qgas4, its Semantic
equivalent. Our root occurs in Ugaritic (UT 19:
no. 2259). Compare also Akkadian gasasu. The
root occurs eighty-two times.

A woman who humbles a man by grabbing his
genitals even when her action might be to save
her husband is to be punished by having her hand
cut off (Deut 25:12). Later David orders the sev-
ering of the hands that beheaded Ishbosheth and
the feet that carried his head to David's presence.
The act of the murderers—no doubt intended to
remove a rival claimant—was viewed as an at-
tack upon the Lord’s anointed (the father, Saul,
being continued in the son, I] Sam 4:12). David
distanced himself from that act even though (or
perhaps because) he was the anointed of the Lord
(I Sam 24:1-7). The emotion behind David's
command is evidenced by the use of the Piel. In
Jud 1:6-7 Adonibezek is punished as he had
afflicted others. He had rendered them unable to
bear arms and to flee with speed, and unqualified
to lead or religiously officiate before their people.
The Piel (repetitive function) is used in describing
how Nebuchadnezzer had the temple vessels cut
in pieces (II Kgs 24:13). The gold (representing
the glory of God?) was ultimately delivered into
the hands of heathen oppressors as tribute in
spite of God's direct command forbidding it (II
Kgs 18:16, Piel). When God cuts the bonds
(probably, reins) of the wicked (Ps 129:4), and
their spears (Ps 46:9 [H 10], he hacks them in
pieces (Piel).

809

2062 32 (qasar)

qés. End. This noun is used in a context of
judgment. God brought an end to all flesh (Gen
6:13). So Ezekiel speaks about the end of Israel
(7:2-3). Contrariwise, the Messiah’s kingdom
will know no end (Isa 9:7 [H 6]). This word, un-
like gadseh is very seldom used of a geographical

boundary.
Bibliography: Barr, James, Biblical Words
for Time, SCM, 1962. THAT, II, pp. 659-62.
L.J.C.
2061 “83 (qasar) I, be short, impatient, vexed,
grieved.
Derivatives

206la 82 (qasér) short.

2061b “82 (qdser) shortness (i.e. im-

patience, Ex 6:9, only).

The root designates that which is short (Ps
89:45 [H 46]; 102:23 [H 24]) or inadequate, such
as a bed (Isa 28:20). Rhetorical questions ask if
the Lord’s hand (Num 11:23; Isa 50:2; 59:1) or
spirit (Mic 2:7), is short, i.e. unable to accomplish
the task. In some passages the root means dis-
couragement (Num 21:4), vexation (Jud 10:16;
16:16; Job 21:4), or loathing (Zech 11:8).

qaser. Short, shortened. This adjective occurs
in the construct state in idioms: **short of hand”’
(feeble; asv, of small power; Rsv, shorn of
strength; II Kgs 19:26: Isa 37:27); ‘*short of nos-
trils’’ (irrascible; Asv: soon angry; RSv: of quick
temper; Prov 14:17); “‘short of spirit’’ (¢mpatient;
ASV: hasty of spirit; rsv: hasty temper, Prov
14:29); and ‘‘short of days’’ (shortlived; asv and
RSV: few of days; Job 14:1). Of similar background
is the noun gdser ‘‘anguish,’* t.e. ‘‘compressed in
spirit.”

Pols

2062 “82 (qdasar) II, reap, harvest.

Derivatives

2062a t3°¥3 (qgasir) I, harvest.
2062b = t3°¥D (qasir) HH, boughs, branches.

Most frequently the root refers to the reaping
of crops of various kinds (Lev 23:10, etc.). It also
refers, metaphorically, to receiving the conse-
quences of one behavior, whether righteous or
wicked (Jer 12:13; Hos 8:7; 10:13; Prov 22:8).
Hence harvest is a fitting symbol for a time of
judgment (cf. Amos 9:13).

The Qal participle designates those who do the
reaping, 1.e.—the reapers (Ruth 2:3; II Kgs 4:18,
etc.).

qasir J. Harvest. This masculine noun is used
for the process of harvesting (Gen 45:6; etc.), the
harvest season (Gen 8:22: etc.), and that which is
harvested (Lev 19:9; Joel 1:11; etc.). The endless

2063 NID (qara’)

cycles of ‘‘seedtime and harvest” and ‘‘plowing
and harvest’’ are metaphors for the procession of
the seasons (Gen 8:22; 45:6; Ex 34:21). In Pales-
tine the grain harvest came between Apmil and
June and was celebrated by the offering of the
first sheaf of grain (Ex 34:22; Lev 23:10) and by
the feast of harvest, one of the three pilgrimage
festivals (Ex 23:16). The grape harvest followed
later in the summer. The Gezer calendar gives the
sequence of the agricultural year to harvest. In
the oT events are dated by the wheat (Gen 30:14:
Jud 15:1, etc.) and the barley (II Sam 21:9; Ruth
1:22, etc.) harvests. Harvest was a hot (Isa 18:4),
busy season requiring diligence (Prov 6:8; 10:5)
and prior work (Prov 20:4). Harvest was a time
appointed by the Lord (Jer 5:24).

Metaphorically, harvest is a time of retribution
(Hos 6:11; Joel 3:13 (H 4:13]; Jer 51:33). Honor is
as unfitting to a fool as rain in harvest (Prov 26:1),
while a faithful messenger is as refreshing as the
cold of snow in harvest (Prov 25:13). The passing
of opportunity is as the passing of harvest (Jer
8:20).

The gleanings of the harvested field were left
for the poor (Lev 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 24:19).
The yield was dependent upon the Lord’s bless-
ings (Isa 17:11). Labor was vain when the harvest
was devoured by locusts (Joel 1:11) and by
enemies (Isa 16:9; Jer 5:17). Harvest was not to
be reaped in the sabbatical year (Lev 25:5).

qasir IJ. Boughs (rsv, branches or boughs).
The connection with the root gdsar is dubious.
Used of a tree (Job 14:9; Isa 27:11) and in com-
parisons of a man to a tree (Job 18:16; 29:19) and
of Egypt to a vine (Ps 80:11 (H 12)).

J.P.L.

See no. 2053e.
See nos. 2077a,b.

ARP (q* sat).
32 (gar), "2 (qdr).

2063 89D (qgdra’) I, call, call out, recite (read).

Derivatives

2063a 83> (qgoré’) partridge (I Sam
26:20; Jer 17:11; Jud 15:19).

2063b ie™2 (qari’) called one, summoned
(Num 1:16; 16:2; 26:9).

2063c oSN2 (q‘ri'a) proclamation (Jon
3:2, only).

2063d = fS83)2% (migra’) convocation.

The root gr’ denotes primarily the enunciation
of a specific vocable or message. In the case of
the latter usage it is customarily addressed to a
specific recipient and is intended to elicit a spe-
cific response (hence, it may be translated ‘‘pro-
claim, invite’’). Infrequently, gard’ denotes just
an outcry (e.g. Ps 147:9; Isa 34:14). Our root with
the same semantic distribution occurs in Old
Aramaic (KAI, II, p. 41), Canaanite (H. Donner

810

and W. Rollig, KAI, II, p. 22), and Ugaritic (UT
19: no. 2267). The most frequently recurring
synonyms are s/za‘aqg, shawa’ (to cry out ur-
gently for help, Jer 20:8). The root occurs 689
times.

The verb may represent the specification of a
name. Naming is sometimes an assertion of sov-
ereignty over the thing named. God's creating en-
tailed naming and numbering the stars (Ps 147:4),
the darkness (Gen 1:5), indeed all things (Isa
40:26). God presented the animals to Adam to
assert his relative sovereignty over them (Gen
2:19). God sovereignly called Cyrus by name
(note that election to a task Is involved here, Isa
45:4). Sometimes this idea of sovereignty is en-
tailed even though the concept ‘“‘naming”’ is omit-
ted, e.g., God called all generations from the be-
ginning (Isa 41:4; cf. Amos 5:8). In these in-
stances the object must respond.

Frequently, the name given indicates a primary
characteristic of the thing named. Sometimes this
involves a play on words (Gen 27:36). Elsewhere,
this constitutes a confession, or personal evalua-
tion of the object (Isa 58:13; 60:14), or even a
recognition of an eternal truth, e.g. the child pro-
phetically promised is divinely named ‘‘Im-
manuel”’ (Isa 7:14). God asserted his sovereignty
over Israel (Isa 41:2), and yet called them by
another name (Isa 65:15; “‘refuse silver,’ Jer
6:30). In Ex 33:19; 34:6 and Deut 33:3, proclaim-
ing the name of God includes the description of
his attributes and/or sovereign acts.

Our verb also connotes calling one to a specific
task (cf. migra’). The maidservant of Pharaoh's
daughter asked if she is to go and *‘summon” a
nurse (Ex 2:7). The destruction of all the inhabi-
tants of Canaan is to obviate all possibility of
friendships leading to the acceptance of personal
invitations to and involvement in idolatry (Ex
34:15). The most prominent usage here has to do
with calling on the name of God. Usually, the
context has to do with a cnitical (Ps 34:6, 81:7 [H
8]) or chronic need (e.g., after Cain killed Abel,
man realized the full effects of the curse and
began to call on God’s name—Gen 4:26). The
godly recognize the presence of original sin by
their continual calling on God (Gen 12:8; 13:4; Ps
116:2). God responds to all who thus call on him
(Ps 145:18). Indeed, the covenant people (includ-
ing the stranger, I Kgs 8:43) are admonished to so
pray and are assured that God will reverse the
curse (Isa 55:6, 13). Not to so call on God is to
deserve (Ps 79:6) and justly receive God’s wrath
(Isa 65:12). In the eschaton God's people are to
be those whom God will sovereignly call, even
the cursed Gentiles (Isa 55:5), and they will run to
him. He will reverse Babel, and with a pure lan-
guage all those called of God will call on him and
serve him (Zeph 3:9). Even before they call he
will answer (Isa 65:24). Thus Eden is restored,

and the curse is fully annihilated. How tragic that
Israel, to whom such promises were given, re-
jected the Lord’s call (Isa 65:12). Salvation is
truly of the Lord.

qari’. Called one. This word is used (with
‘eda) to designate those among Israel **called to
the diets of the congregation”’ (KD, Pentateuch,
II, p. 15; cf. Deut 18).

miqra’. Convocation, reading. ASV and_ RSV
similar. This noun denoting the result of gdara’ ts
used, first, for convocations exclusively cultic,
and secondly, of the result of reading aloud (Neh
8:8). One should compare its synonym m6‘éd, an
appointed time therefore also an appointed
gathering (q.v.)

migra’ designates the weekly Sabbaths (Lev
23:2) and the new moons (Ezk 46:3; cf. Isa 66:23).
However, its most usual meaning is reserved for
the seven special convocation sabbaths. These
were observed in the course of the five annual
feasts (Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles
were opened and closed with a special convoca-
tion Sabbath). Such days (and the weekly Sab-
bath as well) included a formal summoning of
people to worship by the blast of trumpets (Num
10:2, 10; cf. gél). Physical presence was manda-
tory, however, only for the three festal pilgrim-
age feasts and only for males (Ex 23:14, 17). The
Sabbath and Day of Atonement were further dis-
tinguished by the divine prohibition excluding all
labor (Lev 23:3, 31), indeed, any pursuit of non-
cultic goals (Isa 58:13f.). The godly were to focus
their time and effort on worship. The six other
special convocations did not exclude the prepara-
tion of food even though servile labor was prohib-
ited (Lev 23).

For more on feasts see OTOT, pp. 323-52.

Bibliography: TDNT, III, pp. 700-702.
THAT, II, pp. 666-73.

L.J.C.

2064 S33 (qara’) II, encounter, against, befall.
(asv and rsv translate similarly, with the
latter offering some improved renditions
(Ex 5:20; I Sam 25:20.)

This root denotes a planned encounter wherein
the subject intentionally confronts the object. It
is a by-form of gdra (q.v.). Compare the follow-
ing synonyms: yd‘ad ‘“‘meet by appointment,’
padga‘ *‘come or fall upon, reach to,” pdgash *‘to
meet, encounter’ (of hostile or opposing sub-
jects), mdsd’ (a close cognate including reach,
find), and ndgash. Our word occurs 137 times
(120 times as an infinitive with flamed).

This word can represent fnendly encounters
like that of a host rushing out to meet a prospec-
tive guest (Gen 18:2; Jud 4:18), or going out to
meet someone in order to recognize or gain (II

811

2065 35> (qarab)

Sam 19:15 (H 16]) him as an ally (cf. Josh 9:11; II
Kgs 10:15; Ps 59:4 [H 5]). Such meetings are pur-
poseful and intentional. In the cultic use the sub-
ject confronts the divine (Ex 5:3; 19:17; Num
23:3).

Hostile usages entail a formal confrontation of
enemies martially (cf. II Kgs 23:29: Josh 8:5, 22)
and non-martially (Ex 5:20; 7:15). It is not always
clear to the parties which is involved (Gen 32:6
[H 7}). This martial connotation is especially use-
ful in helping to enrich Amos 4:12, “‘Prepare to
meet thy God, O Israel*’ (see W. A. Brueg-
gemann, “‘Amos 4:4—-13 and Israel's Covenant
Worship,’ VT 15:1-15).

The infinitive of the root appears to be used as
the preposition ‘‘against”’ in Ex 14:27; Jud 14:5.
Sometimes the infinitive is used as a finite verb
(II Kgs 20:26; cf. Huesman, Biblica, 76:271-95).

For more on the denotation ‘‘befall’’ see gard.

Je.

2065 3°92 (qdrab) I, come near, approach, enter

into.
Derivatives

2065a t392 (qaréb) near.
2065b 39> (q‘rab) battle, war.
2065c TA35> (qgirba) drawing near.
206Sd t339— (qdaréb) near, kinsman.
2065e 1392 (qorban) offering.
2065f BSP (qurbdn) supply.

Basically our root denotes being or coming into
the most near and intimate proximity of the ob-
ject (or subject). A secondary meaning entails ac-
tual contact with the object (Ezk 37:7; the Piel
imperative in Ezk 37:17; GKC, 52n, 64h; also,
perhaps, Ex 14:20, Jud 19:13). Our root occurs
about 455 times (verb, 279 times). It is a common
Semitic root (cf. Akkadian gardbu, grb, UT 19:
no. 2268). Among its synonyms, note ndgash
(very close to gdarab in use), bd’ (somewhat
wider in meaning and emphasizing movement
toward).

The various uses of the root surface in the
verb. There are a few general non-technical uses
connoting approach or coming near apart from
any sense of intimacy (Gen 37:18). The more es-
sential significance of the root emerges in cases
where the ‘‘drawing near’’ renders the subject
close enough to the object to see it (Ex 32:29), to
speak to it (Num 9:6), or even to touch it (Lev
10:4; Ex 36:2).

Spatial proximity is a connotation of the adjec-
tive gdréb (e.g. Gen 19:20). It is often coupled
with ‘‘far’’ (rdhdq) as a technical phrase for **‘all’’
(Ezk 22:5). Solomon repeats the phrase in the
course of his prayer at the dedication of the tem-
ple (1 Kgs 8:46). The prophets employed our
phrase quite frequently, e.g. the peoples *‘far and

2065 332 (qarab)

near’’ will mock Israel (Ezk 22:5), yet God's
preservation of his people will cause their
enemies to acknowledge his might (Isa 33:13).

The temporal sense of imminence is used of
joyous (Lev 15:9, the year of Jubilee: Num 24:17,
the **scepter’’) and foreboding (Gen 27:41, death)
events. The second connotation (the sense of im-
pending doom) is used by Moses (Deut 32:35) of
the day of calamity and by the prophets for the
day of the Lord (Lam 4:18; Isa 13:6; Zeph 1:3).
The idea here is not just that a certain event is
near, but that that event is foreboding.

The general sense of the verb gdrab develops
into still other technical uses. In martial contexts
it connotes armed conflict (Deut 2:19; 20:10).
Sometimes qualifying words (‘‘to fight,’’ ‘‘unto
battle’’) are omitted and the verb carnes the full
force of “‘entering into battle."’ Moses records
that Israel came not near the land of the children
of Ammon (Deut 2:37) and that they did come
near them (2:19). This seeming difficulty is
cleared up by understanding Deut 2:37 to refer
technically to closing in battle and 2:19 to ap-
proach in general. This martial connotation is
clear in Deut 25:11! and Josh 8:5. Especially note
Ps 27:2; 91:10; 119:150, where the martial signifi-
cance may well be hidden to the casual reader.

Another technical use relates to having sexual
relations. So Abimelech affirms his innocence
with regard to Sarah (Gen 20:4). Also, compare
Deut 22:14, the case of the groom who ‘‘draws
near’ and discovers no tokens of virginity in his
bride: also Isa 8:3 where the prophet ‘‘draws
near’’ his wife and she conceives. Perhaps this is
the connotation of gdréb in Ezk 23:5 where it is
parallel to ‘‘lovers’’ (m*’ahdbim) and in Ps 38:11
(H 12} (cf. Ps 88:18 {H 19]).

A final technical use of our verb 1s cultic and
connotes every step man performs in presenting
his offering to God. This idea begins to develop
with Moses’ drawing near to God (Ex 3:5). Later
at Sinai the people exercised the same care in
approaching his holy mountain (Lev 4:11; Deut
5:23 [H 20]). Having gathered as near as they
were instructed, they commissioned Moses to
meet with (draw near to) God and receive his
instructions (Deut 5:27 [H 24]). Henceforth, they
met God at his designated place. They brought
the materials for the tabernacle and presented
them as an offering (gorbdn) before God. The
Levites were presented as an offering (drawn
near) to serve God as custodians of the taberna-
cle (Num 16:9; 18:4: cf. Josh 3:4) while Aaron
and his descendants were presented as sole of-
ficiants (cf. Lev 10:3; Num 18:3, 22) of the sacred
sacnifices. This officia] sense of drawing near en-
tails the special choosing by God and presenta-
tion by Israel (Ex 29:4). The officiants were en-
joined to further purity (separating themselves
from the ordinary) by washing, replacing their

812

clothes, and making sacrifices for themselves
(Lev 9:4, 8, 10). Interestingly, the Hiphil stem
becomes most frequently used to connote the
sacrificial presentation of offerings by the people
(Lev 1:14), through the priests (Lev 1:5) unto the
Lord (Lev 1:13). Whatever is thus presented to
the priests is holy, and all parts not consumed in
the sacrifice (or otherwise destroyed) belong to
those officially related to the cultus (Lev 3:7). A
most significant application of this official sense
appears in Jer 30:21 where in future days God's
prince (the kingly line?) is to officiate at the altar
(normally no king did this in the monarchy except
in apostasy, cf. II Kgs 16:12)!

In difficult litigation God was the judge before
whom they came (at the tabernacle, Lev 9:5; I
Sam 10:20f.). Hence. compare, cases like the de-
tection of Achan (Josh 7:14) with tral by lot, the
decision regarding the advisability of war (I Sam
14:36) and the eschatalogical (and spiritual) as-
semblage of peoples to hear the divine sentence
on mankind (Lev 41:1; Isa 48:16, etc.).

This cultic connotation is related to other oc-
currences of gdrab as, for example, Lam 3:57
when the suppliant calls (gdra’, q.v.) God is
near, i.e. ready and willing to help (cf. Deut 4:7:
Ps 34:18 {H 19]). God under various attributes is
described as the ally (cf. Neh 13:4: Gen 45:10) of
the faithful, e.g. his name (Ps 75:1 [H 2},
119:151), his salvation (Ps 85:9 [H 10]), and his
righteousness (Isa 51:5). The idea here is not pas-
sive (i.e. nearness), but active (i.e. a helper, ally).
Also, God's word ts epistemologically near to
man (Deut 30:14). Jeremiah, however, perhaps
reflecting on this (and the cultic sense) says of
Israel that God is near in their mouth but far from
their heart (Jer 12:2). Perhaps Solomon offers his
words to God as a continual sacrifice (I Kgs
8:59).

qaréb. Near. This adjective equals garéb (in-
timate proximity), except its primary (nearly ex-
clusive) usage is cultic. It occurs eleven times.

q‘rab. War, battle. Our noun (an Aramaic loan
word; cf. GKC, 84n) denotes the actual engaging
in battle. The Psalmist recounts both Jehovah's
delivering him from battle (Ps 55:18 [H 19]; cf.
Zech 14:3), and his instruction in the art of war-
fare (Ps 144:1). Compare as a synonym:
milhadma. The word occurs eight times.

qirba. Drawing near. Both occurrences of this
infinitive construct reflect the cultic use (see be-
low) of our root (Ps 73:28; Isa 58:2).

qarob. Near, kinsman, neighbor. asv and RSV
translate similarly except in Neh 13:4 (asv ‘‘al-
lied’* is preferred), and Ps 75:1 [H 2] (Rsv
emends). This adjective can indicate nearness in
space (Gen 19:20), time (Deut 32:35), family ties
(Lev 21:2), interest (Neh 13:4), or an epis-

temological nearness (Deut 30:14). It has many
synonyms, e.g. ‘ésel (at the side of), ‘alvad, and
‘amit (fellow, neighbor), réa‘ (companion), sha-
kén (one who dwells beside), and g6'él (a respon-
sible blood relative), sh*’ér (a blood relative).
etc. The word occurs seventy-three times.

gorban. Offering, oblation. asv usually ren-
ders ‘‘oblation’’ to the rsv’s ‘‘offering.”’ This
noun denotes that which is brought near, i.e. an
‘‘offering’’ to the deity both in the sense of that
which is to be “‘sacrificed"’ (as such it is used of
all the cultic sacrifices and offerings), or merely
that which is destined to be used in the sanctuary
(Num 7:13ff.; cf. KD, Pentateuch, Il, p. 271:
Vos, BT, p. 175). This word occurs eighty times
and only in Lev, Num, and Ezk (20:28; 40:43).
Cf. Old Aramaic qgrbn (H. Donner and W. Rollig
KAI II, p. 41). For synonyms compare mattana
(a gift, broader than our word), minha, and
zabah.

The noun gorbdn deserves considerably more
attention than can be given here. The major ele-
ments of a cultic offering include: first, what is
done by the offerer. His choice must reflect his
self-sacrifice and consist of that which comes
from his life’s sustenance and products (Vos BT,
p. 175). It must be without blemish because the
best belongs to God. The offerer’s love and con-
secration should naturally lead him to present the
best (Gen 4:4), and only this could reflect the
moral purity of the necessary and perfect sac-
rifice (I Pet 1:19). The gift being divinely
specified (Lev !—7) was brought to a divinely ap-
pointed place (KD, Pentateuch, II, p. 279). Ac-
ceptable worship depends on meeting God's
standards. Hands were laid on the living sacrifice
setting it apart for the task (KD, ibid.), transfer-
ring to it not only the intentions but the guilt of
the offerer (Vos, BT, p. 180). The self-confessed
penalty of death was then vicariously inflicted
upon the beast (Vos, ibid.). Thus, the blood (q.v.)
was procured as a covering (Heb 13:15), the flesh
as firefood (KD, op. cit., p. 280), and a human life
was symbolically devoted to God. The pnest re-
ceived the blood and flesh (or ‘‘meal’’) presenting
it according to the specifications of the intended
rite. The whole was consummated by a divine
indication of acceptance. One should be careful
to note that unlike pagan concepts of sacrifice,
the biblical teaching indicates that there was no
transference of value to God (Vos, BT, p. 176).
The central significance of Israel's cult was
spiritual (Ex 19:4-8; Jer 7:21ff.: Hos 14:3). In nt
times, gorban represented a vow whereby one’s
goods were ideally given to the temple (but in
reality retained), and hence could not be given to
others (Mk 7:11: Mt 15:5; ISBE., p. 709). (For
further discussion see: KD, Pentateuch, I], p.
265ff.; OTOT, p. 262: Vos, BT, p. 172ff.)

813

2068 M2 (garda)

qurban. Supply, offering. This appears to bea
variant pronunciation (or writing) of gorban.
This noun occurs only twice and in Nehemiah.
Bibliography: Snaith, Norman H., ‘‘Sac-
rifices in the Old Testament,*° VT 7:308-17.
TDNT, III, pp. 860-64. THAT, I], pp. 674-80.
Lidice:

2066 39> (qrb) Il. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2066a t352 (qereb) midst, among, inner,
part. (aSv and Rsv translate simi-
larly, with rsv frequently improving
the translation [Ps 82:1; 94:19], but
not in Ps 55:15 [H 16)).

This noun denotes the internal. It can represent
the inward part(s) of human or animal bodies, or
of groups of people, or of social structures (e.g., a
city). It frequently functions as a preposition *‘in
the midst, among” (Hab 3:2; Num 14:13). Our
word ts used parallel to /éb (heart, Jer 9:8 [H 7]),
nepesh (soul, Isa 26:9), and various other internal
organs (frequently as seats of various psycholog-
ical functions). A close synonym is f6k (q.v.). It
is found in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2269) and Akka-
dian (qgerbu). Our word occurs 222 times
(perhaps Ps 49:11 {H 12] is better read g‘ barim,
‘*sepulchres’’ with the Lxx and Syriac [so Niv]}).

Theologically, it is significant that the inward
attitudes (Gen 18:12) and thoughts (Ps 64:6 [H 7])
of man are known to God. The spirit within man
(and all that constitutes a man’s inner being) was
created by God (Zech 12:1). Hence, the Psalmist
can pray that the Creator may create a right spirit
within him (Ps 51:10 [H 12]). God can promise to
do so (Ezk 11:19; 36:26), and more, by putting his
own Spint within man (Ezk 36:27). It was God's
Spirit within Israel that made her possess Pales-
tine, granting victories over her enemies (Isa
63:11). The Trinity (Ex 23:21; 34:9) was a jealous
God (Deut 6:15; cf. ganda’) assuring victory (Deut
7:21; Josh 3:10) upon the condition of holiness
(Deut 23:14 [H 15]: 17:7, etc.) and under the
threat of death (Deut 20:5). If his people did not
execute the penalties due rebellion, he would do
so, as he threatened (Deut 11:6; 31:17).

Luc.
B92 (qorban), "32 (qiurban). See
nos. 206S5e,f.
2067 a3"2 (qgarddm) axe (e.g. I Sam 13:20;

Jud 9:48). Derivation uncertain.

2068 M2 (gard) encounter, meet, befall, hap-

pen, build with beams.
Derivatives

2068a tmMAP (qgareh) chance, accident.
2068b B12 (q*ri) encounter.

2068 52 (qara)

2068c im32% (migreh) happening.

2068d tmp (qérd) beam.

2068e *t32 (garda) build with beams. De-
nominative verb, does not occur in

the Qal.

2068f tap (m*qdreh) beamwork (Eccl
10:18, only).

2068g P32 (giryad) city, town.

2068h MND (qgeret) city.

This root, a by-form of gdra’, has three conno-
tations: first, to meet, confront, and second, the
happening and/or occurring of that which is (for
the most part) beyond human control. For the
meaning, to build with beams, see the denomina-
tive verb garda. For cognates see Ugantic gry ‘‘to
meet’? (UT 19: no. 2277). Our root (the verb and
its derivatives here listed) occurs fifty-one times.

The first connotation of the root parallels the
by-form gard’ in its cultic (cf. Ex 3:18; Num
23:2-3) and in the hostile (martial) uses (Deut
25:18).

The second meaning is clearly seen in cases
where as a general principle men renounce
human (or self) control over events. Interest-
ingly, the Scripture immediately corrects Ha-
man’s wrong concept of events (Est 4:7) by mak-
ing it clear that everything occurred by God’s
sovereign providence. When Jacob refused to let
Benjamin go to Egypt (Gen 24:12) he used a word
which was not judgmental toward the brothers.
Apparently, he still did not suspect their misdeed
toward Joseph (note use of gard’, Gen 42:38; Ex
1:10). Saul assured the witch of Endor that plying
her art in his behalf would not cause her to meet
with punishment. All would be held in strictest
confidence (1 Sam 28:10).

The second meaning is also seen in cases
where divine providence is the cause. Abraham's
servant prays for God to control events causing
his request to be met (Gen 24:12; cf. Gen 27:20).
God confronts the false gods (no-gods) challeng-
ing them to unveil that which shall ‘‘happen™ and
that which has. His omnipotence and omnis-
cience stand unrivalled. He knows because he
causes all things (Isa 41:22-23; 46:8-11; cf. Num
11:23), and, therefore, unveils future events at his
own discretion (Dan 10:14; cf. the use of gara’,
Gen 49:1; Deut 31:29). So, nothing happens by
chance, or fate. God controls all. Although (and
because) this is so, man is responsible for that
which is unintentional or uncaused by him (cf.
Deut 23:10 [H 11]). He is bound by God’s laws
and cannot plead happenstance and/or expedi-
ence to justify his violations (I] Sam 1:6). The
major instance of this is, of course, the Adamic
sin.

The dilemma of Eccl is heightened by the os-
tensible meaningless of human accomplishment
and overriding control (Prov 16:33) of divine

814

providence (Eccl 2:14; 9:11; 3:19). Ecclesiastes
concludes that man the creature should not ques-
tion but obey the Creator (12:13-14). It has
rightly been said that the idea of fate or chance is
utterly foreign to the Hebrew mind (G. H. Tre-
vor, “‘Chance,’’ ISBE, I, p. 593). Perhaps, how-
ever, the idea of fate is found in the mouth of the
pagan Philistines (I Sam 6:9), or the Egyptians
(Ex 1:10).

qareh. (A nocturnal) accident. This noun de-
notes an occurrence beyond human control, the
nocturnal emission polluting a man whether it is
seminal or diarrheic (Deut 23:10 [H 11] only).

q‘ri. (Hostile) encounter. This noun (only in
Lev 26) denotes a hostile meeting with the inten-
tion of fighting. Our noun occurs seven times.

migreh. Happening, lot. The rsv differs from
the asv by introducing the idea of *‘fate.’’ This
mem-formation noun denotes the consequences
of the verbal meaning *‘to happen, occur.” It ap-
pears ten times.

qora. Beam. This noun denotes something
that may be chopped down (II Kgs 6:2); it can
become part of a building (II Chr 3:7) over one’s
head (Gen 19:8). It occurs five times. The con-
nection with gard may be the fitting of beam to
beam.

m‘qareh. Roof, rafters. This hapax legome-
non denotes the structure covering one’s home,
which may sag (Eccl 10:18). It is distinguished
from the Piel participle (which it duplicates in
form) by the presence of a dagesh (indicative of
the definite article) even though mem over silent
sh*wa normally rejects the dagesh (Ps 104:3).
L.J.C.

qirya. City, town. (RSV and asv_ similar.)
Perhaps derived from the root gard which means
‘‘to meet,’ the city being a meeting place of men.
A synonym, ‘ir, is the more common word, with
girya being used primarily in poetry.

Specific cities are designated by this word:
Gilead (Hos 6:8), Sihon (Num 21:28) and Damas-
cus (Jer 49:25). Most frequently the city is
Jerusalem. While it is a besieged city (Isa 29:1—
here called Ariel), it will not fall to the Assyrians
(Isa 33:20). It is the city of the great King (Ps 48:2
{H 3]) who is its certain defense.

The term *‘Great King’’ had originally been the
title of the kings of Babylon and Assynia (cf. I
Kgs 18:19, 28; Judith 2:5). It is now ascribed to
the Lord (cf. Ps 47:2; 95:3; Mal 1:4). Even tn the
NT the term “‘‘city of the Great King’’ designates
Jerusalem (Mt 5:35). Isaiah noted that Jerusalem,
the once faithful city, was now a harlot, i.e. un-
faithful (1:21; cf. Hos 4:1) but justice will be re-
stored in her midst and she will again be called
the city of righteousness and the faithful city

(1:26). This means that not only will Jerusalem be
characterized as pious and loyal, she will also be
firmly established (this expression is used of
Davidic dynasty, II Sam 7:16; Ps 89:37 [H 38)).
Jerusalem ts known as the ‘‘Enduring City’’ even
as Rome is now known as the “‘Eternal City.”

This word is used in its construct form with
other words as a proper noun: Kinatharba—city
of four (Josh 14:15; 15:13; 21:11), Kiriathbaal—
city of Baal (Josh 15:60), Kiriathhuzoth—city of
streets (Num 22:39), Kiriathjearim—city of
forests (I Sam 6:21) and Kiriathsepher—city of
the scribe or of the recruiting officer; cf. sdpér
(Jud 1:11).

Various characteristics and actions are as-
signed the city. It can be sinful (Hab 2:12), but
also faithful (Isa 1:21) and righteous (Isa 1:26). It
can be located strategically (Deut 2:36), be for-
tified (Isa 25:3) and be viewed as a place of secu-
rity (Prov 10:15; Prov 18:11). The city can rejoice
(Prov 11:10; Isa 32:13), be exultant (I Kgs 1:41,
45; Job 39:7; Isa 22:2), and be chaotic (Isa 24:10,
Gen 1:2).

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 681-83.

C.S.

mp (qard).
342 (qgardb).

See nos. 2077c, 2068, 2068e.
See no. 206Sd.

2069 mp (qarah) I, be bald.

Derivatives
2069a tmp (qgéréah) bald.
2069b imme (gorha) baldness.
2069c TAMSS (qdarahat) back baldness.

Our root denotes the lack of hair on the human
head. This may result from shaving (Mic 1:16,
where gdazaz ‘“‘to shear’’ is the parallel; Job 1:20;
Jer 7:29), from plucking (mdrat, Neh 13:25), from
leprosy (Lev 13:42), and other and natural causes
(Lev 13:40?). For synonyms see gdzaz, and gib-
béah (forehead baldness). The root occurs
twenty-three times.

Ritualistic shaving of the head in imitation of
Canaanite mourning rites is prohibited for priests
(Lev 31:5; cf. Jer 41:5) and laity (Deut 14:1), be-
cause as holy servants and children of God they
were to keep themselves as from all idolatry (cf.
Barnes on Mic 1:16). Not all baldness, however,
is unclean (Lev 13:40). Indeed, not all shaving of
the head to express mourning is prohibited. God
commands (Mic f:16) and expects his people (Isa
22:12) to show deepest mourning over their sin.
His punishment will effectuate mourning over
their dead (Ezk 7:18; Isa 3:24), but even such
tragedy will not humble them. Ultimate judgment
is preceded by a picture of widespread death and
a prohibition of mourning (Jer 16:6). Baldness is a
picture of mourning (Jer 47:5).

815

2071 832 (garam)

2072 32 (qdran)_ shine

2072 33) (qaran)

The taunt (J. W. Kapp, *‘Baldness’’ ISBE, I, p.
380f.) hurled at Elisha (II Kgs 2:23) is especially
ignominious because it showed abject disrespect
for God's prophet (galas, q.v.) and God himself.
According to the Law, death was the punishment
(cf. galal and Lev 20:9).

qéréah. Bald. asv and rsv the same. This
twice occurring noun denotes the state of gdrah.

qorha. Baldness. asv and rsv translate the
same. This noun refers specifically to the shaved
head expressing deep gnef. It occurs eleven
times.

qarahat. Back-baldness. asv and Rsv translate
similarly. This noun (occurring four times) refers
specifically to baldness of the crown of one's
head as compared to gabbahat, baldness of the
front of the scalp (Lev 13:42).

L.J.C.

2070 map (qgrh) Tl. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2070a MSP (gerah) frost, ice (e.g. Gen

31:40; Ps 147:17).

mms (qdarahat). See no. 2069c.
2 (qg‘ri). See no. 2068b.
8°99 (qari’). See no. 2063b.
ma? (qgirya). See no. 2068g.

spread or lay something
over (Ezk 37:6, 8).
(Qal); have horns
(Hiphil). Denominative verb.

Parent Noun
2072a TWP? (geren)

This denominative of geren denotes first, those
rays of radiance streaming from Moses’ face after
he met with God (Ex 34:29), and secondly, the
possession of horns (Ps 69:31 [H 32]). It was this
mistranslation as ‘‘horn’’ in the Vulgate which
Jed Michael Angelo to place two small homs on
Moses’ head in his famous statue. Note the same
mistranslation in the KJv of Hab 3:4. The Qal
usage denotes the form of a horn(s) rather than
the substance. Our root is to be contrasted with
‘ahal, ‘6r, halal, et al. which denote the sub-
stance of a ‘‘shining’’ rather than a form. This
root occurs seventy-seven times (four times as a
verb).

horn.

qeren. Horn, ray, hill. asv and rsv translate
the same. Our word primarily denotes the horn(s)
of various animals (ram, wild oxen). (Cf. Ugaritic
qrn, UT 19: no. 2279.) Elephant tusks were re-
ferred to (or mistaken) as huge horns (Ezk 27:15).
A frequently occurring derived denotation relates

2073 B32 (qaras)

to strength, pride, and élan vitale. L. Schmidt
rightly stated: *‘In the OT the horn is not only an
expression for physical power in symbolical pro-
phetic action (II Kgs 22:11) or in visionary depic-
tion of the might which has scattered Israel (Zech
2:1-4); it is a direct term for power’’ (TWNT, III,
p. 669). (Cf Deut 33:17; II Sam 22:3; Ps 18:2 {H
3]). Schmidt further notes that whereas teeth,
mouth and claws are images of violent exercise of
force, the horn denotes physical might and
power. It is for God to exalt or trample down the
horn; when men exalt their horn, it denotes arro-
gance (Ps 75:4-5). Consequently, ‘‘horn’’ be-
comes a symbol for men endowed with such
power (Dan 8:20-21). Our word is also used of
horn-like projections, or hills (Isa 5:1). Musical
instruments (Josh 6:5) and flasks (I Sam 16:1)
were made of horns.

The radiance of God's power beaming from
Moses’ face was fittingly described as horn-like
(Ex 34:29; cf. also Hab 3:4). Subsequently, horns
were put on the altars to focus the symbolic pres-
ence and power of God. It was especially on
these horns that blood to atone for original and
unwitting sin was to be applied (Ex 30:10; Lev
4:7, et al.). Adonijah and then Joab recognized
this and took hold of the horns of the altar of
burnt offering, seeking forgiveness. The former
having sinned ‘‘unwittingly’’ was forgiven, since
David long was aware of his designs on the
throne and had not corrected him (I Kgs 1:5-6,
53). The latter was killed (I Kgs 2:28, 34) for his
duplicity. Also, this is entirely in keeping with
Mosaic legislation regarding murder (Ex 21:14).

As horns are the focus of a beast’s power, so
God promises to grant strong horns to those of
his choosing (Deut 33:17). Thus one could paral-
lel his heart and his ‘‘horn’’ as exalting in God (I
Sam 2:1). One could defy God by lifting up his
horn in arrogance (Ps 75:4—5 [H 5-6]). Actually, it
was God who would cut off the evildoers’ horns
and exalt the horns of the nghteous (Ps 75:10 [H
11}). To have one’s horns exalted by God is to
gain victory and salvation (Ps 92:10 {H 112);
David’s horn is to bud, Ps 132:17). God is the
source of all true salvation, hence he is termed
the horn of salvation (II Sam 22:3).

Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 76-85.

L.J.C.

2073 839 (qdaras) bend down, stoop, crouch-
(Isa 46:1, 2).

Derivative

2073a BP (qgeres) hook (on edges of
tabernacle curtains, Ex 26:11 =
36:13, 18).

2073b =0%D59 (garsdl) ankle (II Sam

22:37 = Ps 18:37). Probably derived
from qaras (so BDB and GB).

816

2075 Pop

"B32 (qgarsdl). See no. 2073b.

2074 yo? (qdra‘) tear, tear in pieces.

Derivative

YI? (qura’)
Prov 24:21).

qara‘ has to do with rending cloth or a similar
substance (except Jer 4:30; 22:14). It occurs
sixty-three times. Distinguish it from bdqa’‘
‘*split, cleave’’°—of making a channel through
hard objects, gdzal ‘‘tear away from,’’ pdnaq
‘break in two,’’ tdrap ‘“‘rend flesh,’’ sdrat *‘skin
something,’ shadbar ‘‘break in pieces,’’ and cf.
param ‘‘tear,’’ the synonym. Cf. Aramaic qrq
(W. Donner and H. Rollig, KAI, II, p. 42), tear,
slander (?) (Ps 35:15, ‘‘slander,’’ rsv).

gara‘ may be used with a literal meaning of
cloth (Lev 13:56, I Sam 15:27), or figuratively of
tearing a kingdom from a royal line (I Sam 15:28,
et al.). Most frequently it refers to an act of
heartfelt and grievous affliction (tearing one’s
upper and under garment in front of the breast
baring the sorrow of the heart; (cf. KD, Lev
10:6). This occurred at the first news of a death
(Gen 37:29) or other tragedy (Num 14:6; Josh
7:6). *“‘Rending’’ of one’s clothes could be ac-
companied by putting on sackcloth (sag, q.v.;
Gen 37:34), putting dirt or ashes on the head (I
Sam 4:12), removing the shoes (II Sam 15:30),
and putting the hands on the head (II Sam 13:19).
On two occasions when the king of Israel confes-
sed his impotence to heal or to provide food by
tearing his garments, Elisha proved that the
Lord, whom the people had forsaken, was indeed
the true king of Israel by healing Naaman and by
giving food (IJ Kgs 5:7ff.; 6:30ff.). (Cf. R. de-
Vaux, AI, p. 59). Israel was forbidden to imitate
the Canaanite (cf. gdrah) mourning ritual of
shaving the beard and head (Lev 21:5: Deut 14:1).
So such practices when continued indicated the
lack of instruction even among the godly tn Jere-
miah’s day (Jer 41:5). Ezra (9:5) did not shave, but
plucked his hair indicating violent wrath and
moral indignation (KD). God will cause his re-
bellious people to mourn—he will rend their
chests (Hos 13:8). Also, he tells his people to
repent and rend their hearts rather than their gar-
ments (Joel 2:13).

Bibliography: DeWard, Eileen F., ‘‘Mourning
Customs in I, II Samuel,’ JJS 23:1-27; 145-66.

L.J.C.

2074a rag (e.g. 1 Kgs 11:30;

(qaras) narrow, form.

Derivative

PIP (qeres) a@ nipping, i.e. nipping
or stinging insect (Jer 46:20).

2075a

This root refers to a pinching together. It is
applied to eyes, lips, and clay. It occurs in Ug.
(UT 19: nos. 2280, 2281) meaning “‘to bite,’’ and
‘‘to shape’’ (clay into an effigy). Note also, Akk.
q/kardsu. Our root occurs six times.

In the Qal stem our root is associated with an
‘insidious malicious gesture’ (KD, Psalms, I, p.
427). *‘Winking”’ is not a felicitous translation (Ps
35:19, et al.) since it connotes merriment rather
than hostility. Perhaps ‘‘narrow the eyes’’ would
better represent a deceitful and malicious look.
Hence, ‘‘he who narrows his eyes causes sor-
row’ (Prov 10:10). Further support comes from
Prov 16:30 where the man of violence ‘‘shuts his
eyes’ and ‘bars (gdras) his lips.’’ The apparent
intent is to depict a harsh man whose eyes are
closed to others’ troubles and who bars his lips in
hard cruelty.

A totally different connotation occurs in Job
33:6 where the Ugaritic/Akkadian meaning ‘‘to
shape clay’’ figuratively applies to the creation of
mankind and, hence, to Job's own origin. This
usage is found in the Dead Sea Hodayot in de-
pendence on the Job passage (Gaster, T. H., The
Dead Sea Scriptures, Doubleday, rev. ed. 1964,
p. 183).

L.J.C.

2076 Yonp (qgarga‘) floor (e.g. I Kgs 6:15;
Amos 9:3). Derivation uncertain.

2077 *s99 (qdarar) I, be cold (Hiphil only, Jer
6:7, NIV, ‘‘pour out’).
Derivatives
2077a 2 (qar) cool (Prov 17:27; Jer
18:14; Prov 25:25).
2077b "9 (gdr) cold (Gen 8:22).
2077¢ MD (garda) cold (e.g. Nah 3:17;
Job 24:7).
2077d =p (m*qgérd) coolness (Jud
3:20, 24).
2078 *"92 (qdarar) Hi, teardown. Occurs only

once, in the Pilpel (Isa 22:5).

2079 wp (qgrsh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
20792 = W588 «(qgeresh) board, boards (e.g.
Ex 26:18; Ezk 27:6).
ma> (geret). See no. 2068h.
2080 swe (qgsh). Assumed root of the following.
2080a_ WD (gqaswa) a_ kind of jug,
jar (e.g. Ex 37:16; I Chr 28:19).
2080b =D? (geset) pot for ink, inkhorn

(Ezk 9:2, 3,11). Variant form of
geSet.

2084 swe (qashab)

mwe (qaswa). See no. 2080a.

2081 wp (gst). Assumed root of the following.
208la mew (q‘sita) a unit of unknown
value (Gen 33:19; Josh 24:32; Job

42:11).

See no. 208 1a.
See no. 2082a.

mews (q* Sita).
mwewD (gaSqeSet).

2082 wwp (qss). Assumed root of the following.

2082a nwewe (qgasgeset) scale of fish
(e.g. Deut 14:9, 10 = Lev 11:9, 10,
12).
wo (gash). See no. 2091a.

2083 NWP (qsh’). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2083a BNW (qgishshi’G) cucumber Num
11:5).
2083b MW (migshad) I, field of cucum-
bers (Isa 1:8; Jer 10:5).
2084 3¥2 (qdshab) hear, be attentive, heed.
Derivatives
2084a taye (gesheb) attentiveness.
2084b tSsw> (qgashshadb) attentive.
2084c f3W2 (gashshib) attentive.

This root denotes the activity of hearing, em-
phasizing either paying close attention or obeying
(heeding). Compare it to shadma‘ (a nearly identi-
cal synonym) and ‘dzan ‘‘to give ear,’ and ‘dnd,
‘*to respond.”’ Also, md'an ‘‘to refuse’’ (an an-
tonym). Our word appears in synonymous paral-
lelism with ‘asda in the sense of obedience to laws
(Neh 9:34). It appears fifty-four times, almost ex-
clusively in poetry.

God requires man to give close attention to (to
obey) his word. Saul wrongfully exalted the im-
portance of sacrifice over obedience. Samuel in
reminding him that God prefers responsible con-
scientious obedience, enunciated the central
principle of of religion (I Sam 15:22; cf. Deut
6:4-6), and sacrifice. Through his prophets (e.g.
Jer 6:17, 19), God repeatedly summoned his
people to heed the warnings of impending judg-
ment (Isa 28:23), but they did not (Isa 48:18; Jer
6:19; 18:18). Finally, God called all nations to
attest his promised deliverance to vindicate his
name (Isa 49:1), and to judge all rebellion (Isa
34:1). Those who do not hear (heed) are sover-
eignly subdued so that they must heed. God's
request and command are executed. Man's re-
quests to God, however, beg attention without
enforcing compliance (cf. Ps 10:17; 55:2 [H 3]; cf.
‘ana).

817

2085 mw (gasha)

qesheb. Aftentiveness. This thrice-occurring
segholate noun is better translated by the rsv in I
Kgs 18:29 and II Kgs 4:31. It makes concrete the
action of the verb.

qashshab. Attentive. This twice-occurring ad-
jective (for form, see GKC 84°b) is employed
figuratively of God's ears being attentive. He re-
gards the petition addressed to him.

qashshab. Aftentive, an alternate spelling of
gashshab.

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 684-88.

L.J.C.
2085 "wp (qasha) I, be hard, severe.
Derivatives
2085a imwp (gasheh) hard, cruel.
2085b PW (q*shi) stubbornness.

The root gashad apparently arose from an ag-
ricultural milieu. It emphasizes, first, the subjec-
tive effect exerted by an overly heavy yoke,
which is hard to bear, and secondarily, the rebel-
lious resistance of oxen to the yoke. For
synonyms see kaébéd (heavy, emphasizing the
weight of the thing bearing down), Adzaq (strong,
emphasizing the pressure exerted), hdmas
(violent, cruel), ’akzdr (fierce). Note, gashah
with the same variant spelling in Arabic has simi-
lar meaning to gashd. Our root (with the deriva-
tives here listed) occurs sixty-four times.

A number of passages use the metaphor of a
yoke (‘d/,) which ts hard (and, therefore, cruel
and oppressive) to bear: the servitude in Egypt
(Ex 1:14), Solomon's rule (J Kgs 12:4, hyperboli-
cally?), and the Babylonian exile (Isa 14:3).
Christ’s yoke, however, is easy (Mt 11:29-30),
although it too requires submission (Phil 4:3) and
discipline (II Cor 6:15). Other situations em-
phasize only the idea ‘‘hard to bear’’ (Gen 35:16;
Gen 42:7; Ps 60:3 [H 5}); cf. the meaning ‘‘diffi-
cult’’ (Deut 1:17; 15:18). The other side of the
word (cruel and oppressive) develops the mean-
ing fierce (Gen 49:7; Isa 27:8).

A frequent use of the word relates to the stub-
born (stiff-necked) subjects of the Lord. Like re-
bellious oxen, calf-worshiping Israel quickly
turned aside from the Lord’s service (Ex 32:9).
The spirit of Israel remained (for the most part)
stubborn, intractable, and non-responsive to the
guiding of their God (Deut 10:16; Jud 2:19; II Kgs
17:14; Neh 9:16) and of his Holy Spirit (cf. Acts
7:51). Pharaoh stubbornly refused divine leading
(Ex 13:15) in accordance with divine counsel (Ex
7:3). Hannah used this word to describe her im-
passiveness created by great vexation (I Sam
1:15).

qasheh. Hard, cruel, obstinate, stiff. This ad-
jective modifies its objects employing a semantic
distribution parallel to that of the verb.

q’shi. Stubbornness. asv and Rsv translate this
hapax legomenon (Deut 9:27) the same. Moses
used it to characterize Israel's reaction to God’s

leading.
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 689-91.
Lac.
2086 mw>e (gshh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2086a «AW =(migsheh). A hapax lego-

menon of uncertain meaning used
in Isa 3:24. niv, ‘‘well-dressed
hair’’; KJv ‘‘well-set hair,’’ referring
perhaps to the alleged artistry of the
hairdo.

mwa (migshad) H, hammered work,
finely decorated cultic objects of gold
or silver (Ex 25:18, 31; Num 10:2);
hence, asv translates ‘‘beaten’’
(RSV, ‘‘hammered’’), and asv mar-
gin *‘turned’’ (on basis of Isa 3:24).

2086b

2087 *nw> (qdadshah) make hard. This verb
occurs only in the Hiphil (e.g. Isa 63:17;
Job 39:16).

2088 wsyr (qdshet) bow (Ps 60:6). A variant

spelling of geshet (q.v.).

2089 ww? (qgsht). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2089a truth (Prov

wwe (qgosht) 22:21,

only).

2090 “WP (qashar) bind, conspire.

Derivatives

2090a TSW (qgesher) conspiracy.
2090b so awnw «(gishshurim) bands, sashes
(Isa 3:20; Jer 2:32).

Basically this root denotes binding or tying
something to something. It is also used of a bind-
ing together of human beings. Its synonyms are
‘anad ‘‘bind”’ (occurs only twice, see Prov 6:21),
’GSar ‘‘bind, tie up with a rope or thicker object,”’
habash ‘‘to wrap with a wide object.”” Synonyms
to the secondary meaning (conspire) are ndbal
‘*to show oneself deceitful,’’ and kdrat brit ‘‘to
make a pact.’’ Our root (with the derivatives
listed) occurs sixty times.

The basic meaning of this root ‘‘to bind"
emerges clearly in Gen 38:28 where Zerah’s hand
was marked by tying with a scarlet thread. Rahab
was instructed to tie a scarlet thread to her win-
dow to mark it (Josh 2:18). God instructed Israel
to bind his laws (words) to their foreheads and
hands (Deut 6:8). Thus, their thoughts and ac-
tions were to be governed by his word. The
commandments of godly fathers and mothers
(Prov 6:21) as well as truth and kindness are to be

818

bound to one’s fingers (or neck, Prov 3:3), and
written on one’s heart (cf. Jer 31:31ff.). In the
eschaton Zion is to display her restored children
as a bride displays jewelry (Isa 49:18). Perhaps
we might add that thus the pious are to display
God’s word (H. Leuring, ‘‘Finger,’* in ISBE, II,
p. 1111). The Judaism of Jesus’ day had certainly
fulfilled the commandment to literally bind God's
word to themselves, but by adding thereto had
changed it from an ornament to a heavy weight
(Mt 23:4).

God reminds Job that only he binds the stars in
place (38:31) and controls wild (39:10) and possi-
bly mythological beasts (but cf. 40:19) (41:5 {H
40:29}).

Our word can apply to human relationships.
Men can be bound together (inseparably) in love
(Gen 44:30; I Sam 18:1) or conspiracy (J Kgs
16:9). Treasonous pacts if exposed were met with
denunciation (II Chr 23:13), and even death (II
Sam 15:12; I] Kgs 17:4). It is noteworthy that in
evil days prophets who declared God's counsel
were accused of treason (Amos 7:10; Isa 8:12) by
the real enemies of the theocracy (Young, E. J.,
Isaiah, Eerdmans, 1967, 1, p. 311)—the leaders of
Israel (Isa 8:13f.; Jer 11:9).

gesher. Conspiracy, treason, treaty aSv and RSV
translate similarly. This segholate noun in Isa
8:12 denotes ‘‘a conspiracy with treasonable in-
tent’ (Young, op. cit. p. 310). This is more than a
mere alliance such as that of Syria and Israel
against Judah. Our noun occurs sixteen times (six
times as the cognate accusative of gdashar).
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., *““Two Misun-
derstood Passages of the Old Testament,’ JTS
6:82-87.
L2JC:

mw (qgishshurim). See no. 2090b.

2091 *wwe (qdadshash) I, gather stubble. This
denominative verb occurs only in the Poel
(e.g. Ex 5:7; Num 15:32, 33).

Parent Noun

2091a WD (gash) stubble, chaff (e.g. Isa
5:24: Nah 1:10: Joel 2:5).

819

2094 mwD (gashshat) bowman (Gen

2094 nw (gashshat)

2092 wwe (qashash) I, gather stubble, sticks.

Occurs only in the Qal and Hithpoel, in
Zeph 2:1. Meaning doubtful.

2093 mw (qgeshet) bow. (asv and Rsv are the

same.)

The word geshet denotes the hunter's (Gen
27:3) and warnor's (I Sam 31:3) weapon by which
arrows are shot (I Kgs 13:15ff.). Its Ugaritic cog-
nate is gsht (UT 19: no 2287). Our word occurs
seventy-seven times. Derivation uncertain.

The bow, a common weapon in the ancient
Near East, was not too common in early Israel.
The Benjamites, however, were noted archers
(Jud 20; I Chr 8:40). Jonathan used a bow (I Sam
20:20) and later the bow became the weapon of
leaders and kings (II Kgs 9:24: Ps 18:34 [H 35)).
Apparently David's lament became a permanent
part of training Israel's army, so in II Sam 1:18
the enigmatic geshet may be the title (or part of
the title) of the song so employed (II Sam 1:18).
By the time of Jeroboam the bow may well have
been Israel's national weapon (Hos 1:5, 7). In
later times bows could be mounted with bronze
(Ps 18:34 [H 35]; however, see Al, p. 243), or
made of horns (AI, p. 243; B. Couroyer, **Corne
et arc, RB 73:510-21). Large battle bows were
strung by stepping on one end, hence, darak
qgeshet, to bend the bow, i.e. prepare to shoot (Jer
50:14; cf. G. Eager, in ISBE, p. 233). The con-
joining of “‘sword”’ and ‘“‘bow’’ often represents
all weapons, and even war itself (Gen 48:22; Josh
24:12). A ‘‘deceitful’’ bow (with a flaw) always
misses the mark (Israel, Ps 78:57; Hos 7:16).

Man’s bow is controlled by God (Gen 49:24).
The arrow finds its mark because of God's guid-
ance (esp. I Kgs 22:34; II Kgs 13-16). The broken
bow can represent divinely imposed defeat (I
Sam 2:4), and/or peace (God peaceably **hangs”’
his bow, Gen 9; cf. Ps 76:3 [H 4], 46:9 [H 10]; Hos
2:18 [H 20)).

Bibliography: Yadin, Y., The Art of Warfare
in Bible Lands, 2 vols.. McGraw-Hill, 1963.

se

21:20:
Jer 4:29).

2095 M83 (rad) see, look at, inspect.

Derivatives
2095Sa = A89 «(ra’eh) seeing (Job 10:15,
only).

2095b tm8" (ro'eh) I, Seer.

209Sc m8" (ro’eh) II, prophetic vision.

2095d omwS o(r’'ut) look (Eccl 5:10,
only).

209Se = 8ST O(r 67) mirror (Job
only).

2095f ‘N87 (ré’i) looking, appearance.

2095g =omsata (mar’a) I, vision.

2095h =o (mar'a) Hi, mirror (Ex
38:8, only).

20951 t™893) (mar'eh) sight, appearance.

2095) fSIsT (ruben) Reuben.

The extended and metaphorical senses in the
Qal include to regard, perceive, feel, understand,
learn, enjoy; Niphal, to be seen or to reveal one-
self; Pual, to be seen; Hiphil, to cause to see,
show, make to feel or know or enjoy; Hophal, to
be made to see, to be shown: Hithpael, to look at
one another.

The literal sense of the verb calls for no special
comment, for it is the common word for seeing
with the eyes (Gen 27:1). But this word has ex-
tended and metaphorical meanings. Some of these
appear in the definitions above. Five, however,
are of special importance. (1) rd’a designates the
saving, understanding, believing acceptance of
the Word of God as delivered by his accredited
messengers. In Isa 6:10 to see with the eyes is to
hear God’s Word, to understand it, and to tur to
him. On the other hand, in the same passage to
harden the heart against God’s message is to shut
the eyes (Isa 6:10). In the previous verse, never-
theless to *‘see indeed”* r‘’4@ ra’6 (Qal imperative
masculine plural, followed by infinitive absolute)
is used of the bare act of intellectual perception of
the message of God’s prophet. Further examples
of the sense of believing understanding are to be
found: Isa $2:10, 15; II Chr 26:5; Ps 63:2 [H 3]:
69:23 [H 24], et al. (2) rd’a has the sense of the act
of acceptance, especially on the part of God. God
says to Noah, ‘‘Thee have I seen nghteous’’ (Gen
7:1). Another example is Num 23:21. (3) Another
sense is “‘to provide,’’ usually of God's provision:
I Sam 16:1, Gen 22:8, 14 (as in English to see to
something is to provide it). (4) ‘‘To have respect
to’’ is another, especially of God in acting with
mercy (Isa 38:5; Ps 138:6). See also Ps 66:18 fora
similar sense.

(S) Of special importance is that rad’d is em-
ployed far more than any other word for the act of

37:18,

823

an authentic prophet in receiving oracles from
God. This is suggested first in the basic text, Num
12:6. God’s part in revelation is denominated a
mar’ (vision), a noun derived from rda’d, as also
in ten other texts (Gen 46:2; I Sam 3:15: Ezk 1:1;
8:3; 40:2; 43:3; Dan 10:7-8, 16). See also mar’eh.
More importantly, rd’d is used many times in the
major and minor prophets in this precie manner:
Isa 6:1; Jer 1:11, 12, 13; Ezk 1:1, 4, 15, 27, 28; 2:9;
8:2, 6, 7, 10, 18; 10:1, 9; 11:1. The synonym haza
(q.v.) is used in the same sense.

A name for the na@bi’ (prophet) is ro’eh (seer)
suggesting that the act of seeing God's message
(by dreams or visions) was so important that the
spokesman (nabi') might be called one who sees
(divine things), that is, a ‘‘seer’* (I Sam 9:9, 11, 18,
19 and at least seven other times in the oT). This
feature placed certain limits on prophetic com-
munication about the future and prophetic in-
terpretation as God was careful to point out (Num
12:4-8) and as the prophets regretfully acknowl-
edge (Dan 8:27; 12:8). The vision often needed
further interpretation.

ro’eh. Seer (synonym of nabi’ *‘‘prophet,”’
properly a Qal participle of the verb ra'd, *‘seeing
or one who sees.” It is used many times in thts
general sense. It is used twelve times in the or,
however, as an alternate for ndbi’ ‘‘prophet."* It is
always rendered ‘‘seer.’’ Inasmuch as the nabi’,
spokesman for God, received his message by see-
ing visions this name was appropriately em-
ployed. It is always used with the article (hard’eh)
except once at II Sam 15:27 where the sense re-
quires the anarthrous form; sometimes it has the
holem full, (r6'eh), sometimes defective (rd’eh).
Often this name designates a prophet whose name
also is given: Samuel, Zadok, Hanani. The name
alternates with hdzeh, used sixteen times, a word
of almost the same meaning. Apparently rd’eh is
the earliest name, ‘‘For he that is now called a
prophet (ndbi') was beforetime called a seer
(r6’eh, 1 Sam 9:9). Gad was both nabi’ and hdzeh
(II Sam 24:11). These three terms are used for the
OT prophet in a single passage, ** Now the acts of
David the king, first and last, behold they are
written in the history of Samuel the seer (76'eh),
and in the history of Nathan the prophet (nab/’),
and in the history of Gad the seer (hdézeh, I Chr
29:29).

‘Since, quite obviously, the same individual
can be designated by the three terms, what if any,
is the distinction between them?... The word
nabi’ ... stressed the objective or active work of
the messenger of the Lord in speaking forth God's
Word. The terms ro’eh and hézeh, translated seer

2095 m3 (ra’a)

on the other hand emphasized the subjective ele-
ment, namely the receiving of divine revelation by
seeing. In Isa 30:10 the rebellious Israelites say to
the seers, ‘“See not.’ The term prophet em-
phasized the prophet’s utterances, ré’eh and
hézeh indicated his method of receiving divine
communication’’ (Hobart E. Freeman, An Intro-
duction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968, pp.
40-41).

See also Man of God (Deut 33:1; II Kgs 4:9, etc.)
and ‘‘servant’’ of the Lord (I Kgs 14:18: II] Kgs
9:7; 17:13, etc.) and ‘‘messenger’’ of the Lord
(Hag 1:13; Mal 1:1).

Lexicons list one occurrence (Isa 28:7) of the
form ré’eh II, as anoun meaning prophetic vision.
Inasmuch as Hebrew participles may be used as
nouns and indeed partake of many noun charac-
teristics (Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, p. 116) it
might be best to regard this single occurrence as a
present active participle of rd'a@ meaning here the
act of seeing, somewhat as the same form earlier in
the chapter (v. 4) means the ‘‘one who sees.”*

mar’eh. Sight, vision, appearance, countenance,
beauty. This word merits attention in three re-
spects: 1) its essential general meaning, 2) a spe-
cial meaning with reference to “‘the Servant of the
Lorp’’ in Isaiah and 3) a special meaning in con-
nection with biblical prophecy.

1. Essential general meanings. Being derived
directly from the verb ra’da ‘‘to see,’ by simple
addition of a familiar noun-making prefix, this
word bears much of the variety of significance of
that word. The verb appears in every main He-
brew stem, except possibly Piel, and exhibits
every conceivable sort of literal, metaphorical,
and extended meaning of **to see’’—as in English.
As one would expect, the word ra’a appears hun-
dreds of times. Our noun mar’eh can mean almost
anything having to do with outward appearance,
the way things look. So the notions of a ‘*sight”’ or
phenomenon, the thing seen, whether usual (Lev
13:3, and ten times in the chapter), or unusual (Ex
3:3) is common. The act of looking (Isa 11:3) and
the faculty or function of seeing (Eccl 6:9) are two
other senses; also *‘appearance™ in the sense of
how something seems outwardly to be, as op-
posed to the inner reality (1 Sam 16:7). By a slight
extension our word expresses the very common
notion of face or countenance, the part of a person
visible to the eye (Song 2:14; 5:15). Adjectives for
fair and desirable as well as ugly and undesirable
are commonly used with mar’eh.

2. Special meaning with reference to the Ser-
vant of the Lorp.”

a. The opening canto of the last ‘‘Song of the
Servant’* (Isa 52:13,—53:12) has this line: **His
visage (mar'éhad) was more marred than any man”’
(Isa 53:14). This strange statement seems to give
the reason why ‘“‘many were astonished’ at the
Servant when they saw him at Golgotha, the low-

824

point in his career as far as human acceptance was
concerned. What does it mean? Taken (as it surely
must be) as a characterization of what happened to
his *‘physique’’ at the crucifixion, men have sup-
posed many things. Perhaps it refers to the physi-
cal injuries—and no one was ever so injured
(‘‘more than any man’’). But quite a point is made
of the fact in the Gospels that not a bone of his
body was broken. People receive more disfiguring
injuries from fire, explosions, etc. every day and
live to bear the scars. Someone has suggested the
inward suffering of abandonment by God and
man. But that has nothing to do with mar'eh,
outward appearance. The correct understanding
of mar eh here can be adequately interpreted if we
Start with mé’ish ‘‘than any man,” better trans-
lated literally, ‘‘from a human adult male.** The
male of our species in his perfection, dignity, and
privilege was most thoroughly degraded, not by
smashing him physically but by destroying all evi-
dence of that perfection, dignity, and privilege
which man has as viceregent lord of earth's crea-
tures. Convicted as a criminal, tortured as a
sneak-thief, abused as being of no status what-
soever and then ignored by his executioners, as
they amused themselves with his attire—perhaps
this was how mishhat mé'‘ish mar’ éhu ‘ruined
from a human male as regard his appearance’’ was
fulfilled.

b. In Isa 53:2 it is said of him, ‘‘And when we
Shall see him there ts no beauty (mar'eh) that we
should desire him.”’ Though close to the last-
mentioned reference where the meaning is some-
what unique, here another nearly unique sense is
employed. Without any qualifying adjective for
beautiful, attractive, lovely, etc., the bare noun
means good appearance, hence rendered
‘*beauty’’ here and here alone in k.v. To get the
sense here, think of what a husband means when
he calls his new bride a ‘‘vision’’ as opposed to
what he might be thinking of if he called her a
‘‘sight."" The missing ‘“*beauty’’ was regal trap-
pings, prestigious accoutrements. Like John the
Baptist, he wore none of the soft clothing and had
no flabby muscles, characteristic of those who live
in kings’ courts. The Jews wanted a courtly pr-
ince; God offered them a muscular carpenter.

3. Special meaning with reference to biblical
prophecy. There is a nearly identical noun mar 4,
distinguished from mar’eh only by the second
vowel. This related word is used almost exclu-
sively for vision(s) as a vehicle of divine revelation
to prophets. The words alternate in this obvious
sense in Ezekiel and Daniel. See BDB, p. 909.

r°’aben Reuben. Behold a son! Jacob’s first
son, by Leah, was God's special favor to her and
as his name seems to hint, an unexpected blessing
(Gen 39:31). Another meaning has been postu-
lated, regarding it as abbreviated from ra’a b«
‘anyi ‘‘[Jehovah] hath seen my _affliction”’

[Leah's]; hence **pity of God.”’ While derivations
of names in the oT sometimes seem whimsical—as
naming of children sometimes seems to be—the
obvious meaning surely must be the designed one.
However, aname may be explained ina word play
that does not depend on etymology. Indeed **Re-
uben’’ may mean "‘Behold, a son”’ and yet sound
sufficiently like "she has seen my affliction’’ to
have that mentioned.

Reuben turned out to be a spirited but not very
disciplined person, connected with scrapes both
shameful and noble, constructive and very harm-
ful (see Gen 37:22; 42:22, 37-38; 49:3-4). He
committed one very repulsive crime (Gen 35:22)
which must surely have occurred under condi-
tions of great enticement. But it cost him his rights
of firstborn—the pre-eminence of leadership
going to Judah (Gen 49:8-10) and the double por-
tion to Joseph's sons (Gen 48:5). His descendants,
the tribe of Reuben, figure prominently at the time
of the conquest, being the first tribe settled, even
before the transfer of leadership to Joshua from
Moses (Nu:n 32). We hear very little of them after
that. They maintained their former nomadic ways
from their **headquarters”’ lands in the highlands
of Moab north of the River Arnon [Arabic Wadi
Mojib|. The tribe was as “‘unstable”™’ as their par-
ent Reuben and were among the first to lose them-
selves in the population transfers of antiquity (II
Kgs 10:33). Their towns appear in later history as
in possession of Moabites. The theological infor-
mation derived from Reuben is mainly ethical—
the lessons quite obvious ones: evils of polygamy,
perils of remoteness from worship centers, etc.

Bibliography: Delitzsch, F., Biblical Com-
mentary on Isaiah, Il. Freeman, H. E., An Intro-
duction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968. Mac-
Rae, A. A., “Prophets and Prophecy” ZPEB IV,
pp. 875-903.

R.D.C

PINS (rat). See no. 2095d.
SS (r''7), 8D (ro’?). See nos. 2095e,f.

2096 ON" (rd'am) rise (Zech 14:10, only).
2096a =aNS (r°’ém) wild ox (e.g. Num
23:22: Isa 34:7).

MONI (ra'mét) corals (Job
28:16; Ezk 27:16: Prov 24:7).

nies (ra’mot). See no. 2096b.

2096b

2097 wes (ro'sh) I, head; top, summit, upper
part, chief, total, sum.

Derivatives

2097a = AWS (ri’shd) beginning time, early
time (Ex 36:11, only).

MWS" (rd'shd) top, i.e. the topmost
stone (Zech 4:7, only).

2097b

825

2097 WS4 (rd’ sh)

2097c TW (ri'shén) first, primary.

2097d W895 (ri’shoni) first (Jer 25:1).

2097e =TRWNS (rée’shit) first, beginning,
best.

2097f nmiwso (mra’dshét) place at the

head, head place (e.g. Gen 28:11,
18: | Sam 19:13, 16).

The primary meaning of this root is ‘*head.** It is
common to all Semitic languages and appears in its
root forms and derivatives nearly 750 times. It is
used for the *‘head”’ as part of the body (Gen 3:15)
and by extension for the notion of ‘‘chief" of a
family (Ex 6:14), as ‘‘chief officer’ of the di-
visions of Israel (Ex 18:25) and the like. The
unique Hebraic character of this usage 1s clear in
the oT as the root is rarely applied to chiefs of
Gentile nations. It is used also for the top or sum-
mit of a geographical feature such as a mountain or
hill (Ex 17:9) and the upper part of a building or
architectural feature (Gen 11:4; 11 Chr3:15) and as
a personification for such features (Ps 24:7, 9).
The root was utilized in many colloquial ex-
pressions for plant names (Job 10:4) parts or por-
tions of things (Gen 2:10) and terms for artifacts.
In this last category is the usage of the root for
both “‘head stone’’ (Zech 4:7) and “‘chief corner
stone’ (Ps 118:22). This passage and usage are
carried over into the NT and quoted by Jesus con-
cerning his being rejected by the Jews (Mt 21:42:
Lk 20:17: Eph 2:20: I Pet 2:7). The root is widely
used in the oT with other terms in the sense of the
superlative, since Hebrew does not have any sim-
ple form to express the third degree. There are
many examples of this usage (Ex 30:23) where the
meaning is ‘best,’ “‘foremost,’* the uniquely
finest, which alone was fit for the service of God.
This theological meaning is carried over to the
officers of the temple (II Kgs 25:18) and the best
musicians (Neh 11:17). In most of the versions
there are divergencies in the translation of ré’sh
when it is used in the sense of ‘‘chief’ as for
example (Num 31:26) and many similar passages
KJv reads ‘‘chief, NIv and Rsv read ‘‘head”* but
none are completely consistent. The root appears
in many passages in the sense of *‘sum”’ or *‘total”’
(Prov 8:26) rsv ‘‘first’’ with a footnote which cities
the difficulty of the Hebrew. The ksv consistently
reads “‘total,”* **sum’”’ in passages dealing with the
census of Israel (Ex 30:12; Num 1:2 etc.) and the
Aramaic form appears in the unusual sense of the
‘‘sum"" or “‘substance”™” of a dream (Dan 7:1). Al-
though many of the usages of the root can be
traced back to Akkadian and ultimately to Sume-
rian, the reliance on the nation’s ‘“‘head”’ as a high
officer or chosen personage is developed in He-
brew to much greater degree than the other lan-
guages. The theological use of the root to desig-
nate divinely appointed offices in the oT is carried
over into the nr in such terms as ‘head of the
church” (Eph 5:23), a title ascribed to Christ.

2098 WS (rd’sh)

ri’shon. First, primary (ordinal number). This
adjective, a derivative of the same root as ro’sh
(q.v.), ts cognate to Akkadian réstu. The word
occurs over 180 times in the oT in a very wide
variety of connotations and contexts. It is used in
three distinct senses and a number of special con-
structions. The overwhelming number of occur-
rences are best translated ‘“‘former,’’ ‘‘first’’ of
two, of time (Gen 25:25); ‘‘previous’> (Num
21:26); “‘former men,’ ‘‘the patriarchs’’ (Deut
19:14): “‘former times,’ ‘“‘former events’’ (Isa
41:22). The next most common usage is in the
sense of ‘‘first,’ as in ‘‘first’’ of mankind (Job
15:7); ‘‘first’’ day of a ritual (Deut 16:4); ‘‘first’’ to
fall in battle (1 Sam 14:14); ‘‘first’’ as ‘‘briefest’’
(Ezr 9:6). The third most common usage is in the
sense of ‘‘before,’’ “*formerly’’ in time (Gen
28:19; Deut 13:10). There are other more
specialized usages, ‘first in command’’ (II Kgs
20:17); “‘set out first’? (Num 10:14); *‘to prepare
first’’ (I Kgs 18:25). Since the Hebrew orthog-
raphy at least in later days admitted -no easy nu-
merical] notation, all ordinals are spelled out and
vocalized in the mt. However, there is some scant
evidence that there was a notational system for
both cardinal and ordinal numbers in use in an-
tiquity.

ré’shit. First, beginning, choicest, first/best of a
group. A feminine noun derived from the root
ro’sh, it appears fifty times in nearly all parts of the
oT. The primary meaning is ‘‘first’’ or ‘*begin-
ning’ of a series. This term may refer to the initia-
tion of a series of historical events (Gen 10:10; Jer
26:1) but it also refers to a foundational or neces-
sary condition as the reverence or fear of God (Ps
111:10; Prov 1:7) and the initiation, as opposed to
the results, of a life (Job 8:7; 42:12). It is used
frequently in the special sense of the choicest or
best of a group or class of things, particularly in
reference to items to be set aside for God’s service
or sacrifice. The ‘‘first fruits’? (Lev 2:12; 23:10;
Neh 12:44) and “‘choicest’’ (Num 18:12) fruits are
so distinguished. Difficult usages of the term
occur in several passages. In Deut 33:21 the Kv
reads ‘‘first part’’ which is followed by sps, how-
ever the rsv, ‘‘best of the land”’ is preferred. In
Dan 11:41 the ksv reads ‘‘chief of the children of
Ammon,”’ but rsv reads *‘main part of the Ammo-
nites,’’ the more probable reading is ‘‘best of the
Ammonites.’’ The most important use of ré’shit in
the oT occurs in Gen 1:1 where it is combined with
the proclitic preposition b (q.v.). There has been a
great deal of debate over this use of ré’shit. Many
commentators both ancient and modern have tried
to read the phrase as ‘‘when-”’ rather than “‘in the
beginning’’ as do several modern versions. The
chief modern justification for this interpretation of
the root is to relate it to the phrase ‘‘enuma elish”’
which begins the Babylonian epic of creation.
However there is no evidence to connect the two

826

2098 ws" (rd’sh) II, gall, venom.

different terms, the one in Hebrew and the other in
Babylonian (see White, W., ‘“Enuma Elish,’* tn
ZPEB, II, p. 314). The proper interpretation of
ré’ shit can be deduced from the other occurrences
and the witness of all ancient versions. The nt (Jn
1:1) translates the Hebrew and follows the Lxx
precisely in its reading of (Gen 1:1) the first phrase
of the ot. The use of this root leaves no doubt that
Gen 1:1 opens with the very first and initial act of
the creation of the cosmos.

Bibliography: Bartlett, J. R., ‘The Use of the
Word Ws8* as a Title in the Old Testament,’ VT
19:1-10, THAT, IJ, pp. 701-14.

W.W.

(RSV USU-
ally ‘‘poison’’.)

This is probably a Babylonian plant name which
originally meant “*head’’ of some kind of plant. It
comes to mean ‘‘poison’’ and *‘poisonous’’ and
occurs twelve times in the oT. The initia] occur-
rence Is in Deut 32:32, ‘Their grapes are grapes of
poison.”’ It is also used to describe bitter waters
(Jer 8:14; 9:14; 23:15), “‘has given us poisoned
water to dnnk.”’ The ‘‘poisoned”’ or ‘‘bitter’’
water of Palestine may have merely been water
too salty to drink. The translation of rd’sh is dif-
ficult in some passages, where it is parallel in
poetry to another term (Ps 69:21 [H 22]), ‘*They
gave me bitter herbs (ré’sh) for food, and for my
thirst they gave me vinegar to drink.’’ BDB re-
marks that the word is always used figuratively.

W.W.

WR" (ré’sh). See no. 2138a.

NW (ri’shén). See no. 2097c.
wR (ri’shdni). See no. 2097d.
PWR (ré’shit). See no. 2097e.
3s" (rab). See nos. 2099a,b, 2100a.
35 (rdb). See no. 2099c.

2099 335 (rdbab) I, be(come) many, much.

Derivatives

2099a t3"5 (rab) I, much, many, great.
2099b 35 (rab) UHI, captain, chief.

2099c {35 (rob) multitude, abundance.
2099d tmgg3 (r°babd) ten thousand.
2099e tHs5 (ribbé) ten thousand.

2099f a°s°35 (r°bibim) copious showers.

A verbal root cognate to Akkadian and other
Semitic languages, it appears twenty-three times
in the oT in the Qal stem and once in the Pual
stem. The initial occurrence appears tn Gen 6:1
and many other passages in the sense of ‘‘become
many’’ referring to human population, in other
passages (Ex 23:29) referring to animal popula-
tions. The usage of the term in the story of
Sodom (Gen 18:20) is difficult and the versions
fail to agree except on rdbab, which they all read

as “‘great,’’ when actually it is not the immensity
of the cry of Sodom which is meant, but its man-
ifold nature. In the single usage of the Pual stem
(Ps 144:13) ina very difficult parallelism, the term
seems to be an indeterminate large quantity like
the Greek, myriad, and is usually translated ‘*ten
thousand’ or more properly *‘ten thousandfold.”’
Lexicons treat it as a denominative form from
r® baba ‘myriad, ‘ten thousand."

rab JI. Much, many, great. This is the common
Hebrew adjective meaning *‘much,’’ or *‘many.”’
It occurs 420 times in the ot. The root, rab, is
cognate both philologically and semantically to
Uganitic rb and Akkadian rabu. The pmmary
meaning Is ‘‘many,*’ which occurs initially in Gen
21:34. KJv translates ‘‘many’* in 190 occurrences
most dealing with objects (Gen 30:43), days (Gen
37:24), times (Ps 106:43), and similar subjects.
The root is often used in contexts referring to
‘*many’’ people, as ‘‘many evildoers’’ (Ex 23:2),
‘‘Gentiles’’ (Deut 9:14), and ‘‘multitude’’ at the
Exodus (Ex 12:38). The other exceedingly com-
mon uSage is in the sense of ‘great,’ the transla-
tion used by the kJv and in most part by the rsv in
128 occurrences. Many objects, institutions, and
persons are said to be “‘great.’’ Among the sub-
jects so described with the adjective, rab, are:
‘“goodness’’ (Ps 31:20), **evil’’ (Gen 6:5), *‘a per-
son'' (Ps 48:3). There are some special usages of
the root which require more colloquial transla-
tion. rab with the prefix min is used as the com-
parative degree of the adjective, ‘‘greater than’’
(Deut 7:1 et al.) In some texts the root means
‘*enough’’ (Gen 45:28); in others it has the conno-
tation, ‘‘too much for’ (I Kgs 12:28). This is the
proper translation of the difficult verse Prov
26:10. Unfortunately the root is confused here in
the versions and there are a great many minor
inconsistencies in their choice of translations
(kJv, “The great God’’; RSV, NASB, and NIV
‘archer’ from radbab ‘‘to shoot’’).

rab JI. Captain, chief. A title of Babylonian
origin which appears in both Hebrew and Ugan-
tic. It designates the chief or executive of a group
such as a military detachment (II Kgs 25:8 et al.).
It is often a prefix as it is in Akkadian; cf. Jer
39:9-10. The term was adopted by the Neo-
Babylonians (Dan 1:3), ‘‘his chief-eunuch,’* and
by the Persians who succeeded them (Est 1:8),
‘‘all the captains of his house.’’ There is no evi-
dence that the term was ever used except as a
rank of foreign origin as in Isa 36:2, 4, 11, 12, 13,
22; 37:4, 8.

[An interesting use of the title is in Jer 39:3
where the names were long misunderstood, but
the consonants accurately preserved. Instead of
Six names as in the mT and Kv it is probable that
there are three names and three titles: (1)
Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar (The Babylonian dis-
trict of SinMagir with assimilation of the **m’’);

827

2100 535 (rabab)

(2) Nebo-Sarsechim, the Rab Saris (chief of the
eunuchs, or of the officers); (3) Nergal-Sharezer
the Rab Mag (a chief official). So Niv; some oth-
ers (RSV) find four names. R.L.H.]

rob. Multitude, abundance. This root also ap-
pears as ré6b in many occurrences. A masculine
noun, it is derived from the Semitic verbal root
rbx, where ‘*x’’ may be one of several different
consonants depending on_ the _ precise
morphological form. In Hebrew the parent form
is probably rabab. rob appears 147 times in the
ot. The highest number of usages is found in II
Chr, where it is used to describe the various
quantities of materials and efforts required by Is-
rael’s and later Judah's kings (II Chr 1:15; 2:8;
4:18, et al.). In some cases rob can best be trans-
lated by ‘“‘long,’’ as in “‘long time’’ (Isa 24:22;
KJV, “‘many days,’’ RSv, and jps read the same).
rob also means ‘“‘long’’ in ‘‘long way’’ (Josh
9:13). The root is straightforward and offers no
real difficulty in any of its occurrences.

r‘baba. Ten thousand. This root is found also
in Ugaritic as rbt/rbbt, and appears in most West
Semitic languages. Since the science of numera-
tion is not well developed in the West Semitic
writing systems, more often than not, r° baba
simply stands for a very large number, ‘‘a mul-
titude.’’ The initial usage is in Gen 24:60, *‘Our
sister, be the mother of thousands of ten
thousands.*’ In Hebrew parallel poetic structure,
numbers are usually handled by using the number
in the first phrase then the number plus one in the
second phrase (Job 5:19). In the case of r‘ baba,
however, the parallelism is thousand // ten
thousand as in I Sam 18:7; Ps 91:7. In other pas-
sages the root is used to communicate the enor-
mity of the host involved Num 10:36, **Return O
Lord to the ten thousand thousands of Israel."’ It
is always used poetically and never used like
ribbé in enumerations.

ribbo. Ten thousand. Since this root is derived
from the same proto-Hebrew root as Ugan-
tic r’babd, but it does not appear earlier than I
Chr 29:7, *“‘Ten thousand coins of gold,’” it is
probably a later form of r®bdabd. Unlike the
former root, ribbé is often used in multiple ex-
pressions (Ps 68:17 (H 18]), “‘with mighty
chariots, twice ten thousand’’ (Ezr 2:64, 69,
where ribboé is written with an aleph added,
ribbo’').
Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 715-25.

W.W.
2100 335 (rabab) HI, shoot (Gen 49:23: Ps
18:15).
Derivative
2100a 353 (rab) IH, archer (Jer 50:29,
Job 16:13).

2101 335 (rbd)

2101 %3°% (rbd) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
210la $35 (rabid) chain, ornament for
neck (Ezk 16:11; Gen 41:42).

2102 “35 (rabad) HH, bespread, deck (Prov
7:16; I Sam 9:25).
Derivative

2102a “3% (marbad) spread,
(Prov 7:16; 31:22).

coverlet

2103 35 (raba) I, be(come) great, many, much,
numerous.

Derivatives

2103a tmass (arbeh) a kind of locust.

2103b manta (marbeh) abundance (Isa
33:23), increase (lisa 9:6).

2103c manta (mirba) much (Ezk 23:32,

only).
2103d tm°3"% (marbit) increase, multitude.
2103e 8 miasm (tarbiit) increase, brood

(Num 32:14, only).
2103f msm (tarbit) increment, usury, in-
terest.

This is the West Semitic form of a very common
term cognate to Ugaritic rb and Akkadian rabia.
This is the suffix common to so many
Babylonian-Assyrian names, e.g. ‘‘Hammu-
rabi'’="‘The god Ham (perhaps ‘ammu) 1s
great.’ The root appears over two hundred times
in the oT. The two major differentiations in mean-
ing are connected with occurrences in the Qal
stem, 60, and the Hiphil stem, 155 in all. The
initial occurrence of the root is Gen 1:22. ‘*Multi-
ply’’ is read by all of the versions, but in sub-
sequent usages a variety of translations appear,
‘‘increase’’ (Gen 7:17-18); ‘““*be many’ (1 Chr
23:17); “‘so much” (Gen 43:34). In single in-
stances a great many more meanings are in evi-
dence. In the Hiphil stem the standard and most
common meaning is ‘‘multiply,’’ but a vanety of
other translations are also given: ‘‘ask much”
(Gen 34:12); ‘‘gather much” (Ex 16:18); “‘yield
much” (Neh 9:37): *‘give more’’ (Num 26:54);
‘to heap™’ (Ezk 24:10). The wide range of prof-
fered meanings shows the latitude of the original
Hebrew root. Although generally restricted to
quantitative contexts, the root rabd has some use
in metaphorical expressions. It is used in the fol-
lowing special senses: ‘‘live long’’ (Job 29:18):
‘‘make words great," ‘‘to brag’* against God (Job
34:37), and ‘‘have many children” (I Chr 7:4).

W.W.

’arbeh. Locust. The word is probably derived
from the root raba *‘to become numerous.”’ It
occurs in Akkadian as erebu, arbi, etc. In the
Ugaritic KRT text (103, 192), the king's army is
described as covering the field like locusts (irby).

828

Of the many words for locust, ‘arbeh is the
general word, and is used most frequently,
twenty-four times. The kJv translates it ‘‘locust™
twenty times and “*grasshopper’’ four times.

The ’arbeh plague (Deut 28:38) is listed as one
of the divine curses which would befall the Israel-
ites if they disobeyed God's commands. The ’ar-
beh is one of the plagues which Moses called
down upon Egypt (Ex 10:4ff.: Ps 78:46: 105:34).

Locusts are used in similes of vast numbers in
Jud 6:5; 7:12: Jer 46:23. Nah 3:15.

Locusts belong to the order of the Orthoptera,
‘‘straight-winged.’’ With the grasshoppers they
belong to the subfamily Salratoria, “‘leapers,™
which were considered edible (Lev 11:21-22).
The biblical locust is not the cicada called *‘lo-
cust’’ in some areas of the United States.

Locusts belong to the family Acridiidae,
‘*short-horned grasshoppers.'* Of the ninety-one
species found in Palestine only the desert locust
(Schistocerca gregaria or Acridium peregrinum)
has served to plague the near east from time im-
memorial.

At maturity these locusts are two and one-half
inches long. They have two sets of wings and an
enlarged pair of legs for jumping. In appearance
they are compared to horses (Joel 2:4; Job 39:20:
Rev 9:7; cf. German Heupferd, Italian caval-
lette).

Desert locusts are phenomenal travelers. They
are able to fly for seventeen hours at a time and
have been known to travel fifteen hundred miles.
The sound of their wings is compared to the
sound of chariots (Joel 2:5; Rev 9:9). Their route
of travel is determined by the prevailing winds
(Ex 10:13, 19). In the plague of 1915, locusts
came to Jerusalem from the northeast (cf. Joel
2:20).

The Bible does not exaggerate when it speaks
of swarms of locusts covering the ground (Ex
10:5). A swarm has been known to cover a
hundred square miles and to be so dense as to
blot out the sun. A truly large swarm may contain
ten billion locusts.

The four words used by Joel (1:4; 2:25) tn his
vivid description of the locust plague evidently
represent stages of the locusts’ development
(RSV, NEB, JB, NAB), rather than separate species
of insects (KJV, KB). In Joel 2:25 we have first the
‘arbeh, the mature locust which deposits the
eggs. The yeleg may be the larva as it emerges
from the egg. The hasi/ may be the intermediate
instar (stage between molts). The g@zam may be
the ravenous nymph which strips the bark from
the trees.

Unlike the Babylonians who resorted to magi-
cal incantations to avert locust plagues, the Is-
raelites asked God in fasting, repentance, and
prayer to remove locust plagues (I Kgs 8:37: II
Chr 6:28).

In Lev 11:22 the ‘arbeh and three other types

of locusts (sol'am, hargol, hdgab) are listed as
edible insects. Bas reliefs from Nineveh show
servants bringing skewered locusts for Sen-
nacherib’s table. John the Baptist subsisted on
honey and locusts (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Many Afri-
cans and Arabs after removing the wings, legs,
and heads eat locusts either cooked or ground up
as flour.

There are nine Hebrew words which designate
locusts: ‘arbeh, gdzam, gébd, only as plural
gébim, gdbay, hagdab, hasil, yeleq, sol‘am,
s*lasal. Akkadian recognizes eighteen names for
locusts, and the Talmud twenty names.

Bibliography: Driver, S. R., The Books of
Joel and Amos, Cambridge: University Press,
1897, pp. 82-91. Whiting, John D., ‘‘Jerusalem’s
Locust Plague,” The National Geographic
28:511-50. Koehler, L., ‘Die Bezeichnungen der
Heuschrecke im Alten Testament,” Zeitschrift
der Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, 49:328-31.
Bodenheimer, F. S., Animal Life in Palestine,
Jerusalem: Mayer, 1935, pp. 309-24. Sellers,
Ovid R., “Stages of Locust in Joel,” American
Journal of Semitic Languages, 5§2:81-85.
Thompson, John A., *‘Joel’s Locusts in the Light
of Near Eastern Parallels, JNES 14:52-5S. An-
dersen, F. I., **The Diet of John the Baptist,”’
Abr Nahrain 3:60—-75. Palmoni, Y., **Locust,’* in
IDB, III, pp. 144-48. Uvarov, B., Grasshoppers
and Locusts 1, Cambridge University Press,
1966. Cansdale, George, All the Animals of the
Bible Lands, Zondervan, 1970, pp. 238-44.
Baron, Stanley, The Desert Locust, Scribner's,
1972. Klotz, J. W., “Animals of the Bible,’ in
WBE I, pp. 87-8. Conley. Robert A. M., **Lo-
custs: “Teeth of the Wind,” National Geo-
graphic 136:202-27.

E.Y:

marbit. Multitude, greatness, larger part, in-
crease, interest. The participial form of the root,
raba, it appears five times in the oT. The initial
occurrence appears in Lev 25:37 ‘“‘interest,”
“usury, in connection with nesek ‘‘usury’* and
tarbit “‘increase’* (q.v.). In 1 Chr 12:30 the root is
read ‘greatest part’ of the Benjamites. The same
notion of ‘‘the greater portion” is in evidence in
the usage of the root in II Chr 9:6, ‘‘the half of
your wisdom, while II Chr 30:18 reads **mul-
titude ’ in describing the unclean participants in
the Passover. The only other usage of marbit in
the oT is in I Sam 2:33, the curse of Eli's house,
wherein the root is read “‘increase’ by all ver-
sions.

tarbit. Increase, usury, interest. This is a
feminine noun developed from the root raba. It
appears four times in Ezk, three in one chapter,
and in only two other passages. In all cases it
appears with the masculine noun nesek q.v. The
association with neseA ‘‘usury,’ which derives
from the verb ‘to bite’’ suggests oppressive or

829

2107 v35 (raba’)

exorbitant interest. The initial occurrence is in
Lev 25:36 which is studied by E. A. Speiser, who
shows that the practice forbidden there is the
charging of additional interest after a defaulting
debtor was taken into bondage. The primary
interest was deducted in advance (discounted).
See the fuller discussion under nesek. The charg-
ing of nesek and tarbit is denounced in Prov 28:8
and classed with other heinous sins in Ezk 18:8,
13, 17: 22:12. The kv translates these words in
Prov 28:8 “‘usury’’ and ‘unjust gain’’; elsewhere
‘usury’? and ‘‘increase’’; the rsv always by
‘“*tnterest’’ and ‘‘increase.”’

Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., ‘‘Leviticus and
the Critics’’ in Oriental and Biblical Studies,
University of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 131-41.

Ww.

2104 m3" (raba) UH, shoot (Gen 21:20, only).

Doubtless a by-form of rdbab II.

33" (ribbé). See no. 2099e.
pss" «(r’bibim). See no. 2099Ff.
335 (rabid). See no. 2101a.
ysan (rebii). See no. 2107c.

2105 *335 (rdbak) mix, stir (Hophal only,

Lev 6:14; 7:12: I Chr 23:29).

2106 ys" (rb') I. Assumed root of the following.

2106a tygns (Carba') four.
2106b tE°yass ('arba'im) forty.

2107 yas (radba') HI, squared, square. This

denominative verb occurs only as a pas-
Sive participle (e.g. Ex 27:1: Ezk 45:2).
2107a = =yas (reba‘) fourth part (Ex 29:40),
four sides (Ezk 43:16).

2107b =yss (roba') fourth part (Num
23:10: I] Kgs 6:25).

2107c NBN (re bi’), MDS (rebri1)
fourth (e.g. Gen 2:14; I Kgs 6:1).

2107d yas (ribbéa’) pertaining to _ the

fourth (Ex 20:5=Deut 5:9).

These are very ancient roots of East Semitic ori-
gin. They are cognate to Akkadian arba’u, which
appears frequently in some of the very earliest cu-
neiform inscriptions. The Hebrew form appears
nearly 250 times, mostly in the Pentateuch and Eze-
kiel. Since Hebrew numerical notation was very
limited in scope, numbers in texts (at least in our
copies including the DSS) were wnitten out vocali-
cally. The word ‘arba’ is used to enumerate and
measure every possible type of object and situa-
tion. It is universally translated *‘four’’ by the
versions. The initial citation appears in Gen 2:10,
many citations are translated by the ordinal
number form, ‘‘fourth’’ (I Kgs 22:41). The plural
form means *‘forty’’ (Gen 5:13) and appears well
over one hundred times. The plural form ’arbda‘im

2108 35 (raba‘)

is used tn some poetical and metaphorical pas-
sages in the sense of an indeterminate, long period
of time (Gen 50:3; Ex 16:35 etal.) [It should also be
kept in mind that the number forty is not always
indeterminate. The wilderness wandering was
thirty-eight years plus the time at Sinai (Deut
2:14). David’s kingship was seven years in Hebron
and thirty-three in Jerusalem (I Kgs 2:11). Caleb
was forty years old at Kadesh Barnea; forty-five
years later he was eighty-five (Josh 14:7, 10). The
periods of rest and oppression during the Judges
varied. Only four out of seventeen figures men-
tioned were forty years long. These figures may
not always be precise, but neither are they to be
too easily discounted. R.L.H.|]

W.W.

2108 yon (raba‘) I, lie stretched out, lie down
(Ps 139:3; Lev 20:16). Probably an Ara-
maic form of rdbas (note the s to ° shift.)

2109 yas (rabas) lie down.

Derivatives

2109a tP35 (rébes) resting place.
2109b trae (marbés) resting place.

This verbal root is cognate to Akkadian rabasu,
a nominal form meaning ‘‘a stable,’’ possibly *‘a
lying place.’’ It occurs in Ugaritic inthe form, trbs
which is obviously based upon this root. It occurs
thirty times in the oT and has the connotation of
‘‘repose’’ or “‘rest from exertion’’ rather than
sleep. The initial occurrence of the verb in Gen
4:7, the interesting phrase, ‘“If you do not do well,
sin lies at the door.’’ This verse, of course, has
been much discussed. Another view interprets
‘*sin’’ in the figure of a ferocious beast ready to
spring. But this meaning of rdbas seems to be
found only in Gen 49:9 (see below). Others, taking
the usual meaning of rdbas take the word ‘‘sin’’ as
‘sin offering’’ which is lying available at the door.
Speiser offers a third view importing unnecessary
mythology. He takes the part, robés as anoun ‘‘a
demon’’ ready to spring (E. A. Speiser, Genesis,
in AB). rdbas describes the ‘‘lying’’ of many liv-
ing things, figurative of people as sheep (Ezk
34:14), **There they shall lie down in good grazing
land’; of the needy person (Isa 14:30), **And the
needy lie down in safety’’; of flocks (Isa 13:20,
Hiphil stem), ‘‘No shepherds will make their
flocks lie down there’’; of sheep (Gen 29:2),
‘‘Three flocks of sheep lying beside it’’; of wild
animals, specifically the lion (Gen 49:9), ‘‘He
stoops down, he lies in wait as a lion’’; of the
leopard and goat in tranquility together (Isa 11:6),
‘* And the leopard shall lie down with the kid’’; and
of the nesting mother bird (Deut 22:6). The Hiphil
stem ts used in a few passages with the meaning of
‘cause to lie down”’ (Jer 33:12; Ezk 34:15; Ps 23:2,
‘*He maketh me to lie down in green pastures,”

830

also Song 1:7). The image of the people of God as
sheep and the Lord as the good shepherd ts used in
both ot and nT. In the oT prophetic writings the
final state of the blessed in the messianic kingdom
is portrayed in pastoral imagery as a grazing flock.
rdbas is used in one unusual sense in Isa 54:11,
‘*Behold, I will set your stones in antimony, and
lay down (rdbas) your foundations in lapis
lazuli.”

rébes. Resting place. This nominal form of the
verbal root radbas, an Akkadian loan word in He-
brew, is used four times in the oT. It occurs in Isa
35:7; 65:10; Jer 50:6 and Prov 24:15. rsv, **Do not
violence to his home,’ is in error, the text should
be translated, **‘Despoil not his resting place.”’

marbés. Resting place, shelter. This masculine
noun occurs twice in the oT (Ezk 25:5; Zeph 2:15),
‘*A shelter for beasts to lie in.”

W.W.

2110 35 (rbq). Assumed root of the following.

2110a =a (marbéq) stall (e.g. Amos

6:4; Mal 3:20).

2111 335 (rgb). Assumed root of the following.

21lla 325 (regeb) clod of earth (Job
38:38; 21:33).
2111b 3358 (argab) heap,
mound (I Sam 20:19, 41).
2112 %29 (ragaz) tremble, quake, rage.

Derivatives

2112a ftas (rdégez) trouble, turmoil.

2112b fMIa9) (rogza) trembling.

2112c tan (raggaz) trembling.

2112d =t398 (‘argaz) box, chest (I Sam
6:8, 11, 15).

The primary meaning of this root is to quake or
shake, from which ideas such as shaking tn anger,
fear, or anticipation are derived.

This verb may describe the literal quaking of
the earth (I Sam 14:15). More often the ‘‘quak-
ing’’ iS in a poetic expression such as the quaking
of the mountains before the thunderstorm which
marks the Lord’s coming (Ps 18:7 [H 8]) or the
‘‘three things’ under which the earth trembles
(Prov 30:21).

It is not clear whether physical displacement or
disturbance is involved in the promise to David
that God's people shall be planted and not *‘be
moved’"’ or ‘‘disturbed”* (11 Sam 7:10; I Chr 17:9).
The Rsv rendering, ‘“‘be disturbed’* is more in
harmony with typical meanings of this term; on
the other hand, *‘be moved’ is usually taken as
fitting the context better. If correct, the latter
meaning is unique to the context under discus-
sion.

Most usages of rdgaz express agitation grow-
ing out of some deeply rooted emotion. From the
range of usages it is clear that the term refers to
the agitation itself, and the underlying emotion is
to be recognized only from context. In these usa-
ges, it may parallel other expressions for physical
movement such as hdarad ‘‘to quake”’ (Isa 32:11),
or Ail ‘‘wnthing in birth pangs’’ (Ex 15:14). This
term expresses the trembling of the world’s in-
habitants before God’s appearance in judgment
(Isa 64:2; Joel 2:1). People tremble at God's great
works, both the destructive works (Deut 2:25)
and the beneficent ones (Jer 33:9). Trembling
may be a reaction to such diverse things as mis-
fortune (Isa 32:10-11 Rsv ‘‘shudder’’; Kiv, ASV
‘‘be troubled’’), bad news (IT Sam 18:33; Rsv
‘deeply moved’’), some profoundly stirring
knowledge or revelation (Hab 3:16), and the
prospect of God’s rule (Ps 99:1).

Similarly, régaz may describe God's trembling
or raging in anger (Isa 28:21, ‘‘be wroth’’). It de-
scribes the raging of a fool at the words of the
wise (Prov 29:9). Once it refers to trembling in
anticipation (Isa 14:9; Rsv ‘is stirred up’’).

Occasionally its meaning may be difficult to
discern. In Gen 45:24 it is usually translated as
some kind of arguing or bickering (Rsv ‘‘quarrel’’:
ASV, KJV ‘‘fall out’’) following the idea of raging in
anger noted above, but this translation is not cer-
tain. Ezekiel 16:43 is unusual in that the meaning
is transitive, ‘“‘to enrage’’ (KJv ‘‘fretted’’) rather
than the normal intransitive meaning. BDB
suggests reading the form as a Hiphil. Perhaps
the asv ‘“‘raged against” is best. In Ps 4:4 [H 5],
rdgaz has been variously translated: ‘‘be angry”
(RSV), “‘stand in awe’’ (kJv). In light of contexts
cited above, “tremble! and sin not”’ is equally
possible.

{The Nt (Eph 4:26) which is taken from the Lxx
is variously interpreted also. Perhaps best is
Meyer's suggestion that the negative force
applies to the second imperative ‘‘In being angry
do not sin,’ 1.e., do not sin by anger. Or Niv: ‘‘In
your anger do not Sin.” R.L.H.]

The meaning of the Hiphil stem is causative,
“to cause to shake.’’ Physical objects may be
shaken (Job 9:6; Isa 13:13). ‘‘Shaking’’ may ex-
press the idea of disturbing or giving unrest (I
Sam 28:15; Jer 50:34). Or the term may refer to
those who cause God to shake in indignation or
anger, 1.e. those who *‘provoke’’ God (Job 12:6).

The Hithpael stem is used in one context, re-
corded twice (II Kgs 19:27-28; Isa 37:28-29) and
is translated reflexively as ‘‘raging,”’ i.e. “‘caus-
ing self to move about in rage.”’

rogez. Trouble, turmoil, wrath, rage. Can refer
either to external disturbances or troubles or to
inner emotional agitation as in anger. Job uses
this term for external disturbances (3:17, 26:
14:1). The rsv and asv correctly prefer a similar

831

2113 935 (ragal)

meaning in Isa 14:3 (cf. KJv “‘fear’’), as is shown
by other elements in that context. God's wrath is
expressed by this term (Hab 3:2; cf. also the rag-
ing of the war horse, Job 39:24). Its meaning in
Job 37:2 (KJv, ASV ‘‘noise’’; RSV “‘thunder’’; BDB
‘*rumbling’’) is not clear.

rogza. Trembling. Expresses trembling with
fear (Ezk 12:18).

raggaz. Trembling. Describes the fearful heart
of God's people in exile (Deut 28:65).
A.B.

2113 235 (radgal) go on foot, spy out.-

Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2113a +939 (regel) foot.

2113b +939 (ragli) foot soldier.

2113c 0 mibanra (marg’lét) place of the
feet, feet (Ruth 3:4, 7; Dan 19:6).

regel. Foot. This primary, feminine noun is
found only in Hebrew, Aramaic, and some later
Semitic dialects. It appears 245 times in the or. In
the overwhelming number of occurrences it
means the ‘‘foot/feet’’ of human beings. How-
ever, it is also used in poetic passages in an an-
thropomorphic sense for an attribute of God (Ex
24:10) and for God's transcendent nature (II Sam
22:10; Ps 18:10) and similar passages. It is applied
to the ‘‘living beings’’ of Ezekiel’s prophetic vi-
sion (1:7ff.) to the seraphim (Isa 6:2), and
cherubim (II Chr 3:13). Although the greater
number of usages are in the plural (Ex 23:14), it
follows general Semitic grammar and as with
other paired organs of the body appears in the
dual (Isa 28:3) and on rare occasion in the singu-
lar (Deut 2:5). Although it usually means *‘foot™
there is some limited extension to the ‘‘leg’’
(Deut 2:5). It is used in referring to the feet of
cattle (Gen 33:14), undefined animals (Job 39:15),
birds (Gen 8:9; Lev 11:21-23), and unclean crea-
tures such as insects and other arthropods (Lev
11:42). It is used of the feet of Pharaoh per-
sonified as a beast (Ezk 32:2) and of idols (Ps
115:7). regel is used with many extended mean-
ings such as ‘‘pace’’ (Gen 33:14), “‘time’’ or
**number of times*’ (Ex 23:14) and ‘‘leg of a ta-
ble’? (Ex 25:26). Since walking was the primary
means of travel during the centures of Israel's
history, the term took on many colloquial mean-
ings. Some of these are not unlike modern ex-
pressions, while others are difficult to interpret in
modern speech. A fine example is in the plea of
Jacob before Laban (Gen 30:30), the Hebrew
says literally, ‘‘at my feet,’ however the versions
all seek better sense to fit the context. The rsv
reads ‘wherever I turned,’’ KJv “since my com-
ing.” Both are closer to the actual sense. The
root rege/ also implies **presence’’ (Deut 11:24),

2114 O35 (ragam)

‘swiftness’ (I] Sam 2:18), ‘‘immediacy’’ (Num
20:19). It is used in connection with the *‘big toe’’
in warfare (Jud 1:6—7) and in rituals (Ex). Some of
the most interesting usages are in euphemistic
expressions for bodily excretions (Jud 3:24; I
Sam 24:3 [H 4]), for unkempt appearance as in
mourning (I Sam 19:24), to show homage at the
feet (II Kgs 4:37 and numerous other passages).
In a rare usage (Isa 7:20) it is used of the pubic
hair (i.e. hair of the legs). The main force of the
word throughout the oT is the individual whose
feet are mentioned as traveling or holding domin-
ion.

ragli. Men on foot, foot soldiers. A secondary
adjective developed from the noun regel, ragli
appears twelve times in the oT in historical con-
texts (Ex 12:37, **And the people of Israel jour-
neyed from Ramses to Succoth, about six
hundred thousand men on foot, besides women
and children” rsv).

W.W.
995 (ragli). See no. 2113b.
2114 835 (ragam) to Stone.
Derivatives
2114a m39 ~(rigmad) heap (of _ stones),
i.e. crowd of people (Ps 68:28).
21146 «MAN «=~ (margéma) sling (Prov

26:8).

This purely Hebrew root occurs fifteen times in
the or. It means literally, **To kill by stoning.”
This method of capital punishment is specified
for idolaters (Lev 20:2), soothsayers (Lev 20:27),
a blasphemer of the sacred name (Lev 24:11).
The legal act of stoning was a corporate one. In
some cases the men of Israel are commanded *‘to
stone’’ (Deut 21:21) in others the congregation of
Israel (Num 15:35) and in still others the children
of Israel (IJ Chr 10:18). It is the participation of
all members of the society which is important,
since all persons regardless of sex or age could
throw stones, it became the total act of the whole
population in obedience to God’s command. The
method of execution is not usually stated in
Hammurabi's law. Occasionally it was by burn-
ing. Stoning seems not to have been used in
Mesopotamia or Egypt—stones are more abun-
dant in Palestine!

W.W.

2115 135 (rdgan) murmur, whisper (e.g. Isa
29:24: Deut 1:27).
2116 yan (rdga‘) I, act in an instant.

Derivative
2116a Y3a5 (rega’) a moment.

832

The differentiation between this root and réga'‘
‘‘torest’’ is very difficult to determine. However,
in several oT passages there appears to be a usage
of the root with an antithetical meaning, ‘‘act
quickly,” ‘‘act in an instant.”’

A key passage for the meaning of the verb is
Isa 51:4, kv, “‘And I will make my judgment to
rest for a light of the people.’* rsv disregards the
whole problem, **And my justice for a light to the
people.’’ The sps, on the other hand, reads, ** And
my nght on a sudden for a light of the peoples.”’
None of these translations are acceptable, as the
Hebrew says, *‘For law (téra) shall go forth from
me, and my instruction shall instantly be a light of
the people.’’ The same confusion exists among
the lexica which differentiate the roots in con-
tradictory ways. Another passage which yields
this second verbal root is Job 20:5. However, the
phrase occurs at the end of a long parallel con-
struction, (vv. 4-5), "‘Did you not know this ‘from
olden times, since man was put upon earth, that
the wicked’s triumphing is short-lived, and the
joy of the godless but for an instant (rdga‘).”"
Similar occurrences are found in Jer 49:19; 50:44
and Prov 12:19. The masculine noun rega‘ occurs
twenty times in the oT in the sense of a
momentary or instant space of time. The initial
usage is in Ex 33:5, “If I go among thee for one
moment.’’ Im the plural it means ‘‘every mo-
ment’’ (Isa 27:3), ‘‘I, the Lord, am its keeper; |
water it every moment.’ In one passage there is
confusion about the meaning of the root (Job
21:13). Rsv, **They spend their lives in prosperity,
and in peace go down to Sheol,"’ is incorrect, the
root rega‘ still maintains the meaning ‘‘a mo-
ment.’’ The proper reading is that of the kJv.

W.W.
2117 vas (rdga‘) UI, rest, be at repose.
Derivatives
2117a pan (ragéa‘) restful, quiet (Ps
35:20).
2117b piasta (margéa') rest (Jer 6:16).
2117c Mmyants (margé'ad) rest, repose (Isa

28:12).

The root rdga‘ is a very difficult one to sepa-
rate into its philological and semantic relation-
ships. Although there is a development of the
root in Judeo-Arabic and the later Semitic dia-
lects, there are no ancient cognates. The root
appears fifteen times in the oT. It appears to have
two opposite meanings which are still not
adequately explained. They are nearly equally
divided. The first is ‘‘rest,’’ “‘be at reposé’’ (Deut
28:65; KJV, RSV, ‘‘ease’’; JPS, “‘repose’’). This
meaning extends to several stems of the root. The
second is “‘stir, “‘act in a moment’’ (Jer 49:19;
KJV, RSV, ‘“‘suddenly’’). The versions both ancient
and modern are confused and most follow the

context in translating this difficult root. The pre-
ponderance of usages are found in Jeremiah and
even there the term is used in both senses: ‘‘re-
pose”’ (Jer 50:34) and ‘‘stir’’ (Jer 50:44). Several
secondary forms are derived from the root,
raga‘, the participle, margéa‘ ‘resting place’’
Jer 6:16. An adjective is also existent, radgéa‘
which appears only in Ps 35:20.

W.W.
2118 vas (rdga‘) HI, harden (Job 7:5).
2119 was (ragash) conspire, plot (KIv “‘rage,”
Ps 2:1).

Derivatives

wan (regesh) in company (RSV
‘in fellowship’; asv ‘“‘with the
throng’’; Ps 55:14).

myan. (rigsha) scheming (Kv
‘‘insurrection’’; ASV ‘‘tumult’’; Ps
64:2).

rdgash and its derivatives have been translated
by such ideas as ‘‘tumult’’ (KB, AV) or ‘‘noisy
throngs’* (BpB). However contextual parallels
(‘‘to plot’’ Ps 2:1; ‘‘secret plots’ Ps 64:2; *‘sweet
converse’ Ps 55:14) indicate that ideas such as
‘‘conspire’’ (RSV) are probably correct.

2119a

2119b

A.B.

2120 S35 (radad) beat down, subdue.
Derivative

"5" (r°did) wide wrapper or large
veil (Isa 3:23; Song 5:7).

This root is cognate to Akkadian radddu, al-
though the Hebrew has developed other mean-
ings. It is the subject of some controversy as to
exactly how many times this root occurs, there
are other homophones’ with which the
morphological forms may be easily confused.
There are four passages about which there ts no
doubt, in the Qal stem. They are Isa 45:1 and Ps
144:2 in which the root means ‘‘subdue.’’ The
clearest occurrence of the Hiphil stem (I Kgs
6:32) means ‘to beat down,’’ in the special sense,
‘‘to overlay’’ with gold leaf. The difficult verse
Jud 19:11 has been understood in several ways.
The clearest is, *‘When they were near Jebus, the
day was far gone (rddad).’’ Other passages (Ps
55:3; Jer 2:31) are also listed by some authorities
as occurrences of this root, but the evidence Is
only partially clear.

2120a

W.wW.
2121 man (rada) I, rule.

Derivative

masta (mirda)
14:6).

2121a dominion (Isa

833

2123 B39 (radam)

This verbal root is found in later Semitic
dialects (but not Ugaritic). It occurs in two
senses. One is cognate to Akkadian radi al-
though the Hebrew root developed the
specialized meaning *‘to tread”’ and ts used in the
Qal stem in this sense only once (Joel 4:13),
‘‘Come! Tread! for the winepress is full, the vats
are overflowing.’’ The second meaning is ‘‘to
rule’’ and is used some twenty-two times in the
OT, occurring in every section and type of con-
text. The initial usage appears in Gen 1:28, ‘‘And
let them rule over the fish of the sea.’’ (The allu-
sion to this verse in Ps 8:6 [H 7] uses mashal.)
There ts no definite structure to its use in parallel
poetry, as the root may be placed in either the
first (Ps 68:28) or the second hemistich (Ps 49:15).
rdda does not occur as a synonym in proximity to
the more frequent verb, mdashal (q.v.). Generally
rdda@ is limited to human rather than divine
dominion (Ps 110:2, et al.) The root is used of the
rule of Israel over its enemies (Isa 14:2) and of the
Gentile nations’ rule over subject peoples (Isa
14:6). A most difficult and unusual usage occurs
in Lam 1:13, Rsv mistakenly reads, *‘From on
high he sent fire; into my bones he made it de-
scend,’’ while Ksv and jps more precisely trans-
laie, ‘‘From above hath he sent fire into my
bones, and it prevaileth against them.”’ But to be
preferred is the reading, ‘‘He sent fire from above
into my very bones and it overruled them.”’
There is one instance of the Hiphil stem in Isa
41:2, speaking of the reign of the king-messiah,
‘And causes him to rule over kings.”’

A possible derivative is mirda *‘dominion”’
which is not found unless it be the true reading of
the MT murdadp (q.v.) in Isa 14:6.

W.W.

2122 M35 (radad) II, scrape out (Jud 14:9; Jer

§:31).

st" (r¢did). See no. 2120a.

2123 O39 (radam) be asleep, be unconscious.
Derivative
2123a te IIM (tardéma) deep sleep (e.g.

Gen 2:21; I Sam 26:12).

A relatively rare verbal root, rddam occurs
seven times, but its infrequent usages are spread
throughout the oT prophets and writings. Not
once does the verb appear in the Pentateuch.

The initial occurrence of the verb is in Jud 4:21,
in the story of Joel’s slaying of Sisera, **fast
asleep.’ In Ps 76:6 {H 7] the judgment of God is
viewed as throwing down the horse and rider
‘‘unconscious,”’ KJV, “‘dead sleep,’ Rsv, “‘lay
stunned,’’ JPs, ‘“‘cast into a dead sleep.’’ In the
occurrence in Prov (10:5) it is applied to a slothful
son. Perhaps the most interesting occurrences

2124 A359 (radap)

deal with the unconscious state of prophetic in-
sight. Daniel 8:18; 10:9 both envision the prophet
‘‘unconscious’’ before the theophany. In Jon
(1:5-6) the prophet is said to be ‘‘asleep”™’ in the
boat bound for Tarshish. The root does not seem
to have any metaphorical connotations.

tardema. Deep sleep, sleepiness; lethargy. This
feminine noun developed from the verbal root,
raddam, appears seven times in the oT. The initial
occurrence is in Gen 2:21, ‘‘a deep sleep.”’ It is
used to describe the state in which Abram had his
vision of God (Gen 15:12). In I Sam 26:12, ‘‘a
deep sleep’’ is sent upon Saul and his army when
pursuing David. The same connotation of
‘‘insensitivity’’ to danger is presented in Isa 29:10
and Job 4:13; 33:15. All of these texts present
‘‘sleep’’ as the profundity of divine intervention.
It is God who casts such sleep or sleeplessness
upon his chosen servant. tardém4a occurs also in
Prov 19:15, “‘Slothfulness casteth into a deep

sleep.”
Bibliography: Thomson, G.S.S., ‘‘Sleep: An
Aspect of Jewish Anthropology,’’ VT 5:421-33.
W.W.

2124 "55 (rddap) be behind, follow after, pur-
Sue, persecule.

Derivative

2124a HIN (murdadp) persecution.

raddap is found in biblical and later Hebrew but
not other contemporary Semitic languages. This
occurs over 150 times in the oT. The most fre-
quent occurrences are found in Josh and Ps.

While all the versions translate this verb in
similar fashion, there are divergences of under-
standing (Gen 14:14) which kJv reads ‘‘pursued,”’
RSV ‘“went in pursuit,’’ which is more often than
not the meaning in active forms. Usually the term
refers to a man or group pursuing another for
purpose of making war or taking revenge. On one
occasion it is used in reference to “‘hunting’’ a
partridge (I Sam 26:20). In a more theological
context, God is said to pursue the wicked. KJv
reads ‘‘persecute’’ (Jer 29:18). In other contexts
it is the faithful who pursue their enemies (Ps
18:38). In an especially poetic and beautiful pas-
sage (Nah 1:8), the Lord rescues his faithful but
causes a flood and pursues after his enemies with
darkness. Some uses of the root rddap involve
the pursuit of abstract concepts such as evil (Prov
11:19). In some passages (Job 18:18) the verb
hddap has almost the identical meaning and there
is the definite possibility that at points the two
have been drawn together in usage. In the inten-
sive and reflexive stems, rddap means being
‘‘hounded’’ or ‘‘persecuted”’ (Ps 71:11-13). One
of the most blessed aspects of God’s providence
is his rescuing his people from pursuit. In the

834

well-known phrase from Psalm 23, God’s bless-
ing itself is said to “‘follow’’ (kJv and Rsv, v. 6),
which is not strong enough for the sense of the
root. It should be more active. ‘‘Only goodness
and mercy shall pursue me’”’ is the preferred read-
ing. Job has a slightly variant usage of the root, in
some passages (30:15; 19:22) the sense appears to
be ‘chased after.”’

murdap. Persecution. This noun occurs only
in Isa 14:6. It is probably an ancient scribal error
for mirdaé derived from the verbal root rdda (so
Vg) and means ‘‘dominion.”’

W.W.

2125 355% (rahab) behave proudly.

Derivatives

2125a 3m" (rahab) proud.

21256) «6385 «(réhab) arrogance, pride.

212Sc fans (rahab) pride.

2125d = ABR «(marhéba) boisterous _ be-
havior (Isa 14:4).

The verb occurs only four times in the oT and
signifies storming at or against something. The
fundamental idea of rdhab appears in the prov-
erb, **Make sure thy friend’’ (Prov 6:3 ksv), liter-
ally, storm him; Asv, importune, i.e. make every
effort—in this instance, to be released from one’s
pledge (IB, IV, p. 818). It denotes a tempestuous,
and then arrogant, attitude. Children might thus
rahab ‘‘behave themselves proudly, against their
elders’ (Isa 3:5). Two Scriptural hapax legomena
are rdhab, identifying an unfounded pride in
one’s life span (Ps 90:10), and radhdb, a proud
man, turning aside to falsehood (Ps 40:4 [H 5]).
Employing the verb’s causative stem, David af-
firms that the prayer-answering God ‘‘strength-
ens’’ him (Ps 138:3; rsv marg. makes arrogant);
and Solomon exclaims how the Shulamite’s eyes
‘‘overcome’’ him (Song 6:5), literally, make him
afraid or confused (KB, p. 876).

rahab. Pride. In three of its six occurrences
KJv reads ‘‘Rahab"™’ (so asv and Rsv consistently,
though twice asv marg., ‘‘arrogancy’’). In the lat-
ter three instances ‘‘Rahab’’ represents the Nile
crocodile and stands figuratively for the haughty
Egyptians (in usage paralleling liwydtdan ‘‘Levia-
than,’’ q.v.).

In describing God's irresistibility (Job 9:12),
Job insists that those who would be helpers of
rahab ‘‘pride’’ (v. 13), must stoop before him.
Later, however, he cites rahab in connection
with nahdsh ‘‘serpent’’ (26:12-13; cf. tannin
‘‘large reptile’ in Isa 51:9). When therefore Job
refers also to God’s power over the sea, the
phrase that follows seems best rendered that ‘‘he
smites through the ‘‘crocodile,’’ not the **proud”’
(v. 126; see ksv). Historical specification for both
sea and creature appear in Isaiah: ‘‘in the genera-

tions long ago, was it not Thou who cut rahab in
pieces... was it not Thou who dried up the sea,
who made the depths of the sea a pathway for the
redeemed to cross over?”’ (51:9-10; cf. Ps 89:9-
10). Confirmation is furnished by the prophet’s
Ironic comparison of the Egyptians with a torpid
crocodile, *‘They are a rahab who sits still’’
(30:7). This symbol was indeed so well under-
stood that the Korahites could employ it, without
comment, for Egypt as the companion power of
Babylon (Ps 87:4).

Just as in the parallel figure of ‘‘leviathan,”’
negative criticism seeks to discover in *‘Rahab’’ a
belief in pagan mythology rather than recognizing
its symbolic use by the inspired prophets and
poets of the ot (IDB, IV, p. 6). The sea (Ps 89:9
[H 10]) is identified with a Canaanite water deity,
yam, overcome by Yahweh at creation. Rahab is
seen as the chaos monster Tiamat, crushed in
primordial combat with, originally, Marduk, god
of Babylon; and the ‘‘helpers of pride’’ (Job
9:13), with her eleven demonic deputies (Enuma
Elish, 1:105-7).

But all of these suggested connections and de-
rivations fail to explain the complete absence in
the oT of belief in the existence or reality of any
of these mythological figures that are alluded to.
If such figures are alluded to, they would be anal-
ogous to Milton’s use of Greek mythological fig-
ures in Paradise Lost. Cf. Albright, YGC, pp.
183-193.

Bibliography: HDB, IV, pp. 194-95. Payne,
J. B., Theology of the Older Testament, Zonder-
van, 1971, pp. 138-39. Smick, E. B., **Mythology
and the Book of Job’’ JETS 13:101-8. Albright,
W.F., YGC, pp. 183-93. Schunck, ‘‘Jer 30:6-8
und die Bedeutung der Rahab im Alten Testa-
ment,’ ZAW 70:48—S6.

J.B.P.
2126 mas (raha) fear (Isa 44:8).
2127 wns (rht) I. Assumed root of the following.
2127a ems (rahat) trough (Gen 30:38,
41: Ex 2:16).
2128 wens (rht) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2128a ems (rahat) lock of hair (Song
7:6).
2128b oem «(rahit) § rafters, boards (Song

1:17). Meaning dubious.

ems (rahit). See no. 2128b.

2129 335 (rid) wander, restlessly, roam (e.g.
Hos 12:1; Gen 27:40).
Derivative

2129a 9%) (mardd) restlessness, __stray-

ing (e.g. Lam 3:19; Isa 58:7).

2130 M5 (rawa)

2130 M5 (rawd) be satiated, have one’s fill.
Derivatives
2130a 5 (ri) moisture (Job 37:11).
2130b tm (radweh) watered, saturated.
2130c TA (r’wayd) saturation.

A purely Hebrew root, rdwda occurs fourteen
times in the prophetical and poetical books, but
not once in the Pentateuch or historical portions
of the oT. It is used three times in the Qal stem:
Jer 46:10, ‘‘The sword shall devour and be sated
(rawa)’*; Ps 36:9, ‘“‘They are abundantly
satiated’’; Prov 7:18, ““Come! let us be sated with
love until morning.’* The Piel, in one aspect of
the stem of rdwd occurs twice, but only in Isa
34:5, 7, ‘‘My sword has been satiated in heaven,”
and *‘their land shall be satiated with blood.’* The
causative sense of the Piel is foremost in four
other passages: Isa 16:9, ‘‘I cause you to be sated
with my tears.’ RSv “‘drench you with my tears’’
looses something of the Piel force. The other
texts are Jer 31:14; Ps 65:11; Prov 5:19. The
Hiphil form ts used in four passages: Isa 43:24,
‘‘Nor have you caused me to be satisfied’’; Isa
55:10; Jer 31:25; Lam 3:15. In a difficult passage
(Prov 11:25) the infrequently used Hophal stem
of the root rdwa and the participle formed from
the root both appear. Kv reads, *‘The liberal soul
shall be made fat: and he that watereth shall be
watered also himself."* rsv offers little improve-
ment with, ‘*A liberal man will be enriched, and
one who waters will himself be watered.’’ The
more precise translation is ‘*The soul that blesses
shall be made rich, he that satisfies abundantly
shall also be satisfied himself.”

ri. Moisture, waters. This obscure word is
found only once in the oT. There is some confu-
sion as to its origin which appears to be the verbal
root rawd. Specifically, this is the apocopated or
contracted form of the singular noun r‘ui (Job
37:11), ‘‘Yea he ladeth the thick cloud with
moisture.’ It may occur in one other passage (Ps
104:13, with, however, a change of the text).

raweh. Watered, saturated. An adjective which
occurs three times in the ot. The usage is purely
figurative in all cases. *‘I shall have peace even
though I walk with a stubborn heart, that the
watered will be swept away with the parched”
(Deut 29:19 [H 18]); “‘And thou shalt be like a
watered garden’”’ (Isa 58:11); ‘‘Their life shall be
as a watered garden” (Jer 31:12).

r’waya. Saturation. This noun is formed from
the Hiphil stem of the root rdw4d. r° wayd, used in
highly poetic contexts, occurs in only two pas-
sages in the Psalms. They are both poetic pas-
sages that are well known in the ksv form, even
though that reading obscures some of the
nuances of the Hebrew. A literal translation is,

835

2131 *M°5 (riah)

‘You have anointed my head with unguent, filled
my cup to saturation” (Ps 23:5); ‘But thou did
bring us to saturation’ (Ps 66:12).
W.W.
mis (riah). See no. 213 la.
2131 *m°9 (riah) smell, scent, accept. Literally
‘‘breathe an odor.’’ This denominative
verb occurs only in the Hiphil.

Parent Noun

2131a tm (riiah) wind, breath, mind.
2131b ms (réah) scent, fragrance, aroma.
raah. Wind, breath, mind, spirit. This noun

occurs 387 times in the oT, usually feminine. Al-
though some derive it from rawah, **be spacious,
be refreshed’’ (I Sam 16:23; Job 32:20; Hiphil,
hériah ‘‘perceive by breathing an aeriform
thing,’ KB, p. 877, see below), it is best consid-
ered a primitive noun, related to an ayin-vowel
root rih, *‘to breathe’ (BDB, p. 924); cf. réah
‘‘odor’’; Ugaritic rh.

The basic idea of ré#iah (Gr. pneuma) is ‘air in
motion,’ from air which cannot come between a
crocodile’s scales (Job 41:16 [H 8]) to the blast of
a storm (Isa 25:4; Hab 1:11 asv, rsv). The ‘four
winds,” rahoét, describe the four quarters or four
directions of the world (Jer 49:36; Ezk 37:9). In
living beings the réah is their breath, whether of
animals (Gen 7:15; Ps 104:25, 29), men (Isa 42:5;
Ezk 37:5), or both (Gen 7:22-23); whether in-
haled (Jer 2:24) or on the lips (Isa 11:4; cf. Job
9:18; contrast dead idols, Jer 10:14; 51:17). God
creates it: “The ruah ‘‘spirit’’ [s] of God (from
God) is in my nostrils’* (Job 27:3).

The connotations of breath include power
(I Kgs 10:5, where the Queen of Sheba had *‘no
more riuah, i.e. she was ‘‘breathless,’ over-
whelmed), courage (Josh 2:11; 5:1, where the
‘‘spirit’’ of Israel’s enemies failed them), or value
(Lam 4:20, where the Davidic king was ‘‘the
breath of our nostrils," or prized hope—a phrase
borrowed from the common Egyptian fiwn
fnd.sn “the breath of their nose’’). Yet false
prophets become riiah **wind’’ because they lack
the word (Jer 5:13), the connotation being empti-
ness, the futility of **mere breath’ (Job 7:7; Isa
41:29). As a rush of air, a snort through one’s
nose, ruiah depicts emotions of aggressiveness
(Isa 25:4) or anger (Jud 8:3; Prov 29:11, aSv, RSV).
Ultimately breath signifies activity and life.
One's “‘spirit’’ is consumed when he is sick or
faint (Job 17:1), but it comes back as a ‘‘second
wind’ and he “‘revives’’ (Jud 15:19; I Sam 30:12;
cf. Gen 45:27). In God’s hand is the breath, réah,
of all mankind (Job 12:10; Isa 42:5). So Genesis
6:3 is best rendered, with the rsv, as ‘‘my spirit
(the breath of life, from God) shall not abide [fol-
lowing LxXx}] in man forever, for he is flesh

836

(mortal), but his days (until the deluge) shall be a
hundred and twenty years” (cf. Job 34:14-15).
Yet the word riuhi elsewhere, when spoken by
God, means ‘“‘my spirit," and the word rendered
‘‘abide’’ is much debated. E. Speiser argues for
‘*shall not answer for man” or ‘‘shall not protect
man” JBL 75:126-29.

The unique feature of human life is not, how-
ever, the physical but the spiritual, i.e. the mental
and personal. The “breath” of man was be-
stowed by a Special creative act of God (Gen 2:7;
contrast the beasts in |:24). But it is his inner
being that reflects the image of God, formed by
the counsel of the Trinity (‘‘us, ~ 1:26) and sover-
eign over all other living things (2:20). Biblical
Hebrew therefore speaks of things that come into
your mind, t.e. rf@iah (Ezk 11:5; 20:32). Daniel’s
Aramaic refers likewise to Nebuchadrezzar’s
mind (ASv, spirit) being hardened (Dan 5:20).
Even the physically oriented verb riah ‘‘to
smell’’ (Gen 27:27), assumes figurative con-
notations. A thread is consumed when it
‘*touches’’ (asv, smelleth, Jud 16:9) the fire. It
may also assume connotations of mental aware-
ness, 1.e. God will “‘accept”’ (ASV marg., smell, |
Sam 26:19) a sacrifice. The goal, indeed, of oT
sacrifice, to be a réah han-nih6ah ‘sweet
savor, a soothing aroma to God (Gen 8:21
NASB), points by symbol and type to the idea of
the propitiating atonement through Chnst. The
noun ruah, further, depicts disposition of mind or
attitude. Caleb’s spirit was different from that of
his faithless colleagues (Num 14:24; cf. Sen-
nacherib’s spirit, i.e. resolve tn II Kgs 19:7 asv).
A person's riiah may be sad (I Kgs 21:5), over-
whelmed (Ps 77:3 [H 4}), or contrite (Isa 57:15). It
can be “cool” (restrained, Prov 17:27), jealous
(Num 5:14), and either patient or proud (Eccl
7:8). People may be marked by a spirit of wisdom
(Deut 34:9) or whoredom (Hos 4:12).

ruah comes finally to denote the entire imma-
terial consciousness of man: ‘With my spirit
within me I will seek you earnestly’ (Isa 26:9):'a
wise man ‘‘rules his spirit’’ (Prov 16:32: cf. Dan
5:20), and *‘in his spirit there is no guile’ (Ps
32:2). While the oT generally treats man as a
whole (see nepesh ‘soul,’ often rendered simply
as ‘‘self’’), it also recognizes his essential dualism
(A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the OT, p.
202). Flesh and spirit combine to form the *‘self,”’
so that while man may be said to have a rah he
is a nepesh (yet he is Sometimes said to possess a
nepesh, which departs from his body at death).
The ri#iah is contained with its bodily nidneh
‘*sheath’’ (Dan 7:15, Aramaic: cf. Zech 12:1). At
death the body returns to dust, but the immortal
spirit returns to God who gave it (Gen 3:19; Eccl
12:7). In this regard raah and nepesh, here mean-
ing distinctly ‘‘soul,’’ tend to overlap (Job 7:11;
Isa 26:9; cf. Ex 6:9 with Num 21:4: RTWB, p.
234). This differs from liberal theology, which

tends to limit réah to an impersonal vital power
that becomes individualized only in the nepesh.
Thus it claims that the soul cannot exist indepen-
dently of the body, i.e. that when the ru#ah or
‘power’ departs (Eccl 12:7), the person ceases
to exist (L. Kohler, Old Testament Theology, p.
145, opposed by Davidson, op. cit., pp. 200-201).
Yet both nepesh and riiah may leave the body at
death and exist in a state separate from it (Gen
35:18; Ps 86:13; cf. 1 Kgs 17:22 on the rare case of
a soul's return to its body).

On a higher plane, riah may then designate a
supernatural, angelic being, *‘a spint from God"’
(I Sam 16:23, NASB). The function may be re-
velatory (Job 4:16[9]; cf. Zech 1:9, 19 {H 1:9;
2:2], mal’ak, q.v). Or, appropriately, God might
have his angels serve as rahot ‘‘winds’’ (Ps
104:4, not “*spinits’*; Heb 1:7) or fire (cf. I Kgs
19:11-12). Satan is ‘‘the great, accusing spint™ (I
Kgs 22:21). Other evil spirits could fall upon men,
as decreed by God (I Sam 16:14; 18:10; 19:9).

The preeminent example of spiritual personal-
ity is God (Isa 31:3). réah can exhibit a range of
meaning. The ‘‘breath” of God may be a strong
wind (Isa 40:7; 59:19; cf. Num 11:31). His
‘“spirit’’ may indicate no more than active power
or mood (Isa 40:13, ‘Who hath directed the spirit
[intention] of the Lord?*’ or, *‘who has known
the mind [intention} of the Lord,’’ so Lxx and |
Cor 2:16). At most points, however, context ap-
proves and the analogy of the NT strongly
suggests that the r“ah YHWH is the Holy Spirit,
‘in the fullest Christian sense’ (A. F. Kirkpat-
rick, Cambridge Bible, Psalms, II, p. 293). From
the outset God's réah moves upon the primeval
waters (Gen 1:2), “‘like a hypostasis or person”
(H. Schultz, Old Testament, II, p. 184); cf. his
guiding presence, separate from that of both
Yahweh and Moses, which the Lord ‘‘placed”’
upon the elders in the wilderness (Num 11:17,
25). David first designated him **Holy Spirit’’ (Ps
S1:11 {H 13]; cf. Isa 63:10-11), and Isaiah,
whether thinking of him as his own inspirer or as
a fellow speaker, assumes his distinct personality
when he says, quoting the Messiah, **The Lord
hath sent me and his Spint*’ (48:16).

The work of God’s Spirit may be cosmic,
whether in creation (Job 26:13) or in continuing
providence (Job 33:4; Ps 104:30); redemptive, in
regeneration (Ezk 11:19; 36:26—27); indwelling, to
uphold and guide the believer (Neh 9:20; Ps
143:10; Hag 2:5); or infilling, for leadership (Num
11:25; Jud 6:34; I Sam 16:13), service (Num
11:17; Mic 3:8; Zech 7:12), or future empowering
of the Messiah (Isa 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and his
people (Joel 2:28 |H 3:1]; Isa 32:15).

[Distinctions between riiah and nepesh: riiah
is the principle of man’s rational and immortal
life, and possesses reason, will, and conscience.
It imparts the divine image to man, and consti-
tutes the animating dynamic which results in

837

2132) m3 (rdwah)

2133) BIN (rim)

2133 B35 (ram)

man's nepesh as the subject of personal life. The
distinctive personality of the individual inheres in
his nepesh, the seat of his emotions and desires.
raiah is life-power, having the ground of its
vitality in itself; the nepesh has a more subjective
and conditioned life. The NT seems to make a
clear and substantive distinction between
pneuma (ruah) and psyché (nepesh). G.L.A.]
Bibliography: Davidson, A. B., The Theology
of the Old Testament, T. & T. Clark, #925, pp.
182-203. Delitesch, Franz, Biblical Psychology,
pp. 117-18. Koch, R., “‘Spirit,"* in Sacramentum
Verbi, vol. III, 1970, pp. 869-77. McClellan,
William H., *“The Meaning of Ruah ‘Elohim in
Genesis 1, 2,\° Bib 15:517-27. Moscati, Sabatino,
‘‘The Wind in Biblical and Phoenician Cos-
mogony,’’ JBL. 66:305-10. Orlinsky, Harry M..,
**The Plain Meaning of Ru#h in Gen 1.2,°° JQR
48:174-82. Payne, J. B., Theology of the Older
Testament, Zondervan, 1971, pp. 172-76; 224-25.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 144, 233-47. Walvoord,
J. F., **The Work of the Holy Spint in the O.T.,”’
BS 97:289-317; 410-34. Whitlock, G. S., **Struc-
ture of Personality in Hebrew Psychology,”
Interp 14:3-13. TDNT, VI, pp. 359-89. THAT,
pp. 726-52.
J.B.P.

be wide, spacious (e.g. |
Sam 16:23; Job 32:20).

Derivatives

2132a MIN (rewah) space, interval (Gen
32:17), respite, relief (Est 4:14).

mma (r°waha) respite, relief (Lam
3:56; Ps 66:12).

2132b

myn (r°wayd). See no. 2130c.

be high, lofty; rise up.

Derivatives
2133a TON (ram), O53 (rim) height,
haughtiness.

2133b BIN) (rém) on high, upwards.

2133c tmis (réma) proudly.

2133d =a (rama) height, high place.
2133e =6nmvaa (ramiut) height, lofty stature.
2133f tormin (rémam) praise.

2133g) «ony (rémémat) uplifting, aris-

ing.
2133h tOIN (marém) height.
21331 tmeasn (t°riamd) contribution.
2133) TAMIA (f° ramiya) portion.

Three broad groups of ideas are present in
non-cultic usages of ra#m and its derivatives: 1)
literal height, 2) height as symbolic of positive
notions such as glory and exaltation, 3) height as
symbolic of negative notions such as arrogance
and pride.

2133 B35 (rim)

The Qal can have either a stative meaning,
‘*being high,’ or it can signify movement, rising
up. All three of the broad groups of meanings
mentioned above are found. It refers to literal
height speaking of the height of people (Deut
1:28), the height of stars (Job 22:12), and the lit-
eral rising up of the angels in Ezekiel’s vision
(Ezk 10:16) and the rising of the ark (Gen 7:17).
The ‘‘high voice’’ is loud (Deut 27:14). “*Rise up”’
is an idiom for ‘to appear’? (Ex 16:20, lit.
‘‘worms rose up’’).

The oT uses several idioms which have positive
meaning. The most frequent is the use of God’s
being high to represent God’s rank (*‘May God be
high,’ II Sam 22:47: Ps 18:46 (H 47]; cf. Ps 113:4;
Isa 6:1). Superiority of wisdom over a fool is thus
descnbed (Prov 24:7). Deliverance is equated
with the height of the delivered one’s head (Ps
27:6, lit. **my head is higher than my enemies.”’
Note, this verse is typically translated passively,
‘*Be lifted up’’). Relative height expresses rela-
tive political rank (Num 24:7). The ‘‘high hand”
may symbolize victory (Num 33:3). God’s high
hand shows readiness to judge (Isa 26:11). The
high horn once pictures joy (I Sam 2:1).

Negative idioms are the following: The high
heart represents presumption (Deut 8:14) or pride
(Ezk 31:10). Lofty eyes (Ps 131:1) and the high
arm (Job 38:15) are also presumptuous. The
‘*high ones” or the “*haughty’’ (11 Sam 22:28) is a
poetic term for the wicked just as terms such as
‘‘afflicted’’ and ‘‘humble”’ describe the righte-
ous.

Polel and Hiphil forms express causative coun-
terparts to the above ideas. God can make men
high in rank (i.e. ‘‘exalt’’ them, I Sam 2:7; I Kgs
16:2). Or men can exalt God in praising him (Ps
30:1; [H 2] 99:5). Other idioms include lifting the
hand for an oath (Gen 14:22), lifting the face in
prayer (Ezr 9:6), and setting up a building (Ezr
9:9). The voice may be lifted to cry for help (Gen
39:15), or the sound of musical instruments may
be lifted up (II Chr 5:13). The Hiphil also serves
as a technical term for presenting an offering,
particularly the ‘‘heave offering.”

Polal and Hophal forms express the passive of
the above ideas. The Hithpolel occurs once, ap-
parently with reflexive meaning, “‘to exalt one-
self’ (Dan 11:36).

rim, rim. Height. Once describes literal
heights of the heavens in a poetic simile (Prov
25:3). Other usages are figurative; ‘“‘height of
eyes’ (Prov 21:4; Rsv, asv ‘“‘haughty eyes’’; Isa
10:12, rsv ‘haughty prde’’), ‘‘height of men’”’
(Isa 2:11, 17, Rsv “*pnde of man’’) and ‘‘height of
heart’? (Jer 48:29, rsv ‘“‘haughtiness of his
heart’’). All refer to pride or arrogance.

rém. On high, upwards (Hab 3:10; but cf.
KB).

838

roma. Proudly, haughtily, since an_ unfavor-
able connotation is demanded by the context
(Mic 2:3). Feminine or locative of above term.

romam. Praise. One clear example translated
‘*high praises’’ (Ps 149:6). One other example is
probably a passive verbal form (i.e. Polal of rim)
and ts translated ‘‘he was extolled”* (Ps 66:17, av,
RSV; cf. BDB).

marém. Height, elevated place, on high. Often
used adverbially meaning ‘on high” or ‘‘above.”’
It includes the same general range of meanings as
the verb. References to God's rank and position
form the largest group of usages (e.g. II Sam
22:17; Ps 92:8 [H 9}). Literal height (Prov 9:3) and
presumption (II Kgs 19:22, rsv ‘‘haughty’’) may
also be attested. Motifs not already illustrated
with the verb are the following: lifting the horn
‘on high’’ as a sign of rebellion (Ps 75:5 [H 6])
and being ‘on high’* as symbolic of (hoped for)
security (Hab 2:9).

t'rama. Contribution, offering, heave offer-
ing. The usages of this term roughly parallel
those of t’ napa (v. nup) being used both as a
general cultic term for various offerings and as a
term for those parts of the offerings designated
especially for the officiating priest. In general
usage it denotes the following: matenals contrib-
uted for the building of the tabernacle (Ex 25:2-
3), contributions of the Persian king and others to
rebuild the temple (Ezr 8:25), the half-shekel
atonement money (Ex 30:13), the tithe of the tithe
designated for the priests (Num 18:25-32), and
the sacred precincts of Ezekiel’s temple vision
(Ezk 45:1, KJv “‘oblation’’; NasB ‘‘allotment’’).
Gifts to idols (Isa 40:20) and the offering of war
booty (Num 31:29) may also be thus designated.
The usage of this term for the offering of a cake
from the first of the meal of the land (Num 15:20)
calls to mind the usage of t°nipd *‘wave offer-
ing,’ to refer to the sheaf of the Firstfruits.

As aterm for sacrificial portions designated for
the officiating priest, there are repeated refer-
ences to the thigh of the ‘‘heave offering’ (Lev
10:14-15; Num _ 6:20; kJv ‘‘shoulder’’ for
‘‘thigh’*). In the ritual of the peace offering, the
portion of the accompanying cereal offering as-
signed to the officiating priest is designated by
this term (Lev 7:14; note t°napdad “‘wave offer-
ing, by contrast, never designates a non-meat
priest’s portion). It occurs, seemingly inciden-
tally, in a passage forbidding relatives to eat of
the priest’s portion (Lev 22:12).

Probably, the term “‘heave offering,’ origi-
nally referred to the physical manipulation of the
offering at the time it was given; but there are no
biblical examples which clearly refer to such
manipulation. The term had worn down until it
simply meant ‘‘gift’’ or ‘‘offering’’ without impli-
cation as to how the gift was manipulated.

It occurs once in a non-cultic usage referring
either to those who bribe with gifts or those who
selfishly extort gifts (Prov 29:4; *‘men of gifts’’).

ttramiya. Portion (asv ‘‘oblation’’). Diminu-
tive of t° rama (above). Describes the holdings of
Zadok in Ezekiel’s restoration temple (Ezk
48:12).
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 753-60.
A.B.

pein = (rémam). See no. 2133f.
myvain = (romémiat). See no. 2133g.

2134 *395 (run) overcome (Ps_ 78:65). Used
only in Hithpolel. This form is taken by
KJV as from rdnan (q.vV.).

2135 *pIn (riia‘') shout, raise a sound, cry out.

Derivatives

2135a Ty" (réa‘) shouting.
2135b fmyssm (triad) alarm, signal, sound
of tempest.

An unusual verb, although it occurs forty-two
times throughout the oT, the most frequent us-
ages are in Ps. The root is only developed in He-
brew, with a much later similar term appearing in
medieval Judeo-Arabic.

The root and its few extensions occur only in
the Hiphil stem, although the use of that normally
intensive form does not influence the meanings.
A number of different shades of meaning and a
variety of senses are developed for the root in
various OT passages. The primary meaning is ‘to
raise a noise’’ by shouting or with an instrument,
especially a horn (Num 10:7) or the traditional
ram's horn, the **shofar’’ (Josh 6:5). It is used in
this sense in rituals of the Israelite tabernacle (I
Sam 4:5) to describe the exaltation of the people
of Israel when the ark of the covenant was
brought to the camp. Later in Israel's history in
the First Commonwealth, the same root is used
to describe the exaltation of the people when
David brings the ark to Jerusalem. The poetic
description of this in the Psalms (45:7) and the
later glorification of the king at his enthronement
by acclamation (I Sam 10:24) has been selected
by some scholars as evidence of an enthronement
ritual similar to that found in contemporary
societies. However, there is no evidence to
suggest such an interpretation for the root, ria‘.
In fact, the usage in passages encouraging the
praise of God by the whole earth (Isa 44:23) and
the shout of victory over an enemy (Jer 50:15;
Zeph 3:14) are more closely related. The poetic
song of praise in Job 38:7 uses this root to de-
scribe the shout of joy given by the ‘“‘sons of
God,’’ a controversial phrase referring to the
faithful followers of the covenant. The root ria‘

839

2137 pss (ris)

is also used for cries of complaint and distress
(Isa 15:4). However, the most common usage of
all is in signals for war (Num 10:7) and war cries
(Josh 6:10). As an extension of this last usage, it
is also employed for shouts of alarm (I Sam 17:20)
and encouragement, as in Psalm 95 and 98 in
which it appears twice in each related context.
This unusual word appears only three times in
widely scattered locations (Ex 32:17; Job 36:33:
Mic 4:9, **Now why do you shout aloud"’).

t‘ra‘a. Alarm, signal, sound of trumpet. This is
a feminine noun formed from the root ria‘. Itisa
purely Hebrew formation and occurs thirty-six
times in the oT, mostly in the singular. There are
four distinct senses in which it is used. It 1s used
for ‘‘signal’’ (Lev 25:9), the *‘sound of the trum-
pet’’ for the blowing of the shofar on the day of
atonement. It is also used for ‘‘alarm"’ as in case
of attack (Josh 6:5: Jer 4:19), ‘‘I hear the sound of
the trumpet, the alarm of war.** In addition, it is
used for the trumpet in the tumult of the battle,
‘‘And Moab shall die amid uproar, amid shout-
ing, and the sound of the trumpet’’ (Amos 2:2).
Lastly, the noun is used for the exultation of
praise to God, ‘‘Praise him with trumpet sound,
praise him with lute and harp’’ (Ps 150:3).
W.W.

2136 35 (rwp). Assumed root of the following.

2136a =ABINA (f° rapd) healing (Ezk

47:12).

2137 PSN (ris) run.

Derivatives

2137a = PINs (mérés) running, race (Eccl
9:11).

mervoa (mm rtisad) running (Il Sam
18:27), course of life (Jer 8:6).

The root rus is that of the common Hebrew
word meaning “‘to run,’ *‘make haste by run-
ning.’ It occurs over seventy-five times in the oT
and frequently in postbiblical Hebrew. Although
the root is philologically cognate to Akkadian
rdsu, the two terms underwent separate semantic
development, the Akkadian term meaning to
‘*help,’’ a meaning only remotely attached to the
Hebrew root. The greater number of occurrences
of riis are found in Gen and I-II Samuel. The root
tends to be used less often in the prophetic and
later historical books. Throughout the Pen-
tateuch the word is used to descnbe the running
of human beings, usually men (Gen 18:27; 24:17)
and occasionally women (Gen 24:20). The Akka-
dian cognate is rarely applied to animals or in-
animate objects and the same is true of the He-
brew root. Although horses are mentioned in the
early history of Israel, the root, ris is not used to
describe the running of horses until Joel 2:4.

2137b

2138 WI (rash)

There are a number of different types and modes
of running described by this root. There is the
running to greet a stranger and make ready the
welcome (Gen 18:2, 7); the running of excitement
(Gen 24:28); running in terror (Jud 7:21): running
to bring news (II Sam 18:22); and the running of
an official, ritual nature (1 Kgs 1:5). In most us-
ages a preposition is used to indicate the place
from which or place to which the action takes
place. The precise direction of the action is indi-
cated with the following prepositions: ‘‘against,”
Hebrew ‘al (Job 16:14); “‘away from,” Hebrew
min (I Sam 4:12); **before,’’ Hebrew lipné (I Sam
8:11); “behind,” Hebrew ‘ahadré (1 Kgs 19:20);
‘‘far’’ Hebrew prefix /- (Hag 1:9); ‘to,’ Hebrew
prefix ‘el- (Gen 24:20; Num 17:12); ‘‘towards,”™
Hebrew ligra’t (Gen 18:2); and ‘*upon, ’ Hebrew
prefix ‘ad- (II Kgs 4:22). Several special mean-
ings of the root are also found. One is the Hiphil
stem of rus which connotes the meaning, °‘To
run (bring) quickly” (Gen 41:14), kiv “brought
him hastily.’’ rsv and ses read the same. Another
special usage appears only once in the ot. The
Pilpel stem of ris in Nah 2:5 describes the
chariots of an army which “run back and forth”
like lightning.

W.W.

2138 ws (rash), W9 (rish) be poor.

Derivatives

2138a owes (résh), WR (ré’sh), poverty.
2138b) «ws (rish) poverty (occurs only in
Prov).

This root implies destitution. It occurs thirty-
two times. Orthographically it displays the fre-
quent insertion of the vowel letter aleph (GKC,
sec. 23g). There may be a connection with Ugart-
tic rsh, | Kgs 10, 22 (cf. AisWUS no. 2545 *‘de-
stroy, Zerstoren).

The root refers to the condition common to the
lower class. David uses it in descnbing his un-
worthiness to marry Michal (I Sam 18:23), and
Nathan uses it in his classical parable (II Sam
12: 1ff.).

2139 MIN «(rdza) be(come) lean (Zeph 2:11: Isa

17:4).
Derivatives
2139a MIN (razeh) lean (Ezk 24:20: Num
13:20).
2139b 0S) «(rdzi) leanness, wasting (Isa
24:16).

2139c¢ 9-89 (rdzdn) = leanness (Isa 10:16),
wasting (Ps 106:15), scantness
(Mic 6:10).

Mw (razon). See nos, 2139c, 2142a.

840

2140 mmm (rzit).

2141 Bm (rdzam)

2142 5 (rdzan) be

Assumed root of the following.
mesa. (marzéah) cry (Jer = 15:12;
Amos 6:7).

2140a

35 (razi). See no. 2139b.

wink, flash (of eyes, Job

15:12).

weighty, judicious,

commanding (e.g. Jud 5:3; Hab 1:10).
Derivative

2142a tS) (razon) potentate (Prov
14:28).

2143 Sms (rahab) be wide.

Tr

Derivatives
2143a Sm5 (rahab) breadth, broad
expanse (Job 36:16; 38:18).
2143b t3m5 (réhab) breadth, expanse,

width,

2143c «tama (rahab) broad, wide.

2143d 733M" (r°hdb) open place.

2143e 3m (merhabh) broad, roomy place
(Hos 4:16; Ps 31:9).

An important West Semitic root. rahab occurs
in a most incisive Canaanite gloss in Amarna let-
ter 162.41 showing that it was used in common
parlance in Palestine c. 1370 B.c. It 1s found in
Ugaritic, rhb, and later Semitic dialects and is
cognate to Akkadian rébu. rdhab appears over
twenty times in the ot. A number of derivative
forms of rdhab are also found and the precise
differentiation between them has been confused
in the versions.

The root is used in two completely different
semantic extensions. The term is used to describe
the breadth or expanse of land or the width of an
object. The root often occurs in descriptions of
the spaciousness of the land of Canaan (Gen
26:22). It is the root of the place name, Rehoboth
in the same context. It is repeated in reaf-
firmations of the extent of Israel's promised tn-
heritance both during and after the conquest of
Canaan (Ex 34:24: Deut 12:20: Isa 54:2). The
term also descnbes architectural features of the
heavenly temple in prophetic vision (Ezk 41:7).
However, its most frequent occurrence ts in
psychologically revealing phrases involving parts
of the body or bodily attributes. These phrases
are completely colloquial and defy literal trans-
lation. The root rahab appears with the following
nouns in colloquial phrases: **mouth™ (I Sam 2:1;
Ps 35:21: 81:11: Isa 57:4); “*heart’’ (Ps 119:32; Isa
60:5). ‘troubles of the heart’’ (Ps 25:17); **steps”’
(Ps 18:37): “*nepesh™ (Isa 57:8). Of special inter-
est is the extremely obscure usage of rdhab in Ps
4:1 [H 2} read by ksv, ‘‘Thou hast enlarged me’:

rsv, ““Thou hast given me room’”’; jps (v. 2),
‘‘Thou who didst set me free’; Niv “‘Give me
relief.’’ Since it is a colloquial expression practi-
cally defying translation, all these attempts are in
a measure correct. In the view of the worldly-
wise man, Prov uses the verb only once (18:16) to
apply to the increase of ‘‘money.’’ The term is
one which has no single English equivalent. it
may best be translated in all its colloquial usages
as “‘made greater the effect of mouth, heart,
etc.’’ Although this is a clumsy translation it
brings some semblance of the original Semitic
flavor to all passages wherein it occurs.

rohab. Breadth, expanse, width. The mas-
culine noun formed from the root, rdhab, is used
nearly one hundred times in the oT, thirtyseven
times in Ezk 40-43, 45, 46, 48. It appears initially
in Gen 6:15, ksv “*breadth,’’ which is the transla-
tion of the root in both kjv and Rsv in some
seventy-two occurrences. In twenty-two occur-
rences KJv reads “‘broad’* (Ex 27:1). This is the
translation followed in fifteen of the Ezk usages.
None of the other versions are any more consis-
tent. In a few occurrences the ksv diverges from
these two regular meanings of rdhab. In two pas-
sages the kJv reads ‘“‘thickness’’ (Ezk 41:9;
42:10). In the latter passage the rsv supplies an
acceptable paraphrase, *‘Where the outside wall
begins.’’ In the single passage (I Kgs 4:29) ksv
translates “‘largeness of heart.’’ rsv incorrectly
supplies ‘‘largeness of mind.’’ The word is fairly
easy to understand in its many contexts.

rahab. Broad, wide, large. This adjective ap-
pears twenty-one times in the ot and modifies
many different subjects. The promised land of
Palestine is said to be ‘‘broad"* (Ex 3:8). In com-
parison to God’s knowledge, the sea is not ‘‘so
wide’ (Job 11:9). In another image, the breach
made by an invading army its said to be ‘‘wide”’
(Job 30:14). The word also describes the breadth
of God’s commands (Ps 119:96) and the height of
human arrogance (Ps 101:5).

rhoéb. Open place. A noun developed from
rahab and cognate to Ugaritic rhb, Akkadian ré-
bitu. It is used in a slightly variant form, r°hdb
without the waw. In all, it occurs forty-two times
in all sections of the ot. The initial usage appears
in Gen 19:2 in the angelic visitation to Lot in
Sodom, KJV, RSV ‘*street,’” 3ps ‘*broad place,”’ but
better translated, “‘open area.’’ The term is al-
ways used of a square, market place, or pasture
within a town or village (Neh 8:1). These
‘““Squares'' were public areas and were unfortu-
nately used for idol shrines in the time of Israel's
apostasy (Ezk 16:24, 31), but they are to be dis-
tinguished from the broad area at the city gates
where public business was done and courts oper-
ated.

W.W.

841

2145 9m (rhl).

2146 ans (raham)

2144 sms (rhh). Assumed root of the following.

2144a =ommn 6 (réheh) handmill. Occurs

only in the dual, réhayim.

See no. 2143d.
See no. 2146c.

aims (r° hob).
mms (rahiim).

Assumed root of the following.
2145a tons (rahél) ewe.

This very ancient feminine noun is cognate to
Akkadian /ahru, but underwent metathesis or
transposition, a not uncommon phenomenon in
words with both ‘'r’’ and ‘‘l.’’ It occurs four
times in the ot (Gen 31:38; 32:15; Song 6:6). Its
most important occurrence is in Isa 53:7 in the
great prophecy of the atonement, “‘As a sheep
(rahél) before her shearers is dumb, so he opened
not his mouth.’ This is the root of the feminine
name Rachel (rahél).

W.W.

2146 om (raham) I, love deeply; have mercy,

be compassionate. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2146a fons (rehem), BRS (raham) womb.

2146b tavens (rahdmim) tender mercy.

2146c fasms (rahuim) compassionate.

2146d 229NS) (rahdmdni) compassionate
women (Lam 4:10).

This root refers to deep love (usually of a
‘superior’ for an ‘‘inferior’’) rooted in some
‘‘natural’’ bond. In the Piel it is used for the deep
inward feeling we know variously as compassion,
pity, mercy. Probably rdham is related to Akka-
dian rému (cf. Ugaritic ram, G. Schmuttermayr,
*“RHM W— Eine lexikalische Studie,’ Bib
51:499ff.). This root is to be distinguished in em-
phasis from hits and hamal. Sometimes hanén is
rendered ‘‘mercy’’ with emphasis on_ the
graciousness with which such is extended. This
verb and its derivatives occur 133 times.

raham is used infrequently (twelve of forty-
seven times) of men. It is used only once in the
Qal when the Psalmist confesses his love for
Jehovah (18:1 {H 2]). The depth of this love is
shown by the connection of this word with
rehem/raham. Compare, Isaiah (49:15) who uses
it of a mother’s love toward her nursing baby.
It can also refer to a father’s love (Ps 103:13).
Apparently. this verb connotes the feeling of
mercy which men have for each other by vir-
tue of the fact that they are human beings (Jer
50:42) and which is most easily prompted by
small babies (Isa 13:18) or other helpless people.
It is this natural mercy for the helpless that Is-
rael’s and Babylon’s enemies will lack in their
cruelty (Isa 13:18: Jer 6:23), although God may
give Israel's enemies such feeling (compassion) (1

2146 ams (raham)

Kgs 8:50; Jer 42:12). Indeed, the prophets (Isa
13:18) conjoin has (the feeling which flows from
one to another), hdmal (the strength of feeling
which leads one to action in behalf of another,
i.e. to Spare them some difficulty), and rdham
(the deep inner feeling based on some ‘‘natural"’
bond) when describing what Babylon (Jer 21:7)
and God (Jer 13:14) will lack toward Israel.

This root is frequently used of God. It incorpo-
rates two concepts: first, the strong tie God has
with those whom he has called as his children (Ps
103:13). God looks upon his own as a father looks
upon his children; he has pity on them (cf. Mic
7:17). The second concept is that of God’s un-
conditioned choice (hdnén, grace). God tells
Moses that he is gracious and merciful to
whomever he chooses (Ex 33:19).

There are several ideas attached to God's
deep, tender love: first, the unconditional elec-
tion of God (Ex 33:19): next, his mercy and for-
giveness toward his people in the face of de-
served judgment and upon the condition of their
repentance (Deut 13:17 [H 18]); also, God's con-
tinuing mercy and grace in preserving his unre-
pentant people from judgment (II Kgs 13:23).
Thus this attribute becomes the basis in part of an
eschatological hope (cf. Isa 14:1; 49:13; 54:7: Jer
12:15; 33:26; Ezk 34:25; Mic 7:19; Zech 1:16). It
is noteworthy that Deuteronomy (30:3) proph-
esies the exile because of Israel's sin, stipulating
that repentance will meet with God's tender
compassion. So we read of the withdrawal of
God's mercy resulting in harsh judgment at the
hands of Babylon (Isa 9:17 [H 16}: 27:11; Hos 2:4
[H 6]). During the exile Israel's leaders en-
couraged the people with God's electing love and
tender-mercy (Lam 3:32), and led them in hum-
bling themselves in repentance, calling upon God
to reinstate his fatherlike compassion (Zech
1:12). The restitution of the father-son relation-
ship and the return from the exile witnesses this
accompanying loving care (Hos 2:23 [{H 25)}).
Scripture makes it certain that the exile was
brought by God and terminated by God (Ezk
39:25) according to his sovereign providence (Isa
30:18; cf. E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah, II, p.
353f.). Finally, the prophets’ message regarding
the return from the exile opens onto a permanent
state where the father-son relationship will never
be broken (Hos 2:23 [H 25]; Isa 54:8, 10).

rehem, raham. Womb, maiden. The latter
usage occurs in Jud 5:30 and is attested in Ugani-
tic (49:11:27) where brit ‘nt (Maiden Anat) is
called rhm ‘nt (Maiden Anat) (UT 19: no. 2321).
19: no. 2321).

rehem/raham is to be distinguished from beten
‘belly.’ (Cf. Jud 5:30 where pars pro toto it
refers to a woman.) Hence beten and rehem/
raham are used as parallels only when speaking
of conception and birth.

842

That rehem/raham designates the womb 1s
clear from passages like Jer 20:17 where the pro-
phet bemoans his birth. He wishes that he had
been slain in the womb and thus his mother's
womb would always have been great. Job (10:18)
says that had he not been brought forth from the
womb, no eye would have seen him. Even clearer
is God's analogy depicting his sovereign cutting
of the flood waters of Noah's day which broke
forth “‘as if it had issued out of the womb” (Job
38:8).

It is clear that birth and conception are con-
trolled by God who opens (Gen 29:31) or closes
(Gen 20:18) the womb at will (cf. Num 8:16 where
‘‘firstborn’’ is the one who opens the womb).
Consequently, birth is not merely a product of
natural law, but a blessing from God (Gen 49:25).
The rebellious sinner, however, bears no children
(‘the womb shall forget him,’ Job 24:20) or is to
be cursed with a miscarrying womb (Hos 9:14).
Israel is to confess that having and keeping chil-
dren is God's doing. They do this by setting apart
all the firstborn (human or beast) to God. God is a
covenant God who requires a ‘“‘covering™’ or
*‘atonement”™’ (see Aippér), a blood sacrifice. Be-
cause of the blood, God passed over the firstborn
of ‘‘believers’’ in Egypt. Hence all firstborn of
those under the covenant belong to God and are
to be sacrificed to him. He does direct, however,
that children (and unclean animals) are to be re-
deemed (Num 18:15). He claims the Levites in
their place (Num 3:12). Israel's idolaters recog-
nized God's claim on their firstborn children but
wrongly sacrificed them to him (Ezk 20:26).

All men (righteous and wicked) owe their birth
to God and are responsible to serve him (Job
31:15). God's people Israel were recipients of his
special care (election) from conception to death.
He sustained them in all of life (Isa 46:3). God
encourages them by reminding them of this dur-
ing the affliction of the exile. God applies this
principle to an individual when he tells Jeremiah
(1:5) that before he was formed in the womb, he
had designated and appointed him a prophet to
the nations. David, a type of the Messiah, finds
solace in this thought when he freely confesses
his dependence on God since his birth (cast forth
from the womb, Ps 22:10[H 11]). This ts also true
of the Servant, the messianic King, whose every
step reflected his dependence on the Father (cf.
Isa 49:1). The elect are sustained by God from
birth. It is their responsibility to confess and
submit to that calling (Jer 1:5). God so works in
life to bring them to that confession and submis-
sion (Isa 46:3, cf. ‘dnd, III, -‘affliction’’). Con-
tranwise, from birth the wicked are estranged
from God and go astray (Ps 48:3 [{H 4]).

rahamim. Tender mercy, compassion. This
word shows the link between raham, *‘to have
compassion" (Piel) and rehem/raham, *‘womb,™

for rahamim can refer to the seat of one’s emo-
tions (Gen 43:30) or the expression of one’s deep
emotion (I Kgs 3:26); cf. J. Pedersen, /srael,
1936, pp. 309, 525).

rahadmim recalls in various situations that
God's tender-mercy is rooted in his free love and
grace. Hence, God's punishment is more desir-
able than man’s wrath (II Sam 24:14). God’s
mercy is often combined with his hesed ‘“‘love,”’
‘kindness’ and hén ‘‘grace,’’ “‘unmerited fa-
vor.'’ God's anger and wrath are the opposite of
his loving mercy (Deut 13:18; Zech 1:12; Ps 77:9).
In times of captivity (esp. the exile, Dan 9:18)
Israel is summoned to repentance on the grounds
of God’s fatherlike compassion (II Chr 30:9), and
God responds (Isa 54:7). The Psalmist often be-
seeches God for expressions of his tendermercies
to relieve his distress (Ps 51:1 [H 3]) or confesses
that undeserved relief is due to God’s tender-
mercies and grace (Ps 103:4). The eschaton is to
witness God’s unconditional and unbroken love
and care (Hos 2:19 [H 21]): when Israel repents
(Deut 30:3; Isa 55:7; Zech 12:10).

rahim. Compassionate, merciful. This adjec-
tive is used only of God (with the possible excep-
tion of Ps 112:4) setting forth one of his attrib-
utes, i.e. what God gives forth in raham he has in
rahum.,

rahamani. Compassionate. This adjective de-
scribes the depth of feeling a mother’s love can
reach. Women who so loved their children boiled
them for food during the siege by the Babylonians
(Lam 4:10).

Bibliography: Dahood, M., **Denominative
rihham, ‘to conceive, enwomb’,’’ Bib 44:204—
205. THAT, I], pp. 761-67.

Ld.

2147 Bm (rhm) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

2147a Bm" (rahdm) carrion vulture (Lev
11:18).

mens (rahama) carrion vulture (Deut
14:17).

2147b

See no. 2146b.
See no. 2146d.

Byes = (rahadmim).
Om (rahadmani).

2148 MN (radhap) I, grow soft,
23:9).

relax (Jer

2149 *Am5 (rahap) UH, hover. This verb oc-
curs only in the Piel (Gen 1:2; Deut 32:11).

2150 yms (rahas) wash.

Derivatives
2150a_ yma (rahas) washing (Ps _ 60:10;
108: 10).

843

2151 pm (rahaq)

2150b -*EM5
6:6).

This root refers to ritual washings and is cog-
nate philologically, although not semantically to
Akkadian rahasu *‘to overflow,’’ ‘‘to flood.” It
is cognate to Egyptian and Ugaritic rhs with the
same meaning. It is used over seventy-five times
in the ot. The initial occurrence is Gen 18:4, with
over fortyeight occurrences in the Pentateuch,
twenty-six in Lev. Among the parts of the body
ritually rinsed were: the face (Gen 43:31); the
hands (Ex 30:19, 21): the body (Lev 17:16); the
feet (Gen 18:4ff). In the Levitical rituals the flesh
of sacrificial animals was washed (Lev 1:9 et al.).
This washing would normally take a great deal of
water and perhaps suggests that Solomon's great
brazen sea was used as areservoir for such water
as well as for other rituals. Several interesting
uses of the term appear in Song of Solomon giv-
ing details on Israelite cosmetology. The root
rahas describes the ritual foot washing (5:3) and
an eye washing with milk (5:12). A similar usage
of washing for romantic appeal appears in Ruth
3:3. But the much more serious use of the root is
reserved for the notion of its representing the
cleansing from sin (Isa 1:16; 4:4). It is this mean-
ing which is carried throughout Ezk (16:4, 9;
23:40) and on into the nt in the baptism of John
and of Jesus. The nt has a number of references
to the oT practices (Jon 2:6; Mt 15:2; Heb 9:10
etc.)

(This frequent washing with water doubtless
added to the general cleanliness of the ancient
Israelites. It also was symbolic of the cleansing
from sin as said above. There ts also an interest-
ing catena of verses suggesting that the water of
baptism specifically symbolizes the Holy Spint
the agent of cleansing: Mk 1:8, the Spirit baptism
foretold; Acts 1:5, the back reference by Chnist:
Acts 10:47, the performance of the outward ritual]
as a Sign of the inward; and Acts 11:16, the back
reference to the words of Christ in Acts 1:5.
R.L.H.|

Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 300-302.

(rahsad) washing (Song 4:2;

W.W.

2151 Mn (rahaq) be(come) far, distant; be re-

moved.
Derivatives
215la Ma (radhéq) removing, departing
(Ps 73:27).
2151b tpms (rahdq), BINS (rahdq) _ re-
mote, far.

21Slc distance.

rahaq isacommon Semitic verbal root which is
cognate to Akkadian régu and Ugaritic rhq. It is
found in all later Semitic versions of the oT, such
as Syriac rehag and Ethiopic reheqa. The mean-

tema (merhdaq)

2152 wns (rahash)

ings vary with the stem in which the root appears.
However, the variation follows the typical usage
of Hebrew grammar. An important participle is
also formed from the root rdhaq and appears
throughout the oT.

The verb appears over fifty times in the text
and occurs in every section of the Hebrew Bible
and in all types of contexts. The primary meaning
of the Qal stem expresses the state of a person or
thing as being ‘*far’’ from someone or something
else. In many passages there is also the notion of
‘‘being too far’’ as if the person or object was
unreachable (Deut 12:21), or too distant to be
heeded (Gen 21:16). The root is given an ethical
and religious connotation in such passages as Ex
23:7 where the Israelites are commanded to stay
‘far away” from wicked peoples and alien cults.
The same root is used to describe the exile which
resulted from Israel's disobedience (Jer 27:10:
Mic 7:11). The verb thus describes Israel's re-
moval from the land.

In some passages the root describes the parting
or separation of two previously joined objects.
One of the best known of such occurrences is in
the difficult verse (Eccl 12:6), kjv ‘‘be loosed,”’
RSV “Snapped” and adds the note, Syr Vg. Com-
pare Gk: Hebrew is removed. While many
scholars have emended the verb, it is unneces-
Sary since it merely means, “‘be removed.” In the
prophets the word is developed to its fullest
theological significance. Jeremiah uses it once
only (2:5) to describe the state of those who have
rejected God's law as “‘to go far from him.”
Isaiah gives the root rdhaq its most profound
meaning in the five occurrences which appear. In
the first usage (46:13), God’s mghteousness will
not ‘‘be far,’ in the second (49:19) the enemies
which had troubled Judah during her affliction
shall be ‘far away” so as not to trouble her any-
more. In the third usage (54:14) oppression itself
shall be removed ‘‘far off.’* In the last two occur-
rences (59:9, 11), God’s judgment is again in view
and the root refers to the separation which sin
causes to come between God and his people. In
these five uses in Isaiah, the verb receives its
ultimate meaning for the theology of the ot.

rahoq, rahéq. Remote, far. This is the com-
mon Hebrew adjective meaning ‘‘far’’ and the
masculine noun used for ‘“‘distant.’’ It appears
over fifty times in the or. Although the basic
meaning varies little it does have a variety of ap-
plications. It is used to describe a distant country
(Josh 9:6, 9), ““We have come from a far coun-
try’: distant cities (Jer 48:24), **All the cities of
the land of Moab, both far and near.”* It is also
used of persons estranged from God (Jer 2:5),
‘‘What wrong did your fathers find in me (God)
that they went far from me?’ In a particularly
imposing passage (Jer 23:23) this root and its an-
tonym are set in stark contrast, “‘Am I God

nearby says the Lord, and not a God afar off?’’
rahogq is also used for distance (Ex 2:4), ‘‘And his
sister stood at a distance,’’ and for time (Isa
22:11), “But you did not look to him who did it,
nor have regard for him who planned it long
ago.

merhag. Distance. This is a participle formed
from the root rdhag. It does not occur in the
Pentatetch and is found mostly in Isa and Jer. It
is translated as ‘‘far’’ or ‘‘afar’’ by all of the ver-
sions in its fifteen occurrences. In some passages
it means, ‘‘most remote,’ “‘furtherest.’’ II] Sam
15:17 is translated thus: **And tarried in a place
that was far off’ (k)v); **And they halted at the
last house” (Rsv); ““And they tarred in
Bethmerhak’’ (ses). The preferred translation is,
**They remained at the most remote place.’’ The
same meaning is in evidence in the prophetic vi-
sion of Isa 33:17, *‘ Your eyes will see the king in
his beauty, they will behold the most remote
land.”’

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 768-70.
W.W.
2152 wma (rdhash) keep moving, stir (Ps
4§:2).
Derivative
2152a =o mwesr (marheshet) stew pan
(Lev 2:7; 7:9).
2153 MMS (rahat) winnowing shovel (Isa
30:24).
2154 369 (ratéb) be moist (Job 24:8).
Derivative
2154a 30" (ratdb) moist, juicy, fresh
(Job 8:16).
2155 mes (rata) wring out (Job 16:11).
2156 bn (rtt). Assumed root of the following.
2156a =Bbs (retet) trembling, panic (Jer
24:49).
2157 WEES (ritadpash) growfresh (Job33:25).
2158 *wWes (ratash) dash to pieces.

This unusual word appears only in the Piel and
Pual stems. There are two occurrences of the Piel
form, Il Kgs 8:12, *“‘Dash in pieces their chil-
dren,’ and Isa 13:18, where xsv, **Shall dash
their young men to pieces”’ is to be much pre-
ferred to rsv, “Will destroy their young men.”
There are four usages of the Pual stem: Isa 13:16,
‘*Their babies also shall be dashed’’; Hos 10:14,
**Mothers were dashed in pieces’*; Hos 13:16 [H
14:1], ‘Babies shall be dashed in pieces’’; and

844

Nah 3:10, **Young people will be dashed.’’ The
gruesome atrocity described by this root was
common to ancient warfare. It was a punishment
predicted by God for pagan nations and those
who rejected the moral law and embraced pagan
practices. The details of the action are not given
in most of the texts, but in Isa 13:18 the instru-
ment is said to be the bow. Apparently the word
can mean just ‘slaughter’ (Isa 13:18, Rsv, Niv
“strike down’’).

W.W.
™ (ri). See no. 2130a.
2159 3°" (rib) strive, contend.
Derivatives
2159a f3°%% (rib) strife, controversy.
2159b =a) «(yarib) opponent, adversary

(Isa 49:25; Ps 35:1; Jer 18:19).
2159c = MB «(mv riba) strife, contention
(Gen 13:8; Num 27:14).

This word is one of the few frequently used
words middle yod (ayin yod) in the or, the others
being din, shit, gil, and ‘it (GKC, p. 73a). All
appearances of rib, except two Hiphil participles
(I Sam 2:10; Hos 4:4) used as nouns, are in the
Qal stem. Many of these, however, have been
identified as really shortened Hiphil forms (GKC,
ibid.). Hence, some causative notion (as opposed
to mere receptivity) may be expected to be pre-
sent when this word appears.

1. To strive in the sense of physical combat is
apparently primary. It may be of single combat
between two men (Ex 21:18) or of contending
groups (Deut 33:7; Jud 11:25, though the figure is
of single combat). It is not surprising therefore
that Lxx, in ten of the approximately seventy oc-
currences of rib, renders by machomai (Hatch
and Redpath, Concordance to the LXX) depo-
nent middle and aorist pass., beginning at Gen
26:20, meaning ‘‘to fight,’’ in physical combat be-
tween single men, men and beasts, or between
armies (Liddell and Scott).

2. By an easy transition, the verb is employed
for verbal combat, i.e. to quarrel, to chide one
another, as Jacob with Laban (Gen 31:36) or the
people with Moses (Ex 17:2, with b°; also with
‘im Gen 26:20; Neh 13:25). 'ét apparently in the
sense of with, rather than as sign of direct object,
is also sometimes used after this verb, as in Neh
5:7; 13:11, 17 and even with ‘al (Gen 26:21, 22).
In the last case, the preposition may not desig-
nate the second contending party or parties but
the matter of contention: “‘they strove’’ (rdbi)
“for that’’ (‘aléha). Once the word means ‘‘to
quarrel’ and no object at all appears (Hos 4:4)—
in negative command and parallel with yakah “‘to
dispute, argue.”’

Some of these the Lxx renders by machomai,

845

2159 39% (rib)

which has also the sense of verbal quarrelling,
and others by (oidore6 “to wrangle,’ “* quarrel,”
‘*remonstrate angrily.’’ This is an action severely
reprimanded in the nt (I Cor 15:11; 6:10; | Tim
5:14: Mt 5:11, etc.: TWNT, IV, p. 293).

3. By another easy transition it takes on a
legal-judicial significance and, strangely, usually
with God as acting subject. Since God as creator
is ruler of all, even his chidings have a judicial
flavor, and BDB are not likely tn error in placing
many references where “chide” or “‘reprove’’
seem to be the best rendering in this category.
Other verbs normally having to do with functions
of civil magistrates are sometimes used in parallel
with these occurrences of rib: e.g., din ‘*rule,”
“judge’’ Isa 3:13: gdsap “be angry.’’ Some-
times, with accusative of person this word pre-
sents the Lord as acting as advocate (in parallel!
with shdpat, “‘judge’’) once to judge, once to
vindicate and at least once to be a din ~*magis-
trate’ (I Sam 24:15: the sense of “function as
friendly magistrate’’ is clear here). On the other
hand, the term also represents deity as an un-
friendly civil officer (with accusative of person;
Isa 27:8, in a context of great severity). God in
friendly civil function is said to be the gd’él *‘re-
deemer™’ of Judah and Israel and the sense is en-
forced by absolute infinitive of rib (Jer 50:34).
Similarly ‘‘plead thou my cause” ribda/rib? is
parallel with g’aléni, which should be rendered
‘*vindicate me’ (cf. Job 19:25, asv marg. on
go'ali). God is also said to prosecute (rib, his
own cause Ps 74:22) and to defend the righteous
against (‘from the hand of miyyad) the wicked
(J Sam 25:39).

In one clear case rib is used of human disputa-
tion in court (Prov 25:8: cf. context in 25:9). If
there were contemporary records extant of an-
cient Israel’s court proceedings or of speech
about them, however, this word would surely be
found. Its near restriction in the oT to use of the
divine action, when civil functions are desig-
nated, is hard to explain.

It ts worth noting that about a third of the ap-
pearances of rib (vb.) are in the Lxx rendered by
krind, a word with prevalently legal-judicial over-
tones.

There has been much discussion in recent
times of the rib motif as referring to the divine
lawsuit against Israel for having broken the cov-
enant. (Cf. H. B. Huffmon, **The Covenant Law-
suit and the Prophets,” JBL 78:286—95. D. J.
McCarthy gives a more balanced presentation in
Old Testament Covenant, a Survey of Current
Opinion, John Knox, 1972, pp. 38-40.) It is in-
deed true that the figure of God’s ‘*controversy
with Israel is couched in legal terms. But it may
be doubted if the wording of the “‘lawsuit™’ ts a
necessary feature of the prophetic speech based
on an appeal to a covenant form, or if it is a
broader figure based on God's eternal relation of

2160 795 (ryp)

love to his people (note the use in Hos 2:2 [H 4]:
see further on mishpat).

4. A single reference seems to require the
sense of ‘‘lie in wait"’ or “*set an ambush"* (I Sam
15:5). For some reason BDB takes no notice at all
of this occurrence, perhaps assigning the mean-
ing ‘fight.’ But the Lxx renders it by enedreno
‘‘he in wait, “‘plot against.’° This probably in-
fluenced kJv “laid wait’ and kJv in turn asv “‘laid
walt, which meaning is not rejected by NAsB
**set an ambush.” Even rsv, not overly awed by
traditional renderings, has ‘‘lay in wait.’ The
context almost certainly rules in favor of these
common renderings against Gesenius and all his
revisers to the present. It is a special kind of
hapax legomenon.

5. Three times rib has the connotation of “to
complain’ (BDB). In these cases the special
modification of **quarrel’’ 1s indicated by use of
"el also, to indicate the one to whom (Jud 21:22
‘‘to complain unto us’) or against whom com-
plaints are made (Jer 2:29; 12:1; Job 33:13). A
check of Lxx reveals krinesthai pros hémas Jud
21:22; laleite pros me Jer 2:29; apolougésomai
pros se Jer 12:1, indicating that this sense ‘‘com-
plain’* was understood to be one of the genuine,
if rare, senses of rib in ancient times.

rib. Strife, controversy, cause, etc. This noun,
whether cognate or derived, or if the verb is de-
nominative, seems beyond our present knowl-
edge. The noun has a similar range of translations
to the verb.

In poetic parallel it appears with words for jus-
tification, pleading a cause, chastisement,
punishment. Psalm 43:1 is striking in this regard
and merits full examination by the expositor. In-
terestingly rib *“‘stnife,’ is in contrast with
shalwa *‘quietness’’ (Prov 17:1).

rib is one of the rather large number of Hebrew
words which must be examined by anyone wish-
ing to construct a biblical theology of govern-
ment.

Bibliography: For references to the consider-
able treatment of the rib motif in current critical
thought, see Huffmon, H. B., *‘The Covenant
Lawsuit tn the Prophets,’ JBL, 78:285—95. Lim-
burg, J.,‘°The Root R/B and the Prophetic Law-
suit speeches,” JBL 88:291-304. Westermann,
Claus, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech,
Westminster, 1967, especially pp. 199-201.

R.D.C.

2160 "95 (rnp). Assumed root of the following.

2160a MB (ripad) a grain or fruit (Il
Sam 17:19; Prov 27:22). Meaning
uncertain.

Derivatives

216la tp (réqg) empty, vain.
2161b T°" (rig) empty, idle, vain.
2161c ‘Op (régam) vainly, emptily.

riq 1s used a few times literally of emptying
vessels, sacks, etc. More often it is used in the
extended meaning of drawing a sword (emptying
the scabbard”). In Ps 35:3 it refers to drawing the
spear: in Gen 14:14 to leading out troops.

réq. Empty, vain. An adjective formed from
the verbal root, it appears fourteen times in the
oT. The initial use is Gen 37:24, ‘The pit was
empty, there was no water in it.’ The adjective is
also used of unfulfilled desires (Isa 29:8), *‘But he
wakes and his soul is empty.’ rég means *‘vain,”’
‘‘worthless’’ in some passages (Prov 12:11;
28:19), *“He who follows worthless goals (réq)
will have plenty of poverty.”

riq. Empty, idle, vain. This noun developed
from a root cognate to Akkadian régu. The noun,
rig, appears twelve times in the or. The initial
occurrence is Lev 26:16, “Sow your seed in
vain. However, it more often means “empty”
(Isa 30:7). It is used repeatedly to describe the
vanity of human plans and efforts in the face of
God's will (Ps 2:1). In Eccl the word used for
“*vanity, meaninglessness”’ is hebel, not rig.

reqam. Vainly, emptily. This adverb appears
sixteen times in the oT. The initial usage is found
in Gen 31:42, ‘‘Surely now you would have sent
me away emptily.’’ The adverb is also used in the
sense of ‘‘not fulfilled,’* **unsuccessful’’ (II Sam
1:22). ‘‘And the sword of Saul did not return un-
successfully.’° Two specialized meanings are also
developed, “‘without family” (Ruth 1:21), *“'I
went away full and the Lord has brought me back
empty’: and “without reason” (Ps 7:5), “‘If I
have repaid my friend with evil, or plundered my
enemy without reason.’ The sense ‘‘in vain” (Jer
50:9) is rare, being left more to hinnam (q.v.), the
meaning ‘‘without cause * is found only twice (Ps
7:4 [H 5S] and 25:3).

W.W.

Be (réqam). See no. 216lc.

2162 3°" (rir) flow (like slime; Lev 15:3).

Derivative
2162a "3°95 (rir) slime juice, spittle (I Sam
21:14).
wen (rish), WI (résh). See nos.
2138a,b.

mM 36(rak), 3% (rok). See nos. 2164a,b.

2161 *9°" (rig) make empty, empty out (Hiphil

only). 2163 3359 (rakab) mount and ride, ride.

846

Derivatives

2163a 35% (rekeb) chariot, chariotry.
2163b tmBa" (rikba) act of riding.
2163c 339 (rakkab) driver, charioteer.
2163d +3395") (r°kib) chariot.

2163e 32% (merkab) chariot.

2163f tR329% (merkabd) chariot.

rkb is a widely used verbal root cognate to both
Uganitic rkb and Akkadian rakdbu from which
the Hebrew may have derived the term. rdkab
appears seventy-five times in the oT, in both the
Qal and Hiphil stems.

The initial occurrence of the verb is found in
Gen 24:61, ‘‘And they (women) rode upon the
camels.’’ However, the verb is also used for rid-
ing upon asses (I Sam 25:42), mules (II Sam
13:29), and chariots (I Kgs 18:45). The term is
not used of horses until the later prophetical
books (Zech 1:8) because apparently they were
not used for riding in Israel until late into the
commonwealth period. There ts little difference
in meaning involved with the usage of the Hiphil
stem (Gen 41:43; Deut 32:13, et al.). There has
been some interest in the possible parallel usage
of rdkab in the sense of ‘‘riding on a cloud’’ or
‘‘riding on the clouds’’ (Isa 19:1), ‘‘Behold, the
Lord rides upon a swift cloud.’’ Cf. Ps 104:3
and certain passages from the Ugaritic poetic
mythology where Ba’al is titled rkb ‘rpt, ‘*Rider
of the clouds (UT 19: no. 1924).’’ Careful com-
parison of the two usages will demonstrate that
although similar literary allusions are employed
no dependency can be established.

rekeb. Chariot. A masculine noun, the com-
mon term for a horsedrawn vehicle used for war-
fare and royal travel. It appears over 120 times in
the ot. Archeological evidence suggests Meso-
potamia as the origin of the chariot, and it is
highly possible that the term rekeb also ongi-
nated in Mesopotamia. The verbal root of rekeb
is rdkab, which is cognate to Akkadian rakdbu.
The participial form of the Akkadian verb, nar-
kabtu is the most common term for chariot. The
Hebrew form of that word is merkdba. So then,
both Hebrew terms are derived from the same
root. The chariots mentioned in the Pentateuch in
the Joseph narratives (Gen 41:13; 46:29; 50:9) are
all Egyptian in ongin. It appears that the Hyksos
introduced chariot warfare into Syna and Egypt
about 1600 B.c. The great destruction of Egyptian
chariots at the Red Sea (Ex 14:9, 17-18, 23, 26;
15:19) is accounted as a signal act of God's salva-
tion. When Joshua led the Israelites through Ca-
naan they fought a powerful chariot force at
Hazor (Josh 11:4). The Israelites kept largely to
the hill country and away from the great royal
highway along the sea coast, due in great mea-
sure to their lack of chariots. Naphtali and Zebu-

847

2163 355 (rakab)

lun defeated Sisera and his nine hundred chariots
near Mount Tabor (Jud 4:3). There is no doubt
that it was David who introduced chariot forces
to the armies of Israel (IJ Sam 8:4: I Chr 18:14).
The chariot, rekeb, is used as a symbol of God's
majesty and judgment (Ps 68:17 [H 18]). One of
the uses of the term is in the descriptions of the
fiery chariots which bore Elijah (II Kgs 2:1) and
protected Elisha (If Kgs 6:17). Elisha is com-
pared in his prophetic strength to “‘Israel’s
chanots and horsemen” (II Kgs 13:14). The
word, rekeb is also used of the upper millstone
probably in some sense that it was pulled by
horses (Deut 24:6; Jud 9:53: If Sam 11:21), or
possibly that it was the “‘nder,”* really rokéb.

{In Hebrew often a collective noun has a corre-
sponding feminine form used for individual
items—the nomen unitatis. In line with this,
rekeb more usually ts collective ‘‘chariotry,’ the
feminine noun merkaba is more usually the indi-
vidual chariot. R.L.H.]}

rikba. Riding. A very rare and poetic noun,
rikba appears only tn Ezk 27:20, *‘Dedan traded
with you in saddle blankets for riding.”

rakkab. Driver, charioteer. This masculine
noun is a technical term, semantically equivalent
to its Akkadian cognate rdkibu. It appears twice
only, in | Kgs 22:34, *‘Therefore he said to his
chanoteer’’; and in IJ Chr 18:33, the parallel pas-
sage. Some authorities locate this noun in II Kgs
9:17, ‘‘Summon a charioteer to go and meet
them.’* However none of the versions accept this
reading, all translate **mder.”

rkab. Chariot. A rare noun found only in Ps
104:3, ‘‘Who makes the clouds your chariot.”
This expression also occurs in Ugaritic religious
poetry, although there 1s no necessary connec-
tion between the Hebrew and Canaanite usage,
the rarity of this form of the common word for
chariot suggests that it is an expression limited to
the needs of poetry.

merkaba. Chariot. This is a loan word from
Ugaritic, which in turn is an Egyptianized form of
the regular Akkadian participle narkabtu, liter-
ally, ‘‘a conveyance’ or *‘chariot.”” While all of
the Pentateuchal references are to foreign nations
and their chariots (Gen 41:43: Ex 14:25 et al.) the
historical references in the later books are to
chariots bought or bartered for use in Israel.
They were a royal province (I Kgs 12:18; 20:33;
22:35 et al.). They were used as symbols of royal
prestige (1 Sam 8:11) and in rituals to pagan
deities (II Kgs 23:11). This root was also used as
a place name (Josh 19:5; part of the land allotted
to Simeon; I Chr 4:31), **Beth-mercaboth”’ or the
‘*House of chariots.”

Bibliography: Rainey, A. F., “The Military

2164 395 (rakak)

Personnel of Ugarit,° JNES 24:17-27. THAT, I,
pp. 777-80.
W.W.

3395 (r° kab). See no. 2163d.
wan (r°kish). See no. 2167b.
2795 (rakil). See no. 2165b.

2164 355 (rakak) be tender, soft.
Derivatives

2164a ts3 (rak) tender, soft, delicate.

21646 035) «(rdk) tenderness, delicacy
(Deut 28:56).

2164c 809390 «(morek)
26:36).

A word found also in Ugantic rk, rdkak ap-
pears six times in the Qal stem. The initial occur-
rence is found in Deut 20:3, ‘‘Do not weaken,”
KJV, ‘let not your hearts be faint.’’ The confusion
among the versions has resulted in at least four
different terms being used: *"be softer’* (Ps 55:21
(H 22]): “*be tender’ (II Chr 13:7); ‘‘faint’’ (Isa
7:4): “‘mollified’’ (Isa 1:6 in the Pual form), all of
which actually detract from the precise meaning
of the text. The Hiphil stem appears once (Job
23:16), *‘God has made my heart weak.” It is an
unusual term but not foreign to the experience of
all human life. The psychological notion of
‘‘weak resolve,’ which is the basic and underly-
ing meaning ts easily understood in all of the con-
texts in which it occurs.

weakness (Lev

rak. Tender, soft, weak. This adjective ts
found sixteen times throughout the or. The initial
usage is in Gen 18:7, *‘Abraham ran to the herd
and took a good and tender calf.’ It is also used
in a derogatory sense in Gen 29:17, **Leah’s eyes
were weak." This also applies to the character of
individuals (Deut 28:54, of a man: Deut 28:56, of
a woman) and of maidens in Isa 47:1, ‘‘O daugh-
ter of the Chaldeans, you shall no longer be called
tender and delicate."’ rak is also applied to the
speech in the sense of “‘soft words,” **Will he
make many supplications to you, or will he speak
soft words to you’ (Job 40:27).

W.W.

2165 955 (rakal) go about (in trading, etc.).

Derivatives

216Sa oo mMPaD (rr kalla) traffic (Ezk 28:5,
16, 18), merchandise (Ezk 26:12).

2165b +9959 «(rdkil) slanderer.

2165c =A? 3D9%9 «(markodlet) market place
(Ezk 27:24).

The participle rodél, used as a substantive, is
found in later Hebrew only and probably derives
from a foreign term for ‘‘merchant.’’ It appears

848

2167 Won (rdkash)

2168 M3 (rama)

primanly in Ezk 27 as the description of Tyre in
the lamentation over that city (Ezk 27:3, 12-13,
15, 17, 20, 22, 23 ([twice], 24, also in 17:14). It is
found in only three other passages (I Kgs 10:15;
Song 3:6; Neh 3:31).

rakil. Slanderer. This obscure masculine noun
is used only six times in the ot. The initial occur-
rence is in Lev 19:16, *‘Thou shalt not go up and
down as a slanderer among thy people.’’ The
other usages are in Jer 6:28, 9:4 [H 3]: Ezk 22:9;
Prov 11:13a; 20:19a. The meaning is invariant in
all occurrences. The translation *‘talebearer™
found in some cases in the ksv and ‘“‘gossip”” in
some versions is too light as the contexts show.

W.W.

2166 BOS (rakas) bind (Ex 28:28; 39:21).

Derivatives

21664 O25 (rekes) roughness, or bound
up, impeded, i.e. the impassable, or
mountain chain (Isa 40:4). Mean-
ing doubtful.

2166b 82% (rdkes) band, league.

collect,
(e.g. Gen 31:18; 36:6).

gather property

Derivatives
2167a wan (rekesh) steeds (Mic 1:13; I
Kgs 5:8).
2167b twissa (r°kush) property.
r*kish. Property, goods, supplies. A noun de-

veloped from rdkash, cognate to Akkadian
rakasu/ruksu, but semantic relationship is not
clear. The word r‘kush appears twenty-nine times
in the oT and means the goods owned by an indi-
vidual, not necessarily wages or what is owed. It
is most similar to English, **worth’’ or *‘estate.”
The root appears only in Gen, Num, I-II Chr,
Dan, and Ezr. It covers a wide vanety of prop-
erty including: movable possessions of all kinds
(Gen 14:16, 21); cattle and other domestic ani-
mals (Gen 31:18); movable property besides cat-
tle (Gen 46:6); supplies and stores (Dan 11:13,
KJV, ‘‘much riches,’ rsv “‘abundant supplies’’);
baggage and impediments are included. One spe-
cial meaning is the “‘spoil”’ or “*booty”’ of war (II
Chr 20:25; 21:14, 17; Dan 11:24, 28.) Although
the root certainly includes weapons and armor it
does not do so primarily or exclusively. The ot
points up the fact that both the supply and depn-
vation of r’kausha is at the will and pleasure of
God.

W.W.

I, cast, shoot (Ex 15:1, 10;
Jer 4:29).

2169 *men (rama) II, beguile, deceive, mislead.
Derivatives

2169a tmNO" (r°miyd) slackening, deceit.

2169b tha (mirmad) deceit, treachery.

2169c mMa9m (torma) treachery (Jud
9:31).

2169d tmvesn (tarmit) deceitfulness.

This root is philologically though not semanti-
cally cognate to Akkadian rami. It appears eight
times in the oT, always in the Piel stem. The ini-
tial usage of the verb (Gen 29:25) is read ‘*where-
fore then hast thou beguiled me”’ by the versions,
KJV, JPS, RSV, *‘Why then have you deceived me”
is preferred. The translation ‘deceive’ fits well
the use of rdmd in most occurrences (Josh 9:22; I
Sam 19:17; 28:12; I] Sam 19:27; Prov 26:19; Lam
1:19). However in one passage the meaning is
somewhat more difficult. In I Chr 12:17, David
addresses the volunteers from Benjamin and
Judah, “If you have come to betray me,” the
root rdma with the Hebrew prepositional prefix
‘*Je-’’ is translated by all authorities as ‘*betray.”’
Although this is the single case in the whole oT it
seems to be quite correct.

r‘miya. Slackening, looseness, sloth, deceit,
fraud. There is acenturies-old controversy as to
which of the variety of meanings is associated
with which verbal root, and whether or not more
than one verbal root is involved. BDB dif-
ferentiates three separate roots for rama, KB and
the rabbinical scholars differentiate two. KB is
correct on the basis of the original Akkadian cog-
nates. r°miyad ‘‘slackening,’’ ‘‘looseness.”’
‘‘Sloth”’ is found in Jer 48:10; Hos 7:16; Ps 78:57;
Prov 10:4; 12:24, 27; 19:15. **Sloth casts into a
deep sleep’’ (Prov 19:15) derives from the rdma
which is cognate to Akkadian rami, with ‘‘u”’
vowel meaning “‘to loose.’ r°®miyad “‘deceit,”’
‘“fraud’’ is found in Job 13:7; 27:4; Ps 32:2; 52:4;
120:2-3; Mic 6:12. *‘ Your inhabitants speak lies,
and their tongue ts deceitful in their mouths,”
(Mic 6:12) is better taken from rdmé ‘‘beguile”’
which is cognate to Akkadian ramaé, with “i”
vowel meaning ‘‘to throw.’ (Although KB de-
rives both nouns from the rdmda meaning ‘‘to
loose''—we believe by mistake. There is no
psychological connection or semantic relation-
ship between the meanings of the two r‘ miya
forms—they simply became confused by reason
of their identical sound and spelling.

mirma. Deceit, treachery. This participle oc-
curs nearly forty times in the ot with the most
frequent usage in Ps. It initially appears in Gen
27:35, describing the swindle perpetrated on
Esau by Jacob. It is used particularly of treacher-
ous or deceitful speech (Gen 34:13; Ps 10:7; 17:1;
24:4 et al.). mirma is also used of false weighted

849

2171 395 (rimmoén)

scales which are said to be ‘falsifying the scales
with deceit’’ (Amos 8:5). An interesting usage is
found in Jer 9:6, ‘‘Heaping oppression upon op-
pression, and deceit upon deceit.”’ The ot makes
clear that deceitful speech is one of the most
heinous offenses against God. The repetition of
the root in Ps in assurances that the prayer and
praise of the nghteous is without deceit, rein-
forces the importance of truth toward the Lord.

tarmit. Deceitfulness. This feminine noun
bears the abstract meaning of deceitfulness. The
word occurs five times in the ot (Ps 119:118; Jer
8:5; 14:14: and 23:26 where it is the reading of the
Qere; Zeph 3:13), ‘‘Neither shall a tongue of
deceitfulness be found in their mouth’’ (Zeph
3:13).

W.W.

maa (rimma). See no. 2175a.
moa (rama). See nos. 2033d, 2168, 2169.

2170 39 (rimmén)_ I, pomegranate.

This is a term of unknown but very ancient
origin, cognate to Akkadian armannu, an aroma-
tic tree and fruit, possibly the apncot. The
pomegranate is mentioned throughout the oT
both as an actual fruit (Num 13:23), one of the
samples brought back by the twelve spies who
went into Canaan, and also as an architectural
and decorative motif (Ex 28:34; Jer 52:22 et al.).
The frequent mention of the root rimmon in Song
of Solomon (4:3, 6, 7, 13; 6:11; 7:13; 8:2) has led
to speculation as to its use in love potions, etc.
Although this practice is widely attested from
Egypt and Mesopotamia, there is no evidence for
it among the Israelites.

W.W.

2171 385) (rimmén) II, Rimmon.

The name of a Syrian deity known to the
Babylonians as Ram4nu, apparently a minor
weather god or storm deity. The name appears
only in II Kgs 5:18 in connection with the story of
Naaman, the Aramaean. The interchange of at-
tributes and divine names among the ancient near
eastern cults is almost impossible to trace. This is
especially true since many divine names were
local or topical designations. There are a number
of place names ‘‘Rimmon’’ in the ot. The fact is
that when these towns were taken In conquest the
local idols and cults were added to the pantheon
of the invading culture. The name Rimmon ap-
pears in a number of theophoric names of Syrian
kings—Tabrimmon, ‘‘Rimmon is good,’ and
Hadadrimmon, “‘Rimmon will attack.’’ {Or a
combination of the two deities Hadad and Rim-
mon. R.L.H.] Although the name appears from a

2172 man (rémah).

2172 man (romah)

few obscure texts from the Hellenistic age, noth-
ing else is known.
W.W.
mina (ramit). See no. 2133e.
spear, lance (e.g. Jud 5:8;
Num 28:7). Derivation uncertain.

moa (rmivad). See no. 2169a.

2173 329 ~(rammak) mare (Est 8:10). Mean-
ing dubious.

2174 gms (rdmom) I, be exalted (e.g. Job
24:4; Ezk 10:15). A by-form of ram.

2175 aan (ramam) II, be rotten, breed mag-
gots. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun
2175a tm «(rimma) maggot.

The verbal root is philologically, although not
semantically cognate to Akkadian ramamu. The
root rdmam appears only once in the ort, in the
special provision of manna for the Israelites dur-
ing the Exodus (16:20), kjv, ‘it bred worms,”’
followed by all other versions.

rimma. Maggot, worm of decay. This word oc-
curs seven times in the oT, always in contexts
describing decay (Ex 16:24) in food, or in the
body (Job 7:5; Isa 14:11). The root appears also in
Job (17:14; 21:26: 24:20) and in a special meta-
phorical usage, 25:6, where rimmda appears as the
**A’’ word in a very clear parallel phrase, *‘How
much less (pure) is man, that is a maggot
(rimma). and the son of man that is a worm.”’

W.W.
2176 Br" (rdmas) trample.
Derivative

2176a = =das —(mirmas) trampling place,

trampling (e.g. Mic 7:10; Ezk
34:19).

This purely Hebrew verbal root occurs in the
historical and prophetic books, but not in the
Pentateuch. rdmas appears eighteen times in the
oT. It refers to the trampling down with the feet of
a number of objects. The initial occurrence is
found in II Kgs 7:12, **And the people trod upon
him.’ The term also describes the trampling of:
animals (Ps 91:13), **the young lion and the ser-
pent you will trample under foot’’; plants (II Kgs
14:9), ‘°a wild beast of Lebanon passed by and
trampled down the thistle’’: grapes (lsa 63:3), °"I
have trodden the wine press alone—I trampled
them in my fury’’; the potter's clay (Isa 41:25),

850

‘*he shall trample on rulers as on mortar, as the
potter treads clay.’’ In both of these passages in
Isa the emphasis is on God's judgment of wick-
edness and triumph over it. It is a strong figure. It
is also used of the Psalmist’s life (Ps 7:5 [H 6)),
‘*Let him trample my life to the ground.’’ In
another passage (Dan 8:10) the prophet sees the
horn which grows until “it grew great, even to
the stars of heaven; and some of the host of the
Stars it cast down to the ground and trampled
upon them.”’ The root is used once in the Niphal
stem (Isa 28:3), **The crown of pride of the drun-
kards of Ephraim shall be trampled under foot."

W.W.

2177 wr (rdmas) creep, walk on all fours.

Derivative
2177a twrn (remes) creeping organism.

The Hebrew verb which describes the locomo-
tion of small animals, especially reptiles. It ap-
pears primarily in the account of creation (Gen
1:21, 26, 28, 30; 7:8, 14, 21; 8:12, 19; 9:2) and in
the prohibitions against unclean foods (Lev
11:44, 46: 20:25) and other such catalogues of
beasts (Deut 4:18). It appears in two poetic pas-
sages (Ps 69:35; 104:20) and one prophetic pas-
sage (Ezk 38:20), ‘All the creeping things that
creep on the ground.”’

remes. Creeping organisms. This masculine
noun is one of the Hebrew classifiers of living
creatures. It is apparently related to the Arabic
ramasa, and to the Akkadian noun namashtu
‘‘creeping things.’’ remes is used sixteen times in
the ot, of which nine occurrences are in the crea-
tion account (Gen 1:24, 25, 26; 6:7, 20; 7:14, 23;
8:19; 9:3), and the account of the flood. The root
encompasses all smaller animals but seems to
exclude the large grazing animals, whales, birds,
and insects. The root is used of sea creatures (Ps
104:25), “There, the sea, great and wide, in
which are living creatures (remes) innumerable.’’
The most interesting limitation of the term is that
given in one of the few prose passages in which
remes appears (I Kgs 5:13). The wisdom of Sol-
omon is described, *‘And he spake of trees, from
the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop that grows
out of the wall; he spoke also of animals, and of
birds, and of creeping organisms (remes) and also
of fishes." Another slightly variant differentia-
tion appears in Ezk 38:20, *‘The fish of the sea,
and the birds of the air, and the animals of the
field, and all creeping things that creep upon the
ground.’’ On the basis of these latter two usages

‘It appears that remes means not only small

mammals such as rodents but the small reptiles
common in the gravel and rocks of Palestine.
They are included in the collective statements as
a small part of God’s creation [This root overlaps

the root sh@ras *““swarm”’ with its noun sheres
(q.v.) which kJv also translates ‘‘creeping
things.’ But whereas remes is used extensively
in the Genesis accounts and not in the catalog of
unclean things in Lev 11 (except for the verb
ramas twice), sheres is used sparingly in Gen and
twelve times out of the total fifteen times in Lev.
Apparently the verb r€mas emphasizes the scur-
rying of smaller four-footed mammals, whereas
sharas emphasizes the teeming multiplication of
some aquatic creatures and insects. The usage of
sheres in Lev 11 clearly includes insects (“going
on all fours.’* kjv refers perhaps to the front four
legs of insects not counting the springing hind
legs) vv. 20-23; small crawling creatures (mouse,
lizard, snail, etc.,) vv. 29-31; things that glide or
have many legs (snakes, spiders, caterpillars,
etc.) vv. 41-44. All these small creatures multiply
rapidly and as a class are scavengers, parasites,
or are otherwise inedible. For a rationale of these
laws of diet, cf. R. L. Harris, Man—God's Eter-
nal Creation. R.L.H.|

W.W.

%5 (ron). See no. 2179a.

2178. m5 (rand) rattle (Job 39:23).

m33 (rinnd). See no. 2179c.

2179 4339 (ranan) cry out, shout for joy.

Derivatives

2179a 363% «(rén) ringing cry (Ps 32:7).

21796 = tM235 (r'nanad) ringing cry.
2179c =tm3IN (rinnd) ringing cry.
2179d =I (r’nadnim) birds of piercing

cries (Job 39:13).

rdnan ts a primary Hebrew root, not developed
in the other Semitic languages, passing into me-
dieval Judeo-Arabic. The root and its verbal noun
appear over fifty times in the or. The most fre-
quent occurrences are in Isa and Ps, generally in
poetic passages.

The initial use of rdnan is in Lev 9:24 where
the shout of jubilation is connected with a di-
vinely appointed sacrifice. This usage of the term
to describe the joy of Israel at God’s saving acts
is carned on throughout the oT. In all of the four-
teen occurrences of rdénan in Isaiah, it is the con-
notation of holy joy which is being celebrated by
Israel's shouting (Isa 12:6). The cessation of such
emotion is portrayed as one of the grimmest as-
pects of Moab’s fall. There is little variation in
meaning as the root appears in several different
stems. The overwhelming respect of the verb is
toward God. The one particularly difficult occur-
rence is found in Lam 2:19 where the specific
form is similar to three other passages (Isa 54:1:

851

2181 DO5 (rasas)

Zeph 3:14; Zech 2:14). The Lam context has in
view the tribulation and desolation and the pro-
phet exhorts the daughter of the city to ‘‘cry
out.’ However in all other passages it is to praise
God that the root rdnan is used. Here it is to
supplicate, not to jubilate, that the cry is raised.
The unifying factor in this and all other usages is
the fact that it is to God that the cry ts raised. In
Ps the root is developed to its fullest. rdnan ap-
pears in parallel poetry with nearly every term for
‘oy,’ “‘rejoicing’’ and “‘praise’*’ but not clearly
in any strict grammatical relationships. [It also
occurs a few times in parallel with shir **sing”’
(Ps 59:16 [H 17]) and zadmar *“‘sing”’ (Ps 98:4).
The jubilation which is the main thrust of the root
is elsewhere also in a context of music (II Chr
20:22, cf. v. 21), and singing may well be indi-
cated. In many cases the jubilation could equally
well be expressed in shouting or song—either
would suit the context. The k)v translates by
‘sing’ half the time. In any case, Israel's song
would have been somewhat different from ours
and perhaps more similar to jubilant shouting.
R.L.H.] Generally, rdnan is the *‘A”™ or initial
term in most parallel pairs of terms. The frequent
employment of the term indicates decisively that
the highest mood of oT religion was joy.

r‘nana. Cry of joy. This noun appears in only
four poetic passages (Ps 63:6; 100:2; Job 3:7;
20:5), “*The joyful cry of the wicked is short.”

rinna. Ringing cry, of joy or sorrow. This is
very likely a later development from the root
ranan which occurs in the Pentateuch where this
word, rinnd, is absent. Like the older form, rinna
may mean both cry of joy (Isa 14:7), **They break
out in cries of joy’’; and cries of lamentation (I
Kgs 8:28), °° Yet have regard to the prayer of thy
servant and to his cry of sorrow.” The root oc-
curs most frequently in the poetic context of the
psalms.

Bibliography: Wagner, Norman E., *'735 in
the Psalter,” VT 10:435-41. THAT, II, pp. 781-
85.

W.W.

See no. 2179d.
See nos. 218la, 2182a.

B35 (ro ndanim).
BD’ «(rasis) III.

2180 32" (rsn). Assumed root of the following.
2180a 109 (resen) halter (Isa 39:28), jaw
(Job 41:5).
2181 dD 9 (rdsas) I, moisten (Ezk 46:14).
Derivative
218la oD (rasis) I, drop of dew (Song

32):

2182 BBM (rss)

2182 ob. (rss) IL. Assumed root of the follow- Nayn (rabon). See no. 2183c.
ing.

2182a ops (rasis) H, fragment (Amos 2184 “ws (rd'ad) tremble.

6:11).

ys (ré'a). See nos. 2135a, 2186a, 2187a.
ys (ra‘), Ys (roa‘). See nos. 219la,b.

2183 syn (ra’éb) be hungry, voracious.
Derivatives

2183a tay (ra'ab) hunger, famine.

2183b «3p (ra'éb) ~=hungry.

2183c iap9 (r'abon) hunger (Gen
42:19, 33; Ps 37:19).

This is a Ugaritic root, rgb, which occurs in its
Hebrew form nineteen times in the ot. A few of
those occurrences may be ascribed to the adjec-
tival form, this being a stative verb in which the
third person masculine and the perfect participle
are like the adjective. It is used in reference to
human hunger in all instances and appears in sev-
eral stems. In one passage (Deut 8:3) God 1s
stated to be sovereign over hunger and in a mag-
nificent parallel poetic statement (Prov 10:3) God
iS praised as the provider for the hungry, who
upholds the righteous and their offspring. In Prov
19:15, hunger is seen as the result of sloth.

ra‘ab. Hunger, famine. This standard word
for hunger occurs over one hundred times in the
oT. The greatest number of usages are in Gen
41-47, the story of Joseph and the famine, and in
Jer in chapters dealing with the coming desola-
tion of Jerusalem and other cities. In many pas-
sages it is made clear that abundance and famine
are both under the providence of God (Ps 33:19),
‘‘That he may deliver their soul from death, and
keep them alive in famine.”

In ancient days, with food distnbution and
food preservation very limited, famine meant se-
vere hardship or starvation for many. It is there-
fore repeatedly classed by Jeremiah with sword
and pestilence as one of the three great judgments
of God (e.g. Jer 29:17). Ezekiel sometimes adds a
fourth, fierce beasts (Ezk 14:21). The most fa-
mous famine in Israel was that caused by the
three seasons without rain in Elijah’s day. Not
until the famine was severe did the nation admit
that it was the judgment of God rather than *’very
unusual weather.’ The greatest famine, accord-
ing to Amos 8:11 will be the **famine of hearing
the words of the Lord.”

r“abon. Hunger. This abstract masculine
noun occurs three times in the ot (Gen 42:19; 23;
Ps 37:19), *-And in the days of hunger they shall
be satisfied."
Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp. 14-17.
W.W.

852

Derivatives

2184a “Wr (ra‘ad) trembling (in fear,
Ex 15:15; Ps 55:5 [H 6]).

2184b | T3M" (r’‘ddda) trembling,
fear (Job 4:14; Ps 48:6 [H 7]).

rd'ad and its derivatives occur only nine times.
Cognate evidence and contexts both support
meanings such as “tremble” or ‘‘fear."* The Qal
describes the earth's trembling before God (Ps
104:32). The Hiphil, without any clear causative
meaning, describes trembling under threat of
God's judgment (Ezr 10:9) and Daniel's trembling

before a vision (Dan 10:11).
W.W.

2185 myn (ra‘a) I, pasture, tend, graze.

Derivatives

2185a "YN (r°'i) ~pasture (1 Kgs 5:3).
21856 YW (mir'eh) pasture, pasturage
(e.g. Isa 34:14; Ezk 34:18).
2185c =P (mar'it) pasturing (Jer
23:1), pasturage (Hos 13:6).

The root rad‘d is cognate to Akkadian re’, a
very ancient word, used as an honorific title in
royal names and inscriptions from the time of Sar-
gon of Akkad (c. 2300 B.c.). A cognate, r‘/, is an
important root in Ugaritic. Cognates are also
found in Aramaic, Phoenician, and other Semitic
languages. rd'd occurs over 160 times in the or,
the participial form rd‘eh *“*shepherd’’ occurring
over 60 times. It is the primary term for *‘feeding”’
domestic animals. Since the most common occu-
pation in Palestine from greatest antiquity was
shepherding, the term ts basic to the description of
the people of the country in all historical periods.
The initial occurrence (Gen 29:7) is translated
*‘feed’’ by all the versions, however the very next
occurrence (29:9) is read “*kept’’ by Ksv and Rsv,
but *‘tended”* by )ps. The actual meaning is **pas-
tured’ or ‘herded.’ There is a degree of confu-
sion among the versions over the translation of
this root: Gen 37:2; Job 1:14, kv ‘‘feeding,’* RSV
reads ‘‘pasturing’’ (Gen 37:2), “‘feeding’’ (Job
1:14). There are many other confused passages
such as: kjv “he fed’’ (Ps 37:3): *‘devour’’ (Ps
80:13 [H 14]): “‘eat’’ (Ezk 34:19) and in the same
verse “‘eat up, ‘keep’ (I Sam 16:11; 17:34:
25:16): “*wander’’ (Num 14:33) **waste’* (Mic 5:6
[H 5}). The root is used to describe the tending of
sheep (Gen 30:36), asses (Gen 36:24), cattle (Gen
41:2), and gazelle fawns (Song 4:5).

It is used metaphorically for a variety of de-
scriptions. Among them are: the tranquility of two
animals, normally pursuer and prey, grazing to-

gether: bear and cow (Isa 11:7); wolf and lamb (Isa
65:25). The root rd‘a also appears in philosophical
and theological metaphors as (Prov 15:14) **the
mouths of fools feed on folly’; (Isa 44:20) “‘he
feeds on ashes.’ Invading armies pictured as a
horde of beasts or insects are said to ‘‘feed’’ in the
sense of *‘devour’’ conquered towns (Mic 5:6 [H
5]). From very ancient antiquity, rulers were de-
scribed as demonstrating their legitimacy to rule
by their ability to “‘pasture’’ their people. Ham-
murabi and many other rulers of ancient western
Asia are called ‘‘shepherd”’ or described as **pas-
turing’ their subjects. In the or, however, it is the
Lord who feeds his people and is praised for his
mercy in providing for them (Gen 48:15; Ps 23:1;
28:9; Isa 40:11; Hos 4:16 et al). This attribute of
God ts one of the marks of the offices of prophets,
priest, and king. David's claim to the throne is
based upon God’s command that he feed the
people (II Sam 5:2). Failure of the officers of Israel
to feed the people either physical or spiritual
nourishment was deemed a severe transgression
(Ezk 24:2ff.) In this chapter the prophet plays
repeatedly on the two forms of the root, ra‘da, the
verb meaning “‘to pasture’* and the noun meaning
the ‘‘pastor’’ or shepherd. The true repetition of
the ideas is lost in all the versions by supplying
synonyms where the Hebrew uses the same term
throughout. The or theological idea of the good
shepherd who feeds his flock with God's truth (Jer
3:15 etc.) becomes prominent in the nt (Jn 10:11).
Bibliography: Thomson, J.G.S.S.. ‘‘The
Shepherd—Ruler Concept in the OT and its Appli-
cation in the NT,’ SJT 8:406-18. THAT, II, pp.

791-93.
W.W.

2186 MY (ra'ad) II, associate with, be a friend
of. Used in the Qal and Hithpael and as a
denominative verb in the Piel—a total of
seven times.

Derivatives
2186a tyn (réa‘) I, friend, companion, an-
other person.
2186b «=a «(ré'eh) friend, sometimes tech-
nical Friend of the King.”’
2186c =e (ré'a) ~female companion.
2186d MY (ra'ya) attendant maidens,
especially in Song 1:9 etc.
2186e 3 msps (rar) I, female companion,
mate (of birds).
2186f ys (méréa') confidential friend.
réa‘. Friend, companion, another person. Of all

these words, the most common is réa‘, friend
(used 187 times). The others may have special
usages that are not too clear to us.

The word réa‘ is used for friend, neighbor,
associate—close or occasional. Often it is used in

2189 BY (ra‘am)

the phrase, one to another. It is used of the He-
brew companion slain by a fellow slave in Ex 2:13:
of a man murdered by his fellow in Ex 21:14; of the
soldier who heard the dream of a fellow soldier in
the Gideon story (Jud 7:13); and of Job's three
friends (!). It thus can be used of chance acquain-
tances and partners, but also of closer friends.
Hirah the Adullamite was Judah's friend (Gen
38:12). The word is not used for David and
Jonathan's friendship. The breadth of usage of this
word shows that when Christ quoted Lev 19:18,
‘Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself,’ the
lawyer need not have asked his famous question.
The preceding verse in Lev is not so famous, but
shows that the oT law was aimed at the heart as
well as the action, “‘Thou shalt not hate thy
brother in thine heart.’
Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp. 312-15. THAT,
II, pp. 786-90.
R.L.H.

2187 mys (rh) III. Assumed root of the
following. Apparently a synonym of rasa
(q.v.) borrowed from the Aramaic ra‘da.
2187a =ys (réa’) Il, purpose, aim (Ps
139:2, 17).
mys (rat) Hf, longing, striving
(Eccl 1:14; 2:11, 17, 26: 4:4, 6; 6:9).

2187b

2187c =o NYS) (ra’vén) longing (Eccl 1:17:
4:16; 2:220.
mya (rad). See no. 219Ic.
mys (r’'at). See nos. 2186e, 2187b.
sya (ri). See no. 2185a.
mys (ra‘ya). See no. 2186d.

NY (ra'yén). See no. 2187c.

2188 *9ys (rd‘al) quiver, shake, reel. This
verb occurs only once, in the Hophal (Nah
2:4).
Derivatives
2188a %ys (ra‘al) reeling (Zech 12:2).
2188b «MBps (r''ala) veil (Isa 3:19).
2188c =om2ynm (far'éla) reeling (Isa
51:17, 22; Ps 60:5).
2189 BYS (rad'am) to thunder. Denominative
verb.
Parent Noun
2189a toys (ra‘am) thunder.
2189b «Mays (ra'ma) vibration (Job
39:19). Meaning uncertain (NIV

‘‘flowing mane’’).

r‘m has no cognates in the contemporary Semi-
tic languages. The Qal stem occurs three times in
the ot (Ps 96:11; 98:7; I Chr 16:32), *‘Let the sea
thunder” in praise. The Hiphil which means, *‘to

853

2190 *1y5 (ra‘an)

cause to thunder, occurs eight times. In the ini-
tial occurrence (I Sam 2:10), it is God himself
who “thunders” in anger at his enemies. In I Sam
1:6, the description of Peninnah’s vexation of
Hannah because she was childless, rd‘am ap-
pears in the mt. But there was apparently a
stronger verb read by the Aramaic version, **And
her rival troubled her sorely, to make her fret.”
The Aramaic Targum uses a word derived from
‘zeal, jealousy’ (gn’). But “‘fret’’ is to be taken
from rd‘am as figurative of her loud complaints.
In the ot view, God is sovereign over all of the
natural elements so that the great violences of
wind and storm are indicative of his will.

ra‘am. Thunder. This masculine noun appears
six times, all in poetic contexts. It is an attribute
of God's presence (Isa 29:6); the reaction of the
cosmos at God's presence (Ps 77:18 [H 19];
104:7). Job asks concerning the contrast between
God's whisper and his thunder (26:14). The same
notion of the command of God in the thunder is
mentioned by the Psalmist (81:7 [H 7]). Job com-
pares the tumult and shouting of battle to thunder
(39:25). God's voice (qdl, q.v.) is also used,
figuratively, for thunder (Ps 29:3, 4, etc.)

W.W.

2190 *19 (rd'an) be(come) fresh, luxuriant,
green. This verb occurs only once, in the
Palel (Job 15:32).

Derivative

2190a 3225 «(ra'dndn) luxuriant, fresh
(e.g. Song 1:16; Hos 14:9).

WY) (ra‘anan). See no. 2190a.
Denominative

2191 yy (ra‘a‘) I, be bad, evil.
verb.

Parent Noun

219la ty (ra‘) evil, distress; also adjec-
tive, evil, bad.

2191b Ys (réa‘) badness, evil.

2191ic mY (ra'a) evil, misery, distress.

Cognate adjectives of the root r‘‘ occur in Ak-
kadian (raggu ‘bad, evil’) and Phoenician
(Karatepe |. 15 “‘evil men”’; substantive ‘‘all the
evil’ 3. 17). The root also occurs in Ugaritic ac-
cording to AisWUS, no. 2533.

The essential meaning of the root can be seen
in its frequent juxtaposition with the root t6b.
Thus Moses concluded, ‘See I set before you
today life and what is good [16], death and what
is evil/bad [ra‘| (cf. Mic 3:2). Frequently they
occur in the merism that one distinguishes **good
and evil/bad’* (II Sam 14:17; 19:35 [H 36]: I Kgs
3:9; Isa 7:15: cf. here *‘tree of good and evil,”
Gen 2:9, 17).

854

Since the decision that something 1s bad de-
pends subjectively on one’s taste, the root fre-
quently occurs with the formula **in the eyes of.”
Thus Isaiah threatens those whose moral judg-
ments are distorted: *‘Woe to those who call evil
good and good evil.’’ Because the Lord's judg-
ment stands as a moral absolute, however, one
can speak of objective evil, of sin. The formula
‘aSa hara’ b*’éné YHWH “to do evil in the
Lorp’s judgment’ occurs frequently in the oT.

The root can have either a passive or active
connotation: ‘misfortune, calamity,’ and
‘‘wickedness’’ respectively. It can occur in pro-
fane contexts, ‘bad’ “‘repulsive,“° and moral
contexts, ‘‘evil’’ *‘wickedness.

The denominative verb, occurring seventy-five
times with meanings ranging from ‘“‘displeasing,
injurious,’ to be bad or evil [see above] inherits
from its noun a dual meaning of being wrong in
regard to God's original and ongoing intention
and detrimental in terms of its effects on man. In
some instances it may refer only to its injurious
effects on man, either as physical or emotional
harm to the person or as painfully unpleasant ex-
periences. There are practically no philosophical
or metaphysical connotations that bear upon
theodicy or cosmology. The verbal forms of the
root are basically descriptive of the interrelations
between God and man and between man and
man.

rd'a’ designates expenences which entail
physical pain (Num 16:15: I Chr 16:22; Ps
105:15), or emotional pain (Gen 43:6; Num
11:10-11), in the case of Naomi the loss of family
(Ruth 1:21; cf. I Kgs 17:20).

In the moral and religious realm of meaning,
the verb denotes activity that is contrary to God's
will. Bildad alludes to this aspect of meaning in
Job 8:20, and the prophets Isaiah (31:2) and
Zephaniah (1:12) state it more strongly. A phrase
which highlights God’s evaluation of action is *‘in
his sight’* which appears three times in relation to
the verb (Num 22:34; Prov 24:18; Mic 3:4).
Another way is to contrast rd‘a’ activity with
God's good acts (Josh 24:15) or with good people.
The latter uses a participial form and is confined
to the Psalms (26:5; 37:9; 92:11 [H 12]).

The range of activity associated with rd‘a’ be-
gins with rejection of God (Isa 1:4; 9:17; Jer 7:26;
16:12), particularly in the practice of idolatry (1
Kgs 14:9; 16:25; HT Kgs 21:11: Jer 25:6) and once
the destruction of his holy place (Ps 74:3). Abuse
of people and exploitation of their property is
common. This includes causing physical pain
(Num 16:15; Ps 22:16 [H 17]); harsh slavery in
Egypt (Ex 5:22-23; Num 20:15; Deut 26:6), dis-
honesty (Gen 31:7; 44:5; Deut 15:9), demand for
immoral relations (Gen 19:7; Jud 19:23), verbal
abuse (Ps 27:2), and efforts to kill (I Sam 25:34;
26:21; Jer 38:9). In one case it involves a harsh

oath (Lev 5:4) and in another King David’s taking
a census (but see pdyad for possibility that this
was a mustering of the troops—still sinful r.L.H.)
of the people (I Chr 21:17).

The biblical writers take rd‘a’ back into the
inner sources of the acts. The people who do it
lack understanding (Jer 4:22) of the true nature of
their acts, yet go ahead and deliberately plan to
hurt others (Prov 24:8). In fact it becomes a habit
(Jer 13:23). More seriously, it becomes a compul-
sion (Gen 19:9; Prov 4:16; 17:4). Part of their lack
of understanding is their failure to realize till too
late the injury they cause themselves (I Sam
12:25; Ps 44:2 [H 3]; Jer 13:23).

God is the subject of the verb rd‘a‘ in Ps 44:2
{H 3]; Jer 25:29: 31:28; Mic 4:6; Zech 8:14), but
his infliction of pain on people is not due to
viciousness; it is the just judgment of sinners who
do not respond to his call for repentance. In the
Old Testament, God is not depicted as commit-
ting an immoral act when he does rd‘a‘ to the
wicked.

Several times the Psalmist asked God to punish
those who abuse him (64:2 [H 3]; 94:16; 119:115),
but there were efforts made to urge, or even to
challenge Israelites to face up to the way they
ill-treat others (Lev 5:4: Josh 24:15) and to
change their ways. Advice was given on how to
keep from doing ra‘a‘ (I Sam 25:34; Ps 15:4; 37:1,
8; Prov 24:19). Isaiah pointed to the future in
which God promised that rd‘a‘ would not be
practiced in his holy mountain (11:9; 65:25).

ra‘. Bad, evil (noun). The masculine noun ra’
often is set in contrast with 16b (good) as oppo-
site poles of the moral spectrum. Sometimes
shal6m (peace) is given as its opposite. The noun
is further defined as being that condition or action
which in his (God's) sight is unacceptable (Jer
52:2; Mal 2:17; cf. Neh 9:28).

Starting with the purely secular meaning of the
noun, one finds that ra‘ denotes physical injury
(Jer 39:12), or times of distress (Amos 6:3 and the
famous verse, Isa 45:7 ‘I bring prosperity and
create disaster” Niv), but mostly denotes unethi-
cal or immoral activity against other people,
whether by speech (Ps 41:3 [H 6]: 73:8: 109:20),
by practice (Mic 2:1; 7:3), or by offering improper
sacrifices (Mal 1:8).

Twice ra‘ serves as an abstract of an inner
condition (Ps 7:9 [H 10]: Prov 12:21; **wicked-
ness’), but most often it helps depict inner at-
titudes toward either God or man. A person may
plan, desire, love, and rejoice in ra’ (Ps 52:3;
Prov 2:14; 6:14; 12:20), or be apathetic (Ps 36:4;
cf. Prov 28:4). ra’ may be a refusal to respond to
God's call (Neh 9:35) which issues in an all-out
surrender to this activity (II Kgs 21:9; Ii Chr
33:9; Prov 1:16; Isa 59:7).

The person whose way of life is characterized

855

2191 Ys (ra‘a‘)

by ra’ has a bleak future, if he continues in it.
God is against him (Isa 31:2) and has declared
sentence against him (Mic 1:12). Life itself ts
against him (Deut 31:39; Job 2:10; 30:26; Ps 54:5;
140:11-12; Prov 13:17; 14:22; Eccl 8:9).

Left to himself, an evil person has no chance of
survival. But the God who is his judge is also the
one who calls him to change his ways; it must be
a radical action on man’s part (Ps 34:15; 37:27;
Prov 3:7; Amos 5:14-15; Zech 1:4). This is a far
more beneficial method than the legal method
mentioned about ten times in Deut as a “‘ putting
away’’ ( ‘purge’ rsv) of evil. God promises that
man’s turning from ra‘ will lead to a saving event
(Job 5:19; Ps 121:7; Prov 19:23). Assurance is
added to the promise (Ps 10:6; 23:4) that this sal-
vation is an actual experience of ife, which can be
tied to commitment (Ps 119:101; Jer 42:6). And
there is advice on how to keep free from ra‘. A
person is told to keep from it (Prov 6:24: Isa 56:2:
Jer 7:6), which may include a strong attitude of
hating ra‘ (Ps 97:10; Prov 8:13; Amos 5:15).
Above all, do not provoke God with idols (Jer
25:7).

ra‘. Evil, bad (adjective). This form of ra‘ qual-
ifies the nouns to which it is related, indicating
the quality or the injurious activity of the noun.
The noun may designate the lack of quality or the
inferior quality of things or people which are thus
unable to meet standards of value or function
beneficially.

In a secular sense, there are many illustrations
of bad quality. First there were the ill-favored,
lean cattle in Pharaoh's dream (Gen 41:21, 27),
and the water which was unfit to drink (II Kgs
2:19; ‘“‘naught,”’ k)Jv; “‘bad,”’ Rsv), and trade
goods which one claimed was unfit to buy (Prov
20:14 (‘naughty,”’ Kiv; ‘‘bad,’’ rsv). In I] Kgs
4:41 there 1s reference to something (“‘harm,”’
RSV) in the food of a cooking pot that was danger-
ous and which the prophet corrected. The adjec-
tive ra’ may denote vicious beasts (Lev 26:6),
angels which bring distress (Ps 78:49), famine
(Ezk 5:16), diseases (Deut 7:15; 28:35, 59: If Chr
21:19; Job 2:7; Eccl 6:2). The term may refer to
things which seem to function so as to bring dis-
tress, such as messenger reports (Ex 33:4; Neh
6:13) or wonders (Deut 6:22). Events (Eccl 2:17:
9:3) or the times (days) (Gen 47:9; Prov 15:15:
Eccl 4:8) may go awry and be filled with distress.
This adjective may designate displeasure (1 Sam
29:7) or sorrow of heart (Neh 2:1-2: Prov 25:20).

More often ra’ indicates moral deficiencies,
moral qualities that injure oneself or others, or a
condition that is below par. The measure of these
negative qualities is God's evaluation (Prov 15:3)
which is often couched in a phrase ‘‘in the sight
of the Lord”’ which occurs about fifty-five times,
mostly in the historical books. The term is also

2192 YY (ra‘a‘)

defined by being set in contrast to téb “‘good™
about seven times. So people who disobey God
are ra’ (about eleven times) especially if they
provoke God with idolatry (If Kgs 17:11; etc). In
some instances, ra‘ seems to denote the inner
condition of such people (Gen 6:5: Prov 26:23;
Eccl 9:3: Jer 3:17; 7:24). Note the more abstract
nuance of Eccl 9:3. Negative attitudes are labeled
as ra‘, i.e. pride (Job 35:12), resentment (Prov
15:10), resistance (Neh 9:35: cf. Ps 64:5: Ezk
13:22). Violence to others qualifies men’s actions
as ra’ (Deut 17:5; I Sam 2:23; I Kgs 16:7: Ezk
20:44; 30:12).

God's response is not apathetic or whimsical.
On the basis of adequate cause, God threatened
and carried out judgment against people who had
the trait of ra‘ (Ezr 9:13; Job 21:30; Prov 11:21).

But there is a brighter side to the situation. God
also exhorted his people to turn from evil (Deut
13:12; IT Kgs 17:13; If Chr 7:14; Ezk 33:11; 36:31;
Zech 1:4), and declared that the prophets’ main
task was to proclaim this exhortation and turn
people back to God (Jer 23:22). The wise man
gave a promise that the obedient would be free of
ra’ (Eccl 8:5). Here also advice was given on how
to keep free from it (Ps 141:4; Prov 4:14; Eccl
8:3).

ra‘a. Evil, misery, distress, injury, wickedness.
The feminine noun rda‘da functions much like the
masculine adjective, though somewhat more fre-
quently. Often ra‘d is an adjective too, and qual-
ifies its nouns in terms of the negative function,
or condition, and the injurious activity of the
noun. God's own character and attitude mea-
sures the value of things and people (II Kgs 8:12;
Jer 29:11; cf. Jon 4:2, 6). The phrase *‘in the sight
of the Lord’’ appears twice (I Sam 12:17; II Kgs
21:20). God's view deals mostly with moral qual-
ities, but man has his own standards and tends to
evaluate his environment as ra‘a in terms of the
pain he experiences.

In a non-moral sense, things are counted as of
inferior quality on the basis of their condition.
The cows of Pharaoh's dream were inferior (Gen
41:3-4, 19-20), also land (Num 13:19), and the
figs of Jer 24:2-3, 8 were useless for food because
of their condition. Beasts were evaluated in terms
of their danger to human life (seven references),
so also the sword (Ps 144:10). Verbal reports, the
times/days, events of life may be bearers of dis-
tress and so are ra‘a (some thirty-five times). The
term may designate injury done to the body (over
twenty times), or the sorrow one may experience
(a dozen times). The feminine noun has the
capacity to collectively denote the sum of dis-
tressing happenings of life (over twenty times).

This word ra‘a can label men (Num 14:27, 35;
Jer 8:3) or thoughts (Ezk 38:10), but a number of
times it is an abstract for the total of ungodly

856

2192 pps

deeds people do, or a person’s inner condition
which produces such deeds. The term may label a
variety of negative attitudes common to wicked
people, and be extended to include the conse-
quences of that kind of lifestyle.

In Jud 9:23: I Sam 16:14-16, 23: 18:10; 19:9 the
word qualifies the noun, angels, not to indicate
that they were demonic, but that they brought
distress, Or an abnormal condition to the person
affected.

In harmony with the contrast between rd‘a and
16b “good, God acts with painful punishment
against the ra‘ad kind of people (over seventy
times; particularly prominent in Jeremiah). He
also acts with mercy toward those who will re-
spond to his exhortations (Eccl 11:10; Jer ten
times; Jon 3:8), but man must confess (I Sam
12:19; Jer 17:17). On his part, God acts to save
man from rd‘d (Ex 32:14: I Sam 10:19; 25:39) as
he promised (I Kgs 21:29; Prov 1:33; Isa 57:1; Jer
23:17; 36:3; Ezk 34:25). And there was advice to
the believers on how to keep themselves free
from rda‘a (Ex 23:2: I Sam 12:20: Prov 3:29; 22:3:
24:1: 27:12).

roa‘. Badness, evil. The masculine noun réa’
occurs nineteen times in the ot: eleven of these
are in Jeremiah. It refers to the poor quality of the
cows in Pharaoh's dream (Gen 41:19), and of the
figs unfit for food (Jer 24:2-3, 8; 29:17). The noun
denotes the sadness of one's heart (Neh 2:2) or
face (Ecel 7:3). Once it points to negative at-
titudes (I Sam 17:28). Mostly the word denotes an
immoral quality of man’s activity (eleven times).
Bibliography: Buchanan, George Wesley,
‘*The Old Testament Meaning of the Knowledge
of Good and Evil, JBL 75:114-20. Clark, W.
Malcolm, **A Legal Background to the Yahwist’'s
Use of ‘Good and Evil’ in Genesis 2-3, JBL
88:266-78. Eichrodt, Walter, Theology of the Old
Testament, II, Westminster, 1967, pp. 380—495.
Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible, Desclee, 1964.
For ra‘ and synonymous terms referring to sin.
see Girdlestone, R.B., SOT pp. 76-85. Porubcan,
Stefan, Sin in the Old Testament, Rome: Herder,
1963. Quell, G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles
Black, 1951. Richardson, Alan, A Theological
Word Book of the Bible, London: SCM, 1957.
Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London:

Epworth, 1953. THAT, II, pp. 794-802.
G.H.L.

(rd‘a') If, break, shatter.

In the several instances in which this verb is
used in a concrete sense, i.e. broken branches of
an olive tree (Jer 11:16) or earth shattered (Isa
24:19), the effects of God's judgments are de-
picted. In Jer 15:12 the quoted proverb is used to
describe the resistance of the Israelites to the

prophet’s message. In Prov 25:19 the “broken
tooth’’ (ksv; ‘*bad,”* rsv) connotes the poor qual-
ity of a wicked man’s friendship. Elihu uses the
verb more figuratively to show how God
punishes sinners (Job 34:24). A psalmist says al-
most the same thing (Ps 2:9).

The verb is apparently an Aramaic form cog-
nate to the Hebrew rdsas (q.v.). ra‘a’ If is not
used in the Pentateuch. rdsas is used there only
once.

G.H.L.

2193 AYN (ra‘ap)
Isa 45:8).

trickle, drip (e.g. Job 36:28;

2194 yys (ra'as) shatter (Ex 15:6; Jud 10:8).

2195 Wyn (rad‘ash) quake, shake.

Derivative
2195a twp

This primary Hebrew root appears nearly
thirty times in the ot. It does not occur at all in
the Pentateuch, being confined to the prophets
and writings.

The relationship of ra‘ash to Akkadian ra’dasu
‘*to knock down’”’ appears to be mostly specula-
tive. The most common meaning assigned by the
versions is ‘tremble’ although ‘‘quake,”’
‘*shake’’ and *‘move’’ also are found. A variety
of subjects are used with rd‘ash; heaven, earth,
and the Gentile nations are to be shaken by God
(Hag 2:6-7, 21). In other passages the heavens
are to quake (Joel 2:10) and the earth to tremble.
In the **A’’ phrase of the same parallel sequence,
rd‘ash is used in most contexts to describe God's
sovereignty over the physical world. Living crea-
tures are said to quake (Ezk 38:20); horses shake
the ground (Job 39:20) at the will of the Lord. The
other usage of rd‘ash is to describe invading ar-
mies and the din of battle (Jer 8:16); the trembling
of walls (Ezk 26:10). And Babylon itself is to
quake (Isa 14:16). In one poetic passage (Ps
72:16) a much milder action ts involved. rd‘ash
must be taken to mean ‘‘wave’' since it describes
the full heads of grain on the hillsides. However
some scholars would hold that this is another
root, rd‘ash ‘*to increase’’ (cf. KB).

(ra‘ash) quaking, rattling.

ra‘ash. Quaking, rattling. This masculine
noun refers to earthquakes and similar violent
upheavals of the ground. Like the root from
which it is derived, it appears only in the latter
{wo sections of the Hebrew canon, Prophets and
Writings. It is used of the earthquakes which at-
tend the theophanies to ot prophets (I Kgs 19:11)
and earthquakes as natural phenomena (Amos
1:1). It 1s extended to describe the tumult of war-
fare, the marching of soldiers (Isa 9:4); the tram-

857

2196 SBT

2197 “BS (rdpad)

2197 "B5 (rapad)

pling of war horses (Job 39:24); and the rumbling
of war chariots (Jer 47:3). In an_ especially
obscure passage in the parallel poetry of Job, a
different meaning of ra‘ash is apparent. Job is
asking the question, if a man cannot stand before
one of God's more fearsome creatures, the
crocodile, how can he hope to confront God? In
the passage (Job 41:21), the statement is made,
‘‘Clubs are passed off (by the crocodile) as
straws, it laughs at the rattling (ra‘ash) of
spears.’

W.W.

(rapa’) heal, make healthful.

Derivatives

21964) «=ANBS (r’pa'a) remedy (Ezk
30:21; Jer 30:13).

2196b =MINDS (rip’at) healing (Prov 3:8).

2196c NEI (marpé’) healing (Jer 8:15),

health (Prov 4:22).

This is a purely Hebrew root which appears
over sixty times in the ot and is cognate only to a
few later forms in Afro-semitic dialects. The
meaning is straightforward in virtually all pas-
sages. In the initial occurrence (Gen 20:17) in
which God heals Abimelech, the Qal stem ts em-
ployed. The root is also used of human healing,
as a substantive, “‘physician’’ (Gen 50:2). rapa’
is also used of the healing and forgiveness of Gen-
tile nations (Isa 19:22; 57:18). In the Piel and
Hithpael stems the causative aspect is foremost (I
Kgs 18:30), *‘He healed (repaired) the altar.”
However, a human subject is generally the object
of the healing (Ex 21:19), ‘‘He shall cause him to
be thoroughly healed.’ The Hithpael has the pas-
sive mood characteristic of the stem (II Kgs 8:29;
9:15), ‘‘In order that he could be healed.’’ The
other occurrence of the Hithpael is II Chr 22:6.
Possibly the most significant usage is in the Ni-
phal stem (I Sam 6:3), ‘‘Then you shall be
healed”’; (Deut 28:27), ‘of which you cannot be
healed.’ The stem is also used for the restoration
of objects (II Kgs 2:22); the turning of salt water
into fresh (Jer 19:11). The themes of healing and
restoration as connotations of rdpd’ are com-
bined in the usage of Isa 53:5, ‘With his stripes
we are healed.”’ In many of the occurrences, it is
God who causes healing or afflicts with disease or
catastrophes which cannot be healed but by di-
vine intervention.

W.W.

MINDS (rip'ut). See no. 2196b.
DNS (r‘pa’im) 1,1]. See nos. 2198c,d.

spread (e.g. Job 41:22;

17:13).

2198 MDS (rapa)

Derivative
2197a MEI «(r°pidd) support (Song
3:10).
2198 MBS (rapa) sink down, let drop, be disheart-
ened.
Derivatives
2198a =m59 (rdpeh) slack.
2198b =I (rippdyén) sinking (of
hands, Jer 47:3).
2198c TO NDI (r°paim) I, ghosts of the
dead, shades.
2198d tO°NET (r°pa’im) II, giants, Re-
phaim.

This root ts cognate to the Phoenician verb rph
with a similar meaning. rdpda appears forty-three
times in the oT. It ts used in the Qal, Piel, Hiphil,
and Hithpael stems. The root bears a wide va-
riety of meanings and connotations. The initial
Qal occurrence (Ex 4:26) is difficult for the ver-
sions, KJV, ‘‘So he let him go’’; sps, ‘‘So he let
him alone, ‘literally ,**So he let drop from him.”’ In
other passages it is used of inanimate objects and
forces (Isa 5:24), **As dry grass sinks down in the
flame’’; of the close of day in still other usages
(Jud 19:9), **The day has sunk down toward eve-
ning.’ The Piel form occurs in several passages
(Jer 38:4), ‘*‘He is weakening the hands’’; (Ezk
1:24), ““They let sink their wings.’ The Hiphil
stem is the most common in uSage with twenty-
one occurrences. It usually means ‘‘to let drop,”
‘*to abandon” in this form (Josh 10:6; Deut 4:31
et al.) It also means to “‘let alone,’ *‘refrain”’
(Jud 11:37; Ps 37:8). The Hithpael stem occurs
three times, twice in Prov (18:9), ‘One that is
slack in his work’’; (24:10), ‘‘If you are dishear-
tened in the day of adversity,’* k)v, ‘If thou faint
in the day of adversity’? and other similar
readings miss the full force of the root. The stem
occurs once in Josh 18:3, ksv, ‘‘How long are ye
slack,’’ does not do justice to the full weight of
rapa. The preferred reading is, *‘How long will
you remain disheartened.’’ This is an interesting
and significant root. However, each occurrence
must be carefully compared with other similar
contexts. Interestingly enough, rdpd is used in
poetic contexts only a very few times.

The nouns r‘pa’im (q.v.) “‘shades’’ and the
proper name ‘*Rephaim’’ may be related to rdpa
or rapa’, but the connection is not clear.

r‘pa’im. Ghosts of the dead, shades. A word
and idea of Ugaritic ongin, rp’i, which means
‘‘the dead inhabitants of the netherworld’’ ts
cognate to both Hebrew and Phoenician r° pa’im.
In grave inscriptions from Sidon, the kings Tab-
nith and Eshmunazar refer to the r* pa’im, but
this usage dates from Hellenistic times. The pri-

858

mary fact concerning the eight occurrences of the
root in the oT is that it appears exclusively in
poetic passages. Its use is prescribed as a *‘B”’
word or second synonym in parallel series. The
most common parallelism is death (dead) // ghosts
(Prov 2:18; Isa 26:14, 19 a more complex poetic
structure; Ps 88:10, 11 [H 11, 12}). The paral-
lelism ghosts// sheol occurs in two passages (Prov
9:18; Job 26:5). In one other passage the paral-
lelism is reversed to form sheol//ghosts (Isa 14:9)
and in another single instance (Prov 21:16) a
complicated parallelism of what has been called
the modified ‘‘staircase’’ type sets ‘‘foolish
men’’// to ghosts. It 1s clear that this ancient
quasi-mythological term was used merely to
satisfy the requirements of Hebrew poetic struc-
ture and in no way indicates any specific conno-
tation to the root r*’pda’im other than as a
synonym for *‘the dead’’ and the ‘‘place of the
dead.”

[It may be added that the Ugaritic evidence is
uncertain. The root rp’i is translated by Gordon
as ‘‘deities, shades of the dead’’ (UT 19: no.
2346), by Ajistleitner as’’ 1) prince (Fuerst), 2)
God as Prince, 3) Baal as Prince of the gods”
(AisWUS no. 2575). Several of the passages refer
to the gentilic Rephaites; in the Tale of Aqhat,
Daniel is called a Rapha-man (ANET pp. 149ff.,
and see r°pd’im below). In some of the other
passages the translation is dubious, e.g. Ginsberg
translates by ‘“‘community’’ in italics (ANET,
p. 146, KRT i, 1.3). It 1s methodologically
questionable to use these Ugaritic data exten-
sively in determining the oT meaning of this word
as some have done (see KB). There seems to be
no clear Ugaritic connection of the root with the
netherworld and the Hebrew theology differs
from the Ugaritic in any case.

The Hebrew evidence adduced by W. White
for parallelism of rp’i with death, dead, sheol (or
grave, cf. also Ps 88:11 {H 12]) is important and
convincing. However, the ghost-like character of
the dead is not so clear. Really, as the term refers
to dead persons, the translation ‘‘dead ones’
would fit very well in all cases. This does not
deny that other passages refer to continuing life
of the soul, but not necessarily in shadowy semi-
existence R.L.H.]

rpa’im. Giants, Rephaim. A term of Ugaritic
origin, the designation for one of the most primi-
tive pre-Semitic peoples of Palestine. According
to the Ugaritic myths and legends the hero Danel
(no relationship to the biblical Daniel), and the
champion of Baal are both called ‘*Rephaites.”’
Whether this is a folk etymology or a term based
upon some ancient historical term is unknown.
The oT historians used it to describe the pre-
Israelite inhabitants of Palestine. Deuteronomy
2:20 mentions that the Ammonites called them

the *‘Zamzummim"’ but no data Is extant on this
name. The versions are confused in translating
the term. The usages are as follows: Gen 14:5;
15:20; Deut 2:11 kJv, “‘giants,”’ Rsv ‘‘Rephaim,”’
yps “‘Rephaim.”’ In several passages, the kJv
translates ‘‘giants,'’ while the rsv renders ‘‘Re-
phaim"’: Deut 2:20; 3:11; Josh 12:4; 13:12; 17:15.
In I Chr 20:4, 6, 8, ksv renders ‘‘giant,’’ Rsv
‘giants.’ Other passages follow a similar con-
fused pattern. The ksv justification for substitut-
ing ‘‘giant”’ in all cases is based upon the details
about the Rephaim in Deut 2:11, 28, where they
are said to be “‘tall as the Anakim.** The Lxx also
translated the word as ‘“‘giant’’ in Josh 12:4;
13:14: I Chr 20:4, 6. The exact relationship be-
tween Rephaim I and II is very difficult and no
plausible explanation as yet has appeared. [As to
Og’s famous bed, it may have been a sarcophagus
which was large not because Og was a giant but
because other objects would have been buried
with him. k.L-H.]

Bibliography: Gray, John, ‘‘DTN and RP’UM
in Ancient Ugarit,"° PEQ 84:39-41.

W.W.

myvps (r°pida). See no. 2197a.

"D9 (rippayén). See no. 2198b.

2199 BB (rdpas), WEI (rdpas) stamp,
tread, foul by stamping (e.g. Ezk 32:2;
Prov 25:26).
Derivative

2199a WET (marpés) be fouled, (i.e.

water befouled by trampling, Ezk
34:19).

2200 ANDES (rapsddad) raft (II
only). Derivation uncertain.

Chr 2:16,

2201 *"BI (rdpap) shake, rock. This verb oc-

curs only once, in the Poal (Job 26:11).

2202 *Pp"% (radpaq) support oneself, lean. This
verb occurs only in the Hithpael (Song

8:5).

wes (rapas). See no. 2199.

2203 wen (rpsh). Assumed root of the follow-

22034 WE (repesh) mire (Isa 57:20).
2204 mp (repet) stable, stall (Hab 3:17).
Ya (ras). See no. 2212a.
2205 N¥9 (rasa’) run (Ezk 1:14).

2207 M¥5 (rasa)

2206 *73¥9 (rdsad) watch stealthily, or with en-
vious hostility (Ps 68:17).
2207 M¥3 (rasa) be pleased with, be favorable to.
Derivative
2207a =T33 (rdsdn) pleasure, delight, fa-

vor.

A very ancient West Semitic root, rdsa is found
in a Rib-Addi letter from Amarna, 127:25 (c. 1370
B.c.). It is cognate to Ugantic rs'i and is also
found in Syriac, although with slightly altered
meaning.

The verb appears fifty times in the oT and is
distributed throughout all sections and contexts.
It appears thirteen times in Ps and six times in
Lev in the Niphal stem (Lev 1:4ff.) in the special
sense ‘to be favorably received” as to the ritual
cleanliness of offerings. The more normal Qal
construction occurs initially in Gen 33:10 to de-
scribe Jacob's wishes toward Esau. rdsa 1s fre-
quently used in prayers (Deut 33:11, 24) and reli-
gious greetings (I] Sam 24:23). The root fre-
quently descnbes God's pleasure with his ser-
vants, particularly referred to the Messiah (Isa
42:1). rasa serves as the °*B™' word in the beauti-
ful parallel phrases of Ps 147:10 [H 11]. The “A”
word in the first hemistich is a synonym, hapés
(q.v.). rasd@ is also used in passages dealing with
the favor of men (Mal 1:8) and a father’s son
(Prov 3:12). It is used in contexts requiring the
favor of a king (I Sam 29:4) or the favor of a
people for their king (IJ Chr 10:7). It is used of the
satisfaction of a debt both in the sense of atone-
ment for sin (Mic 6:7) and fulfillment of ritual
requirements (II Chr 36:21). In an obscure and
difficult passage (Job 14:6) the root rasa seems at
first out of place until carefully translated. Job
mourns the frailty of mankind, **Look away from
him, so that he can rest, so that he may enjoy his
(single) day like a hired man."* rsv confuses the
use of the root.

rason. Pleasure, delight, favor. This masculine
noun occurs over fifty times in the or. It carries
three major shades of meaning. The pnmary one
is the ‘‘favor’’ or “‘good will’ of God (Deut
33:16; Isa 60:10; Ps 5:12 [H 13]; 30:6, 8 et al). The
root also refers to the ‘‘pleasure’’ or “‘favor’’ of
kings (Prov only, 14:35: 16:13, 15) and all men
(Prov 10:32; 11:27 et al.).

The second shade of meaning is the “delight”
or “‘acceptance”’ of an individual (Ex 28:38) and
always in a religious or ritual sense. The word
radson describes the **permissibility’’ or *"accep-
tance’’ of a gift or sacrifice (Lev 1:3; 22:20; Isa
56:7 et al.).

The third shade of meaning which attaches to
this word is ‘‘desire,’’ *‘pleasure”™’ in the specific
sense of ‘‘will,’ as the ‘will’ of God (Ezr 10:11;

859

2208 MB (rasah)

Ps 40:9 et al.). Even more texts describe the *‘de-
sire’ or ‘‘will’’ of man (II Chr 15:15: Dan 8:4 et
al.). One obscure and difficult usage is found in
Gen 49:6, the final benediction of Jacob. The ver-
sions are sharply divided on the proper reading,
KJV “in their selfwill they digged down a wall’;
AV “‘they hocked an ox”’; rSv “‘in their wanton-
ness they hamstring oxen’’; sps ‘‘in their self-will
they houghed oxen.** The ksv seems to follow the
Hebrew text most closely. The root rdsa and the
noun rdsén have a wide variety of connotations
but are most important as the standard an-
thropomorphic expressions of God's preceptive
will.

Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 743-45. THAT,
Il, pp. 810-12.

W.W.
NB (rdsén). See no. 2207a.
2208 mks (rasah) murder, slay, kill.
Derivative
2208a ME9 (resah) shattering (Ps 42:11.
Ezk 21:27).

rasah is a purely Hebrew term. It has no clear
cognate in any of the contemporary tongues. The
root occurs thirty-eight times in the oT, with four-
teen occurrences in Num 35. The initial use of the
root appears in the Ten Commandments (Ex
20:13). In that important text it appears in the
simple Qal stem with the negative adverb, **You
shall not murder,’ being a more precise reading
than the too-general kjv “thou shalt not kill.”
Much has been made of the fact that the root
radsah appears in the Mosaic legislation, as
though this term bore a special connotation of
premeditation, as though the Decalogue only
proscribed premeditated crime. This is not the
case. The many occurrences in Num 35 deal with
the organization of the six cities of refuge to
which manslayers who killed a person acciden-
tally could flee. Numbers 35:11 makes com-
pletely clear that the refuge was for those guilty
of unpremeditated, accidental killings. This
makes clear that rdsah applies equally to both
cases of premeditated murder and killings as a
result of any other circumstances, what English
Common Law has called, **man slaughter.’’ The
root also describes killing for revenge (Num
35:27, 30) and assassination (II Kgs 6:32). It ap-
pears in a few poetic contexts, as an ‘*A™” word in
a peculiar parallel construction (Job 24:14); as an
‘*A’’ word parallel to a general term for im-
morality, zimmd (Hos 6:9); as a °*B’* word paral-
lel to another synonym ‘to kill,’ “to slay”* (Ps
94:6). In only one case in the whole oT is the root
used of the killing of man by an animal (Prov
22:13). But even in that context it is the enormity

and horror of the deed which is primary. In all
other cases of the use of rdsah, it is man’s crime
against man and God's censure of it which is up-
permost.

W.W.
2209 YS (rasa‘) bore, pierce (Ex 21:6; Deut
15:17).
Derivative
2209a) YE) (marséa’) awl (Ex 21:6;
Deut 15:17).
2210 439 (rasap) I, fit together, fit out (Song
3:10).
Derivatives
2210a MB¥S (rispa) pavement (e.g. Est
1:6; Ezk 40:17-18).
2210b =mps 3% (marsepet) pavement (II
Kgs 16:17).
2211 5) (rsp) Tl. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
221la MP8 (rispa) glowing stone (or

coal, Isa 6:6: I Kgs 19:6).

2212 YE9 (radsas) crush, oppress.

Derivatives

2212a YS (ras) piece, bar (Ps 68:31).
2212b 0 «MEIN (Mm rasad) crushing,
oppression (Jer 22:17).

This purely Hebrew root occurs in all segments
of the ot, but less than twenty times in all. It has
a wide application of meanings and appears in all
stems. The initial occurrence is in the rare
Hithpoel form (Gen 25:22). The rabbinical com-
mentaries incorrectly derived the form from
another verb which resulted in a degree of confu-
sion among the versions. The basic meaning of
the Qal stem is *‘crush”’ or ‘‘break in pieces”’ (II
Kgs 23:12). It was developed to describe *‘op-
pression” (I Sam 12:3) and ‘‘maltreatment”’
(Deut 28:33). Among its important metaphorical
and prophetic uses are ‘‘broken,’’ as in ‘*broken
reed,’ a favorite expression of Isaiah (36:6).

W.W.
293 (rdqg). See no. 2219a.
D9 (raq). See no. 2218a.

2213 3p3 (radqgéb) rot (Isa 40:20; Prov 10:7).

Derivatives
2213a 325 (rdqab) rottenness, decay
(e.g. Hos 5:12: Job 13:28).
2213b «=N3E5 (riqgdbén) rottenness (Job

41:19).

860

NIP3 (riqgabon). See no. 2213b.

2214 3e"5 (rdqad) skip about (e.g. Eccl 3:4:
Isa 13:21).

MP3 (raqqa). See no. 2218c.
MIP5 «(rigquah). See no. 221Se.
Yipes) (rigqua‘). See no. 2217b.

2215 Mp (rdgah) mix, compound.
Derivatives

2215a +tAbI (reqah) spice.
2215b tM (régéah) ointment.
221Sc TMS (raqqah) perfumer.
2215d =oMPN «(ragqahad) female
(I Sam 8:13).
TRIPS «= (rigquah) perfume.
2215f tment (merqah) aromatic spices.
2215g tAMBMe (merqaha) ointment pot.
221S5h TAME (mirgahat) ointment, mix-
ture.

perfumer

This root is the Hebrew form of a loan word
from Akkadian, ruggu, which also means to
compound ointments and unguents. There is evi-
dence that the perfumers trade was already
highly skilled by 2000 B.c. in Mesopotamia.

The root occurs in the Qal stem six times, three
times in Ex 30 (vv. 25, 33, 35), with a strong
prohibition against the making of any ointment
similar to that used in the tabernacle ritual, and in
Eccl 10:1: I Chr 9:30. In all of these occurrences
it refers to sweet smelling ointments to be burned
as incense or spread on the body. rdgah appears
once in the Pual (II Chr 16:14) “‘with sweet odors
and various kinds of spices compounded by the
perfumer.'* rdgah also occurs once tn the Hiphil
stem (Ezk 24:10); Rsv reads, ‘‘empty out the
broth,’’ which is without textual foundation, kv,
‘‘spice it well,’’ but the Hebrew actually says
‘*spice the spices well,’’ which adds to the cyni-
cal mood of the injunction, for no amount of spic-
ing can make false worship suitable before God.

reqah. Spiced. This is a very obscure and
highly poetic masculine noun. It appears only
once, in Song 8:2. It is connected to the standard
Hebrew word for wine, in a construction found in
ancient texts from almost all cultures and eras.
The passage reads, **] would cause you to drink
of spiced wine.”

roqgéah. Ointment. roqéah is a form of the Qal
participle of rdgah. It appears in three passages
describing ointments and their uses in the Israel-
ite culture (Ex 30:25, 35; 37:29) and one aphorism
(Eccl 10:1), **Dead flies make the perfumer's
ointment stink.”

raqqah. Perfumer. This was a widely re-
nowned profession in the ancient near east. The

861

2216 825 (radgam)

2217 Yps (raqa’‘)

terms ‘“‘spice,” *“compounder™ and *‘perfumer”™
are all cognate. There is every evidence that this
was a loan word from Uganitic and then to Akka-
dian. It appears twice (I Sam 18:13; Neh 3:8),
‘‘and next after him came Hananiah one of the
perfumers.’’ The feminine form of this noun ap-
pears in I Sam 8:13, ‘‘And he will. take your
daughters to be perfumers (ragqgaha).”"’

riqquah. Perfume. This masculine noun ap-
pears only once in the plural in Isa 57:9, **You
made pilgrimage to Molech with oil and heaped
up your perfumes."’ The term is a loanword from
Akkadian riqqu.

merqah. Aromatic spices. This rare word Is a
participle derived from the root raqgah. It is con-
nected to the standard Hebrew term for ‘‘tower,’’
migdalot. It can only be tnterpreted in the con-
text of the words used with it (Song 5:13), “*His
cheeks are as a bed of spices; as banks of sweet
herbs."

merqgaha. Ointment pot. The Hiphil participle
derived from rdgah appears twice (Job 41:23;
Ezk 24:10), ““Empty out the ointment pot.”
However, such a reading is doubtful.

mirgahat. Ointment mixture. This unusual
term occurs three times, Ex 30:25; I Chr 9:30; I
Chr 16:14, *‘And many kinds of ointment mix-
tures prepared by the perfumers'’ skill.”

W.W.

vpn (raqia’). See no. 2217a.
p29 (raqiq). See no. 2218b.

variegate (e.g. Ex 38:23;
35:25; Ps 139:15).

Derivatives

Mapa (riqma) variegated stuff (e.g.
Jud 5:30; Ezk 16:18).

2216a

2217 Y29 (rdqa') stamp, spread out, stretch.

Derivatives

2217a tyx5 «(ragia’) firmament.
2217b =yspS) (rigqua’') expansion
17:3).

The basic concept in rdqa‘ is stamping, as with
the foot, and what results, i.e. a spreading out or
Stretching forth. In the ot the foot-stamping
connotation of rdga‘ may be understood literally,
indicating either a malicious glee (Ezk 25:6) ora
threatening excitement (6:11). It may be used
figuratively to describe beaten and crushed
enemies (11 Sam 22:43). In the Piel and Pual
stems, the verb rdqa‘ acquires the sense of beat-
ing out precious metals, and of the spreading that
results, e.g. to spread over (Asv, ‘‘overlay’’) an

(Num

2218 PP" (rqq)

image (isa 40:19). For the gold of Ex 39:3 rigga’,
‘*hammer out”’ (rSv), is rendered ‘‘beat thin’’: for
the silver in Jer 10:9, ‘spread into plates’*; and
for the bronze in Num 16:39 (H 17:4], ‘make
broad” (plates). rdga’ then comes to denote
God's spreading forth the tangible earth (Isa 42:5;
44:24), stretching out its land above the water (Ps
136:6), or spreading out the intangible sky (Job
37:18).

raqia‘. Firmament. (NASB renders more cor-
rectly as ‘“‘expanse’’; cf. rigqt'é pahim (Num
16:38 ([H 17:3]), literally ‘‘an expansion of
plates,’ i.e. broad plates, beaten out (BDB,
p. 956). raqgia‘ may refer to a limited space, such
as that of the canopy over the cherubim, under
the throne in Ezekiel’s vision (1:22, 26). Or it may
refer to the broad “expanse of heaven’’ (Dan
12:3, NASB), as it does in thirteen of its seventeen
occurrences.

rdaqgia’ is the most important derivative of
rdqa‘. It identifies God's heavenly expanse. The
Mosaic account of creation uses rdgia‘ inter-
changeably for the “‘open expanse of the
heavens’ in which birds fly (Gen 1:20 Nass), i.e.
the atmosphere (H. C. Leupold, Exposition of
Genesis, I, p. 59), and that farther expanse of sky
in which God placed “the lights... for signs and
for seasons” (vv. 14, 17, referring apparently to
their becoming visible through the cloud cover;
the stars, sun, and moon presumably having been
created already in v. 3), i.e. empty space (ISBE,
I, p. 315), over which, as Job said, ‘*‘He stretches
out the north” (Job 26:7). The former receives
greater emphasis, particularly during that period
before the second day, when the earth cooled
sufficiently (?) to permit surface waters, sepa-
rated from what must still have been a massive
cloud-bank above, by the atmospheric expanse
(Gen 1:6—8). Such circumstances serve to explain
the oT’s poetic references to ‘‘doors’* or ‘‘win-
dows” for the phenomenon of rainfall, e.g., **He
commanded the clouds above, and opened the
doors of heaven” (Ps 78:23). That the Hebrews
knew rain came from clouds is clear from Isa 5:6,
etc.

In pre-Christian Egypt confusion was intro-
duced into biblical cosmology when the Lxx,
perhaps under the influence of Alexandrian
theories of a ‘‘stone vault’’ of heaven, rendered
raqia’ by stereoOma, suggesting some firm, solid
structure. This Greek concept was then reflected
by the Latin firmamentum, hence kv *‘firma-
ment.’* To this day negative criticism speaks of
the ‘‘vault, or ‘firmament,’ regarded by Hebrews
as solid, and supporting ‘waters’ above it’’ (BDB,
p. 956); cf. the rendering of Job 37:18, ‘‘The
skies, strong (Adzdqim) as a molten mirror (cf. Ps
150:1, their **mighty expanse’’), changed by the
RSV to read, “the skies, hard.*’ Babylonian

862

mythology recounts how Marduk used half of
Tiamat's carcass to form the heavens (shamamu)
held in place by a crossbar ('). In the oT, how-
ever, Isaiah insists that God ‘‘stretches out the
heavens [lit.| like gauze (dog, Isa 40:22): and
even Ezekiel’s limited canopy (rdqia‘) 1s ‘‘as the
[lit.} eye of awesome ice’’ (Ezk 1:22), i.e. trans-
parent, “shining like crystal’” (Rsv), though so
dazzling as to be ternfying (KD: cf. Dan 12:3
‘brightness ’).

Bibliography: Brockington, L. H., ‘‘Height,”’
in RTWB, pp. 105-106. Leupold, H.C., Exposi-
tion of Genesis, vol. 1, Baker, 1950, pp. 59-61.
Lorizyner, H., *“‘The Firmament and_ the
Clouds,’ Studia Theologia 1:188-96. Skinner, J.,
Genesis, 1CC, pp. 41-S0. Harris, R. L., ‘*The
Bible and Cosmology’’ JETS 5:11-17.

J.B.P.

2218 325 (rqq) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2218a tP9 (raq) thin.

2218b +9995 (raqiq) a thin cake.

2218c 863) (ragga) thetemple (Jud 4:21,
223.5526).

raq. Thin. This rare adjective is used only
three times, in the narrative of Pharaoh’s dream
as told to Joseph. The root is used only to de-
scribe the seven lean cows which came up from
the Nile (Gen 41:19-20, 27). The same root is
developed into the common adverb meaning
‘only.’ It occurs over one hundred times in the
oT, the initial usage appears in Gen 6:5, ‘‘His
heart was only evil continually.’’ The meaning is
invariant.

ragiq. Thin cake of unleavened bread. This
masculine noun derived from the Hiphil stem of
the verbal root rdgag occurs eight times in the
oT. It is the prescribed cereal offering (Lev 2:4),
‘*Thin cakes of unleavened bread spread with
oil.’ The preparation of rdqigq is said to be one of
the responsibilities of the Levites (I Chr 23:29).
The other usages are all in the Pentateuch (Ex
29:2, 23; Lev 7:12; 8:26; Num 6:15, 19).

W.W.
2219 PDS (raqaq) UH, spit (Lev 15:8).
Derivative
2219a =" (rdq) spittle (Isa 50:6; Job
30:10).

2220 sws (rshh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2220a NWS (rishy6n) permission (Ez
3:7).

ws (rishyén). See no. 2220a.

2221 ays (rdsham) inscribe, note (Dan
10:21).

2222 pws (rasha‘) be wicked, act wickedly. De-
nominative verb.

Parent Noun

2222a tyws (resha’)
guilt.

2222b «tyyws (rdshd') wicked, criminal.

2222c «=tmywn (rish'ad) guilt, wickedness.

2222d =tnywsr> (mirsha‘at) wickedness (II
Chr 24:7).

The verb is denominative from resha‘ *‘wrong,
wickedness,’ and seems to have two meanings,
a) to act wickedly, and b) to condemn as guilty. It
occurs thirty-three times.

The verbal forms are only in the Qal and Hiphil
stems. In the Qal the verb means to be wrong,
unjust, or guilty, and in the Hiphil, it means
either to condemn as guilty or to act wickedly.

In Aramaic the adjective rshy' ‘one who be-
haves wickedly’’ occurs in opposition to the ad-
jective sdyq ‘“‘one who does right’? (Words of
Ahigar, ANET p. 430,ll. 168.171). In the oT the
root rdsha‘ appears as the most important an-
tonym of sedeq ‘‘righteousness”’ (cf. K. Rich-
ards, ‘“‘A Form and Traditio-histonical Study of
rsh',’’ Ph.D. dissertation, Claremont, 1970 [cf.
ZAW 83:402]. In contrast to sdq it denotes the
negative behavior of evil thoughts, words and
deeds, a behavior not only contrary to God's
character, but also hostile to the community and
which at the same time betrays the inner dishar-
mony and unrest of a man (cf. Isa 57:20: cf.
J. Pedersen, /srael I-II (London) p. 418f.)

In a case law it states that if two men are hos-
tile regarding property, God will declare one of
them guilty. In a similar law (Deut 25:1), judges
are to be just in deciding which is guilty. These
have to do with ruptures in social relationships.
An example of a rupture of international relation-
ship is seen in I Sam 14:47 which Saul settles by
military conquest. The verb can describe a gen-
eral breakdown of social relationships (Ps 94:21)
in which bad people mistreat good people. This
contrast between good and bad people is high-
lighted by reference to the way God treats
people. He takes a stand against wickedness, for
it is contrary to his nature (Job 40:8; Ps 37:33;
Prov 12:2; Isa 50:9; 54:17). It was within this ref-
erence that Kings of Israel and Judah were
evaluated (II Chr 20:35: 22:3). So did the people
of God protest their innocence; they did not act
like wicked people (II Sam 22:22; Job 10:2, 7; Ps
18:21 (H 22)).

The reason there is a difference between them
is that one type follows a life style contrary to the
laws of God (Prov 17:15; Dan 12:10; cf. Job 32:3;
] Kgs 8:32; Dan 11:32).

wrong, wickedness,

863

2222 vys (rasha')

This life style is not irreversible; it can be
changed, basically by confession. This is seen in
several prayers of supplication (JI Chr 6:37; Neh
9:33; Ps 106:6; Dan 9:5).

resha‘. Wrong, wickedness. The masculine noun
resha‘ denotes the kind of life that is opposite to
God’s character (Job 34:10; Ps 5:4 [H 5]: 45:7
[H 8]), and draws statements of indictment and
judgment (Isa 58:4; Ezk 3:19; Mic 6:10-11).

During an encounter between David and Saul,
David declared he could not harm the king's per-
son, for it would be resha‘, and elsewhere this sin
is tied to injustice (Eccl 3:16), violence (Isa 58:4)
and dishonesty in the marketplace (Mic 6:10-11).
Twice, Elihu accused Job of resha’, against
which Job vigorously protested.

In the Wisdom literature, resha‘ is set over
against ‘“‘righteousness’’ and ‘‘righteous,’’ and
pains are taken to show how inadequate and de-
vastating the pursuit of resha‘ is (Prov 10:2; 12:3;
Eccl 7:25; 8:8). Hosea concurred (10:13). The
Psalmist pled to God for his exposure of this kind
of sin (10:15) and a wise man declared his com-
mitment to the opposite kind, the righteous life
(Prov 8:7; cf. Ps 84:10 [H 11)).

Though Isaiah depicted resha’ as a yoke,
neither he nor others in the Old Testament re-
garded resha‘ as_ necessarily binding man
forever. Even as early as Moses, that man of God
testified that he pleaded with God to dismiss Is-
rael’s sin from his remembrance (Deut 9:27). The
Psalmist asked for personal forgiveness from God
(Ps 141:4). A prayer in Jer 14:2 acknowledges or
confesses the reality of sin. There is a declaration
of God that he will forgive by unloosing their
yoke in Isa 58:6, but this is balanced by a divine
decree that men bear heavy responsibility for
both their sin and their forgiveness (Ezk 33:12).

rasha‘. Wicked, criminal. This masculine noun
appears over 266 times, mostly in Job, Ps, Prov,
and Ezk. It is used in parallel with almost every
Hebrew word for sin, evil, and iniquity. The
word functions also as an adjective to designate
in concrete terms the actions and conduct of a
type of person. Sometimes context points to the
attitude and intention of people. Prmanly,
rashd‘ is an objective fact, rather than a subjec-
tive phenomenon.

The measure of rdshd’ is its contrast with the
character and attitude of God. The questions in
Abraham’s intercession imply that God is against
rasha’ (wicked) people. So does Ex 23:7; Job
9:22; Ps 37:28; Ezk 33:11; Mic 6:10.

Wicked people were guilty of violation of the
social rights of others, for they were violent, op-
pressive, greedy, engaged in plotting against and
trapping poor people, and quite willing to murder
to gain their ends. In a word, they threatened the
community. They were dishonest in business and

2223 AWS (rshp)

in the courtroom. For examples see Ex 2:13;
Num 35:31; If Sam 4:11. Second Chronicles 19:2
notes that these people hate the Lord. Malachi
3:18 gives their refusal to serve the Lord as a
major trait.

Frequently, eighty times, half of them in the
book of Proverbs, rashd‘ is placed in antithetic
parallelism to sedeg (the righteous) and it is from
this contrast we get the clearest profile of the
rasha’ kind of people. The Psalmist protests that
he is not one of them, for they persecute him and
take a stand against God and his laws. At times
he begs that God protect him from them. The
book of Prov contains a great deal of antithetical
parallelism, which contrasts the rdshd‘ and the
sedeq in black and white terms. The focus is on
both the quality of lifestyle and the results of
these two ways of living. Whereas the wicked
forsake God, the righteous cling to him. Though
the wicked are oppressive and dishonest, the
righteous are upright and lovers of truth, etc.

Other antonyms include: tam ‘‘blameless’’
(Job 9:22; Prov 11:5); yashar ‘‘upright’’ (Ps
37:37f; Prov 2:21f; 11:11, etc.); maskil ‘‘the wise’’
(Dan 12:10); *‘the poor’ = ‘‘the afflicted’’ (dal,
Isa 11:4; ‘ani, Job 36:6; ‘adnadw, Isa 11:4; Ps
147:6), etc.

Words semantically parallel include ‘‘those
who hate righteousness’’ (Ps 34:22); ‘‘those who
do evil’’ (Ps 28:3; 92:7 {H 8}; 101:8; 141:10 [H 9};
cf. Isa 55:7; Job 22:16, 18); ‘‘those who do wic-
kedly”’ (m°ré‘im, Ps 26:5; 37:10 (H 9]; Prov
24:19, ra‘, Ps 10:15; Prov 4:14; 14:19; 24:20;
m* ‘awwél, Ps 71:4; ‘awwal, Job 27:7; Prov 29:27;
hanép, Job 20:5); *‘those who deal ruthlessly
Ps 71:4; dhéb hamas, Ps 11:5; ’ish hamadsim, Ps
140:5); “‘tyrant’’ (aris, Isa 13:11; Job 15:20;
27:13; cf. Ps 37:35; modshél ‘‘ruler’’ Isa 14:5);
‘*proud’’ (gé’im, Ps 94:3; cf. Job 40:12; zédim
‘‘arrogant’’ Isa 13:11; ‘‘foolish’’ hdl? lim (Ps 73:3;
75:4 {H 5]; ‘‘rich’’ (‘dshir, Isa 53:9; cf. Ps
17:13ff), ‘‘sinners’’ (Ps 1:1, 5; 104:35); ‘*scoffers’’
(Ps 1:1; Prov 9:7); ‘‘transgressors’’ (Ps 37:38);
‘‘liars’’ (Ps 58:3 [H 4]; 109:2); ‘‘faithless’’ (Jer
12:1; Hab 1:13; Prov 2:22; 21:18); etc.

The inner lives of the wicked correspond to
their actions. They are vicious, haughty,
treacherous, vile, polluted, and unstable. One
might expect that such people would always be
kept under the restraints of law and order and
suffer defeat every moment of life. Not so. Job
was troubled with the strange topsy-turvy nature
of the moral order here and now (Job 9:24; 10:3;
16:11; 21:7; 17, 28). The Preacher struggled with
this absurdity (Eccl 7:15; 8:14), as did Jeremiah
(12:1).

The doubts of some in times of stress did not
cloud the clear doctrine of God’s strong opposi-
tion to wicked people. Psalmists and prophets not
only pleaded that God punish the wicked, God

864

proclaimed his intention to do so, and there are
descriptions of the horror of his judgments (Job
36:17; Ps 9:5 [H 6}, 16 [H 17]; Prov 24:20—24; Jer
25:31; Zeph 1:3; Mal 4:3).

One might conclude that once God punished
the wicked the moral order would be corrected,
but God’s servants knew that judgment was not
God’s best or most desired solution. Both God
and man saw acts of salvation as the best way to
deal with the wicked person. The Psalmist pled
for forgiveness (71:4; 82:4), and God both prom-
ised (Isa 55:7) and provided for it (Isa 53:9).
Moses (Num 16:26); a wise man (Prov 4:14);
Isaiah, and a prophet (Isa 55:7) exhorted people
to forsake the wicked life and turn to him. Par-
ticularly, in Ezk 18, 33, the responsibility for
doing this was laid directly on the individual. And
there is recorded both testimony (Ps 1:1; 37:40)
and commitment to the reality of such salvation
by God’s mercy (Ps 39:1 [H 2]; 119:95).

rish‘a. Guilt, wickedness. This feminine noun
appears fifteen times, mostly in the abstract
sense of wickedness or act of wickedness. Moses
explained to his people that the wickedness of
Canaan was the reason Israel could enter Ca-
naan. The conquest was to be a judgment, not a
demonstration of Israel’s greatness (Deut 9:4—5).
Moses also told the civil judges to beat those who
commited rish‘d. Twice the wise men contrasted
rish‘@ with righteousness (Prov 11:5; 13:6). In
Mal 3:15 those who do wickedly are said to be
arrogant enemies of God (cf. Ezk 5:6) with dire
results (see Isa 9:18: Mal 1:4; 4:1). An angel
showed Zech a woman (Wickedness) trapped in
an ephah.

Ezekiel 18, 30 also sets forth the alternatives
facing man. A person may turn to rish‘d and die,
or turn from it to God and live.

mirsha‘at. Wickedness. A feminine noun used
once (II Chr 24:7) in the of as an offensive title
for Athaliah, (the [embodied] wickedness, BDB).
Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible,
Desclee, 1964. For rdshd‘' and synonymous
terms referring to sin see Girdlestone, R. B., SOT
pp. 76-85. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the Old Tes-
tament, Rome: Herder, 1963. Queil, G., Sin,
London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951.
Richardson, Alan, A Theological Word Book of
the Bible, London: SCM, 1957. Smith, C. R., The
Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Epworth, 1953.

THAT, II, pp. 813-18.
G.H.L.

2223 "Ws (rshp). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2223a tAWS (reshep) flame, firebolt, spark.

The view has been expressed that reshep in
Job 5:7 refers not to literal sparks but to Reshep

2228 AN (rtt)

the god of fever and pestilence (see Pope, M., 2225 *mn3 (ratah) boil. Is used in the Piel

Job, AB, in loc.). There may indeed be some (Ezk 24:5): Pual (Job 30:27), and Hiphil
references in Job and elsewhere to mythological (Job 41:23).

themes used for illustration without implying be- ae

lief in their truth. W. F. Albright calls this Israel's Derivative

true demythologizing (YGC pp. 185-189). 2225a mn (retah) boiling (Ezk 24:5).

E. Smick discusses the matter helpfully
(‘Mythology and the Book of Job,’ JETS
13:101-108). On the other hand, we must re-
member that Israel lived in a milieu of animism
where natural objects had been deified for cen-
turies. The sun was also the sun god. The sea was
also the sea god. When Israel used terms like sun, :
sea, fire, etc. she did not necessarily demytho- 2227 “PD (rataq) bind. Occurs in the Pual
logize. Usually she just refused to speak as (Nah 3:10) and Niphal (Eccl 12:6).

animists did.

2226 Ons (ratam) bind, attach (Mic 1:13).
2226a ons (rotem) a_ kind of broom
plant (I Kgs 19:5: Job 30:4: Ps
120:4).

Derivatives
R.L.H. oie

2227a 386 MeN «(r*tagqad) chain (Isa 40:19).
2224 *wyn (rdshash) beatdown, shatter. This 2227b IAT rend) chain (Ezk 7:23: |

verb occurs in the Poel (Jer 5:17) and the Kgs 6:21).

Pual (Mal 1:4).

2228 mn (rtt). Assumed root of the following.
SIAN (rattéq). See no. 2227b. 2228a 3 omnn (r'rét) trembling (Hos 13:1).

865

2229 “Nw = (S’r). Assumed root of the following.

2229a NW O(S°'6r) =leaven (e.g. Ex 13:7:
Deut 16:4).
mew (sé't). See no. 1421).

2230 358 (sbk). Assumed root of the following.

2230a aw (Sébek) network of boughs
(II Sam 18:9).
2230b =maaw (S‘bakd) lattice work (prob-

ably window lattice, II Kgs 1:2;
network, I Kgs 7:17).

2231 yaw (sabéa‘) be satisfied.
Derivatives

223la tysw (sdba‘) fullness.

2231b tmysw (Ssab‘a), mysw (Sib’a)
satisfaction.

223lc tysw (Sadba‘) plenty.

2231d tyaw (sadbéa‘) satisfied.

The usual sense of the verb is *‘to be satisfied
by nourishment.’’ Thus in the episode with the
manna the Israelites had food tn the morning to
the full (Ex 16:8). In the Hiphil stem it ts used to
make the point that the Lord satisfied his people
with bread. For example, when he took up his
residence in Zion, he satisfied the poor with
bread (Ps 132:15). It may be, however, that more
than physical bread is in view here. Jerusalem in
turn is called upon to praise the Lord because he
fills her with the finest of wheat (Ps 147:14). The
apostates, however, in Jeremiah’s time foolishly
attributed their plenty of food to the queen of
heaven (Jer 44:17).

The word is also used with this same notion in
personification. The earth is satisfied with God's
creative acts (Ps 104:13). In the day of the Lord
the sword shall devour, and it shall be filled to the
full and made drunk with the blood of his adver-
saries (Jer 46:10).

In addition to the idea of nounshment, the
word is used to connote fullness in other areas of
life. David and Jehoida were full of days when
they died (J Chr 23:1; I] Chr 24:15), and the trees
of the Lord are full of sap (Ps 104:16).

Soba‘. Fullness, sufficiency. In seven of its
eight occurrences this masculine noun speaks of
fullness of food. The people complain that in con-
trast to the wilderness they ate food to their fill in
Egypt (Ex 16:3). The Lord in his grace sent them
food to the full in the wilderness (Ps 78:25). Ac-
cording to the Law, Israel will eat food to the full

869

only as they keep the Lord’s covenant (Lev
25:19; 26:5).

Likewise, according to the wise Solomon, the
righteous man eats until he is satisfied (Prov
13:25). In these passages the thought of fullness
extends beyond merely physical food. Moreover,
the Possessor of the Land allowed the poor to
enter his neighbor's vineyard and eat all the
grapes he wanted (Deut 23:24 [H 25]). Like the
verb, the noun has a metaphorical sense of being
filled spiritually. Raised from the dead, the Mes-
siah proclaims, “‘In thy presence is fullness of
joy’ (Ps 16:11).

A derived notion is its metaphorical sense of
being satisfied spiritually with God's good gifts.
Because the Lord answered the prayer of the
Psalmist by delivering him from death at the
hands of the wicked, the meek shall eat and be
satisfied (Ps 22:26 [H 27]). In this messianic
psalm a satisfaction is promised which extends
beyond the bounds of merely having enough food
and drink to a spiritual satisfaction because the
Lord answered the prayer of the righteous. Jesus,
in the Beatitudes, has a similar notion in mind
when he says, *‘Blessed are those who hunger
and thirst after righteousness for they shall be
filled’ (Mt 5:6; cf. Ps 107:9). Isaiah says that the
chantable will find their own souls satisfied in
drought (Isa 58:11), and Moses prays that the
Lord will satisfy Israel early with his love (Ps
90:14). The Suffering Servant shall be satisfied
when he sees the new life his death produced (Isa
53:11).

One can eat and not be satisfied because there
was not enough food to be had (Lev 26:26; Mic
6:14). But it is also possible to be surfeited with
physical wealth and not be satisfied (Eccl 4:8). In
fact, he who loves money will never be satisfied
with it (Eccl 5:10 [H 9}).

There are, then, some things that are never
satisfied: the grave (Hab 2:5), the eye of man
(Prov 27:20), the barren womb, the parched
earth, and fire (Prov 30:16). However, the earth
cannot stand a fool when he ts full of bread (Prov
30:22).

While the uses cited above are more or less
positive, others have negative connotations.
Sometimes one is full of the wrong things. In
these instances the word is used censoriously to
denote excess. The Psalmist’s soul is full of trou-
bles (Ps 88:3 [H 4]), and the people have had their
fill of contempt and scoffing (Ps 123:3). Sinners
are rightfully filled with shame (Lam 3:30).
Jeremiah (cf. Jer 9:18) is filled with bitterness
(Lam 3:15); yet it is good for a man to be filled

2232 a3 (Ssabar)

with shame so that he may trust in the Lord (Hab
2:16) and the Lord will gorge the beasts with
Pharaoh (Ezk 32:4).

The Lord is weary of unrighteous offerings (Isa
1:11) and guests are like fish—after three days
they stink (Prov 25:17).

Finally there is spiritual danger in material
abundance—it leads to a spirit of independence.
Moses warns the people to beware lest they
forget the Lord when their houses are full (Deut
6:11; cf. 8:10), and the Lord predicts that they
will fall into this trap (Deut 31:20). Agur antici-
pates the Lord's prayer for one’s daily bread
when he declines to pray for riches lest he be full,
and deny the Lord (Prov 30:9).

sab‘a. sib‘a. Satisfaction, fullness, enough. This
feminine noun. used six times in the prophets,
denotes satisfaction with reference to food, carnal
desires, and spiritual well-being.

The merchandise of Tyre will be for those be-
fore the Lord that they might eat sufficiently (Isa
23:18). Ezekiel invites the fowl to eat the fat of
Israel's most northern enemies to their full (Ezk
39:19).

The word is also used with the negative to de-
note a lack for various reasons. The restored
exiles did not have enough to eat because of their
erroneous pnorities (Hag 1:6): Israel’s watch-
men, though gorging themselves on the people,
never had enough because of their greed (Isa
56:11), and Jerusalem played the harlot even with
Assyria because her carnal appetite was insati-
able (Ezk 16:28). Whereas physical food can
never satisfy, God's spiritual blessings can (Isa
55:2).

As Seen in the study of the verb, physical satis-
faction can be a snare to sin. So in Ezk 16:49,
‘fulness of bread** contributed to the fall of both
Sodom and Jerusalem.

Saba‘. Plenty, abundance, satiety. Found six
times in Gen, once in Prov 3:10, and once in Eccl
5:12 [H 11], this masculine noun seems to refer to
the possession of plenty and abundance of food.

sabea’. Satisfied, sated, abounding in. This ad-
jective is used ten times in the or. In each case it
conveys the idea of being full and satisfied. In
Gen 25:8 Abraham dies being ‘‘old and full [of
years].’’ Proverbs 27:7 speaks of a person full of
food, while Job 10:15 shows Job *‘full of confu-
sion.

B.K.W.
2232 "3Y (Sdbar) examine (Qal), wait, hope
(Piel).
Derivative
2232a t33W (séber) hope.

870

Whereas BDB distinguishes two roots, one oc-
curring twice in the Qal stem with the meaning
‘*to view, inspect’’ and related to the Arab root
sabara ‘to probe’ (a wound), and the other eight
times in the Piel stem with the meaning *‘to wait,
hope,’ KB considers them as one word. Both
agree, however, that in the Qal stem the root sbr
means ‘‘to examine’’ and in Piel it means ‘“‘to
wait, hope.’

Thus it is used in the Qal stem when Nehemiah
‘“viewed’> or ‘‘inspected”’ the walls’ of
Jerusalem”’ (Neh 2:13, 15).

In Ps 119:166 (‘I have hoped for Thy salva-
tion’), sdbar is used for a confident expression
of hope and waiting for God’s salvation by one
who could say that he had ‘“‘done Thy com-
mandments.’’

Just as the Psalmist in Ps 119: 166 (above) hope-
fully waited in faith for God's salvation, Ps
145:15 declares that ‘‘the eyes of all wait upon
(marg. or, jook unto) Thee’ (sdbar) for *‘their
meat in due season.’

The word sabar, is also capable in Scripture of
portraying waiting in vain. Thus in Est 9:1 the
enemies of the Jews hoped to tnumph, but failed.

séber. Hope. Masculine noun found only in Ps
119:116 and 146:5, where both times it refers to
God and his Word as the hope of the Psalmist. It
looks abroad to that life and deliverance which
alone has power to make a person Safe (Ps 119)
and happy (Ps 146).

G.G.C.

2233 NW (Saga’) increase, grow, magnify.

Derivatives
saw) (saggi’) great (Job 36:20:
37:24).
2233b «MQW «(Saga) grow

2233a

(a by-form).

The form, sdga‘, occurs only twice in the oT
(Job 12:23, 36:24). Job, in replying to his friends,
accepts the sovereignty of God even in his own
personal life's disposition, and explains, ** He in-
creaseth the nations, and destroyeth them”
(12:23). That is, ‘‘God does what he wants to do
as sovereign Lord, and your desperate search to
find some precipitating cause for my suffering is
unnecessary.”

In Job 36:24, Elihu corrects Job for judging
God: *‘Remember to magnify his work.’ He
seems to be saying, ‘‘Listen Job, it is your duty to
magnify God, and not:to question him when he
chastens you.”

Thus saga’ is used both for God's causing na-
tions to grow great and for men to enlarge God’s
glory by recognizing and praising his works.

The by-form saga, is used similarly. Cf. Job
8:7, 11.

Psalm 92:12 [H 13] reminds us that, ‘‘The
righteous... shall grow like a cedar in Leba-
non, while ‘the ungodly... increase [only] in
riches”’ (Ps 73:12)!

The above notes present part of the biblical
philosophy of life intertwined about these little
words, sdgd@’ and sdgd. God causes the nations
to grow great and he also causes the righteous to
be increased at their end! The nch may grow in
this world's goods, but they soon fall: while the
godly grow more solid and enduring, like that of
the great northern Palestinian cedars! Our task is
to magnify him for all this!

G.G.C.

2234 33¥ (Ssdgab) be inaccessibly high.

Derivative
2234a t33wI (misgab) high place, refuge.

The verb is used in a local sense with reference
to a lofty city (Isa 26:5) and high walls (Prov
18:11; Isa 30:13) even as it is used in the Amarna
correspondence.

Associated with the notion of “‘height”’ it fre-
quently has the connotation of security. Thus in
Deut 2:36 the word is translated ‘‘strong’’ (of a
city) and in the Piel stem it is rendered both ‘‘to
set on high,’’ and ‘‘to defend” or *‘protect’’ (Ps
20:1 (H 2]; 59:1, 2; 69:29 [H 30]; 91:14). This
connotation is also present when David says of
God's knowledge it is lofty, I am no match for it
(Ps 139:6). But whereas man's most secure de-
fenses are proved vulnerable before the Lord
(Deut 2:36; Isa 2:11; 26:5), ““The name of the
Lord is a strong tower; the righteous runneth into
it and is safe’ (Prov 18:10).

Another connotation is that of exaltation to a
position of honor. Thus the Lord (Isa 2:11, 17),
his name (Ps 148:13), and his needy saints (Ps
107:41) are “‘set on high”’ i.e. “‘exalted.”

misgab. High place, high tower, refuge. The
masculine noun misgab is derived from the root,
sdgab ‘to be high,’ and is found fifteen times in
the oT, eleven of these being in Ps.

In most appearances of the word it is used ina
favorable sense. misgdab speaks of God being the
believer's high tower (II Sam 22:3), or his refuge
(Ps 46:7, 11 (8, 12]), or defense (Isa 33:16). The
allusion is to the fact that in the ancient world,
safety to either the one fleeing or to the one at
rest was Synonymous with reaching and remain-
ing upon some fortified height which would be
inaccessible to beast and enemy alike. The Psal-
mist, as well as the prophets, saw this to be the
precise picture of the believer's security in God.

mi§gab ‘high place,” is not to be confused
with the badmd “‘high place,’ which signifies a
hill consecrated to the pagan Canaanite deities,

871

2237 mw

2237 mv (seh)

such as Baal. misgab is never used for such a
location.

G.G.C.
maw (Saga). See no. 2233b.
NOY) (Sagi’). See no. 2233a.
2235 *"3¥ (Sddad) harrow (Piel only, Job

39:10; Hos 10:11).

2236 mw (Sdh). Assumed root of the following.
2236a “Sw (saday) field, land. Poetic
synonym of sddeh (e.g. Ps 8:7 [H
8}; 96:12).
2236b = tASw (Sddeh) field.
Sadeh. Field, country, ground, land. This mas-

culine noun broadly designates the open field,
country, or a definite portion of ground, a field.

In the former notion it is used of pasture land
(Gen 29:2); unfrequented country exposed to vio-
lence (Gen 4:8; Deut 21:1; 22:25) or wild beasts
(Ex 22:31 [H 30]); land containing flora and fauna
(Gen 25:27; 30:14; Ex 10:15); open country out-
side a walled city (Jud 9:32, 42: I Sam 19:3) and
an expanse of country in contrast to mountains
(Jud 5:18; Jer 17:3).

As a definite portion of ground, it may denote
cultivated ground (Gen 37:7; Ruth 2:2); private
property (Gen 47:20; Isa 5:8); city land, adjacent
to the town and subject to its control (Gen 41:48;
Lev 25:34); the territory of a nation or tribe (Gen
41:48; Lev 25:34); and the personal estate of a
king (II Sam 9:7; 19:29, 30).

Micah 3:12 gives the awful prediction of Zion
being plowed as a field. Jeremiah 32:7—44 not
only portrays the ancient process of buying and
selling a field, but it also gives the marvelous
prophecy that someday God will again redeem
the fields of Israel. Then the voices of children
playing without fear will replace the sound of the
hooves of the conqueror’s horses.

“Iw (sdday). See no. 2236a.

y (Seh) lamb, sheep. (asv and Rsv are
the same.)

A Seh, either a sheep (e.g. kebes) or a goat
(e.g. ‘€z), is a member of the flock. In Akkadian
shu’u = ‘*ram”™ and in Ug. ritual texts it is limited
to ‘‘ram’’ or “*he-goat’*; elsewhere its use is more
general, encompassing both sexes (B. Levine).
This animal is clean; therefore, it may be eaten
(Deut 14:4) and offered for a sacrifice. The first-
ling belongs to Yahweh (Ex 34:19; Lev 27:26).
For the passover meal a year old male lamb with-
out blemish is to be roasted (Ex 12:3ff.). A lamb
is Suitable for a guilt offering or a burnt offering
(Lev 5:7; 12:8). One with some defects may be
offered as a freewill offering (Lev 22:23). In

2238 sm (sahed)

Ezekiel’s new temple one sheep out of 200 was to
be taken for offerings.
The presence of sheep and cattle indicates that
a place is domesticated and can be safely inhab-
ited (Isa 7:25). The peaceful, simple nature of a
lamb also lends itself to various figurative uses.
The psalmist compares himself to a lost sheep
which has gone astray: but since he has not for-
gotten the commandments, he desires that God
search for him (Ps 119:176). Jeremiah describes
Israel in terms of a scattered flock of sheep (Jer
20:17). The most significant usage is in Isa 53:7
where the Messiah is led “‘like a lamb to the
slaughter’ but bore the suffering in silent
submission—a verse echoed in the vision of the
sacnificial lamb of Rev 5:6 and 13:8.
J.E.H.

2238 “mw (sahéd) witness (Job 16:19; Gen
31:47). Loan word from Aramaic in Job. In
Gen 31:47, Laban’s designation of the
heap of witness is in Aramaic.

2239 smw = (shr). Assumed root of the following.
2239a =o MY «(sahdrén) moon, or crescent
(Jud 8:21; Isa 3:18).

im’ = (Sahdrén). See no. 2239a.

2240 ww (sat) swerve, fall away (Ps 40:5).

Derivative

pw (sét), BD (sét) swerver,
revolter (Hos §:2).

2240a

2241 318 (suk) I, hedge or fence up (Job 1:10;
Hos 2:8). Alternate spelling of sak I]
(q.v.).
Derivative

mown (msuka) hedge (Prov
15:19). Alternate spelling of m° suka

224la

(q.v.)
2242 4 (Swk) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2242a 3 s3w (S6k) branch or Obrushwood
(Jud 9:49).
2242b «-ADIwW «6(S6ka) =branch or _ brush-

wood (Jud 9:48, 49).

2243 ow (Sum), Ow (sim) I, put, place, set,
appoint, make.

Derivative
nmiwnm (t°sumet) pledge,
(Lev 5:21).

This verb is used 572 times tn the Qal stem,
scattered almost evenly throughout the Old Tes-
tament. It is used only two times in the Hiphil

2243a security

872

(Ezk 14:18; 21:16 [H 21]; Job 4:20) and only once
in the Hophal (Gen 24:33) to round out its 575 Old
Testament usages.

The basic root idea of this verb is to put, place
something somewhere. Hence it is translated in
the Lxx generally by tithémi which almost identi-
cally means to put, place. The Arabic cognate is
found in sam of the Medieval Yemenite where it
is used ‘to set or constitute," e.g., a price
(William Gesenius, Gesenius’' Hebrew and Chal-
dee Lexicon, 1842; Eerdman’'s, 1957, ad loc.).

There are at least a half dozen utilizations of

$aiim, Sometimes overlapping.
1. To Place In A Location. This usage affirms
that some object has been placed in a named loca-
tion. Thus in I Sam 17:54, David ** put his armour
in his tent,’’ and in Lev 8:8 Moses “‘put the
breastplate upon him {Aaron}.’’ Not only inani-
mate objects receive this treatment, but also per-
sons. Thus in the classic usage of the verb,
Genesis 2:8, *‘God placed there [in the Garden]
the man.” sam is also used in this way to signify
the placing of the divine name in a location of his
choice (‘in Jerusalem will I put my name,”
II Kgs 21:4).

Gesenius divides this usage of sam into two
chief categories, viz., (a) the placing of people
and things into an upright position (e.g., 1] Chr
33:7), and (b) the placing of things into a prone or
lying position (e.g., Deut 10:5; ibid.). While sum
is indeed used to indicate both types of placing,
upon examining individual texts it often is impos-
sible to tell with any certainty whether sam is
being used to indicate an upright positioning or a
supine positioning. Thus in Gen 30:41, *‘Jacob
laid the rods before... the cattle,” it is difficult
from examining sam alone to be certain whether
the rods were set vertically or horizontally. BDB
does not advance this distinction of vertical or
horizontal positioning.

2. To Appoint People to Positions. sm is typi-
cally used tin I] Sam 17:25; “*Absalom made
Amasa captain,” and in] Chr 11:25, *‘and David
set him [Benaiah} over his guard.’ In such in-
Stances sam still carnes its basic idea, only here
the placing is into an authority position rather
than into a physical location.

3. To Establish a New Relationship. Here sam is
used to indicate placing someone or something in
a new relationship or situation. So it is in Gen
21:18, ‘*For I will make him [Ishmael] a great
nation.’’ Here the Lord, to use the Hebrew
idiom, “‘places Ishmael into a great nation.”
Likewise in Jud 1:28, *‘They put the Canaanites
to tribute,’ §4m is used to show that the Canaan-
ites have now been placed as people who are to
pay tribute. That is, they have been put into a
new relationship.

4. To Assign Something to Someone. Another
way in which sum is used is to show designation.

E.g., in If Sam 23:5 we read in the kjv, **He hath
made with me an everlasting covenant.’’ The
Hebrew more literally reads, "“‘For a covenant
everlasting he-has-put to me.’ Here a covenant
is now put to a designated recipient, David (Cf.
Ps 19:4 (H 5}).

5. To Bring About a Change. In Ex 14:21, speak-
ing of the dividing of the Red Sea, God *‘made the
sea dry (land).’’ Here, again trying to capture the
idiom, God ‘‘put the sea dry,’ changing not its
location, but its condition. Also see Isa 41:15, 18;
Ezk 35:4; etc.

6. To Set Aside for Special Purposes. sim is fur-
ther used occasionally as the verb denoting God
(and sometimes human agencies) designating cer-
tain times, places, or people to some special pur-
pose. Thus in Ex 9:5 the literal, **And the Lord
put (Sam) a set time,’” is well rendered in the av
as, **And the Lord appointed a set time.”’

As we have demonstrated, the verb sam al-
ways denotes its basic significance, to place,
while at the same time comprehending a mul-
titude of derivative meanings extending even be-
yond the broad categories enumerated in this ar-
ticle.

As Creator-Redeemer, the Lord is frequently
the subject of this verb. He set the boundaries of
creation (cf. Job 28:3; 38:5; 39:6; Ps 19:4 (H 5] Ps
104:9.) As redeemer he made the seed of the
fathers as dust (Gen 13:16; 32:12 [H 13]; cf. Deut
10:22), and made David's seed endure (Ps 89:29
[H 30}). He appointed a law in Israel (Ps 78:5),
brought about miracles (Ps 78:43), desolations in
the earth (Ps 46:8 (H 9}) and Israel's afflictions
(Ps 66:11). But in the end time he will make Israel
his instrument of righteousness (Isa 41:15).

G.G.C.

2244 pw (Swm), Bw (sym) IL.
root of the following.

Assumed

2244a «Mw (Ssuma) token of unluckiness,
scowl (II Sam 13:32).
2245 sw (far) Meaning uncertain.
Derivative
2245a «IW «(sérad) row (or a kind of

grain?) meaning and derivation un-
certain.

BDB suggests “‘to sow’’ (I Chr 20:3), but the
parallel in II Sam 12:31 (sim) suggests taking this
verb as a by-form, Hiphil,of sar ‘‘to turn aside”
(NIV “‘consign’’). Also in Hos 9:12 the meaning
“turn aside’’ is probable. For Jud 9:22; Hos 8:4,
12:5 cf. either Sdrar or Sard ‘‘rule’’.

2246 wIw (Sus), WW (Sif) rejoice, exult.

873

2247 AMY (Saha)

Derivatives

2246a tiwyw (sasén) joy, gladness.

2246b twierd (mass) joy, rejoicing.

The four usages of the verb sas in the Mosaic
writings occur in Deut 28:63 and 30:9, twice in
each verse. Here, amid the Mosaic warnings of
the blessings and cursings, three times the Lord
is pictured as one rejoicing over Israel to bless
them for obedience to his Law, and once as re-
joicing over them to destroy them for disobedi-
ence! *‘As the Lord rejoiced over you to do you
good; so the Lord will rejoice over you to destroy
you’ Deut 28:63.) sas here thus seems to convey
the idea of God's enthusiasm to bless the righte-
ous and to punish the wicked. Fortunately, by
God's mercy, Deut 30:9 shows that when Israel
at last turns back to him, that “the Lord will
again rejoice over thee for good.’* Likewise in the
prophets Israel is the object of his joy (Isa 62:5;
65:19; Jer 32:41; Zeph 3:17.)

In the Psalms, as might be expected, the sub-
ject 1s Israel and the Lord is the object, thus,
‘*Let all those that seek thee rejoice’ (Ps 70:4 [H
5}). In Ps 119, the Psalm that glories in God’s
written word, the psalmist in exultation declares,
‘‘T rejoice at thy word’’ (Ps 119:162). Likewise in
the prophets the people rejoice in the Lord's sal-
vation (Isa 61:10; 65:19; 66:14).

sasén. Joy, gladness, rejoicing, mirth. This
masculine noun makes twenty-two appearances
in the ot, and almost universally it speaks of
human happiness and abounding delight. Typi-
cally in Jer 25:10 God announces that he will use
Nebuchadnezzar to take from sinful Judah ‘‘the
voice of mirth (§a$6n)." and in Jer 31:13 he will
turn the mourning of repentant Israel in the last
days “into joy (Sasén).’’ See the synonym,
simha.

masos. Joy, rejoicing, mirth, gladness. ‘This
masculine noun, used seventeen times in the or,
is often used as a metonymy representing the ob-
ject which causes joy (e.g., “the joy of the whole
earth is Mount Zion’’ Ps 48:2 [H 3]). In Isa 8:6
used almost as a verb. Grammatically, a better
translation might be, “‘this people... have-re-
Joicing towards Rezin’’ (See KD, ad loc.).

G.G.C.
my (séah). See no. 225Sc.
2247 mmy (Saha) swim (Isa 25:11; Ps 6:7).
Derivative
2247a omy (Sadhu) swimming (Ezk 47:5).

wmv (sahu). See no. 2247a.

2248 enw (sahat)

2248 wmw (sdhat) squeeze out (Gen 40:11).
2249 AYMw (Sahip) panelled with wood (Ezk

41:16). Meaning and derivation doubtful.

pmw (sahaq). See no. 190Sc.
pmw (sthdqg). See no. 1905d.
ww (sér). See no. 2240a.

2250 mew (sata) turn aside, go aside, turn, de-
cline.

In Aramaic it means “‘to stray’’ and ina certain
form of Ethiopic ‘'to be seduced.’’ These notions
are close to what it expresses in Hebrew.

sata in Num 5:12 speaks of a woman who is
suspected by her husband of having left the true
path, so that she ‘“‘goes aside’’ to commit adul-
tery. It says that if she **goes aside, and trespas-
ses a trespass against him,’’ he may take her to
the priest who will cause her to drink the bitter
water of jealousy. Apparently by a special super-
natural action God so acted as to make the guilty
woman desperately ill from the water, while the
innocent drank it with impunity. This procedure
would in any case settle the matter and calm a
suspicious husband, while at the same time
frightening onlookers into remaining pure. It was
not really a trial by ordeal as some have called it,
for there was no inherent danger in the water. If
anything, it included a lie detection provision.
Any woman who could take such solemn oaths as
were required without betraying guilt was proba-
bly innocent (see b* tulim). Sata is used with ref-
erence to this matter also in verses 19, 20, 29 of
this same chapter.

Proverbs 7:25 admonishes, ‘“‘Let not thine
heart turn aside (Sata) unto her (the prostitute’s)
paths.’’ Here, as in the four cases in Num 5, Sata
is used for turning aside into moral impurity.

In Prov 4:15, however, we seem to have a play
on words against Num 5:12. In both cases in the
Hebrew the expression is sata ma‘al. In Num
5:12 it means to turn aside in a trespass (ma‘al);
while in Prov 4:15 it warns the hearer to turn
aside from-upon-it (mé‘al) i.e. from the wicked
path!

G.G.C.

2251 Boy (Ssatam) hate, oppose oneself to.

Derivative

225la = Mpwwre

9:7, 8).

This term, according to BDB, means “‘to bear
animosity against’’; its wider usage indicates a
more inclusive scope than mere hate. See fdané’
for synonyms.

Esau, after he was deceived bore a deep grudge
against Jacob and his parents (Gen 27:41). (This

(mastémad) animosity (Hos

874

2252 roy

same grudge is said to have festered in the bosom
of Esau’s descendants for generations. Amos
(1:11}—which does not use sa@ftam however—
speaks of Esau’s progeny having a perpetually
tearing anger as they kept their wrath forever.)
This grudge in Esau became a deep-seated
animosity which motivated a continuous haras-
sing and persecution of his brother and his de-
scendants. Joseph’s brothers were mistakenly
concerned that Joseph was also nurturing a deep
grudge against them for selling him as a slave
(Gen 50:15). This term indicates the tragic results
flowing from an unforgiving heart. Actually Gen
49:23 probably draws attention to the hatred
(Speiser “‘hostility,’’ Genesis, in AB) the
brothers originally felt toward Joseph. But
Joseph had forgiven it all.

Job (16:9; 30:21) speaks of being persecuted for
an unknown reason, seems to be suggesting that
God has a grudge against him? (If this is his mean-
ing, one can more readily understand why Job
received a strong rebuke from God.)

G.V.G.

(§dGtan) be an adversary, resist. ASV
consistently renders the former, while rsv
translates *“‘accuse.’’ Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2252a www (Satan) adversary, one who
withstands.
22526 «MQW (Sitnd) enmity, accusation.

The verb satan occurs six times in the or,
often in participial forms for one who bears a
grudge or cherishes animosity.

David employed this verb to describe his ad-
versaries (Ps 38:20; 109:4) who were rendering
him evil for good. He prayed for their overthrow
(109:20, 29; cf. 71:13). It also represents in the
noun form (Satan, KJV, NASB, NIV) ajudicial accus-
ing (Zech 3:1). Correspondingly the noun Sitnd
describes a wnitten accusation (Ezr 4:6); it had
earlier served as a name, Sitnah, ‘‘enmity,”’’ fora
well over which men quarrelled (Gen 26:21).

Satan. Adversary, one who withstands, Sa-
tan. The nominal form séa@tdn identifies Sol-
omon’s adversanies (I Kgs 11:14, 23, 25; cf. 5:4; I
Sam 29:4). David spoke of his vengeful officer
Abishai as a satan (II Sam 19:22 [H 23]). Indeed,
the pre-incarnate Chnst, or Angel of Yahweh
might be described or even identify himself as a
satan, when opposing Balaam (Num 22:22, 32).

Throughout history mankind’s preeminent op-
ponent has been Satan, “‘that old serpent’’ (Rev
12:9). He is a mighty angel (cf. his appearance
with other ‘‘sons of God'"’ in Job 1:6; Jude 9).
[Whether Satan was also a cherub depends on
one’s interpretation of Ezk 28:12-16. These
verses condemn the king of Tyre, but go beyond

him by comparing him to a figure of perfection
who was in Eden, who was created holy and later
fell. The figures of both Adam and Satan have
been proposed for the person intended.

Three lines of evidence support the identifica-
tion of this king with Satan: |) Ezekiel may have
intended to contrast the prince of Tyre (28: 1-10)
with the king of Tyre (28:11-19). Whereas the
prince is a man aspiring to deity and heaven, the
king is a heavenly being cast out of heaven. 2)
The god of Tyre at this time is malkart, meaning
‘king of the city,’ so that would be the king of
Tyre. 3) The apostle Paul identifies Satan's sin
with pride (I Tim 3:6), the sin of this king (v. 17).
This may be the only passage in the ot from
which he could have derived this truth.

Satan may be conceived as addressed through
the Tynan, even as Christ rebuked that evil angel
through Peter (Mt 16:23). Further, if **Eden, the
garden of God" (Ezk 28:13) refers to a heavenly
garden, inhabited by angels (note how the
phrases, ‘‘mountain of God" and “‘stones of fire™’
v. 14 do not well fit the earthly Eden), then it
could be Satan who is here addressed as an
‘anointed cherub’ (v. 14) or an overshadowing
cherub (cf. mimshah), which is inapplicable to
Adam.

On the other hand, if this Eden is the earthly
one of Gen 2-3, and the ‘‘mountain’’ and
‘*stones’’ refer to the pretensions of the pagan
king seated in his temple at Tyre, deluded by his
commercial success (cf. v. 16), then the
monarch’s fall could be compared with Adam's.
This assumes that ‘att (v. 14) be read as ‘ef
‘‘with’’ (rather than ‘‘you’’. ‘‘With an anointed
cherub I placed you.’ k°rib (v. 16) would be
read as the subject of the verb repointing wd’ab-
bedka to w° ‘ibbadka (3 m.s. perf. for 1 common
s. impf.), thus reading “‘the cherub drove you
out,’’ as in Rsv (cf. JBL 75:326-27). R.L.H.]

Satan’s career exhibits four stages of progres-
sive failure.

(1) Satan fell into condemnation through a
pride that induced him to rival God (I Tim 3:6 and
perhaps Isa 14:12-15, if the king of Babylon is
there a tool of Satan, something more than ** hé/é/
(q.v.) son of dawn.’ The Latin translation, luci-
fer, refers to the planet Venus, the morning star:
see Rev 9:1). The nt identifies Satan as the
tempting power behind Adam's fall (Gen 3:15 in
Rom 16:20). The ot makes no direct reference to
this fact (citing ‘‘the serpent’), though Satan’s
own fall may well have occurred with this same
temptation (cf. creation’s unimpaired goodness in
Gen 1:31). Yet despite his loss of status, the *‘de-
vil’’ (Gr. diabolos ‘*slanderer’’) continued to
exercise power on earth and to have access to
heaven as hassatdn ‘‘the accuser” (Job 1:9; 2:4;
Zech 3:1), or simply “‘the spint’’ (I Kgs 22:19-
22). Only in Ezra’s (?) post-exilic composition

875

2253 3 (sib) be hoary.

2254 3Y (Sid) to whitewash.

2255 mw (Ssiah)

does Sdfdn appear as a proper noun, Satan (I Chr
21:1). Negative critics thus restrict hassdtan to
the role of a ‘‘prosecuting attorney’ who became
evil only under later Persian concepts of dualism
(M. Burrows, Outline of Biblical Theology, p.
125). Yet the testimony of the entire ot makes
clear his consistent hostility toward God and
animosity toward man (Job 1:11; 2:3-S).

(2) With the crucifixion and ascension of
Christ, Satan was cast from heaven, no more to
accuse the brethren (Jn 12:31; Rev 12:10), though
he is still ‘the prince of the power of the [terres-
trial] air’’ (Eph 2:2). (3) Isaiah predicted a time
when Yahweh would punish the satanic hosts, as
well as the evil kings of earth, by confining them
in prison (Isa 24:21—22: cf. Rev 20:1 on Satan's
millennial binding).

(4) Then ‘‘after many days they will be
punished’’ ({sa 24:22 NasB), words which point to
the final judgment and Satan’s eternal torment in
the lake of fire (Rev 20:10).

Bibliography: Kluger, RivkahS., Satan in the
OT, Northwestern University, 1967. Payne, J.
B., Theology of the Older Testament, Zonder-
van, 1971, pp. 291-95. Hiebert, D. E., **Satan,”’
in ZPEB, V, pp. 282-86.

J.B.P.

Used only in I Sam
12:2 and Job 15:10.
Derivatives

2253a «= YW SO(Séb) ~=shoary age.
2253b tmD°W (Séba) age.

This denomina-
tive verb occurs only in Deut 27:2, 4.

Parent Noun

2254a Tw (Sid) lime, whitewash (Amos
2:1: Isa 33:12; Deut 27:2, 4).

2255 mw (Ssiah) I, meditate, muse, commune,

speak, complain. _Denominative verb.
Parent Noun

2255a tmY (Siah) meditation, complaint.
2255b tAMw (Ssiha) meditation, prayer.

2255c = MW O(Séah) «thought (Amos 4:13).
The basic meaning of this verb seems to be
‘‘rehearse, ‘‘repent,’ or “go over a matter in

one's mind.** This meditation or contemplation
may be done either inwardly or outwardly. Since
English differentiates these two notions, the
word is usually rendered ‘*meditate,”* or ‘‘talk.”’

In the first instance it is used of silent reflection
on God's works (Ps 77:8 [H 7]; 9:12 [H 11]), and
God's word (Ps 119:15, 23, 27, 48, 78, 148). In the
second instance it is used of rehearsing aloud

2256 MW (Syh)

God's works (I Chr 16:9; Ps 105:2; 145:15). If the
subject, however, is painful, it is translated ‘‘to
complain’’ (Ps 53:17 [H 18]: Job 7:11). One can
‘talk disparagingly’’ (Ps 69:12 [H 13}).

The word functions as the ‘“‘key word”’ in Ps
77. Here the Psalmist transfers his complaint (v. 3
[H 4]) based on a contemplation (v. 6 [H 7]) of
God's absence in contrast to his past deeds pre-
cisely by meditating or talking of God’s deeds.

In Prov 6:22 the son who has bound his father’s
teaching to his heart will find that the teaching, in
turn, will ‘‘talk’* with him.

Siah. Meditation, complaint, communication, talk-
ing, prayer, babbling. This noun appears four-
teen times in the or. It is derived from the verb
with essentially the same meanings, namely,
**meditation’’ (Ps 104:34; I Kgs 18:27, marg.);
complaint (I Sam 1:16; Job 7:13); talking (1 Kgs
18:27); communication (II Kgs 9:11); prayer (Ps
64:1 [2]); and babbling (Prov 23:29). Proverbs
23:29, °*Who hath babbling?’’ may also be trans-
lated, ““‘Who hath troublesome-meditations?”’
The idea of the translation of the k)v, ‘‘babbl-
ing,’ iS ’*cause-for-continual-outward-
complaining.”

siha. Meditation, prayer, devotion. This word
appears only three times in the ot. Each time it
represents pious meditation, e.g. in Ps 119:97 the
Psalmist exults in his love for God's Law and
declares, **It is my meditation all the day!”
G.G.C.

2256 Mw (Syh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2256a 3=omw (Ssiah) bush, shrub, _ plant
(Gen 2:5; 21:15: Job 30:4, 7).
pw (sim). See nos. 2243, 2244.
ww (sis). See no. 2246.
mw (fék). See no. 2262a.
mw (S6k). See no. 2260a.

2257 maw (skh). Assumed root of the following.

2257a tw (Sekwi) acelestial appearance,
phenomenon (Job 38:36). Meaning
uncertain.
2257b otmsaw (S°kivaG) image.
2257c «tmsDwr (maskit) image, idol, figure,
picture, imagination.
s‘kiya. Image, form, appearance. This noun is

found only once, in Isa 2:16. From its kinship to
maskit, ““a stone image that can be beheld
visibly,” various. translations have been
hazarded for it. Isa 2:16 is in a context of the
Prophet announcing that the Day of the Lord will
come and humble the proud and destroy the evil.
Among the things upon which the judgment will
fall are, literally in the Hebrew, ‘‘all s*kiya of

876

2258 pow

2259 35Y (sdkak) 1,

2260 33Y

2261 33¥

pleasantness!** The kJv renders these as **pic-
tures;’’ perhaps we should say “beautiful tm-
ages.”

maskit. Image, idol, figure, picture, imagination,
opinion, thoughts, conceit, imagery. This noun,
according to Gesenius, comes from the hypothet-
ical root, s@€kad which means “to look at,”* “‘to
behold.’ Hence, maskit became ‘that which is
visible,’ ‘that which can be beheld. BDB and
KB render it ‘show piece,” specifically carved
figure.”

It denotes a lovely silver setting for golden ap-
ples in Prov 25:11.

In Lev 26:1 God forbids Israel to **set up an
image of stone in your land, to bow down unto
it."” So too in Num 33:52 Israel is commanded to
destroy all of the stone-idols of the Canaanites.
The kJv translates maskit in this latter verse as
‘pictures.’ They are actually **idols-of-stone™
according to KD (in loc. Lev 26:1).

In Ezk 8:12 the prophet is shown that within
the very precincts of the temple buildings some
priests had secret rooms wherein they kept
stone-idols (maskit).

In Ps 73:7 and Prov 18:11 maskit is used figura-
tively for “the conceits of the heart.” The ksv
renders it loosely, saying that the evil doers **have
more than heart could wish.”

sekwi. A celestial appearance. This word is
used only in Job 38:36 in parallel with another
enigmatic word t#hdt. It has been discussed by
M. Pope (Job, in AB, pp. 302-303) and W. F.
Albright (YGC, pp. 246-47). Pope, with others,
concludes that it is connected with the Coptic
name for the planet Mercury. Albnght declares
that this is a mistake of modern Coptic students
and holds that it means *‘mariner, fisherman.”
The pair are discussed under fa#hor, see ttah.
G.G.C.

mew (sukka). See no. 2262b.
sow (Ssekni). See no. 2257a.
maw (s*kivd). See no. 2257b.

(Sakkin) knife (Prov 23:2).

cover, lay over (Ex
33:22). A by-form of sdkak 1.

(sdkak) IT, weave (Job 10:11). A
by-form of sdAak II.

Derivative

2260a ‘Ww’ (Sk) booth, pavilion (Lam 2:6).

(skk) IIT. Assumed root of the follow-
ing. See suk “to hedge.”

226la maw (m'sukka) hedge (Isa 5:5).

2262 “3w (skk) IV. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2262a sw (sék) thorn (Num 33:55).
2262b «MDW (sukka) barb, spear (Job

40:31).

2263 Yaw (sdkal) I, wise(ly), understand, pros-
per. Nine other English words translate
the verb: instruct, prudent, et al. (asv
same in most instances: RSV stresses the
success, prosper concept for sdakal).

Derivatives
2263a t?3DW (Ssékel), 238 (Sekel) under-
standing.

2263b = t!°Dw22 «(maskil) a poem.

Of the seventy-four times the verb form is
used, all but two appear in the Hiphil stem. In
many instances sdkal is synonymous with bin
(see hokma for discussion of synonyms), but
there is a fine distinction. While bin indicates
‘distinguishing between,’ sdkal relates to an in-
telligent knowledge of the reason. There is the
process of thinking through a complex arran-
gement of thoughts resulting in a wise dealing and
use of good practical common sense. Another
end result is the emphasis upon being successful.

§dkal also involves one in what he considers,
or pays attention to. God provides for the
afflicted and needy that they ponder who is their
benefactor (Isa 41:20). The righteous one is said
to take note of the house of the wicked: this act-
ing wisely is directed toward a thing, the evil
abode (Prov 21:12, a difficult passage, taken as
‘the righteous one’™’). The leaders of Israel's
household gathered together before Ezra in order
to give attention to the words of the Law (Neh
8:13).

Still another usage of the verb is to have insight
or comprehension. The man who would boast of
anything should boast that he has insight into,
and knows the Lord (Jer 9:23). The Hiphil infini-
tive haskél is a substantive meaning “insight,”
seen as God's gift to Israel through his rulers and
teachers (Jer 3:15). This word also occurs in Prov
1:3 where it is stated that the book was written to
give the young man “‘insight™ into wise behavior.
As in Jeremiah, wise behavior means conforming
one's life to the character of God.

Another usage stresses the idea of causing to
consider, giving insight, and teaching. David in-
dicates that the Lord made him understand the
details of the pattern of temple furniture (used as
the direct object relating to a thing, I Chr 28:19).
Gabriel gave Daniel insight or skill (Dan 9:22).

There is also the meaning of acting cir-
cumspectly or prudently. In a time of evil the
prudent know to keep silent (Amos 5:13). God
has his way of determining whether a general

877

2263 »3¥ (sakal)

population is acting wisely so as to seek him (Ps
14:2). A wife who acts prudently 1s described as
from the Lord (Prov 19:14). Likewise, the suffer-
ing Servant acted prudently in fulfilling the work
assigned to him (Isa 52:13).

The verb also may mean to prosper or have
success. Saul feared David because the latter was
prospering greatly as a result of the Spirit's pres-
ence in his life to guide. Indeed, by this success-
ful behavior David in effect ousted Saul from his
position of leadership (I Sam 18:14, 15). Jeremiah
emphasizes that judgment was pronounced on
the shepherd leaders of a favored nation. The
leaders were regarded as stupid because they did
not seek the Lord. As a result, they would not
prosper and their flocks would be scattered (Jer
10:21).

Sékel, sSekel. Understanding, wisdom. Used
similarly to the verb. There is the display of pru-
dence, or good sense, in Abigail's behavior. She
exhibited her common sense in her handling of
the crisis between her husband (a nabal q.v.) and
David (I Sam 25:3). Her approach to wisdom,
however, proved faulty because she was looking
for wisdom in a way not prescribed by God.

The noun also has the sense of insight or
understanding. David prayed that the Lord would
give his son Solomon wisdom (or discretion) con-
cerning ihe affairs of Israel (I Chr 22:12). The
man who does not neglect kindness and love
finds favor and good understanding (here a
synonym of grace, causing others to admire) in
the sight of God and man (Prov 3:4). A man's
prudence makes him slow to anger (Prov 19:11)
and a man wins commendation in accordance to
his wisdom (or insight, Prov 12:8).

The context can also indicate bad sense or
cunning. Concerning an individual of the end
time, it is said that he will through his shrewd-
ness, in the example of Antiochus Epiphanes,
cause deceit to succeed (Dan 8:25).

maskil. The Hiphil participle used as a noun ap-
pears in the titles of Pss 32, 42, 44, 45, $2-SS, 74,
78, 88, 89, 142. In addition, Ps 47:7 (H 8] em-
phasizes that one is to sing praises in accordance
with a maskil psalm. Some have considered a
maskil to be a didactic poem which causes con-
sideration or gives insight. Others have suggested
it to be an artistic song having insight. More
probably this can be considered a contemplative
poem, with elements of the other two.

L.G.

maskil. Except for its first occurrence (Ps 32),
maSkil is always linked with an individual or the
Sons of Korah. David is included in Ps 52-55 and
142, Asaph in 74 and 78 and Heman in 88 and 89.
The root, sk/, denotes ‘‘insight’* or “wisdom,”
so these psalms may be noted for their special

2264 *93¥ (sakal)

instruction or their musical difficulty. For other

such terms see se/d.
H.W.

Bibliography: Girdlestone, R., Synonyms of
the Old Testament, Eerdmans, 1897. von Rad,
G., Wisdom in Israel, Abingdon, 1972. Scott, R.
B. Y., The Way of Wisdom. Macmillan, 1971.

2264 *93w (sdakal) UH, lay crosswise. This verb
occurs only once, in the Piel (Gen 48:14).
2264.1 "158 (Ssakar) hire.

Derivatives

2264.lats3w (Seker) hire, wages.

2266

mow (salma). See no. 2270b.
pow (Ssalaq) be kindled, burn.

similarly.)

(ASV, RSV

Due to its being written without /amed but with
a double sin (cf. sdléq), the root and its etymol-
ogy are in question. Some understood the root as
ndsag (203, KB, cf. Aramaic nadsaq “‘burn’’). It
can describe a literal burning (Isa 44:15; Ezk
39:9) or picture God’s righteous anger against sin
(Ps 78:21). It is also possible to consider it as a
by-form of sdlag which exhibits the backward
assimilation of the ‘‘l’’ known from Aramaic.
This word also means ‘*go up’’ but not in burn-
ing.

2264.1b aby (Sakar) hire, wages. can
ae knee _. 2267 *osm (sim'él) take the left. This
JoWld (masKoret) wages. denominative verb occurs only in the

The basic idea of the word is engaging the ser-
vices of a person in return for pay. The various
contexts in which this verb appears adds the color
to the meaning. It is used of hiring an army to help
deliver one from his enemies (II Sam 10:6; II Kgs
7:6; I Chr 19:6; II Chr 25:6). The word appears in
the Kilamuwa inscription as the king of Assyria
(perhaps Shalmanassar III) was hired against the
king of Damascus (ANET, p. 500). The word is
used of hiring skilled workers for a particular job
(II Chr 24:12; Isa 46:6) or counsellors for advice
(Ezr 4:5). Leah “‘hires’* the privilege of sleeping
with her husband, Jacob, by giving Rachel the
mandrakes of Reuben (Gen 30:16). Balaam is
hired to curse Israel (Deut 23:5: Neh 13:2) and
thereby becomes an example of false religious
leaders who proclaim a message for money (Jude
11). God’s prophet preaches his truth and ts not
‘‘for hire.’’ Prov 26:10 warns against hiring a fool
for any kind of work.

The Niphal indicates that one hires himself to
another for a price (I Sam 2:5) and the reflexive
idea of receiving wages for one’s work is found
in Hag 1:6. It is interesting to note that God never
hires his servants; they work for him freely out
of love and thanksgiving and he rewards them for
faithfulness out of his grace.

Seker. Hire, wages. The word occurs only in
Isa 19:10 and Prov 11:18. The prophet Isaiah uses
the phrase ‘“‘those who work for wages’’ as a de-
scription of the working class. The writer of Prov-
erbs uses the sure or certain wages of those who
sow righteousness in contrast to the uncertain or
disappointing recompense of the wicked.

C.R.

mow (siklit). See no. 1493d.

2265 39w (Slaw)

16:13).

guail (e.g. Num 11:32; Ex

878

Hiphil, always signifying movement to the
left.

Parent Noun

2267a TORRY (S*mod'l), NRW (S°md'wl)
the left, the left hand, the left side.
2267b t*9Nw (s¢ma'li) left, left side.

s‘mo’l. The left, refers to that which pertains
to the left side of someone’s body (such as
Ehud’s left hand in Jud 3:21) or that which is in
the left direction as opposed to the right (as in
Neh 8:4, *‘And on his left hand stood Pedaiah’’).
The fact that Ehud was left-handed allowed him
to carry out his plan for the assassination of Eg-
lon. The guards would have noticed that he had
no dagger on his left hip (the usual place). He,
being left-handed, had it at his right side, easily
concealed.

In numerous cases the expression, ‘‘to the
right hand or to the left,’ appears in Scripture,
describing a straying from the straight path. Thus
in the literal geographical sense Moses, when
leading the children of Israel into the promised
land, promises the King of Heshbon that Israel
will stay on the highway and ‘‘will neither turn
unto the right hand nor to the left’’ (Deut 2:27).
Figuratively, in Deut 17:20, a warning is given
against turning aside from God’s commandments
‘to the right hand or to the left.”

Sometimes the right side is portrayed as the
good alternative, and the left side as the evil one.
Thus Eccl 10:2 reads, *‘A wise man’s heart Is at
his right hand; but a fool's heart at his left.”
Likewise in the nt in Mt 25:33 Chnist places the
good sheep on his right, while the evil goats go to
his left!

The left side, in some cases, however, merely
refers to another alternative from that on the
right—being equally evil (Isa 9:19, being hungry
on the right and unsatisfied on the left) or equally

good (Prov 3:16, length of days on the right hand
and riches and honor on the left).

§°mo'l also refers to ‘‘the north’’ (Gen 48:14;
Job 23:9), as the Arabic root, shamal, means
north, and vamin, ‘‘right hand,’’ means south,
and ‘‘before’’ and ‘‘behind’’ mean ‘‘east’’ and
‘‘west’’ to a person facing east.

sma’li. Left, left side. This adjective appears

on nine occasions, referring to that which is on

the left (1 Kgs 7:21, ‘the left pillar... Boaz’’).
G.G.C.

2268 maw (Samah), Mav (Saméah) rejoice.

Derivatives
2268a 39 maw «(Ssaméah) joyful, merry.
2268b 9 mmaw «(simhad) joy, mirth.

The root s-m-h denotes being glad or joyful
with the whole disposition as indicated by its as-
sociation with the heart (cf. Ex 4:14; Ps 19:8 [H
9}; 104:15; 105:3), the soul (Ps 86:4); and with the
lighting up of the eyes (Prov 15:30).

Many occasions and obiects cheer a man: wine
(Ps 104:15; Jud 9:13; Eccl 10:19), ointment and
perfume (Prov 27:9); a wise son (Prov 15:20; 10:1;
27:11); a kind word (Prov 12:25), meeting a loved
one (Ex 4:14); God's law (Ex 19:8 [H 9]), and the
increase of the righteous (Prov 29:2), and God’s
feasts (Neh 12:43; cf. Simhd). But the Lord and
his salvation are cited most frequently as the rea-
son for joy (II Chr 20:27; Ps 5:11 {H 12]; 9:2 [H 3);
16:9; 32:11: 40:16 [H 17]; 63:11 (H 12); 64:10 (H
11]; 86:4; 90:15; 92:4 [H 5]). Indeed the joy of the
Lord is a man’s strength (hedwd, Neh 8:10).
Moreover, many of these passages call upon man
to share this joy. Thus Israel is called upon to
rejoice at its festivals and central sanctuary (Deut
12:7: 14:26; 16:11; 26:11; 27:7). Israel’s joy will
be complete with their restoration (Ps 14:7; 126:2
[H 3]; Isa 9:2; 25:9; 35:10; 51:3, 11; 65:14-19;
Zech 2:10 [H 14)).

On the other hand sometimes the wicked re-
joice wrongfully at the affliction of the righteous
(Ps 35:15).

Finally, many subjects rejoice: the Lord (Ps
104:31); Zion (Ps 97:8); the humble (34:2 (H 3));
the king (Ps 21:1! [H 2]): the heavens (I Chr
16:31); fir trees (Isa 14:8); and Egypt (105:38).
But the prophets forbid Israel's enemies to re-
joice (Hos 9:1; Ob 12).

The occasions for joy are manifold: against
God, apart from God, and with God.

The heathen rejoice when they triumph over
Israel (Jud 16:23) and the fool finds joy in his folly
(Prov 15:21). But such joy must end, for the
righteous will find everlasting joy (Isa 51:11).

Joy characterizes wedding (Jer 25:10) and
farewell festivities (Gen 31:27), but most fre-
quently the word is used for joy in the Lord on

879

2272 nity (sané’)

holy days (Num 10:10), sacred occasions of many
sorts (cf. II Sam 6:12; Ezr 3:12). Because Israel is
a sacred community, however, one cannot sharp-
ly divide secular from sacred festivities. Thus
the people rejoice in the day of Solomon’s coro-
nation (I Kgs 1:40), and Israel rejoices in victory
(II Chr 20:27). Failure to worship the Lord with
gladness will bring his judgment (Deut 28:47), and
David appointed Levites to sing with joy at the
temple (I Chr 15:16). Mirth apart from God may
come to grief (Prov 14:13) and does not satisfy
(Eccl 2:1ff).

B.K.W.

movaw (s°mika). See no. 2269a.

2269 37% (smk). Assumed root of the following.

2269a = maw «(Ss mika) rug or thick cover-

let (Jud 4:18).

2270 “mY (smi). Assumed root of the following.

2270a tmpw (Simla) garments,
raiment, a cloth.

mao (salma) the same word with
metathesis of / and m.

clothes,

2270b

This is the general word for clothes. Used
twenty-nine times it usually has a literal meaning.
Shem and Japheth covered Noah in his drunken-
ness with a garment (Gen 9:23). Clothes were
rent as a sign of grief (Gen 44:13; Josh 7:6). A
number of changes of clothes was a liberal gift
(Gen 45:22). Men were not to wear women’s
garments (Deut 22:5). It is now thought that this
custom was associated with the ignominy of mili-
tary defeat and therefore there was a special
Stigma to it. The clothes and sandals of Israel
were wonderfully preserved during the wilder-
ness experience (Deut 8:4). The word beged is
another general word for garments and is used
much more often. There are many words for in-
dividual items of cloth and apparel: shésh is li-
nen, tahash leather, m*‘il is cloak; the word
k*ténet, tunic, also refers to an outer garment
and is one of the few Semitic words to be bor-
rowed into Greek (chiton).

Bibliography: For words designating various
items of apparel, see Mare, W. H., ‘‘Dress,”’ in
ZPEB, II, pp. 164~70.

R.L.H.

2271 nmvaiwy (s*madmit) a kind of lizard (Prov

30:28).

2272 N3Y (Sané’) hate, to be hateful.

Derivatives

2272a tN°IW (Sani) hated, held in
aversion (Deut 21:15).
2272b «tRNIW (Sin’a) hate, hatred.

2273 AYw (S‘p)

The term Sdneh has the same meaning in
Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2449). The verb sdné and its
derivatives have the root meaning ‘‘to hate.’ It
expresses an emotional attitude toward persons
and things which are opposed, detested, despised
and with which one wishes to have no contact or
relationship. It is therefore the opposite of love.
Whereas love draws and unites, hate separates
and keeps distant. The hated and hating persons
are considered foes or enemies and are consid-
ered odious, utterly unappealing.

God hates Israel's feast days; he has no delight
in religious assemblies and will not accept sac-
rifices (Amos 5:17). Since in point of fact these
prescnbed elements of worship have become a
mere cover-up for hypocrisy, deception, and
spiritual adultery (Zech 8:17; cf. Is. 1:13-15).
They are placed in the same category as idols
(Deut 16:22) and other means to express sin (Prov
6:16).

God's hatred for idols and feasts is also di-
rected against people, e.g. Esau (Mal 1:3, Gen 27;
Ps 5:5 [H 6}: 11:5). In each case the character
and/or activities of the hated ones are expressed;
thus God is opposed to, separates himself from,
and brings the consequences of his hatred upon
people not as mere people, but as sinful people.

The oT speaks a number of times of men hating
God. Men express in one way or other an ab-
sence of love and kindly sentiment or actual ill-
will and aversion toward God (Ex 20:5; Deut 5:9:
II Chr 19:2; Ps 22:8).

The hating that is usually referred to in the oT is
the opposition, ill-will, and aversion men have for
fellowmen. The extent and perversity of the de-
pravity of the human heart is expressed by the
hatred of a husband for a wife (Gen 29:31, 33)
among brothers (Gen 37:4), of a brother for a
sister (II Sam 13:15), among neighbors (Deut
19:11), among poor people (Prov 19:7), by a par-
ent for his son (Prov 13:24), among nations (Isa
66:5).

There is also a hating on the part of man which
is acceptable to God. Man must have an aversion
to and depart from evil, hence the Psalmist says,
‘‘IT have hated the assembly of evildoers™’ (Ps
21:5). This hatred is also in diametric opposition
to a believer's trust in the Lord, for the man of
God says, **I hate them who regard vain idols but
I trust in the Lord’’ (Ps 31:6 [H 7]).

sani’. The hated one. In Deut 21:15 Moses
used this adjective to state plainly that an aver-
sion to a wife is no good reason to disinherit her
son as the firstborn, even though he may person-
ally prefer a son (or sons) by a second wife.

Sin’a. Hate, hatred. This nominal derivative is
used to express the intensity of men's hate. Am-
non's hatred increased greatly (11 Sam 13:15).
Haters of good hate the Psalmist cruelly (Ps

880

2273 Ayw (S‘p).

25:19) and the Psalmist hates them in return with
perfect hatred (Ps 139:2). Moses used this noun
also to remind Israel of how they had raised
God's ill-will toward them (Deut 1:27).

[An interesting usage of the word “‘hate’’ is
found in Rom 9:13 which quotes from Gen 25:13
and Mal 1:2-3. Some have concluded that Paul
grounds the reprobation of Esau on a divine de-
cree in which God hated Esau before he was
born. It may be helpful to offer an alternative
suggestion. The statement in Rom 9:11 that
God's choice of Jacob was apart from works may
be completely satisfied by the quotation from
Gen 25:23 which indeed was spoken before the
twins were born. It does not necessarily follow
that Esau was hated before he was born. This
statement is quoted from Mal 1:3 which was wnt-
ten long after Esau had lived his predominantly
secular life. Though the doctrine of election by
God's grace alone is widely held, the condemna-
tion of the lost is most widely held to be upon the
basis of their own sin (so the Westminster Con-
fession ili, 7). R.L.H.)

G.V.G.

mY (Sani’). See no. 2272a.

spy (Sa‘ir) I, Il. See nos. 2274c,e.
spy (sé'ir). See nos. 2274g,h.
myy (s‘‘irim). See no. 2277a.

Assumed root of the following.

2273a =o BDyw (S°'ippim) disquietings
(i.e. disquieting or excited
thoughts, Job 4:13: 20:2).
2273b SBYNwW (Sar'appim) disquieting
thoughts (Ps 94:19; 139:23).
pspyw (s*‘ippim). See no. 2273a.
2274 “pw (s‘r). Assumed root of the following.

2274a tspw (sé‘ar) hair.

2274b MNPw (Sa‘drd) a single hair (the
feminine used to specify a single
item instead of a mass).

2274c «60 Pw O(Sa‘ir) I, hairy. Used only
in Gen 27:11, 23 of Jacob's decep-
tion of his father.

2274d Ye (Sd‘ar) be very afraid.
Probably a denominative verb,
‘bristle with terror... Used four
times, tn the Qal.

2274e th yw (Ssda'ir) Hl, he-goat, buck.

2274f tmaywy (sora) barley (allegedly
from its bearded grain).

2274g pw (sé'ir) I, Seir, Mount Seir.

2274h ~ tapw (séir) WH, Seir, patriarch of
the Horites.

sé‘ar. Hair. This word refers to hair in general

of animals and of men—either of the head or

body. Used twenty-seven times, half of which are
in Lev in connection with diagnosis of the pro-
gress of contagious diseases affecting the skin
(kjv “‘leprosy’’). The way the body hair is af-
fected was a symptom the priest was to look for
to see if the disease was over. This observance of
a kind of quarantine was a great step forward in
the Hebrews’ public health.

The other significant reference to hair is the
dedication of the hair of the Nazirite. It is not
clear why the Nazirite vow required the hair to be
uncut. Perhaps the length of the hair was to be a
reminder and testimony of the length of the vow.
When the time of the vow was over, his hair was
to be burned with his sacrifice (Num 6:1-21).
Samson was to be a perpetual Nazinte (Jud
16:22) but was in some ways a sorry example.
But even Samson was used by the Lord in his
repentance.

Absalom’s head of hair was of special note.
But, contrary to the usual understanding, the text
does not say that his hair was his undoing. It says
his head was caught in the branches of the oak—
how, is not related.

sa‘ir JI. He-goat, buck. Most of the fifty-two
uses of this word concern the male goat used for
the sin offering, especially the solemn sin offer-
ings of the day of atonement (Lev 16). The regu-
lations for the sin offering (Lev 4) specify that the
animal must be a bull for a priest or the whole
community, a male goat for a leader and a female
goat or lamb for an ordinary citizen. The dif-
ferences are clearly economic rather than a mat-
ter of sex. A sin offering by a commoner may not
be eaten by the offerer—he is to get no monetary
advantage from this offering; it is to be eaten by
the priest. But if a priest brings it and its blood is
sprinkled in the Most Holy Place, the meat is not
eaten; it must be burned outside the camp (cf.
Lev 16:27 and Heb 13:11-13). This total immola-
tion of the goat of the sin offering is a meaningful
type of Christ’s total sacrifice as Hebrews so
plainly says.

The Day of Atonement ritual is also significant
in its typology of substitutionary sacrifice. The
live goat of escape (Hebrew ‘azd'zél, **goat of
going out,’’ see ‘€z) was presented to the High
Priest. He would lay his hands on its head ‘and
confess over it all the wickedness and rebellion of
the Israelites—all their sins—and put them on the
goat’s head’’ (Lev 16:21). In this case the live
goat symbolizes the removal of sin. But in other
cases where in a similar ceremony the animal is
killed, the symbolism shows that the imputed sin
is judged (Lev 4:29). The ceremony symbolizes
transfer of sin from the sinner to the innocent
animal. Then in various ways the sin is dealt
with, taken away and fellowship restored.

In four cases this word was translated by the

881

2274 yw (S‘r)

KJV ““satyr’’ or “*demon”’ (Lev 17:7; II Chr 11:15;
Isa 13:21; 34:14). There is no need to go to this
bizarre translation. Niv translates the first two in-
stances as ‘‘goat idol,’ the last two as ‘‘goat’’ or
‘‘wild goat’’. The Nass is similar, but uses
‘satyr’’ in I Chr 11:15.

s*‘6ra. Barley. Barley was the grain of the
poor. Note the barley bread of the dream of the
Midianite soldier (Jud 8:13). It seems to refer to
Gideon's humble background. Barley ripens four
weeks earlier than wheat. For this reason it was
destroyed in the early spring plague of hail in
Egypt while the wheat coming later survived (Ex
9:31).

R.L.H.

sé‘ir J. Seir, Mount Seir. This proper name de-
notes the hundred mile tract of rough mountain-
ous country east of the Arabah desert and extend-
ing from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. Con-
nection with the root sd‘ar doubtful.

The aboriginal inhabitants of this area were the
Horites (=Hurrians q.v.) (Gen 14:6), one of
whom, Seir (sé‘ir), gave his name to the land
(Gen 36:2). Esau migrated to Mount Seir because
the land of Canaan could not sustain his house-
hold and livestock (Gen 32:3 {H 4]); his descen-
dants dispossessed the Horites (Deut 2:12, 22).
When Israel migrated from the Wilderness to
possess Canaan, the Edomites allowed Israel to
pass through their land because they feared them
(Deut 2:29). Later, five hundred Simeonites mi-
grated from Judah to Mount Seir (I Chr 4:42).
Dunng Israel’s monarchy, however, the inhabi-
tants of Seir rebelled on several occasions against
Israel (cf. I] Chr 20:10, 22, 23; 25:11, 14). Indeed,
they hated Israel and sided with those invading
Israel because they hoped to inherit Israel's land
(Ezk 25:8; 35:1-15). About 300 B.c. Edom was
dispossessed by the Nabateans.

Behind this history is the ruler over the king-
doms of all nations (II Chr 20:6). The Lord dis-
possessed the Horites and gave the Edomites the
land (Deut 2:5; Jos 24:4), and from Mount Seir he
marched forth to give Israel its land (Deut 33:2;
Jud 5:4). But because the inhabitants of Seir
turned against the Lord and his people, he dis-
possessed them even as he had prophesied (Isa
21:11f; Ezk 25:8; 35). Balaam, however, en-
visioned the day when Israel’s king would pos-
sess this mountain (Num 24:17-19).

Thus the history of Seir closely parallels the
history of Canaan, for in both lands the Lord dis-
possessed the aboriginal heathen inhabitants in
favor of Abraham's seed. They in turn were dis-
inherited from their land because of their idolatry
and sin. But at last Israel’s king will inherit both
lands.

sé‘ir JI. Seir. The patriarch of the ancient Ho-
rites who were destroyed by the children of Esau

2275 spy (sa‘ar)

and routed out of the land of Edom (Deut 2:12; cf.
Gen 36:20—21; I Chr 1:38).
B.K.W.

2275 yw (Sadar) Il, sweep away, whirl
away. An alternate form of sd‘ar which
is more widely used and of the same mean-
ing.

Derivatives
2275a 4 =6sYw (sa'ar) storm. Only in Isa
28:2. Alternate form of sa‘ar (q.v.).

mayw (s°‘drad) storm. Alternate
form of s° ‘ard (q.v.).

2275b

2276 “vw (Saar) I, be acquainted
32:17). Meaning uncertain.

(Deut

2277 “yw (s‘r) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
227/a

payy (Ss ‘irim) raindrops (Deut

32.2);

2278 Bw (sph). Assumed root of the following.

2278a tmpw (sadpd) lip, language, speech,
shore, bank, brink, brim, side, edge,
border, binding.

Most frequently sapd refers to the organ of
speech. The lips are the gates of speech, and
hence the gates of honesty or deception, right-
eousness or wickedness, wisdom or folly. Thus
we read, ‘The lips of the righteous feed many,”’
and **Let the lying lips be put to silence’’ (Prov
10:21; Ps 31:18 [H 19)).

Because speech is uttered through the lips, it
was only natural that the lips should be used as a
metonymy for language and ‘foreign language”’
per se. This is seen in such passages as Gen 11:1,
‘the earth was of one language,’’ and in Isa
19:18, *‘Shall five cities... speak the language of
Canaan.’’ In like manner, ** tongue’’ (lash6n) is
used also as a synonym for lip (Sapa) to represent
language and speech.

Concerning the origin of languages David Crys-
tal concluded: *‘There is no contradiction be-
tween the biological and linguistic facts on the
one hand, in so far as they are known, and the
factual or metaphorical account of the linguistic
situation as given in the first chapter of the Bible,
on the other’”’ (Linguistics, Language and Reli-
gion, London: Burns & Oates, 1965, p. 32).

As the lips were seen to be the outer edge of
the mouth, the word Sapa was also used in vari-
ous contexts to represent types of edges and bor-
ders. In Ex 26:4ff the Sapa is the edge of the
curtain of the Tabernacle, and in Ex 28:26 it is
used as the word for the border of the Ephod
breastplate which was to be worn by the high-
priest.

882

2281 “DY (Ssdqad)

2282 pew (sqq).

$adpa was also in the oT often used for the
shore’s edge next to the coastal oceanic sea.
Joshua 11:4 speaks of the multitude of soldiers
with Hazor and the northern Caananite cities
which came against Israel and declares that they
were ‘‘much people, even as the sand that is upon
the sea shore”’ (literally: ‘‘as-sand which-is upon
the-lip-of the-sea’’). Here since the sand is pic-
tured as upon the lip or shore, it is clear that the
‘‘lip of the sea’’ is not the edge of the water, so
much as it is the edge of the land which has sand
upon it.

In Deut 4:48 Sapa is likewise used to describe
the bank of the River Arnon, an inland river.

G.G.C.
mow (sadpah). See no. 1534.
2279 apy (sSdpdm) moustache (e.g. Mic 3:7;
II Sam 19:25). Derivation uncertain.
2280 pew (Sdpaq) suffice (I Kgs 20:10).
Derivative
2280a PRY (Ssépeq) sufficiency, plenty
(Job 20:22).

pp’ (sapaq). See no. 1539.
paw (sepeq). See no. 1539a,
pw (faq). See no. 2282a.

bind on (Lam 1:14).

Assumed root of the following.
2282a tow (saq) sackcloth, sack.

This masculine noun 1s represented in the kJv
forty-two times as ‘‘sackcloth,’’ and six times as
‘*sack,’’ 1.e. a bag which held grain or some other
commodity. The word is used also in Akkadian,
where it has the same two meanings, and came
into English by way of Greek and Latin.

$aq in the ancient world was a thick coarse
cloth, usually dark in color and made mostly from
goat’s hair (though camel’s hair was also used;
(cf. Mt 3:4). The dark color is mentioned in Rev
6:12 in the simile of the sun as being dark as
sackcloth of hair.

Sackcloth was used as a garment by mourners
and those who wished to express contntion. It
was worn in such a way as to leave the breast free
for beating. Thus in Gen 37:34, Jacob garbs him-
self in sackcloth to mourn for Joseph whom he
supposes has been slain by a wild beast (cf. Isa
37:1).

As a garment of grief and self-abasement,
sackcloth was sometimes the dress of the prophet
who preached a message of repentance (cf. Rev
11:3). Such a sight would be a call to trembling
and repentance. Both Elijah and John, preachers

of repentance, wore garments of camel's skin
(II Kgs 1:8; Mt 3:4).

In Ps 30:11 [H 12] the psalmist sings of God's
help with the words, ‘*Thou hast put off my sack-
cloth.”’

G.G.C.
2283 *"spw (Sdgar) ogle. This verb occurs
only once, in the Piel (Isa 3:16).
sw (Sar). See no. 2295d.
2284 *anw (Sdrag) be intertwined (Pual, Job
40:17), intertwine themselves (Lam
1:14).
Derivative
2284a 4 oasnw (Sdrig) tendril, twig (Gen
40:10; Joel 1:7).
2285 s3¥ (sdrad) I, escape (Josh 10:20).
Derivative
2285a =o SW «(Sdrid) survivor.
2286 ssw (srd) Il. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2286a “SW (S°rdd) plaited or braided work

(Ex 31:10; 35:18; 39:1, 49).
“WY (Sered) stylus (a
tool for wood, Isa 44:13).

2286b marking

2287 maw (sara) I, contend, have power.

Derivative

2287a toRaw (yisra’el) Israel.

The verb sara limits itself to contexts which
discuss the struggle of Jacob as he wrestled with
the Angel of Yahweh at Peniel in Transjordan,
upon his return from Mesopotamia to Canaan c.
1900 B.c. (Gen 32:24 [H 25]; Hos 12:4 [H 5}). The
form in the latter passage, wavydsar, might
suggest a root sar. But since biblical Hebrew in-
cludes no word with this meaning, it should prob-
ably be repointed to wayyisSer, apocopated from
yiSreh (BDB, p. 975), the normal imperfect of
Sara. The importance of sdrd lies in its derived
noun, Israel.

The name yisrd’él was bestowed upon Jacob
by the Angel of Yahweh (qg.v.) himself, after he
had wrestled with him all night (Gen 32:24 [H
25}). Jacob’s struggle was spiritual, in prayer
(Hos 12:4 [H 5]}), as well as physical. And in it the
patriarch “‘prevailed.’’ Not that Jacob defeated
God, but that he finally attained God’s covenan-
tal requirement of yielded submission (dramati-
cally signalized by his injured thigh, Gen 32:25
(26]). And he persisted in refusing to let the Angel
go until he had blessed him (v. 26 [H 27}). The

2289 Os (Sarat)

Lord then declared, ** Your name shall no longer
be Jacob, va‘aqé6b *‘supplanter™’ (q.v.), but yis-
ra él ‘‘{srael’*; for you have striven, sGritd (Kv,
for as a prince hast thou power, as if from the
root Sar ‘‘prince’’) with God and with men and
have prevailed’’ (v. 28, NASB).

yisra’él. Jsrael. Means “he contends with
God’’ (Gen 32:28 [H 29]: contrast KB, p. 407).
The noun yisra'él appears 2507 times in the oT
(plus its adjectival forms, yisrda’éli and yisra’élit),
first as a name of honor for the patriarch Jacob,
then for the nation Israel that descended from his
twelve sons, then after 930 B.c. for the kingdom
of Ephraim (the ten northern tribes) as opposed
to the southern kingdom of Judah, and finally for
the southern kingdom after the northern kingdom
had fallen.

yisrad’él continued to be used as an alternate
name for Jacob after his death (Ex 6:14; 32:13).
But even as the phrase b‘né yisra’él, ‘*sons of
Israel,’’ moved from the literal designation of his
twelve sons (Gen 42:5; Ex 1:1) to the more
metaphorical description of his descendants in
general (Gen 32:32 [H 33]; Ex 1:7), so ‘‘Israel”’
came to mean the Hebrew nation (Ex 3:18).

It appears in secular history on the Merneptah
stele, c. 1230 B.c. As in the case of Jacob, the
name emphasizes Israel's covenant-election (Ex
19:5; Isa 41:8: Ezk 20:5). Yet many of God's
people proved unfaithful (Amos 3:1), an apostasy
climaxed in their rejection of Jesus Christ at his
first coming (Jn 1:11); ‘‘for they are not all Israel
{God’s elect] who are descended from Israel”
(Rom 9:6, NASB). But Yahweh *‘will again choose
Israel.... [Indeed,] strangers will join them and
attach themselves to the house of Jacob’ (Isa
14:1), a prediction fulfilled, some would say, first
in the engrafting of gentile believers into the true
Israel of Christ's church (Rom 11:17; Gal 6:16:
Phil 3:3) and in any case at his second coming,
when the Jews accept him whom they pierced
(Zech 12:10) and all believers will find restoration
in the Land of Israel (Isa 14:1).

Bibliography: Payne, J. B., Theology of the
Older Testament, Zondervan, 1971, pp. 179-83,
475-78, 484—87. Rad, G. von, et al., ‘‘Israel,’’ in
TDNT, Ill, pp. 356-91.

J.B.P.

2288 mw (srk) Il. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2288a 96 aTw «6(misrad) rule, dominion (Isa
9:5, 6).

maw (s*rdk). See no. 2290a.

2289 wesw (Sdrat) incise, scratch (Lev 21:5,
Qal; Zech 12:3, Niphal).

883

2290 *33¥ (Sarak)

Derivatives

wesw (Seret) incision
new (sdretet)
21:5).

2289a
2289b

(Lev 19:28).
incision (Lev

nesw (Ssdretet). See no. 2289b.
wY (Sarig). See no. 2284a.
T3W (Sarid). See no. 2285a.
maw (Sdriq). See no. 2293a.
2290 *35¥ (Sdrak) twist. This verb occurs
only once, in the Piel (Jer 2:23).

Derivative

TInw (S°rdk) sandal
14:23: Isa §:27).

2290a thong (Gen

2291 yw (Sdra') extend

28:20).

(e.g. Lev 21:18; Isa

B’pysw’ (sar'appim). See no. 2273b.

2292 Aw (Sdrap) burn. The cognates, Ara-
maic s‘rup, Akkadian sdrapu, and Ugaritic
shr p are similar. A Ugaritic derived noun
is used for a burnt offering, whereas the

corresponding Hebrew noun is ‘dla.
Derivatives

2292a imNY (Sardp) I, fiery serpents.
2292b THY (Sdrdp) HI, seraph.
2292c «= BTW (Ss répd) burning.
2292d «= ABIWI = (masrépd) burning.

The verb ts much used and always is used fora
literal burning. It is used, sparsely, for burning
sacrifices (Lev 4:12), the destruction of cities
(Josh 6:24), the burning of children in human sac-
rifice (Jer 7:13) and in a very few cases of execu-
tion (only Lev 20:14; 21:9, cf. Gen 38:24). The
word is used for destructive burning not usually
for ordinary kindling of a fire or for metaphorical
matters like burning with anger. There are over
fifteen other words in Hebrew meaning *‘burn.”’
The most used are qatar ‘‘burn incense or sac-
rifices’’, bd‘ar **consume.”’

sarap I. Fiery serpent. This word ts used five
times: of the poisonous snakes in the wilderness
(Num 21:6, 8; Deut 8:15) and figuratively of
threatened dangerous snakes (Isa 14:29; 30:6).
The snakes in the wilderness were a natural phe-
nomenon used by God to punish Israel’s murmur-
ing. But the healing brought about by the brass
serpent Moses made was as miraculous as that
which it prefigured (John 3:14). It is of interest
that when Jesus referred to his being lifted up in
terms of this verse he was actually predicting his
crucifixion. “‘Being lifted up’’ was a_ well-
understood euphemism in Jesus’ day for death by
crucifixion (John 12:32).

The fiery flying serpents of the ksv of Isa are
not mythical dragons as BDB suggests. The fire
of these serpents was in the burning pain of the
injected venom and the flying is doubtless a ref-
erence to the incredibly swift strike of the snake
(Niv ‘‘darting snakes’’).

sarap II. Seraph (plural, seraphim). Used only
in Isa 6:2, 6, these angelic creatures are surely to
be compared with the cherubim of the temple
decoration and of Ezekiel’s later vision. Indeed,
the “living creatures’’ (NIv) of Rev 4 combine
elements of Isa 6 and Ezk 1. They are not ‘‘origi-
nally mythically conceived with serpents’
bodies’’ as BDB suggests. There is nothing in the
context to suggest serpents’ bodies. Indeed they
are said to have feet (Isa 6:2). Rather than the
noun being interpreted from the word sdrdp |
‘‘serpent’’ it should be related to the parent root
of both words ‘‘fire.** These angelic beings were
brilliant as flaming fire, symbolic of the purity
and power of the heavenly court. They are
k’ rabim (q.v.) described from their brilliant ap-
pearance.

R.L.H.

2293 paw (sry) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

2293a = Nw «6(Sariq) carded, combed (of

flax, Isa 19:9).

2294 paw (sSrq) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2294a Dw «(Sdrdq) I, sorrel (Zech 1:8).

22946 Pw «(saréq) UH, vine, tendrils.

2294c = aw «6(s6réq) choice species of vine
(Isa 5:2; Jer 2:21).

2294d mew (s*réqa) choice vine (Gen

49:11).

2295 “3Y (Sdrar) rule, reign, act as a prince,
govern. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2295a t3Y (Sar) prince.
2295b tray (Sard) princess.

An infrequently used verb whose forms seem
early to have blended in with those of sara *‘‘to
rule,’ and sar, “‘to hold dominion over.’’ Forms
are assigned among these three similar roots only
with hesitancy.

Abimelech (Jud 9:22) is said to have ‘‘reigned’’
three years over Israel.”” In Num 16:13, Moses’
opponents accused him ‘Thou make thyself al-
together a prince over us.”’

sar. Prince, chief, captain, ruler, governor,
keeper, chief captain, steward, master. This mas-
culine noun is used 381 times in the or.

The word may denote leaders, chieftains. Thus

884

in the plural it refers to the leaders of Israel (Num
21:18), Issachar (Judg 5:15), Midian (7:25), the
Philistines (1 Sam 29:3ff.), the Moabites (Jer
48:7), and the Ammonites (Amos 1:15). In the
singular it refers to David as leader of freebooters
(I Sam 22:2).

Closely related is its reference to a military
commander. In Jud 4:2, after naming Jabin as the
king of Canaan and Hazor, Sisera is called ‘‘cap-
tain of his host.’ Likewise, Abner is the *‘captain
of the host’ of Israel under King Saul (1 Sam
17:55). Interestingly, in the theophany of Josh
5:14, 15, “the captain of the hosts of the Lord”
appears to encourage Joshua before the siege of
Jericho.

sar also appears frequently as a word repre-
senting royal rulers and officials, no doubt of
sundry ranks and titles, hence, nobles and cour-
tiers. Thus Jer 26:1! speaks of the princes of
Judah, and the context (vv. 10-16) depicts them
as occupying the “king's house,” to possessing
judicial power, ordering Jeremiah to die or to be
spared. II] Chr 21:9 mentions King Jehoram’'s
princes, while IJ Chr 31:8 tells of the princes with
Hezekiah. Jeremiah 26:21 deals with those of
Jehoiakim.

The pagan nations are also mentioned as hav-
ing princes (e.g. Egypt, Gen 12:15; Midian, Jud
7:25; Assyria, Isa 10:8). Often it 1s not clear
whether far in a particular context refers to a
military captain or to a prince of the royal court.
Only the context tells whether a military or civil
officer is meant.

It denotes a religious officer, i.e. heads of the
classes or courses of pnests (Ezr 8:24) and tnbal
heads (I Chr 27:22), and apparently ‘‘elders’’
(Ezk 11:1). These two usages are found mostly in
later literature.

In Isa 23:8 (‘*merchant-princes’’) it is a term
for rank and dignity (cf. Job 3:15).

885

2297 *Snw (Ssatar)

Sar \s also used for a host of other high officials
of various types, i.e. chief, head. Thus Joseph
has dealings with Potiphar, the prison keeper,
and the chief butler and chief baker, all four of
which are entitled sar in the Mosaic account
(Gen 39:1, 21; 40:2).

Finally, in the Hebrew portions of Dan, sar
appears no less than seventeen times, and speaks
of *‘the prince of the eunuchs” (1:7), “the prince
of the host™’ of heaven (i.e. God: so KD: 8:11),
Israel's princes (9:6), and the angelic princes of
Persia and Greece who contend with Michael
‘the great prince’ (10:13, 20, 21; 12:1). No less
than the prophesied Messiah himself is called
‘‘Sar-Shalom”’ in Isa 9:5 (H 6], °*Prince of
Peace.”

Sara. Princesses, royal ladies, queens. The
feminine of Sar ‘*prince.’’ It is used five times in
the ot, always of royal ladies of the court (Jud
5:29: 1 Kgs 11:3: Est 1:18; Isa 49:23; Lam 1:1).
This was the name given to Sarai, Abraham's
wife (Gen 17:15), when the Lord blessed her and
gave her her new name, ‘‘Sarah,”’ i.e. princess-
royal lady, ‘‘for... kings of people shall be of
her.”
Bibliography: See ‘Prince’ in ISBE for a
helpful discussion of synonyms.
G.G.C.

wwe (sasén). See no. 2243a.

2296 on’ (sdtam) stop up (Lam 3:8). An

alternative form of sdtam (q.v.) which is
of similar meaning and more widely used.

2297 *snW (Ssdatar) burst or break out. This

verb occurs only in the Niphal (Ezra 5:12;
I Sam 5:9). ©

2298 w (sh). Thetwenty-first letter, with & (Ss),
of the Hebrew alphabet. That the two let-
ters were once considered the same is seen
in the alphabetical psalms, e.g., Ps
119:161—168, where the two are used in-
terchangeably to start the eight verses in
this section.

2299 mw (she) who, which, whose, whom (par-
ticle used as relative pronoun), that,
because, where, when (conjunction).

she appears in the ot 139 times, including 68
times in Eccl and 32 times in Song. It occurs
primarily in poetical sections. It usually doubles
the next letter if it 1s not a laryngeal. Alternative
forms are sha (with doubling), sh", and sha.

As a relative pronoun it has a variety of
grammatical usages within its own clause: e.g.
nominative, as subject of a verbal sentence (Song
6:5) and subject of a nominal sentence (Eccl
6:10); accusative (Song 3:1): sign of the genitive
(Song 3:7). she is also used without an antece-
dent (Jon 1:7, 12: Eccl 1:9; cf. Gotthelf Berg-
strasser, ‘‘Das hebradische Prafix,° ZAW
29:47f.). The usage which is closely related to this
is the use of she as the sign of the genitive. In
Song 1:6 it is used for emphasis strengthening the
idea of ownership (“‘mine own vineyard,’ kKJv)
and draws a contrast with other vineyards.

The second basic use is that of a conjunction. It
is used to introduce noun clauses which are the
objects of such verbs as “‘to see” (Eccl 2:13), ‘‘to
know” (Eccl 1:17), “*to say’ (Eccl 2:15). It also
introduces purpose clauses (Eccl 7:14), result
clauses (Song 5:9), causal clauses (Eccl 2:18b),
spatial clauses (Ps 122:4) and temporal clauses
(Song 5:9), which are almost conditional in nature
(Eccl 9:12; Song 8:4).

The importance of the word for biblical studies
becomes apparent when it is compared with
‘asher. Etymologically the two are not to be con-
nected or considered to have developed from one
another, either as an abbreviated form (e.g. BDB)
or a lengthened form (see objections of
Bergstrasser, op. cit., pp. 51-54). she is related
to the Akkadian sha (Hans Bauer and Pontus
Leander, Historische Grammatik der Hebrais-
chen Sprache, p. 264), and both appear to go
back to a common Semitic pronoun stem ta
(Bergstrasser, op. cit. p. 54). ’asher was proba-
bly onginally a noun meaning ‘‘place’’ (KB).
Syntactically both perform the same functions,
but sie appears to have been used in poetical
sections or perhaps where a Canaanite influence

889

may be detected. This is suggested by its occur-
rence in Jon 1:7 in the mouth of the Canaanite
sailors and its possible occurrence in a Canaanite
cuneiform tablet dated in the twelfth or late thir-
teenth century sB.c. (Frank Moore Cross, Jr.,
‘‘The Canaanite Cuneiform Tablet From Taa-
nach,’” BASOR 190:41-46). The chronological
development of the two is the most important
aspect of the comparison. It is generally stated
that she is limited to late Hebrew (BDB), particu-
larly where the Aramaic influence is supposed.
The view is that she gradually replaced ‘asher
until she completely dominated in the rabbinic
period. This is then used as a cnterion to help
date a document late (e.g. Eccl, Song, Jon). Cer-
tain objections make such a view untenable.
First, the connection of she with the Akkadian
sha indicates that the word is old, and it could be
that she is even older than ‘dsher (Bergstrasser,
op. cit., p. 56). It would indeed be strange if all
occurrences were late and none were early. Sec-
ond, early occurrences of the word indicate that
its development is not late. Assuming that Cross
is nght, there ts an early example of the relative
she in the tablet from Taanach, where the text
reads rpr s vhtk “the fee (ransom) ‘which’ is
(was) set’’ (Cross, op. cit., pp. 44-45). There is
no solid reason for denying the early occurrence
in Gen 6:3. The Song of Deborah is acknowl-
edged to be an early text and she (Jud 5:7) cannot
be lightly dismissed as a gloss of late origin.
Bergstrasser’s explanation that the older she was
systematically removed by later redactors and
replaced by ‘dsher (Bergstrasser, op. cit., pp.
43f., 56) is only an admission that the she is early
and not late!

A third objection is the continued use of
‘asher, particularly at a late penod. Eccl has the
most single occurrences of she (sixty-eight), but
at the same time it has over ninety occurrences of
‘asher. In fact both are in one verse, Eccl 8:14
(she 2: ‘asher 3). If Gordis’s explanation of this
use as ‘“‘midway between classic Biblical and
Mishnaic Hebrew” (Robert Gordis, Koheleth:
The Man and His World, p. 417) were correct, it
is strange that there are no occurrences of she in
certain exilic or postexilic books. There is, how-
ever, in these works abundant use of the sup-
posed earlier 'asher (e.g. Dan, over 40; Ezk, over
180: Zech, over 30; Mal, over 10). In addition to
biblical examples, extra-biblical sources show
that ‘asher was being used constantly when it
should have been on the way out. Another very
strong argument is the evidence from the Dead
Sea Scrolls. she is only used twice, both times in

2299.1 sev (sha’ab)

the Cairo Damascus Document (15:11; 20:4). But
in the same work ‘dsher occurs over 125 times,
as well as numerous times in the other writings
(cf. Karl Georg Kuhn, Konkordanz zu den Qum-
rantexten, p. 24). It would be a grave mistake to
use she as a criterion for classifying a work, or
part of it, as late. It is an old word used for poeti-
cal purposes and was, for unknown reasons, later
accepted by the rabbis instead of ‘dsher.

C.R.

2299.1 S8W (shd'ab) draw (water).

Derivative

2299.la 38wi (mash’ab) place to draw
water (Jud 5:11, only). Meaning
uncertain.

The verb sha'ab occurs nineteen times in the Old
Testament and is always related to drawing
water. This means that the word is related to the
word-field of water. Whether a well or spring was
deep or accessible either by tunnel or on the sur-
face, it was necessary to draw water in order to
have it available. Sometimes this was accom-
plished with a rope attached to a vessel and pul-
led through a pulley (NBD, p. 1325). Wells or
springs were either just outside a city or located
within the city wall. There were also tunnels lead-
ing to the water supply which was extremely im-
portant dunng war (cf. G. Denver, ‘‘The Water
Systems at Hazor and Gezer,'’ BA 32:61-68;
Yigael Yadin, *‘Megiddo of the Kings of Israel,”
BA 33:89-93; ANEP Supplement, p. 366). Be-
cause water played such an important role in the
ancient world, as a life-sustaining, refreshing,
and cleansing element, the work of drawing the
water was an important, but menial task done
generally by women or slaves.

The daily work of drawing water was the work
of women (cf. | Sam 9:11). The regularity of the
women’s work its highlighted in Gen 24:11, not
only by the feminine participle stressing the con-
tinuous action, and the generic use of the article,
but also by the fact that the phrase describes a
particular time of the day: ‘‘the time that women
go out to draw water’ (kjv). God, however, in
answer to prayer, uses this common task of draw-
ing water to point to the bride for Isaac (Gen
24:12-21).

C.R.

2300 INy (shda'ag) roar.
Derivative
2300a tM3NW (sh*'agda) roaring.

The verb shd’ag signifies the uttering of the
loud deep rumbling cry of the lion, and it is so
used in Amos 3:4, 8; Jud 14:5; and Ps 104:21.

In Ps 38:8 [H 9], David says, **I have roared by

890

reason of the disquietness of my heart,’ here
using the verb shda’ag to describe his apparent
deep groanings because of his sins (v. 18) and his
enemies (v. 12). In contrast, Ps 74:4 declares that
the enemies of the Lord ‘‘roar”™’ in happy triumph
as they set up their ensigns amid the ruins of the
Lord’s house which they have conquered and de-
secrated.

While the foes of God may roar in victory fora
moment, the prophets speak of the Lord roaring
back in judgment: Thus Amos 1:2 announces,
**The Lorp will roar from Zion,’* in judgment.

In Ezk 22:25 the Lord pictures Jerusalem's
rapacious leaders, her princes according to the
Lxx and her prophets according to the mT, to be
‘like a roaring lion ravening [bellowing forth
noises of conquest over] the prey.’ During this
same period Zeph 3:3 likewise labels the princes
of Jerusalem as ‘‘roaring lions.’

sh’’aga. Roaring. This feminine noun is used
to refer to roaring literally or figuratively. Of spe-
cial interest is Ps 22, which, along with Isa 53, so
well foretelis the Messiah's suffering. Here in Ps
22:1 [H 2] the Messiah asks the Father why he is
so ‘‘far from helping me, from the words of my
roaring?’’ The Messiah—it must be answered—is
roaring, groaning, as did David in Ps 38:8 [H 9]
(shd’ag, see above), because of his estrangement
from the Father or his abandonment to judgment
upon the cross (see ‘dzab) as he bore the sins of
many (Mt 27:46).

G.G.C.

2301 ANW (sha’a) I, make a din or crash, crash

into ruins (e.g. Isa 6:11; 17:12).

Derivatives
230la omsw (sha’dwd) devastating storm
(Prov 1:27, only).
2301b = NY (sh*'iyad) ruin (Isa 24:12,
only).
230Ic TNNY (shd'dn) roar (as water),

din, crash, uproar.

PRY (shé’t) ruin. Meaning
doubtful. Only found in Lam 3:47
but cf. shét Num 24:17 which has a
parallel in Jer 48:45 shd’dn.

2301d

sha’on. Roar (as_ water), din, crash, up-
roar. This substantive comes from the root
sha'a which means ‘‘to make a din or crash,"’ ‘‘to
crash into ruins.’ The main idea of the noun is a
loud noise produced by rushing waters, or a great
crowd of people; that is, ‘“‘rumbling,’’ *‘crash,”
‘roar,’ ‘‘tumult.”*

It is used eighteen times in the oT, and occurs
primarily in the prophets (eight times in Isa: four
times in Jer; once in Hos and Amos). It is found
four times in Ps.

Basically, the word depicts the noise caused by

a great crowd of people. It is the loud rumbling,
crashing din of a huge crowd. The activities of the
crowd can vary and thus various connotations
arise. Often the noise of the crowd is the thun-
derous crashing and clashing of an army, either in
preparation for battle (Isa 13:4f.) or in attack (Jer
51:55: Hos 10:14; Amos 2:2; cf. 1Q H2:27). At
other times it is the noise of a great city with its
multitudes (Isa 66:6); or the notous sounds of a
crowd of merrymakers (Isa 24:8; but not Isa
5:14): or the noise of strangers (Isa 25:5).

A more vivid usage of the word is found in
passages where the noise of the crowd is com-
pared to the rushing, roaring, tumultuous noise of
the sea of many waters (Isa 17:12—13; Jer 51:55;
Ps 65:8; cf. 1QH2:27).

In two places the word seems to be used as a
caricature of a person or people who are loud and
boisterous, yet are void of effective action.
Jeremiah calls the Pharaoh “big noise’’ (Jer
46:17: John Bright, in AB, Jeremiah, p. 303), and
he calls the Moabites *‘sons of noise’’ (Jer 48:45;
‘*tumultuous ones” k)v: cf. Amos 2:2).

A most difficult passage is found in Ps 40:3.
The “horrible pit’* (k)v is a ‘pit of roaring.’* This
could be a pit of rushing waters signifying danger
in general or referring to the waters of the under-
world. It could be simply **a pit of devastation or
destruction.’” Perhaps a parallel or allusion to
this passage is found in 1QH 5:22, where the
word seems to be interpreted like the like-
sounding Aramaic word seyan *‘mud” (so T. H.
Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures, rev. ed.,
Doubleday, 1964, p. 212).

A synonym which is constantly used as a paral-
lel is h€mon (Isa $:14; 13:4; 17:12-13; Jer 51:55;
Ps 65:8). It too conveys the idea of a loud noise,
perhaps with an emphasis on what is seen or
heard (cf. Theologisches Worterbuch zum Alten
Testament, II, pp. 444-49). Perhaps one reason
for their occurrence together is the similarity in
sound as well as meaning.

It is interesting to note that this word is used in
the same basic meaning in both sections of Isa
(e.g. Isa 5:14: 13:4; 66:6).

C.R.

2302 *mRY (shda'a) II, gaze. This verb occurs
only once, in the Hithpael (Gen 24:21).

See no. 230la.
See no. 2303c.
See no. 230Ic.
See no. 234Sa.
See no. 230I1b.

MNY (sha’dwa).
Nw (sh°'dl).
NNW (shda’on).
BNW (sh’’al).
mew (shiva).

2303 YRW (sha'al) ask, inquire, borrow, beg.

Derivatives

2303a tmONW (sh°’éla) request, demand.

891

2303 9S (sha’al)

2303b tm>Nwr (mish’ala) petition, desire.
2303c toimw (sh*’6l) sheol, grave, hell,
put.

The verb shda’al occurs 176 times in the ort,
almost always in the Qal. It is used six times in
the Aramaic of Dan and Ezr, where the form is
sh©’él (Dan 2:10-11, 27; Ezr $:9-10; 7:21).

In its oT usage shd’al signifies *‘to ask’ some-
thing of someone, whether the request be an ask-
ing for some physical object (Ex 3:22) or for some
information, (Gen 32:17 [H 18]) or whether it be
in the form of a demand for another’s death (Job
31:30), the demand made by a superior upon an
inferior (Job 38:3), or the begging petition of a
suppliant (Prov 20:4). It may denote asking a
favor for temporary use (Ex 22:14 [H 13]), orina
weakened sense, “‘to seek, desire’’ (Eccl 2:10).
The accusative of either the person asked or the
object requested normally follows, and some-
times both (e.g. Ps 137:3, **For there they-asked
us, our-captors, words-of-song’’). The k)v unfor-
tunately translated this word as ‘“‘*borrow”’ in Ex
3:22; 11:2; and 12:35. But the word does not usu-
ally connote repayment and did not in this con-
text. The rsv, NASB and NIV, e.g., use ‘‘ask.””

Over and over again in the of sha’al is used of
men and women asking or failing to ask God for
guidance, i.e., enquiring of the Lorp. David, a
man after God's own heart, many times *‘en-
quired of the Lorp”’ (e.g. I Sam 23:2; 30:8; Il Sam
2:1; 5:19, 23: |} Chr 14:10, 14). Yet in Josh 9:14 the
leaders of Israel ‘‘asked not (counsel) at the
mouth of the Lorp,”’ and we read in Isa 30:1-2,
‘“Woe to the rebellious children, saith the
Lorp... that... have not asked at my mouth.”'
In the same sense shd’al is used for the sinful
consultation of pagan deities, as in Ezk 21:21,
‘*For the king of Babylon... consulted with im-
ages, he looked in the liver.”’

shd'al is also used to signify a request for
something, and frequently this too is directed to
God. Thus Ps 122:6 admonishes us to ‘‘pray for
the peace of Jerusalem,” and Isa 7:11 shows the
prophet challenging wicked Ahaz, “*Ask thee a
sign of the Lorp.’’ Among the items mentioned in
the ot as things which God has been asked for we
find: understanding, life, a king, a child for the
barren, rain, and in Isa 58:2, *‘the ordinances of
justice."’ Thus men and women not only ‘‘ask”’
(sha'al) God for guidance (above), but they are
seen in the ot as beseeching him through prayer
and through a prophet for the needs and issues of
life.

sh’ela. Request, petition, demand, loan, This
feminine noun appears fifteen times in the or,
including its lone occurrence as sh “’éla’ in Dan
4:17 [H 14] amid the Aramaic portion of Dan. It
consistently represents a “‘request’’ or ‘‘peti-
tion’’ whether made to a person (Jud 8:24, Gid-

2303 ?sw (sha’al)

eon’s request to the men of Israel for gold), a
king (Est 5:6ff. Esther's petition to King Aha-
suerus for a banquet), or to God himself (1 Sam
1:27, Hannah's prayer to God for a son).

mish’ala. Petition, desire. This feminine noun
occurs only twice in the oT, tn Ps 20:5 [H 6},
‘The Lorn fulfill all thy petitions, and in Ps
37:4, **He (the Lord) shall give thee the desires of
thine heart.’ Interestingly enough, both of these
occurrences speak of God's fulness in granting
the prayerful petitions of those who love his
name amid evildoers and troublesome times.
G.G.C.

sh'’ol. The grave, hell, pit. The kjv_ uses
‘grave’ thirty-one times, “hell” thirty times,
‘*pit’’ three times. The asv and rsv translate as
**Sheol.”” Niv uses “‘grave’” with a footnote
**Sheol.”> The etymology is uncertain. The word
does not occur outside of the or, except once in
the Jewish Elephantine papyn, where it means
‘grave’ (A. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the
Fifth Century B.C., Oxford, 1923, no. 71:15). The
word obviously refers in some way to the place of
the dead.

There is much difference of opinion on the
meaning of the term, occasioned in part by differ-
ing approaches to the ot teaching on a future life.
Snaith, e.g., holds that there was no such teach-
ing except in the intertestamental times of Dan
12:2 and “‘trito-Isa™ (Isa 26:19; N. H. Snaith, The
Distinctive Ideas of the OT, Schocken, 1964, p.
89). Dahood, quite to the contrary, finds the fu-
ture life throughout the Pss and in other oT litera-
ture (see bibliography). The present writer holds
that the future life is affirmed in many places in
the o1, although details are not given. The inter-
mediate state and the destiny of the wicked get
less emphasis. Resurrection for the righteous is
clearly and repeatedly expressed.

One problem with sh“ '6/ is that both good men
(Jacob, Gen 37:35) and bad men (Korah, Dathan,
etc., Num 16:30) go there. This led the early
church to hold that the ot saints went to a limbus
patrum, a kind of upper level of Sheol from which
Christ delivered them at his resurrection (1 Pet
3:19: Eph 4:9-10). The nt verses are highly prob-
lematical. The first one likely refers only to
Noah's preaching by the Spirit of Christ; the sec-
ond refers to Christ's descent from heaven and
return there.

Rather than a two-compartment theory, it is
easier to hold to a double meaning of sh°'ol. It
can be held that originally the word meant just
‘the grave’ and became specialized for “*hell.”’
This ts the viewpoint of the ksv. °*Hell’” ts more
in point in the later passages than in the Pen-
tateuch. Still Num 16:30, 33 and Deut 32:22 are
“hell” tn the kiv.

A common view today is that s/"'o/ 1s a name
for the underworld (Dahood and many). One

892

problem with this is the theological one. Does the
OT teach, in contradiction to the nT, that all men
after death go to a dark and dismal place where
the dead know nothing and are cut off from God?
In Mesopotamian sources all people go to the un-
derworld, live in darkness and sorrow, eat clay
and are plagued in various ways. There is no fiery
torture. If the NT teaches otherwise (Lk 23:43),
can such a view of the oT be held?

A third view is that sh’ 'é6/ does not describe
the place where the souls of men go, but the place
where their bodies go, the grave. Where their
souls go is learned from other Scriptures (Ex 3:6:
Mt 22:32). This view is attractive. It avoids the
rather artificial two-compartment theory on the
one hand and the theologically questionable
theory of an undifferentiated underworld or place
of departed spirits on the other hand, where all
men go into dismal darkness and shadowy exis-
tence. It does not favor soul sleep or annihilation
of the wicked, for it speaks only of the destina-
tion of bodies. The condition of the souls of men
until the resurrection is not in view. The question
is, can the passages be fairly interpreted as
“grave?”

Space forbids detailed treatment, but a good
number of verses can be collected where the
meaning ‘“‘grave’’ seems to be demanded. The
four in Gen all refer to Jacob being brought down
in sorrow to the grave. The references to Joab
and Shimei in I Kgs 2:6, 9 are similar. All but
eight of the passages concerned are poetic, and it
may be that sh’'d/ is just a poetic synonym for
geber which is used seventy-one times for
“*grave’ (and the verb qabar is used all 132 times
for “‘bury’’). In two passages using sh‘’dl (Ps
16:10 [H 11] and Hos 13:14), the oT is quoted in
the New (Acts 2:27: cf. 13:35 and I Cor 15:55). In
the first case the passage is used to support the
bodily resurrection of Christ from the grave, in
the second, the resurrection of believers.

Significant is the series of usages in Ezk 31 and
32. In highly poetic language the prophet declares
that Pharaoh, king of Egypt, will fall before the
king of Babylon, as Assyria had done. The ex-
pressions used are instructive. Assyria was des-
tined for death. Elam, Meshech, Tubal and the
nations are pictured as slatn, lying with the
uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword.
These are all said to be in sh*'6l/ (31:15, 16, 17;
32:21, 27). They are said to be in the grave, geber
(32:22, 23, 25, 26). The word “‘pit,”’ bdr, is used
of them eight times (31:14, 16; 32:18: 23, 24, 25,
29). The ‘‘earth below” (Niv), ‘eres tahtit, is used
five times (31:14, 16, 18; 32:18, 24). Once it is said
that that their “‘graves,” geber, are in the sides
or depths (verek) of the pit, bdr. It should be
remembered that forty-two times out of sixty-two
bor simply means a hole dug in the ground: a
cistern, well, or dungeon. Graves in Palestine
were also dug just this way, usually in rock, and

the other twenty uses of bdr refer to the pit of
death, most naturally interpreted as sepulcher,
tomb. These tombs often had shelves cut in the
sides where bodies were placed. The writer took
part in excavation of a tomb at Dothan with three
such shelves on which many bodies had been
placed with pottery and spear points in abun-
dance (cf. Ezk 32:27, ‘‘down to the grave, sh" dl,
with their weapons of war,” Niv). The picture is
one of universal slaughter and universal burial.
They all “‘lie with the uncircumcised, killed by
the sword.’ sh“’6/ here means simply ‘‘grave,”’
as is also argued by A. Heidel in an important
treatment (see bibliography).

Similar is the usage in Isa 14:11-20, spoken of
the king of Babylon. The same terms are used:
sh®’6dl twice (vv. 11, 15), pit, bdr, twice (vv. 15,
19). Grave, geber, is used once (v. 19) and its
verb once (v. 20). Interesting are vv. 18-20. Most
kings get royal burial and lie in state in their
tombs (bayit **house’’). But this king lies covered
by the slain of battle, trampled under foot, not
buried with his fathers in royal pomp.

In Job 17:13-16 sh ’6l is said to be like a bed in
darkness characterized by dust, the worm, and
decay—a perfect picture of a Palestinian tomb.
Job 24: 19-20 also speaks of the worm feasting on
those in sh°’d/. Job 21:13 poses the problem of
the wicked who prosper in life and have an easy
death. They tie side by side with others in the
dust, and worms cover them both (v. 26).
Clearly, the grave is meant. The parallel of sh’ d/
and destruction, ‘'adbaddoén, in Job 26:6 should be
compared with the parallel of geber, grave, and
‘abaddon in Ps 88:11 [H 12] (cf. the use of sh’ ’dl
in Ps 88:3 [H 4] and geber and bdr in vv. 5 and in
4 and 6 [H 6, 5, 7]). The mixture in this psalm is
quite reminiscent of that in Ezk 31 and 32. The
parallel of sh’ ’6/ with ’abadd6én occurs again in
Prov 15:11 and 27:20 (cf. Prov 30:16).

Complete treatment of all the passages is be-
yond our space. A number of them are in-
conclusive and could refer either to deliverance
from future punishment, such as Prov 15:24;
23:14; Ps 86:13 (but cf. Ps 88:3 [H 4] and 89:48 [H
49]}). Or they can also be treated as referring to
deliverance from untimely death.

There are three passages which use sh” ’6l asa
great depth, sometimes opposite to heaven (Ps
139:8; Job 11:8; Amos 9:2; and cf. Deut 32:22; Isa
57:9). It should be remembered that the Hebrews
had no deep mines or oil wells to compare for
depth. The royal tombs of Ur were dug thirty feet
deep. The context of Amos 9:2 gives the contrast
of the heights of Carmel and the bottom of the
sea. Such figures for depth could well arise from
the meaning ‘‘tomb.”’

As to the usage in Num 16 and the similar
phraseology in Ps 55:15 [H 16], the picture is that
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram with their families
and with all their belongings were buried alive.

893

2304 *I8wW (sha’an)

The ksv “‘quick”’ of course means ‘‘alive.’’ That
they went to hell (at least the principals in the
rebellion) is doubtless true, but all the text refers
to is the miraculous catastrophe by which they
were killed.

If this interpretation of sh*’dl is correct, its
usage does not give us a picture of the state of the
dead in gloom, darkness, chaos; or silence, un-
remembered, unable to praise God, knowing
nothing. Such a view verges on unscriptural soul
sleep. Rather, this view gives us a picture of a
typical Palestinian tomb, dark, dusty, with min-
gled bones and where ‘‘this poor lisping stammer-
ing tongue lies silent in the grave.”* All the souls
of men do not go to one place. But all people go
to the grave. As to the destiny of the souls of men
in the intermediate state, the oT says little. Actu-
ally the Nt says little too, but what it says is deci-
sive... The saved go to heaven and bliss; the
wicked go to hell and torment. In the ot the hope
of the righteous is life with God, the wicked have
not this hope. Cf. Dahood's interpretation of Ps
23:6: 17:15 and others (Psalms, AB, in loc.), also
Prov 23:18: 24:14, 20 (M. Dahood, Proverbs and
Northwest Semitic Philology, Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1963, pp. 48, 51). Numbers of other
verses speak of eventual resurrected life in a new
heavens and a new earth, but that must be a fur-
ther study.

Bibliography: Buis, H., ‘‘Sheol,’ in ZPEB,
V, p. 395. Dahood, M., Psalms, in AB, vol. III,
pp. xh-lu. David, John D., **The Future Life in
Hebrew Thought During the _ Pre-Persian
Period, PTR 5:631-41. Gordis, Robert,
‘Studies in Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Mean-
ings,’ JQR 27:33-58. Harris, R. L., “*The Mean-
ing of the Word Sheol as shown by Parallels in
Poetic Passages,’ JETS 4:129-35. Heidel, A.,
*‘Death and the Afterlife’ chap. III in The Gil-
gamesh Epic, University of Chicago, 1946, pp.
137-223. Hooke, S. H., ‘‘Life after Death: V.
Israel and the After-Life,”’ Exp T 76:236—39.
Sutcliffe, E. F., The OT and the Future Life,
1947. TDNT, I, pp. 146-48. THAT, II, pp. 841-
43.

R.L.H.

2304 *Isw (sha’an) rest, be quiet, be at ease.

Derivative

2304a TINY (shu'dnan) at ease, quiet, se-
cure; and when used as a substan-
tive, security, pride, arrogance.

The verb, shd’an, represents the idea of being
quiet and tranquil. In Jer 48:11 Moab is chided for
her having been at ease in her sinful ways, and for
this God's prophet announces judgment coming
upon her.

A person who hearkens to wisdom shall be
quiet (sha'an) according to Prov 1:33; and, ac-

2306 ANY (sha'ap) Hi,

2305 ASW (sha’ap)

cording to Job’s lamentation, death also gives
rest (sha'an) (Job 3:18). The Lord, however, is
the ultimate giver of true tranquility, and using
this verb in both Jer 30:10 and 46:27, he promises
eventually to restore the nation of Israel and she
shall be quiet (30:10) and be at ease (46:27), **And
none shall make him (Jacob) afraid!"* This condi-
tion of peace, full restoration and utter freedom
from fear for a converted Israel has never yet
occurred: it is awaited.

sha’4nan. At ease, quiet. This adjective de-
scribes the condition of life in peace and tranquil-
ity, and it is thus used in both a good and bad
sense, “‘quiet’’ and as a substantitive ‘*pride.”’

In the ksv of I] Kgs 19:28 and its parallel 37:29
we read, **Because thy rage against me and thy
tumult (sha’dndn).’’ **Tumult’’ here is mislead-
ing (probably mistakenly taken for shda’én
‘“*tumult, noise’’), for sha’dndn is a substantive
probably meaning “‘arrogance,’’ i.e. the pride
and ease by which Assyria threatened to destroy
Jerusalem and the house of the Lord. Against this
sinful tranquility on the part of God’s enemies,
the Lord arose and his angel destroyed in one
night the massive army of Sennacherib, giving
Hezekiah rest.

G.G.C.
WNW (sha’andn). See no. 2304a.

2305 ANY (shd’ap) I, gasp, pant after, long
for (e.g. Isa 42:14, Jer 2:24).

crush, trample (e.g.
Amos 8:4; Ezk 36:3).

2307 “sw (shd’ar) I, remain, be left over, be
left behind.

Derivatives

2307a = taRwW (sh°’ar) rest,
nant,
2307b THANY
nant.

sha’ar is used chiefly in the Niphal and Hiphil
stems. It occurs once in the Qal, in I Sam 16:11.

sha’ar is used 130 times, and its derivative
forms are used an additional 121 times. This root
should probably be distinguished from sh°’ér II,
‘flesh, food, flesh-relation, blood revenge,”’
which appears in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and even
in an Arabic cognate.

sha’ar seems to be used almost exclusively to
indicate the static action of surviving after an
elimination process. This process of elimination
may have been natural (Ruth 1:3, *‘Naomi’s hus-
band died; and she was left’’). It may have been
humanly caused (1 Sam 9:24, ** Behold that which
is left!’’ Here Samuel is speaking of meat which
was intentionally left for Saul to eat). Or the

residue, rem-

(sh©’érit) remainder, rem-

894

elimination may have been the direct result of a
divine intervention (Ex 10:19, “There remained
not one locust in all the coasts of Egypt,’’ when
God blew them away). No matter what the cause,
however, sha’ar points to that which remains or
has survived, e.g. 1 Sam 16:11, “" There remaineth
yet the youngest,’ whereby Jesse informs
Samuel that the prophet has examined every one
of his sons except one who yet ‘‘remaineth,”’ a
survivor as it were from Samuel’s earlier inter-
views.

shar Rest, residue, remnant. This noun is
used twenty-six times. It is also translated as the
rest, remnant, and residue (e.g. Isa 10:19, 20, 21,
22; 11:11, 16; Zeph 1[:4). It is a synonym of
sh’érit (below). In the Septuagint it is trans-
lated occasionally by kataleimma which is used
also to translate sh érit (Isa 10:22: cf. Gen 45:7).

Usually, however, sh°’adr was rendered in the
Septuagint by the Greek aorist passive participle
of kataleipd, *‘that which has been left.’’ Thus
the early rabbis seemed to see it simply as a par-
ticiple of the root sha’ar. BDB calls it ‘late’ (p.
984), probably because it is nowhere used in the
Pentateuch. In any case, it too refers to that
which has survived after an elimination, a judg-
ment, or a catastrophe, and like sh‘ 'érit it may
speak of the rest of trees, money, or a city (Isa
10:19; I] Chr 24:14; I Chr 11:8), the remnant of
Syria (Isa 17:3), a historic remnant of Israel then
alive (Neh 10:28 [H 29]), or of that final blessed
prophetic remnant of Israel yet to come (Isa
11:11, 16).

In Isa 7:3 sh°’ar is used as part of the testimo-
nial name of one of Isaiah's children, **Shear-
Yashub,’’ literally, ‘*A-remnant shall-return.”’
This name testified to wicked King Ahaz, as well
as to all Israel, that for their sins God was about
to drive Israel from their land—but yet by grace
even here there still remained that grand promise
of hope that someday indeed a remnant would
return!

sh®’érit. Remainder, remnant, posterity, residue,
survivors. This noun, in every usage, carries
forward the basic root idea of sha’ar and speaks
of that which has survived after a previous elimi-
nation process or catastrophe.

sh ’érit ‘‘remaining portion’’ may refer to that
which is: (1) neither morally good nor bad, apart
from its context (e.g. Isa 44:17, ‘‘and the residue
thereof he maketh a god.’’ Here the prophet
speaks merely of a piece of wood which remains
after a fire. Until the pagans carve it into a god it
is still just a piece of wood, neither morally good
nor evil); (2) an evil residue; (3) a good residue
(e.g. Gen 45:7, *‘God sent me before you to pre-
serve you a postenty.’’ Joseph here speaks of his
divine message to deliver the favored Israelites
from the famine).

When applied to human survivors, sh° ’érit can

refer to Amalekites (I Chr 4:43) or heathen from
Ashdod (Jer 25:20).

In the vast majority of cases, however, context
shows that the remnant is that which has come or
will come from out of the house of Israel. Here it
may further refer to a remnant out of Israel which
was in existence and living during the lifetime of
the biblical speaker or writer, hence a historic
remnant. This ts the case in such passages as Isa
37:4, where Hezekiah seven centuries before
Christ asks Isaiah to “lift up thy prayer for the
remnant that is left,’ i.e. those Israelites still
surviving in Jerusalem after Assyria had earlier
slaughtered and led away captive the Northern
Kingdom. This remnant was still alive when
Hezekiah referred to them as such.

sh’érit, however, finds what may be its most
intriguing usage as a prophetic technical term
representing the final future remnant of Israel,
namely, those Jews who survive to the end of this
present age upon whom God showers all of the
blessings which have been promised to Israel
through the centuries. Thus sh°’érit is used in
Zech 8:6, 11, 12 speaking of the remnant and res-
idue of Israel at a time when Jerusalem shall be
called ‘a city of truth’’ (Zech 8:3), children will
play in her streets (8:5), it will be marvelous (8:6),
God will call them ‘‘my people’’ and will have
brought them from the east and west (8:7), God
will be their God “‘in truth and in righteousness”
(8:8), her agriculture shall prosper with much rain
(8:12), Israel and Judah will be a blessing, not a
curse (8:13), nations will send representatives to
worship the Lord in Jerusalem (8:22), and people
of the various nations shall acknowledge that
God dwells again with Israel in a special blessed
way (8:23).

Any fair-minded person would have great diffi-
culty in taking the above passages and those like
it to represent the remnant of Israel in any of her
past history—contrast, e.g., Rev 11:8 where John
refers to first century a.p. Jerusalem as *‘Sodom
and Egypt’’! Thus God will in the end, after great
tribulation, fulfill all of his promises of blessed-
ness to the nation out of Abraham, and he will do
it by blessing the remnant, the survivors by grace
of time, human cruelties, and divine judgments
(so Rom 11:25-29).

It may be of interest to note that the Septuagint
(c. 270 B.c.) translated sh°’érit by the Greek
words kataleimma (Gen 45:7: II Sam 14:7) and
kataloipu (Jer 6:9: Zech 8:6), both of which
synonymously mean ‘“‘that which ts left behind.’’
Today, almost two thousand five hundred years
after Moses first used sh°’érit in Gen 45:7, we
still find it defined in Ben-Yehuda’s pioneer Is-
raeli dictionary as ‘‘remnant, remainder, re-
mains’’ (Ehud Ben- Yehuda and David Weinstein,
Hebrew-English Dictionary, p. 287). |

Bibliography: Campbell, J.C., **God's
People and the Remnant,’’ SJT 3:78-85. Heaton,

895

2311 now (shaba)

E. W., “The Root "sw and the Doctrine of the
Remnant,’ JTS 3:27~-39. TDNT, 1V, pp. 196-
209. THAT, Il, pp. 844-54.

G.G.C.

2308 Sw (sh’r) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2308a “kW (sh°’ér) flesh, food, body,
near kin, near kinswoman. The Englishman's
Hebrew Concordance lists sixteen usages of this
word, and BDB suggest that it comes from the
root sh’r II, ‘‘blood revenge ... perhaps onginally
blood’’ (p. 984; but cf. Akkadian $éru ‘‘flesh’’).
Eight of the sixteen usages of this word occur in
the Pentateuch (e.g. Ex 21:10; Lev 18:6, 12, 13).

Bibliography: TDNT, Vil, pp. 105-24.
G.G.C.

measw (sh ’érit). See no. 2307b.
ARW (shé't). See no. 2301d.

2309 s5w (shbb) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2309a oo a’sawW (sh babim) splinters (Hos

8:6). Meaning uncertain.

2310 s35w (shbb) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2310a ss 383Y OO (shabib) flame (Job 18:5).
Meaning uncertain.

peasy (sh babim). See no. 2309a.

2311 m3yY (shaba) take captive.

Derivatives

231la t’aw (sh°bi) captivity, captives.

2311b maw (sh biyd) captive.

23lle +tmaw (shibyad) captivity,
(collective noun).

2311ld thaw (sh’ bit), maw (sh* bat)
captivity.

231le YW (sh°bé) a precious stone in the
high priest’s breastplate. Deriva-
tion uncertain.

captives

In the ot shaba chiefly conveys the idea of a
military or para-military force subduing a foe and
then taking into their possession the men,
women, children, cattle, and wealth of the de-
feated party. Since confinement facilities were
nigh unheard of in the oT, usually after battle the
surviving male adults were put to the sword.
Thus after the Amalekites smote Ziklag, I Sam
30:2 tells us that they ‘‘had taken captive the
women,’ and the verses which follow show
clearly that the children were also among these
prisoners. In I Chr 5:21 we see an example of
flocks being led away captive, and in II Chr 21:17
it is the wealth of King Jehoram which is taken
away along with his wives and children.

2311 Maw (shaba)

An intriguing usage of shabd is found in the
expression, ‘““Thou hast led captivity captive,”
which appears in Ps 68:18 [H 19], and in Jud 5:12,
**Arise, Barak, and lead thy captivity captive.’
This expression, shabd sh* bi seems to mean that
Jehovah in Ps 68 and Barak in Jud 5 have taken
captive a-host-of-captives (sh bi). Psalm 68:18
(H 19] overtly refers to Jehovah's glorious ascen-
sion of triumph with the Ark unto Mount Zion
and Jerusalem, and his figurative leading captive
all of his foes. Paul, however, in Eph 4:8 sees this
verse to be emblematic of Christ's ascension as
he too rises in triumph over the host of enemies
now taken captive. (See on Ps 68:18 {[H 19] A. F.
Kirkpatrick, Psalms [Cambridge: University
Press, 1939]. On Eph 4:8 see Albert Barnes,
Notes on the NT, Reprinted by Baker, 1957.)

Isaiah 61:1 speaks of one ‘‘anointed”
(mashah= Messiah), upon whom the Spirit of the
Lord dwelled, who would come to ** proclaim lib-
erty to the-ones-taken-captive.’ Here this mill-
tary word is used metaphorically to describe
one’s spiritual release from sin and Satan. Christ,
in Lk 4:18, applies this to himself, and thus
arouses the ire of those of his own Nazareth
synagogue.

Thus Ps 68:18 (H 19] is seen by Paul in Eph 4:8
as showing the Messiah taking his foes captive:
and Isa 61:1 is seen by Christ as showing the
Messiah releasing those taken captive.

sh°bi. Captivity, captive, prisoner. This mas-
culine noun, used forty-seven times in the oT, in
at least three out of every four appearances indi-
cates ‘‘captivity.’’ That is, it speaks of the situa-
tion wherein people and/or animals (e.g. horses in
Amos 4:10) are taken prisoner by a hostile mili-
tary or para-military group, and with this comes a
subsequent loss of freedom, various depri-
vations, and sufferings, and usually an enforced
removal from their homes to a place of the cap-
tors’ choosing, often to a foreign country.

Sometimes sh"bi refers to “‘captives”’ or
‘*prisoners’’ as a body, e.g. Num 21:1, “King
Arad... took some of them prisoners.”

In 721 8.c. the northern kingdom was scattered
by Assyria, and in successive waves in 606, 597,
and 586 B.c. Babylon took the southern kingdom,
Judah, into captivity. Thus Jeremiah bewails that
the children of the daughter of Zion “‘are gone
into captivity.” Yet this weeping prophet sees
beyond and gives God’s promise to Israel that
someday he would save Israel **from the land of
their captivity’’ and ‘‘none shall make him
afraid’ (Jer 30:10).

sh‘bit, sh*bat. Captivity. These alternate
spellings of what appears to be the same word
occur altogether in the oT some thirty-five times.
They are found intermixed in the Kethib-Qere

896

readings. E.g., see KD on Ezk 16:53, where this
word arises no less than five times.

In Num 21:29 sh° bit refers to the captivity of
the children of Moab, and here is used as a
synonym for sh’ bi “‘captivity.”’ In the other
thirty-four cases where this word, sh‘ bit, ap-
pears it 1s used over and over in an idiomatic
combination with the verb, shib ‘“‘return’’ to
speak of a captivity, which is or will be termi-
nated. Thus in Ps 85:1 [H 2] we read, *"Lorp...-
thou hast brought back (shub) the captivity
(sh° bit) of Jacob.’ The succeeding verses show
that this ending of the captivity is accompanied
by (a) a turning away of God's wrath, (b) a for-
giveness for the sins of the past, and (c) a restora-
tion to the former position of favor and blessing.
[The phrase has been further studied however, by
Dahood (Psalms It]: in AB, p. 218) who cites the
pertinent literature. He quotes the cognate
Aramaic phrase in the Sefire Inscription to show
that the Hebrew sh° bit and sh° but do not come
from shabd, ‘‘take captive, but are cognate ac-
cusatives of shib “‘restore.’’ The phrase in the ot
often means merely “restore the fortunes of”
(Job 42:10, Niv), though sometimes, of course
this involves a restoration from captivity. Natur-
ally this all included blessing, joy and the remis-
sion of God's wrath. R.L.H.]

It may be that the Hebrew writers felt that this
shib-sh¢ bat alliteration well portrayed the joy-
ous proclamation of captivity ended. Surely there
is a note of joy even in Jer 29:14 as the prophet of
Judah's doom looks ahead to see that day when
shitb-sh° bit, Judah will have its days of captivity
turned-away and be restored again to her Lord.
So see Job 42:10.

shibya. Captivity, captives (collective noun).
Used nine times in the oT, always of those cap-
tured during and after military engagements, e.g.
Deut 21:11; I] Chr 28:5, 11, 13, 14. In the kv it is
translated captivity only in Neh 4:4 (3:36).

G.G.C.
aw (sh’bd). See no. 231 le.
misw (sh bat). See no. 2311d.
yysw (sh bil). See no. 2316d.
yisy (shabua'). See no. 2318d.
myisw (sh°bia'a). See no. 2319a.
2312 *maw (shabah) I, soothe, still. (Piel and

Hiphil, only.)

This verb has Arabic and Akkadian cognates
meaning “to be free of care,’ and “to grow
calm,’* respectively. In Ps 65:7 {H 8], Almighty
God is seen as stilling the violent waves. Jesus,
too, calmed angry seas (Mt 8:23-27).

2313) *maw (shabah) II, praise, commend. (Piel

and Hithpael, only.)

In Ps 63:3 [4], shabah is used (“my lips shall
praise thee’’) in a context of adoration towards
the power, glory, and sanctity of the Lord.

Qohelet (Eccl 8:15) commends mirth, and in
4:2 he praises the dead! The word, shabah, how-
ever, in the majority of cases is used to praise
God for his mighty acts and deeds (Ps I17:1:
147:12: 63: {(H 4]: 145:4; I Chr 16:35: and Ps
106:47, “to triumph in thy praise’’).

G.G.C.

2314 wesw (shbt). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

2314a tesw (shébet) rod, staff.

2314b 4 tersaw (sharbit) dart, spear.

shébet. Rod, staff, scepter, tribe. This noun
commonly denotes a rod. [t was used for beating
cumin (Isa 28:27), as a weapon (II Sam 23:21),
and as a shepherd's implement either to muster
or count sheep (Lev 27:32: Ezk 20:37), or to pro-
tect them (Ps 23:4: Mic 7:14). In Ps 23:4 it is used
metaphonically of the Lord’s protection of his
servant as he walks in paths of righteousness.

The rod was also used as an instrument for
either remedial or penal punishment. As a correc-
tive instrument it was used for a slave (Ex 21:20),
a fool (Prov 10:13: 26:3), and a son (Prov 13:24:
22:15: 23:13-14: 29:15). In Prov it is the symbol of
discipline, and failure to use the preventive disci-
pline of verbal rebuke and the corrective disci-
pline of physical punishment will end in the
child’s death. Metaphorically, the Lord used As-
syria as his instrument to correct Israel (Isa
10:15) and the nations to correct his wayward
king (II Sam 7:14). It is also used metaphorically
of penal affliction of Israel's ruler by the enemy
(Mic 5:1 {H 4:14]) but the Lord’s righteous King
will smite the wicked with the ‘‘rod*’ of his word
of judgment (Isa 11:4).

In I] Sam 18:14 it refers to the shaft of a spear
or dart.

Then, too, the word denotes a sceptre, the
mark of authority. The association of smiting and
ruling is evident. Significantly, in Akkadian the
verbal cognate shabdtu means to ‘slay, smite,”
and the noun shibtu (= Heb shébet) means “‘rod,
sceptre.”’ Thus it is the symbol of rulership.
Whereas the prophets predicted that the sceptre
of Israel's enemies will be removed (Amos 1:5;
Zech 10:11), Jacob predicted that “the sceptre
shall not depart from Judah... until Shiloh
come...’’ (Gen 49:1), and the psalmist predicted
that the rule of Israel’s ideal king would endure
forever (Ps 45:7). These promises find their ful-
fillment in the Lord Jesus Christ. The close as-
sociation of **smiting’’ and ‘‘ruling”’ is most ob-
vious in the psalmist’s prophecy that the Lord's
King will smash the wicked, rebellious world
with an iron rod (Ps 2:9, though possibly Ps 2:9

897

2315 way (sh bat)

2316 33sw (shbl).

2318 yaw (sheba’),

2318 paw (sheba‘)

refers to shepherding or ruling the nations with a
scepter of iron—cf. Ps 2:9 Niv and Rev 19:15: cf.
Ps 125:3: Isa 14:5).

Finally, the word denotes “tribe.” This mean-
ing is probably derived by association with its use
to express rulership. In Num 4 it denotes the
subdivisions of the tribe, but elsewhere it refers
to the tribes of Israel either individually (Deut
23:1; passim) or collectively (Num 36:3, passim).
Israel’s factious tribes (cf. Judg 20, 21: If Sam
19:9 [(H 10]; 1 Kgs 11:31 ff.) will at last be united in
the Kingdom (Ezk 37:19). The word, however, ts
never used to refer to tribes of other nations.

The synonym matteh denotes “‘rod, tribe’ but
not “sceptre.”’

sharbit. Sceptre. This masculine noun is found
only four times in the oT, all in the book of Esther
(4:11: 5:2 twice: 8:4). It is the Aramaic form of
shébet (q.v.) “sceptre.’’ Only the nod of this gol-
den stick could save from certain death the one
who entered the throne room of the Persian king
unannounced. (See KD, Esther, pp. 351-52.)
Bibliography: Fall, Zeev W., --Two Symbols
of Justice,’ VT 10:72-74. Wolf, C. Umhau.
**Terminology of Israel’s Tribal Organization,”
JBL 65:45-49. TDNT, IX, pp. 246-49.
B.K.W.

Shebat, the eleventh month,
i.e. Feb-Mar. A loan word from the As-
synian Sabatu. For other month names, see
hédesh, no. 613b.

See no. 231 la.
See no. 2310a.
See no. 231 1b.
See no. 2317a.
See no. 2318a.
See no. 231 1d.

sw (sh bi).
saw (shabib).
may (sh biya).
Baw = (shabis).
wesw (sh°bi'i).
mesw (sh bit).

Assumed root of the following.
2316a = 93W (shdbel) flowing skirt, train
(Isa 47:2).

2316b 3=noaw (shibbdlet) I, flowing stream,
(e.g. Jud 12:6: Isa 27:12).

2316c 8=A?BY (shibbdlet) H, head of grain
(e.g. Gen 41; Ruth 2:2).

2316d Naw (sh bal), 23w (sh" bil)

way, path (Ps 77:20: Jer 18:15).

93w (shablul). See no. 248c.
nosw (shibbdlet). See no. 2316b,c.

2317 psw (shbs). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2317a = BBW (shabis) front band (1sa 3:18).

mysw (shib'd) seven.

2318 yaw (sheba'‘), Myaw (shib‘a)

Derivatives

2318a toysw (shib'im) seventy.

2318b tyesw (sh*bi'i), mys
seventh.

2318c fexnysw (shib’atayim) sevenfold.

2318d tyisw (shabaa‘) a period of seven, a
week, the Feast of Weeks.

(sh°bi'it)

sheba’, the numeral seven, must be considered
first as having a simple numerical significance,
and then secondly as having in many cases sym-
bolic content.

sheba’ is the feminine form of seven, and as
such it (rather than the masculine form) ts used as
the Hebrew cardinal number. When a set of ob-
jects is being counted, then seven as an adjective
is either masculine (Gen 7:4, “‘for yet seven
days’) or feminine (Gen 21:28, *‘and Abraham
set seven ewe-lambs’’) depending on the noun
modified.

sheba’, as with other basic cardinal numbers,
also was used in combinations to form other
number quantities (e.g. Gen 37:2, here seven-ten,
sheba'-e$ réh, is **seventeen’’).

It is, however, in its various symbolical usages
that the number sheba’ demands the special at-
tention of the biblical scholar. While eschewing
that extreme which delights to discover imagined
truths by dividing the number of letters in a verse
by seven, etc., it is sometimes easy for the more
scholarly minded to fall into the opposite error of
denying that there is ever any symbolic sense at-
tached to this number. Scripture. does use sheba'
often as a mystic sign-word, and the fair-minded
lexicographer can hardly fail to note this.

Thus we see Abraham sealing an oath (shaba’,
q.v.) by Abimelech that a well of water is his,
Abraham's, by forcing upon Abimelech seven
lambs (Gen 21:28, 30). So too in Gen 29:18 it is
precisely seven years that Jacob must serve
Laban for Rachel and for Leah. These instances
seem to be examples of an ancient traditional re-
spect for the number seven, the original basis of
which ts a matter of conjecture and debate.

In creating a ceremonial for Israel the Lord
himself establishes and confirms the symbolic
and sacred significance of seven. Hence in Ex
29:30 the garments of a new high priest were or-
dered by Moses speaking for the Lord to be con-
secrated for seven days. This was a ceremonial
action and it could just as well have been accom-
plished in more or less days, yet the Lord pre-
scribed exactly seven! In Ex 23:15 the un-
leavened bread was to be eaten seven days, and
in Ex 25:37 the Menorah, or sacred lamp stand of
the tabernacle, was to have one main stem with
six lateral stems, making seven.

Such examples of the sacred utilization of
seven are legion and need not be multiplied here.
The prime example, however, must lie in the spe-

898

cial hallowing of the seventh (shbi'7) day as the
sabbath day and hence the chief day of normal
worship activities (Ex 20:10: Deut 5:14). It was
on this day, the seventh, that God rested from his
days of creating, and hence for the benefit of man
God set apart this seventh day for rest and wor-
ship (Ex 20:11; Gen 2:2). Hence from here an
original symbolic significance is given to the
number seven (1) as having a special sacredness;
(2) as marking a totality of a cycle or an accom-
plished task; and (3) as marking a time for rest.

That there is such a significance in the number
is confirmed further by such passages as Zech
4:2, 10. Here the seven flames of the Menorah are
said to represent ‘‘the eyes of the Lord which run
to and fro through the whole earth’’ (verse 10).

The Christian sees final confirmation of the
sacred-completeness significances of this number
in the NT, and especially in the book of symbols,
Rev. In Rev 1:20 we see enumerated seven
(hepta) stars, seven lampstands, seven angels,
and seven churches. In like manner, the seven
seal judgments, the seven trumpet judgments,
and the seven bowls of wrath, not to mention the
seven thunders, each denote a complete and en-
tire judgment cycle (Rev 6, 8, 9, 15, 16; 10:3). So
too in the ot see Dan 9:24 ff. for its Apocalyptic
seventy seven's!

Not every biblical seven, of course, should be
thought to have a symbolical intention. Thus in
Ex 2:16 the fact that the priest of Midian had
seven daughters may only indicate the actual
number of his daughters and beyond this there
may be no symbolism intended. Each case must
be decided in light of its own context and in light
of the totality of similar scriptural usages.

shib‘im. Seventy. This cardinal number repre-
sents the quantity of seven tens. In Ex 1:5 it is
reported that seventy souls came out of the loins
of Jacob {although the Dead Sea Scroll reading
agrees with the Lxx seventy-five: cf. Acts 7:14—
R.L.H.]. In Ex 24:1, 9, seventy elders are seen to
have a subordinate position of authority under
Moses! Such usages seem to share in the sym-
bolism of the basic root, sheba’ ‘‘seven’’ but in
this number’s interplay with ten (it being ten se-
vens) the clear meaning of the symbolism in each
instance becomes more difficult to establish. In
Christ’s sending forth of his own new seventy
(Lk 10:1), just as in the case of his creating and
sending forth his own new twelve (Mt 10:1 ff.), we
see a new order being constituted replacing the
ancient seventy of Moses—a NT sacred seventy
setting aside the oT seventy!

sh¢ bi‘i, sh*bi‘it. Seventh. This ordinal number
is used to signify the seventh of a given item
when counting in order. The biblical usages of
this word reflect all of the significances inherent
in its root sheba‘ *‘seven.”’ In I Chr 24:10 there is

an example of its simple ordinal usage, wherein
the seventh lot fell to Hakkoz, with a sixth, etc.,
going before, and an eighth, etc., following after.
In Num 6:9 a sacred-symbolical instance is
exampled in the defiled Nazarite shaving his head
on the seventh day as part of his re-consecration
ceremony.

shib‘atayim. Sevenfold, seven times. This word
occurs seven times in the or (Gen 4:15,4; II Sam
21:9; Ps 12:6 [H 7]: 79:12: Prov 6:31; Isa 30:26).
The Amarna cognate usage of ‘seven times’’ is
interesting because it is used often of bowing
down seven times in craven submission—cf.
Jacob bowing down to Esau. Isaiah declared (Jsa
30:26) that in the future day of Israel’s restoration
“the light of the sun shall be sevenfold.’’ This
seems to signify figuratively that there will be a
great increase in the sun’s brilliance, rather than
that the sunlight of that time will precisely be
seven times the quanta of the prior age. In Gen
4:15, before the institution of capital punishment
in Gen 9:5, 6, the Lord promised to take seven-
fold vengeance on anyone who murdered Cain.
In like manner the Psalmist in Ps 79:12 (an impre-
catory psalm) asks that the wicked receive a re-
proach sevenfold of that which they had re-
proached the Lord. From such usages we may
conclude that this term is often used figuratively
to indicate something which has or will occur in a
far greater intensity than previously. Such an
understanding of shib'atayim, however, in no
way denies or forbids it signifying an exact seven
times increase in any particular instance.

Shabda‘. A period of seven, a week, the Feast of
Weeks. This term occurs twenty times in the oT,
always indicating a period of seven. Indeed, the
word obviously comes to us from sheba‘ (q.v.)
and could literally be translated always as
**seven-period.”

In Deut 16:9, shabit'a represents a period of
seven days (literally “seven seven-periods you-
shall-number-to-you’’). The context in verses 9,
10, and 16 demands the time to be in terms of
‘‘days.’’ No serious expositor has ever argued for
‘‘years’ here.

It might be noted that in Deut 16:9 in the spell-
ing of the plural, the central vowel letter—the
waw—is omitted (shabi‘dt), as it is also at times
in the singular (e.g. Gen 29:27, sh®bua‘) where in
an unpointed text it would then be spelled identi-
cally to seven, sheba’, in the feminine.

While in Deut 16:9, discussed above, shabii'a
represents a period of seven days, in Dan
9:24 ,25,26,27 it denotes a period of seven years in
each of its appearances in these four verses. This
is proven by the context wherein Daniel recog-
nizes that the seventy-year period of captivity is
almost over. The land had been fallow for se-
venty years and thus repaid the Lord the seventy

899

2319 yaw (shaba‘)

sabbatical years owed to him for the pnor sev-
enty periods of seven years (Dan 9:2: Jer 25:12:
cf. II Chr 36:21!). Just as Daniel is in prayer con-
cerning this matter, the angel Gabriel appears and
informs him that Israel's restoration will not be
complete unti] she goes through another seventy
periods-of-seven, shabaa‘ (Dan 9:24ff)! Note
also the apparent reference in Dan 12:11 to half of
Daniel's last seventy (9:27): it 1s 1290 days, ap-
proximately three and a half years. Thus here it
means years.

shabta’ is also used as a technical term in Deut
16:10,16 where it denotes the Feast of Weeks
(hag shabi'dt), i.e. the Feast of Seven-Periods.
American Jewry often still call this feast
** Shavaos,’* but today’s Israeli pronunciation is
** Shavadt.”’ It was so named because it was to be
celebrated *“‘on the morrow after’ the seventh
sabbath after the day of firstfruits (Lev 23:15—16)!
Hence it was the feast of the day following the
seven seven-periods, or the feast of Hamishim
Yom, fifty days—‘Pentecost’’ from the Greek.
This feast marked the early wheat harvest at
about the sixth of Sivan, at the end of our own
month of May.

Christians remember Pentecost as the day
when the Holy Spint was poured out in fullness
(Acts 2). As Christ was the *‘firstfruits’’ (J Cor
15:20,23), many also see in this later Feast of
Weeks, shadbua', a picture of the coming resur-
rection of all the redeemed.

G.G.C.
2319 ysw (shaba') swear, adjure.
Derivative
2319a tmypssw (sh°bi'a), MYaw (shba'a)
oath.

shaba’ occurs 184 times in the or. It 1s used
mainly in the Niphal and Hiphil stems (occurring
only once in the Qal, Ezk 21:28). In the Niphal
stem, its meaning mirrors the stem’s characteris-
tic reflexive stress, to bind oneself by an oath
(e.g. Gen 26:3, ‘1 swore to Abraham,” i.e. |
bound myself by an oath to Abraham). In thirty-
two instances shdba’‘ is used in the Hiphil with
this stem’s typical causative thrust, 1.e. to cause
someone to swear (e.g. I Kgs 2:42, “Did I not
make thee to swear?’’).

It is apparent that shadba’ “*swear’’ 1s identical
in its consonantal root to the word sheba‘ **sev-
en. It is identical, of course, to the feminine
form of seven—the masculine adding a fourth let-
ter, “-he’’—and it is in the feminine in which the
Hebrew counts his cardinal numbers! [Another
approach is to call shib'a the fem. form though it
is used with masc. nouns, and sieba’ the masc.
form used with fem. nouns. R.L.H.]

Not only is the Hebrew verb *‘to swear’’ iden-

2319 yaw (shaba')

tical in the ancient unpointed text to the number
seven, but also a relationship is suggested by the
2000 s.c. incident of Gen 21:22-34. Here
Abimelech desires Abraham to swear to deal up-
rightly, while Abraham in_ turn requires
Abimelech to swear that the well of water be-
longs to him, Abraham. Abraham then seals the
oath by giving exactly seven ewe lambs as a tes-
timonial witness to Abimelech, and the well is
called Beer-sheba, or Well-of-the-seven-oath!
Thus BDB has defined shaba‘ by the pithy one-
line paraphrase, “‘to... seven oneself, or bind
oneself by seven things’’ (p. 989). Gesentus cites
Herodotus 11:8 and the Iliad, xix:243, to give evi-
dence that in the ancient world it was not un-
common to seal an agreement by the septenary
number.

To swear in the Old Testament was to give
one’s sacred unbreakable word in testimony that
the one swearing would faithfully perform some
promised deed, or that he would faithfully refrain
from some evil act (Gen 21:23, “swear... that
thou will not deal falsely with me’’). Occasionally
one swore that he freely acknowledged a truth
and would continue to acknowledge it in the fu-
ture. This was the case when Abraham in Gen
21:30,31 caused Abimelech io swear to the truth
that he, Abraham, had dug, and hence owned,
the well called Beer-sheba.

Often one would swear by (b“) another who
was tacitly and mutually assumed to be greater or
more precious than the one making the oath (e.g.
I Kgs 2:8, ‘‘I swear to him by the Lord’’). Among
Jerusalem's ancient sins was the fact that some
had *“‘sworn by them that are not gods’ (Jer 5:7).
In such cases God, or a false deity, would be
invoked to witness the truth and sincerity of that
which was sworn, and by implication, to judge
the one swearing if he should either be lying or
fail to live up to his pledge in the days and years
to come.

God himself, in such passages as Deut 6:13 and
[sa 19:18, commanded and showed himself fa-
vorable to his name being the name by which his
people should swear. How is this to be reconciled
with Mt 5:33-37? The answer seems to be that
Christ was warning both against casual swearing
which led people into sin and the then prevalent
Pharisaic casuistry. Thus most Christians have
not interpreted this as an absolute prohibition
against swearing in a courtroom situation. In fact
the opposite is the case with the devout seeing
the more prevalent court *‘affirming’’ rather than
swearing “so help you God"’ upon the Bible, to
be a sign of evil] days.

Great emphasis is placed upon God’s swearing
to Abraham to bless htm and his seed, and to
bless all nations through his seed (Gen 22:16,18:
cf. Gal 3:8,16). Joseph had so great a confidence
that God would perform what he had sworn to

900

Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—to give their chil-
dren the land forever—that he in turn “took an
oath of the children of Israel’ (yashba‘, Hiphil:
caused them to swear to him) to bring his bones
with them when they returned someday to that
land (Gen 50:24-25).

In fact, we see God swearing by himself (Gen
22:16), by his holiness (Ps 89:35 [H 36]), by his
right hand (Isa 62:8), and by his great name (Jer
44:26) in order that he might stress the absolute
certainty and immutability of his performing that
which he swore to Abraham, to Israel, and to
David. See Heb 6:13-19!

So holy and sacred was an oath sworn in
Jehovah's name that the leaders of Israel, after
being intentionally deceived by the nearby con-
demned Gibeonites, declared, *‘We have sworn
(nishba‘nit) unto them by the Lorp God of Is-
rael: now therefore we may not touch them’
(Josh 9:19). Thus too the Bible pronounces woes
and judgments upon false swearers (Zech 5:3,4:
Mal 3:5). No wonder Jesus warned the casual or
crafty that it was better simply to say ** Yea, yea:
Nay, nay’’ (Mt 5:37).

sh‘ ba‘a, sh‘ ba‘a. Oath. This noun appears
thirty times in the o1, with the kv translating it as
‘‘oath”’ twenty-nine times, and as “‘curse’’ once
(Isa 65:15).

An oath, sh bia, should be contrasted to a
covenant, brit, in order to better understand
both. An oath in the oT is a solemn verbal state-
ment or pledge that is affirmed, while the coven-
ant is the substance of an agreement itself. In the
Hebrew idiom. one would swear (shdaba‘) an oath
(sh® bia), e.g. Gen 26:3, “I [God] will perform
an oath which I swore unto Abraham.”’ A coven-
ant, however, would be either established (Hiphil
of gam, literally, ““caused to stand’’) as in Gen
17:19, or it would be cut (Adrar) as tn Jer 31:31,
**] {God] will make (cut) a new covenant with the
House of Israel.’

Oaths were made by Jehovah to show the abso-
lute certainty of his performance of that which he
promised (e.g. to Abraham, Gen 26:3: and Isaac,
Ps 105:9). Since a verbal promise from God is
absolutely certain of fulfillment, we might prop-
erly tnquire why God made oaths when he spoke
with the patriarchs and David? It cannot be that
the unchangeable one wished to prevent himself
from later changing his mind. No! The answer
must be that he made the oaths both for the bene-
fit of the patriarchs and those who would follow
them, including us who are alive today. They are
a teaching method of God, a gracious instrument
to help the weak faith of every generation to be-
lieve that God will someday absolutely accom-
plish his promises to his people, despite dis-
couraging external circumstances.

Oaths were made by men or women to attest to

their innocence before judges (Ex 22:11 [H 10]; to
vow to perform some future action (Josh 2:17.20,
to spare Rahab): to solemnize peace treaties
(Josh 9:20): to renew their devotion to the Lord
(11 Chr 15:15): and to pledge loyalty to an impor-
tant personage (Neh 6:18, here sworn literally:
For many tn Judah were masters of oath to him).

Although the sh bi'ad was basically an unal-
terable attestation, nevertheless there was a lim-
ited possibility to remit or be freed from an unfor-
tunate oath. In Gen 24:8 Abraham pronounces a
circumstance under which his servant would be
‘clear’ (naga) of his oath to Abraham to take a
bride for Isaac, namely, if the woman refused to
go with Isaac. Thus, circumstances beyond one's
control which made the oath impossible to fulfill
were recognized by Abraham as leaving one clear
of his oath.

In Josh 2:17,20 the two spies declare to Rahab
that they will be “‘*blameless’’ and *‘guiltless™
(both naga!) of their oath to save her family if
any of them go outside the house marked by the
red rope during the battle. Thus they make their
oath conditional, valid only if the condition or
conditions stated at the time of the swearing are
kept.

Numbers 30 is devoted entirely to the subject
of oaths (sh’hi'd, verses 2 [H 3], 10({H 11], 13 [H
14]). A gracious provision is made for a father or
a husband to declare an oath made by his daugh-
ter or wife void provided that he so declared it
void on the day that he heard it uttered. After that
it was forever too late—for oaths were serious
business, especially in a nomadic society without
court records and verbatim testimony.

In the perplexing case of Jephthah’s ““vow,”
nadar (“‘to willingly give’’) and neder ("a vow to
give a gift freely’), rather than shdaba’ or
sh bit'a, are used and hence the instance sheds
little additional light on the study at hand.

msyow (shib’im). See no. 2318b.
Dnysw (shib'atayim). See no. 23'8c.

2320 *Pow (shabay) weave in checkered or

plaited work. Occurs only in the Piel (Ex
28:39) and the Pual (Ex 28:20).

Derivatives

2320aYBW O(shabdas) cramp (11 Sam
1:9). Meaning and connection with
shabas uncertain.

2320bA(H)¥BwId Cnishb*sdt) filigree work,
usually of settings forgems (e.g. Ex
28:11, 13: 39:6, 13).
2320c §8=— PBWH O(tushbés) woven work (Ex
28:4).
2321 “aw (shabar) I, break, break in pieces.

901

2321 bY (shabar)

Derivatives

2321a t33W (sheber) breach, ruin.

2321b ot sw (shibbaron) destruction.
2321c =TNBwI (mashbér) opening.
2321d t3swr (mashbar) breaking.

The verb shabar occurs 147 times in the oT, 53
times in the Qal, 56 times in the Niphal, 36 times
in the Pie], and once each in the Hiphil and Ho-
phal. The Ugaritic cognate is thr (UT 19: no.
2642).

In the Qal stem (fifty-three times) most often
God is the subject of the verb (thirty-three times).
and here the verb Is used to describe judgmental,
punitive activity. Often such action is levelled
against non-covenant peoples: the king of Baby-
ton, Jer 28:2: the Pharaoh, Ezk 30:21: Damascus,
Amos 1:5: Elam, Jer 49:35: the Assynans, Isa
14:25; Nebuchadnezzar, Jer 28:11. In several in-
stances “to break the yoke of’ means that God
will liberate his people from bondage to an alien
people. Five times there appears the phrase
**Il/He has broken the staff of your bread” (Lev
26:26: Ps 105:16: Ezk 4:16: 5:16; 14:13). Although
the exact meaning of this is uncertain, tt would
seem to indicate again that one of God's forms of
retributive justice is to deprive people of what
they consider essential to their diet.

We may note that tn the Piel stem s/ta@bar ts
often used in the context of destroying idols. To
convey the sense of the intensive Piel we may
translate, colloquially. ““smash to smithereens.”
Thus, Isa 21:9 (God): II Kgs 18:4 (Hezekiah): II
Kgs 23:14: I] Chr 34:4 (Josiah): I] Chr 14:3, [H 2}.
Asa), Jer 43:13 (Nebuchadnezzar): II Kgs 11:18
(the people); and Moses with the tablets (Ex
32:19; 34:1; Deut 9:17; 10:2).

sheber. Breach, ruin, most frequently trans-
lated in the KJv by “‘destruction.”’ Of the forty-
five occurrences of sheber, twenty-eight of them
are to be found in the prophets. where frequently
the word is applied to the impending collapse of
the northern or southern kingdom. **About the
‘ruin/destruction’ of Joseph (the kingdom of Is-
rael) they do not care at all’ (Amos 6:6). The
substantive then ts expressive of (physical)
calamity either at the national level or at the per-
sonal level (Prov 16:18: 17:19: 18:12).

shibbaron. Destruction, is used twic Jer 17:18,
“destroy them with double destruction’: and
Ezk 21:6 [H 11]. ““Son of man, groan with the
breaking of (your) loins/heart.”’

mashbér. Opening, three times, twice in the
parallel passages II Kgs 19:3 and Isa 37:3, **To-
day is a day of suffering... Children come to
‘birth’ (the opening of the womb’) and there 1s no
strength to bring them forth.”* This most likely ts
a proverbial expression to describe any kind of a

2322 13¥ (shabar)

desperate situation. The third occurrence is Hos
13:13, again perhaps proverbially, *‘in the ‘break-
ing forth’ of children.”

mashbar. Breaking (of waters), waves: Jonah
2:4: Ps 42:7 [H 8]: 88:6 [H 8]; 93:4: I] Sam 22:5.
Except for Ps 93:4 the references are figures of
speech in the context of lamentations, “I almost
drowned!"’

V.P.H.

2322 33W (shabar) Hl, buy, purchase (grain).
Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2322a 13W (sheber) grain. Occurs
chiefly in the last chapters of Gen
(but also Amos 8:5: Neh 10:32).

This verb and its parent noun are related to
shabar ‘to break’* perhaps on the analogy of
grain as that which is threshed, t.e. broken. Of
some twenty uses of shdabar It all but six of them
are to be found in the Joseph cycle in Gen. These
exceptions are Deut 2:6: 28: Prov 11:26: Isa 55:1:
Amos 8:5-6.

Bibliography: Couroyer, B., “‘Corne et Arc,”
RB 73:510-21!, esp. 513-16.

nNasw (shibbarén). See no. 2321b.
2323 maw (shabat) cease, desist, rest.
Derivatives
2323a tnaw (shebet) cessation.
2323b tmnaw (shabbat) Sabbath.
2323c 860s MBW «O(shabat) keep the Sabbath
(Lev 25:2; 23:32). Denomninative
verb.
2323d tnsw (shabbaton) Sabbath obser-
vance.
2323e =86onawr (mishbat) cessation, annihi-
lation (Lam 1:7).

There is still some question as to whether the
noun shabbat is derived from the verb shabat, or
whether shabbat is primary, and the verb derived
from it. In any case, it should be observed that
the meaning of shabat is **to rest’ in the sense of
repose only when the verb ts used in a Sabbath
context (and this is confined to the Qal stem, thir-
teen of twenty-seven times).

The basic thrust of the verb is, when transitive,
**to sever, put an end to,’ and when intransitive,
“*to desist, to come to an end.’* This may possi-
bly indicate that the Sabbath is the day which
‘puts a stop to’ the week's work. Statistically,
shabat is used seventy-one times in the oT. By
stem it occurs twenty-seven times in the Qal (and
thirteen of these, as we indicated above, are in
connection with the Sabbath observance). The

902

translation ‘‘to cease, desist’* can be illustrated in
the following verses: *‘Day and night shall not
cease’ (Gen 8:22): **The seed of Israel shall cease
from being a nation (Jer 31:36): *“So these three
men ceased to answer Job” (Job 32:1).

Inthe Niphal shabat appears four times. It is in
the Hiphil, however, that the verb appears most
often: forty times. Here the meaning is ‘‘to put
an end to, to cause to cease.’ Preponderantly in
the Hiphil of shabat, God is the subject of the
verb. It is a favorite verb of the prophets to de-
scribe God's judgment on his people: **I will cause
to cease the arrogancy of the proud” (Isa 13:11),
most often in Ezekiel (ten times). Occasionally
shabat, with God as subject, may have a hopeful
ring to it: ‘“‘He makes wars cease unto the end of
the earth’ (Ps 46:9 [H 10]: ““The Lord who has
not left you without a kinsman” (Ruth 4:14).

shebet. Cessation, inaction four times: Isa
30:7; Prov 20:3: If Sam 23:7. Especially the last
reference has caused translation problems. BDB
(992a) does not even list this reference under
shebet. Actually the kjv 1s heading in the right
direction when it translates ‘‘they shall be ‘ut-
terly’ burned with fire.’* Literally we may trans-
late, ** With fire burning they will be burned with-
out cessation,’’ (Dahood) vs. the translation
‘*they shall surely be burned by fire “in the dwell-

ing place’*’ (Fensham).
shabbat. Sabbath, the seventh day of the
week. The doubling of the middle consonant

may indicate that the substantive ts a Piel inten-
sive noun, although the verb shabat is never used
in the Piel.

Concerning the origin of the Sabbath and its
possible relationship to similar institutions in an-
cient near eastern cultures, not a few scholars
have opted for the explanation that the biblical
Sabbath is an adaptation of an analogous day in
Mesopotamia. Two reasons exist for the sup-
posed comparison. One is the existence of the
amé lemnuti **evil days.’* A few Babylonian texts
(primarily in the seventh century B.c.) proscribe
certain days of every month as ‘‘evil days” and
were days on which certain types of work were
prohibited. The particular days in question were:
7/14/19/21/28. But as De Vaux remarks (AI, p.
480) it is difficult to fit the seven day week into a
lunar month of twenty-nine and a half days.

The second piece of evidence is the Akkadian
word Sab/pattu which stands for the festival of
the middle day of the month or the day of the full
moon. It is further identified as **the day of the
appeasement of the (god's) heart”’ (am nih libbi)
and hence a day of good omen. It is not unrea-
sonable to posit a semantic connection between
Akkadian Sapattu and Hebrew shabbat. The
former, we have seen, designated the middle day
of the month, a day which marked a boundary

and a division. It could be that Hebrew shabbat
likewise functioned as a dividing point, separat-
ing not the month into two halves, but rather
separating the month into weeks. The two words
would then be analogous to each other not on the
basis of Hebrew adaptation, but on the basis of a
common etymology and function (Al, p. 477).

More important than the origin of the Sabbath
is what we may call Sabbath theology. What ts its
religious significance and for what reason(s) was
its observance invoked? Something of the impor-
tance of this institution can be gauged by observ-
ing that of the ten commandments the fourth
commandment ts treated more extensively than
any of the others.

Perhaps the best procedure will be to observe
the motives for observance attached to the Sab-
bath, a command which may be stated positively:
‘*Six days you shall work but on the seventh you
shall rest’’ (Ex 23:12: 31:15), or negatively: ** You
shall not work on the Sabbath” (Ex 20:10).

In the first place Ex 20:8ff. connects obser-
vance of the Sabbath with the fact that God him-
self rested on the seventh day after six days of
work (Gen 2:2—3). Everything God made, as re-
corded in Genesis, he called good. Only the Sab-
bath, however, he sanctified, indicating perhaps
that the climax of creation was not the creation of
man, as is often stated, but the day of rest, the
seventh day. The Sabbath ts thus an invitation to
rejoice in God’s creation, and recognize God's
sovereignty over our time.

Secondly, we observe in Deut 5:15 that a dif-
ferent reason is given for observing the Sabbath.
‘*You shall remember that you were a slave in the
land of Egypt, and Yahweh your God brought
you out with a mighty hand....: therefore,
Yahweh your God commanded you to keep the
Sabbath day.*’ Exodus then connects the Sab-
bath with creation described in Genesis and
Deuteronomy connects the Sabbath with deliver-
ance from Egypt described in Exodus. Thus
every Sabbath, Israel is to remember that God is
an emancipator, a liberator. The early Christians
were on target, it seems, when they connected
the day of rest with the remembrance of Christ's
resurrection. He is the one who gives freedom.
Actually there is no real conflict between Deu-
teronomy and Exodus at this point. Whereas
Deuteronomy has in view the people of the Cov-
enant, the Exodus verses place the emphasis on
the God of the covenant (AI, p. 481).

Thirdly, the Sabbath ts a social or humanitarian
ordinance which affords dependent laborers a
day of rest: Ex 20:10, Deut 5:14—15 and Ex 23:12,
‘‘That your ox and your ass may have rest, and
the son of your bondmaid, and the alien may be
refreshed.’ Here then this commandment takes a
step in the direction of making all men equal be-
fore God. As the Sabbath recalls the liberation

903

2324 aqw (shagag)

from Egypt so it in turn must become an agent of
freedom by setting the dependents in society free
(see Andreasen, in bibliography). Is it possible to
connect this with the fact that in I Cor 16:2 it is
recorded that on the first day of the week there is
a collection of money for the poor in Jerusalem?

Fourthly, the Sabbath is a sign of the covenant
and in this way the Sabbath reaches into the fu-
ture. The Sabbath now joins the signs of the rain-
bow and circumcision. The pertinent texts are Ex
31:13, 17 and Ezk 20:12, 20. This accounts for the
reason that the penalty for profaning the Sabbath
is death (Ex 31:14; Num 15:32-36; Jer 17:19-27).
As long as Israel observes the Sabbath she af-
firms her loyalty to Yahweh and guarantees his
saving presence. For the Christian believer these
promises are fulfilled in a person, Christ.
Through him we enter into God's own rest (Heb
4:1-11).

Sshabbatén. Sabbath observance. In addition to
designating the Sabbath (Ex 16:23), this word
may apply to the day of atonement (Lev 16:31:
23:32); the feast of trumpets (Lev 23:24); and the
first and eighth days of tabernacles (Lev 23:39).
The ending -6n is characteristic of abstract nouns
in Hebrew such as zikkadrén ‘**remembrance.™

Bibliography: On shebet: Dahood, M.,
‘‘Hebrew-Ugantic Lexicography X, Bib
53:386-403, esp. p. 403. Fensham, F. C.,,
**Exodus XXI 18-19 in the Light of Hittite Law
of 10,°° VT 10:333-35.

On shabbat: Armerding, H. T., **The Lord's
Day Is Not Passé,’’ CT 12:!076-78. Andreason,
Niels-Erik, The Old Testament Sabbath, SBL
Dissertation Series 7, 1972. idem., ‘*Recent
Studies of the Old Testament Sabbath: Some
Observations,” ZAW 86:453-69. Childs, B., The
Book of Exodus, Westminster, 1974, pp. 412-17.
DeVaux, R., Al, II, pp. 475-83. North, R., **The
Derivation of Sabbath,’ Bib 36: 182-201. Tsevat,
M., “‘The Basic Meaning of the Biblical Sab-
bath,’ ZAW 84:447-59. Unger, Merrill F., *“The
Significance of the Sabbath,’ BS 123:53-59.
Wolff, H., ““The Day of Rest in the Old Testa-
ment,” Lexington Theological Quarterly 7:6S-
76. TDNT, VII, pp. 1-20. THAT, II, pp. 863-68.

V.P.H.

nsw (shabbaton). See no. 2323d.

2324 aay (shagag) go astray, err.

Derivative
2324a tmgaw (sh gaged) sin.

The verb is used only four times. Leviticus
5:18 and Num 15:28 are verses dealing with the
sin of ‘‘ignorance/inadvertence.'’ The remaining
two are Ps 119:67, ** Before I was afflicted I went
astray’; and Job 12:16, °° ‘the deceived’ and the

2324 328 (shagag)

deceiver are his’’ (kJv). This last reference shows
two roots side by side meaning the same thing
and similar in consonantal skeleton (or maybe a
bi-consonantal root that has expanded two
ways). The word ‘‘deceived"’ is from the root
shdgag and ‘‘deceiver’’ is from the root shdgda
(q.v.).

sh‘paga. Sin (of inadvertence). The noun ap-
pears nineteen times. Two clusters are particu-
larly important. First is the use in the description
of the sin offering (Lev 4:2, 22, 27). Inv. 13 a
form of shadgd, not shdgag, is used. Accompany-
ing this is the use in the description of the guilt/
trespass/reparation offering (Lev 5:15, 18). Thus
Lev 4:22 reads, *‘When a leader has sinned and
has done something inadvertently.”’ Second is
the paragraph in Numbers 15:22ff. dealing with
atonement for sins of inadvertence (kjv, ““igno-
rance’’). Here sh" gadga occurs seven times: Num
15:24, 25 (twice), 26-29. Note again that the par-
agraph begins, v. 22, not with a form of shagag
but of shdgd, our third illustration of the inter-
mingling of these roots.

To the above may be added the following: Eccl
5:5, *‘do not tell the messenger/angel that it was
an (unintentional) mistake’; 10:5, a reference to
the “‘misjudgment”’ of rulers; Lev 22:14; Num
35:11, 15: Josh 20:3, 9 (cities of refuge as places
of safety for perpetrators of acts of unintentional
unpremeditated murder).

Protestant theology has been dominated by
two basic concepts of sin. One concept is that sin
is the breaking of a law knowingly or unknow-
ingly. This is the objective view of sin or the legal
interpretation. And certainly the illustrations
above taken from Lev 4-5 and Num 15 buttress
this approach. Sin was a positive violation of the
covenant relationship, whether voluntary or in-
voluntary. The presence or absence of volition
did not alter the objective situation. Sins done in
‘‘ignorance’’ were still sins and needed atone-
ment.

The other concept we may call the ethical
understanding of sin. By this is meant the in-
volvement of the human will and personal re-
sponsibility. The emphasis here is on the subjec-
tive. Neither view is correct to the exclusion of
the other. Both are biblical and must be held in
tension.

To return to sh’ gagd, a sin of this type may
result from two causes: negligence or ignorance.
Either the perpetrator knows the law but uninten-
tionally violates it as in the case of accidental
homicide (Num 35:22ff.; Deut 19:4-10; Josh
20:2-6, 9), or he acts without knowing he did
wrong. Some illustrations of sins in this category
would be: Gen 20:9 (Abimelech’s complaint to
Abraham); Num 22:34 (Balaam: ‘‘I have sinned. I
did not know you were standing in my path’’). In

904

opposition to these are sins committed with a
‘*high hand’ (Num 15:30) for which there is no
atonement by any means of sacrifice. Here the NT
believer can sense something of the inadequacy
of the Levitical sacrificial system. The inability of
this system to provide a sacrifice even for the
presumptuous sin points to the way of a better
sacrifice, that found in Christ.

Bibliography: DeVries, S., ‘‘Ignorance,”’
IDB, II, pp. 680-81. Kinghorn, K., ** Biblical
Concepts of Sin,’ Wesleyan Theological Journal
1:21-26. Milgrom, J., ““The Cultic §°GAGA and
Its Influence in Psalms and Job,” JQR 58:115-
125. Saydon, P., “‘Sin-Offering and Trespass-
Offering, ° CBQ 8:393-98. THAT, II, pp. 869-72.

V.P.H.

2325 maw (shdagda) go astray, stray, err.

Derivatives

2325a otAS aw (sh'gi'a) error (Ps 19:13).
2325b tmawrd = (mishgeh) mistake (Gen
43:12).

The verb occurs twenty-one times, seventeen
times in the Qal and four times in the Hiphil (Deut
27:18: Job 12:16; Ps 119:10: Prov 28:10). In the
KJV at least the most prevalent translation 1s ‘‘to
err.”

The primary emphasis in the root shdagd is on
sin done inadvertently. This is indicated in sev-
eral ways. First, the two derivatives from shdga,
sh° gi’a and mishgeh indicate an act perpetrated
in ignorance, not willfully. Second, in the Leviti-
cal discussion of **sins of ignorance” (Lev 4:2ff.)
shaga alone means “sins in ignorance’ (v. 13)
and is comparable to the phrase in the same chap-
ter hata bishgaga (vv. 2, 27) and ‘asa bishvaga
(v. 22). Third, Job never denies that he has
sinned, but he does ask that he be made aware of
where he has (Job 6:24; 19:4), implying uncon-
scious sins. Fourth, this root is used to describe
how sheep got lost (Ezk 34:6). They simply nib-
ble their way to lostness.

The Scripture pinpoints at least three causes
for such wandenming. The first is wine and strong
drink (Isa 28:7; Prov 20:1). The second is the
seductive strange woman (Prov 5:20, 23) versus
the love of one’s wife, which ought to “*captt-
vate’ one (Prov 5:19). The third is the inability to
reject evil instruction (Prov 19:27). Only Saul in
the ot admits culpability at this point (I Sam
26:21).

sh‘gi’a. Error, failing, found only in Ps 19:12
[{H 13], ‘who can detect his *‘errors’*? Cleanse
me from my hidden faults (nistdror, from the root
sdtar “to hide, conceal’ [but cf. Dahood
Psalms, 1, in AB, p. 124 for a possible derivation
from sur *‘go astray.’’]). The meaning then of

sh* gi'@ is established by its parallelism with nis-
tarot.

mishgeh. Mistake, oversight, found only in
Gen 43:12, the words of Jacob to his sons before
they return to Egypt to see their as yet unrecog-
nized brother Joseph: *"Take double the amount
of money and return the money... it (i.e.
Joseph's act) may have been a_ mistake/
oversight.”
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 268-93.
V.P.H.

2326 *may

This verb is used three times in the oT and
always in the Hiphil stem: (1) Song 2:9, **He
‘looks in* at the window, he peers through (sis in
the Hiphil, and only here) the lattice’’: (2) Isa
14:16, “All who see you (Lucifer/a pagan tyran-
nical king?) will gaze at you’’; (3) Ps 33:14,
‘‘From his dwelling place he (God) gazes on all
the inhabitants of the earth.”

The word occurs several times in noncanonical
literature: Ben Sira 40:29, **The life of a man ever
‘eyeing the table of another is no life at all,” and
also 50:5, “How splendid he (Simon the high
priest) was as he ‘looked down’ from _ his
sanctuary.”

Most interesting is the development of this root
in later Jewish writings. From shadgah there came
the noun hashgadhad meaning “providence.”
Thus, in his Guide of The Perplexed,
Maimonides discusses “providence” at some
length, listing five views on the subject (Guide,
Il], pp. 17-24). In other literature a distinction
seems to have been made between hanhdga,
universal providence determining the world’s
natural order, and hashgdha, individual provi-
dence.

(shagah) gaze, stare.

V.P.H.
mevaw (sh°gida). See no. 232Sa.

2327 Saw (shdgél) violate, ravish
28:30; Isa 13:16).

(e.g. Deut

Derivative

2327a 09a (shéval) consort (Neh 2:6:
Ps 45:10).

2328 *paw (shdaga') be mad.
Derivative

2328a tipaw (shiggd'6n) madness.

The verb shdga’ appears seven times in the or,
five times as a Pual participle, and twice in the
Hithpael, as a participle (I Sam 21:14, (H 15]) and
as an infinitive construct (1 Sam 21:15 [H 16)]).
Etymologically the root has been connected with

905

2330 “Ww (shéd)

Arabic saga‘a “‘the (ceaseless) cooing of pi-
geons, or Assyrian ségu “to howl, rage.”

Of the five uses of shdga’‘ in the Pual, three of
them are found as derogatory names _ for
prophets. First, the disciple of Elisha who
anoints Jehu as Israel's king is referred to as a
“*madman’ (mshuggd’. Il Kgs 9:11) by the
army officers. Second, Shemaiah, one of the
Babylonian exiles, was enraged by Jeremiah's
words on the length of the deportation and wrote
back to the officialdom at Jerusalem regarding
“this crazy fellow ©’ (Jer 29:26). Third, Hosea
was the butt of similar innuendoes for he too was
referred to as mad and “‘raving’* (Hos 9:7).

It is unlikely that this designation refers to the
mode of speech of the prophets, 1.e. anything
from inarticulate muttering to ecstatic babbling.
More likely, it is the content of their speech that
causes the mockery, a content antagonistic to the
optimists of the day. Too much should not be
made of the proposed identification, both in
connotation and form, between Hebrew
mshigga and the Akkadian word muhhum
‘‘diviner’’ from a root meaning *‘to rave, become
frenzied, (A. Malamut, Supp VT 15, 1966, pp.
210-11).

Only in | Sam 21:14-15 {H 15-16], relating
David's performance before King Achish, is the
verb associated with behavior that borders on the
imbecilic. This may be comparable to I Cor
14:23, "Will they not say you are mad?”

shigga‘6n. Madness, abandon, three times in
the oT, two times as a form of judgment from
God, either on Israel herself (Deut 28:28) or on
those who attempt to destroy her (Zech 12:4).
The noun is also used to describe King Jehu’s
mad antics on the highway with his chariot, "* For
he drives like a madman/with abandon/
furiously” (kyv, I] Kgs 9:20).

V.P.H.

yaw (shiggd'on). See no. 2328a.

2329 “saw (sher). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2329a 1AW «(sheger) offspring, young of
beasts (Ex 13:12; Deut 7:13: 28:4,
18, 51).

2330 “SW (shéd) demon.

The word appears two times in the ot: Deut
32:17, ‘“‘They sacrificed unto demons (k)Jv:
‘*powerless spirits’), to gods whom they knew
not’’: and Ps 106:37, “*They sacrificed their sons
and their daughters unto ‘idols/demons’.”
Perhaps it occurs for a third time in Amos 2:1,
‘*Because he (Moab) burns the bones... to a
demon’ changing mT JlaSssid, ‘‘into lime” to
lashshéd (Dahood, in AB, Psalms, II], p. 74).

2331 "SW (shadad)

Undoubtedly Hebrew shéd is to be connected
with the Babylonian word shédu, a demon either
good or evil. In pagan religions the line between
gods and demons Is not a constant one. There are
demons who are beneficent and gods who are
malicious. Generally speaking though, a demon
was conceived as being less powerful than a god.
In Mesopotamian thought the shédu was a
supernatural protective power for whose pres-
ence the gods were invoked. Specifically, the
function of shédu may have been to represent the
vitality of the individual, his sexual potency (Op-
penheim, p. 201: see bibliography).

One cannot help but notice the paucity of ref-
erences to the demonic in the oT and even where
it occurs it is demythologized. Good and evil are
in the moral, not the metaphysical, sphere.
Kaufmann (p. 65, fn. 1) says, **When the gods of
the nations are called shédim it is not meant that
they are evil spints, but that they are insubstan-
tial shades, ‘no-gods, with neither divine nor
demonic functions.”

The wraps are taken off the demonic in the
Bible in the Gospels and the Revelation. That is
to say, the demonic appears most profusely when
Jesus is present. Perhaps God has opened to us
the satanic world only in the presence of Chnst
(Kinlaw, p. 8).

Bibliography: Kaufmann, Y., The Religion of
Israel, University of Chicago, 1960, p. 63ff. Kin-
law, D., **Putting Demons in their Place,’ Chris-
tian Medical Society Journal 6:3-8. Oppenheim,
L., Ancient Mesopotamia, University of
Chicago, 1964, pp. 198ff.

V.P.H.
sw (shédd), Ww (shad). See nos. 2331la,
2332 a.
2331 IW (shadad) ruin, destroy, spoil.
Derivative
233la tT SW (shod) havoc.

The verb appears fifty-seven times in the or: in
the Qal, thirty-two times: Niphal once (Mic 2:4);
Piel twice (Prov 19:26: 24:15); Poel once (Hos
10:2): Pual nineteen times: Hophal twice (Isa
33:1; Hos 10:14). Of these fifty-seven uses, forty-
eight of them are to be found in the books of the
classical prophets (with Jeremiah leading the
way, twenty-six times), thus indicating in what
parts of the o1 canon shddad appears most fre-
quently.

There seems to be no significant problem on
the translation of shddad, as a comparison of the
modern versions will bear out. The kJv opts pre-
ponderantly for “‘to spoil.’ Only in Prov 19:26 is
there anything bordering on significant disagree-
ment. The kv reads, *“‘He who ‘wastes’ his

906

father... 1s a son causing shame.’ One sugges-
tion is to connect shddad with Ethiopic sadada
“to expel, eject,’ (Thomas). We suggest the
translation, “he that ‘maltreats’ his father.”

The verb siddad has an interesting usage. In
one sense it is applied to Babylon (in the
Jeremiah passages obviously) as the “‘destroyer’’
of Jerusalem (Jer 6:26; 12:12, inter alia). This
militaristic world power, far from being an inde-
pendent entity, is an actor chosen for the cast by
God. Its function is to be the medium through
which God's holy anger is outpoured on his own
covenant children. Babylon itself will sub-
sequently become the object of equal devastation
(Jer 51:48, 53, 55, 56; Ps 137:8). The ferocity of
shadad is indicated by its coupling with the
activities of a wolf (Jer 5:6) who pursues, attacks,
and mauls its victim.

shod. Havoc, violence, destruction, \ike the
verb shadad, appears most often in prophetic
books (twenty of twenty-five times). Fortunately,
for purposes of definition, shdd is often used in
parallelism with other substantives. The phrase
shéd washeber “havoc and destruction”’ appears
in Isa 51:19: 59:7; 60:18: Jer 48:3. The phrase
hamas washod “‘violence and destruction’’ oc-
curs in Jer 6:7; 20:8; Ezk 45:9; Am 3:10: (once as
shod w°hamas in Hab 1:3).

This latter parallelism is of special significance
because of the import of the word ‘‘violence™
(hamas). This word designates the type of sin
preceding the deluge, **the earth was corrupt and
filled with violence’ ** (Gen 6:11). What is meant
by “‘violence’’? We tend to agree with Cassuto
(Commentary on Genesis, II, p. 52) that hadmas
does not refer to deeds of outrage and violence,
that is, lawlessness perpetrated by force. Rather,
hamas refers to anything that is unrighteous, e.g.
injustice or social unrighteousness. Perhaps this
sheds some light on the meaning of shod. It is
clear, however, that shdd is not only a cause for
destruction but also may be the destruction itself
(Hos 7:13: 10:14). Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15 con-
nect shod with the day of the Lord. Such destruc-
tion is designed not for unbelievers but for apos-
tate believers.

Bibliography: Dahood, M., **Hebrew-
Ugaritic Lexicography X,°° Bib 53:403. Thomas,
D. W., “‘A Pun on the Name Ashdod in
Zephaniah 11:4,°° Exp T 74:63. idem., **Textual
and Philological Notes on Some Passages in the
Book of Proverbs,’ Supp VT 3:289.

V.P.H.

2332 ssw (shdh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2332a Tw (shad) breast, bosom.

2332b 0 sw «(shidda). Only used in Eccl
2:8, harem (?); meaning uncertain.

shad. Breast, bosom. This noun _ occurs
twenty-one times, twenty-four if one adds the
three appearances of shod in Job 24:9; Isa 60:16:
66:11). Eight of these are found in the Song of
Solomon. Four of these are located in the inti-
mate description by the groom of his bride: 4:5:
7:3, 7, 8 [H 4, 8, 9). Once the bride refers to her
own breasts as a resting place for her lover's head
(1:13). There are two references to the unde-
veloped breasts of the ‘‘little sister’’ (7) (8:8, 10)
and one to the mother of the bride (8:1). It should
not be perplexing that in the ot canon there is at
least one book devoted to the portrayal, among
other things, of the physical side of the marriage
relationship, the function of which is so clearly
spelled out in Gen 1-2.

Besides the Song of Solomon passages the He-
brew word s/ad is used in the following contexts:
(1) in a decidedly erotic, sensual situation where
adultery and seduction are prominent: Hos 2:2 |H
4]; Ezk 23:3, 21 where shad is parallel with dad
‘the (nipple of the) breast’*, (2) as a gesture of
mourning, Isa 32:12: Ezk 23:34 (cf. ““he smote
upon his breast -stéthos,’’ Lk 18:13 and also Lk
23:48); (3) as an indication of arrival at maturity
and young adulthood and hence responsible for
one’s conduct or able to receive instruction: Ezk
16:7: Isa 28:9 (off the bottle!): (4) as a blessing of
fertility and progeny, Gen 49:25, or the withhold-
ing of the same in judgment, Hos 9:14. In those
days when bottle feeding of babies was unknown,
dry breasts could be a tragedy indeed.

V.P.H.

2333 oy (shadday) Shaddai, (the) Almighty
(KJV), is one of God's names in the oT, in
some versions left untranslated and simply
transliterated, but in the kJv translated as
‘the Almighty.”

It is one of a senes of divine names beginning
with the element ‘é/: ‘é! ‘d6lam ‘“‘the God of
eternity/God, the Eternal One’ (Gen 21:33): ‘é/
‘ely6n “the God most high” (Gen 14:18); ‘é/
‘elohé yisra’él *‘God, the God of Israel’? (Gen
33:20); ‘él bét-'él *‘God of Bethel’* (Gen 31:13).

Shaddai, as a divine title, is used forty-eight
times in the ot. Most often it appears in Job
(thirty-one times), on the lips of almost every
person in this drama: Eliphaz, 5:17: Job, 6:4; Bil-
dad, 8:3; Zophar, 11:7; Elihu, 32:8; the Lord,
40:2. Of these forty-eight times shadday is pref-
aced by ‘é/ (God) seven times: Gen 17:1; 28:3:
35:11: 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ezk 10:5. The remain-
ing forty-one times shadday stands alone.

The translation **Almighty’’ goes back to an-
cient times, at least as far back as the Lxx, which
translates shadday as_ pantokratér “‘all-
powerful.’ This is also reflected in the Vulgate,
omnipotens. The rabbinic analysis of this word is

907

2335 ASW (shadap)

that it is a compound word composed of the rela-
tive she, ‘““who”’ and the word day, “enough:
she-day,’’ the one who is (self-)sufficient™
(Babylonian Talmud, Hagigah 12a).

In recent times these earlier suggestions have
been all but rejected and new ones have been put
in their place. We need to mention only some of
the more tenable suggestions. One is that shad-
day is to be connected with the Hebrew verb
shadad *‘to destroy,’ hence **my destroyer.”’ A
second possibility, and this is the most widely
accepted today, is that shadday is to be con-
nected with the Akkadian word, Sadu
‘‘mountain.’"’ Thus Et Shaddai would translate
into English something like **God/E] of the
mountain, i.e. God's abode. The ending -ay is
to be understood as an adjectival suffix (and thus
the translation ‘‘of the....°°), a morphological
feature now demonstrated by Ugaritic: for exam-
ple, one of El’s three daughters is called ‘rsy
(‘arsai) and means, ‘‘she of the earth.’* Also re-
lated etymologically, in addition to Akkadian
§adu is Ugaritic td, (Cross, see bibliography pp.
248-250).

As El Shaddai God manifested himself to the
patriarchs (Ex 6:3): specifically to Abraham, Gen
17:1: to Isaac, Gen 28:3; and to Jacob, Gen 35:11,
43:14; 48:3. The context for most of these refer-
ences is the covenant, more precisely the com-
mand for obedience and faithfulness on the part
of the vassal and the promise of progeny by God.
It is not to the hills (natural phenomenon) that
these men of faith looked for confidence but to
the Lord of these hills, the Lord of the mountain
(Ps 121:1-2).

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., “‘The Names
Shaddai and Abram,'’ JBL 54:173-93. Pope, M..,
in Job, AB, p. 44. Walker, M., °**A New Interpre-
tation of the Divine Name ‘Shaddai’,” ZAW
72:64-66. THAT, IJ, pp. 873-81. Cross, F. M.,
Harvard Theol. Review, Vol. 55 (1962), p. 246.

V.P.H.

2334 osw (shdm). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2334a =o momw o(sh°déma) field (e.g. Isa

16:8: Hab 3:17).

2335 IW (shaddap) scorch, blight (Gen 41:6).

Derivatives

2335a tmpsw (sh'dépd) blasted, blighted.
2335b TNEIW (shiddapdn) blight.

shtdepa. Blasted, blighted. Only in II Kgs
19:26 in a taunt song on Sennacherib, **As grass
on the housetops, and ‘blasted’ before it has
grown up.’ There are two problems here. One ts
that the Isaiah parallel, 37:27, reads sh'déma
(‘field’’) for sh°dépdad. Second, is that the reading

2336 waw (shdsh)

in the Isaiah scroll from Qumran suggests that
both verses should read: “Blasted (nishdap) be-
fore the east wind.”

shiddapon. Blight, a natural catastrophe (I Kgs
8:37: I! Chr 6:28) or a form of divine punishment
(Deut 28:22: Amos 4:9; Hag 2:17). **Blight™’ 1s the
effect produced by the dry hot wind which blows
into Palestine from the Arabian desert, some-
times blowing for two or three days at a time. Its
destructiveness is such that it 1s capable of with-
ering grass, flowers, and standing grain in a day.
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., **Notes and
Studies,” JTS 2:29. Notscher, I., **Entbehrliche
Hapaxlegomena in Jesaia,° VT 1:300.
V.P.H.
Neww (shiddapon). See no. 2335b.
2336 wsw (shdsh). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2336a WW O(shésh), MBWW (shishsha) six.
2336b «(FWY o(shishshi), BIwWw (shishshit)
sixth.
awe (shishshim) — sixty.
*sww (shishsha) give sixth part of.
This denominative verb occurs
only in the Piel (Ezk 45:13; 39:2).

2336c
2336d

2337 omw (shodham) a_ gem, probably onyx
(e.g. Gen 2:12: Ex 25:7).

2338 SW (shw') I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2338a tNIW (shaw’) emptiness,
falsehood.

This noun appears fifty-two times in the oT
most often in Ps (fifteen times) followed by Ezk
(eight times), Job (six times), Jer (five times, only
in the adverbial phrase /ashshaw' “‘in vain, vain-
ly, to no avail,’ and always preceding the verb:
2:30: 4:30; 6:29: 18:15 (perhaps): 46:11).

The most familiar use of shaw’ is in the third
commandment, “You shall not take the name of
the Lord your God in vatn™* (Ex 20:7: Deut 5:11).
Literally the sentence reads, **You shall not lift
up the name of the Lord your God lashshaw',”
the same construction as noted above in the Jer
passages. Before examining the decalogue refer-
ence it will be instructive to observe how the
word is used elsewhere.

That the primary meaning of shaw’ is *“*empti-
ness, vanity’ no one can challenge. It designates
anything that is unsubstantial, unreal, worthless,
either materially or morally. Hence, it is a word
for idols (in the same way that hebel “vanity” is
also a designation for (worthless) idols, for
example). Psalm 24:4 may then be rendered, *‘He
who has not lifted up his mind to an ‘idol’.” Da-
hood (Psalms, I, AB, p. 151) lists the following

vanity,

908

passages: Ps 26:4; 31:6 (H 7]: 119:37; [sa 1:13: Jer
18:15: Job 31:5 with this implication, although
some are dubious, the last one and Isa 1:13 espe-
cially.

Not only are idols **deceptions™* but so too the
words of a false prophet which whitewash and
sugarcoat a gloomy situation (Lam 2:14, Ezk
13:6-9, 23).

The evidence points to the fact that taking the
Lord's name (i.e. his reputation) ‘‘in vain’* will
surely cover profanity, as that term is understood
today, or swearing falsely in the Lord's name.
But it will also include using the Lord’s name
lightly, unthinkingly, or by rote. Perhaps this is
captured by the Lxx's translation of lashshdw"’ as
epi mataio ~‘thoughtlessly.”’

Bibliography: Childs, B., The Book of
Exodus, Westminster, 1974, pp. 388, 409-12.
THAT, II, pp. 882-83.

V.P.H.

2339 Siw (shw') IT. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2339a tmNiw (shd’d) MBw (shd'a) dev-
astation, ruin.
2339b = TANIwr (m’shd'a), ABW (m'shd'a)
desolation.
mNwnm (tshu'ad) noise (e.g. Isa
22:2; Job 39:7).

sho’a. Destruction, desolation. The word is
used in a desert scene (Job 30:3), surely the
epitome of desolation. Perhaps a similar scene in
the habitable land is described in Job 38:27. Or
the word may describe the intensity of a storm,
playing havoc with anything in its path (Prov
1:27: Ezk 38:9). From these references we move
to the remaining uses of shd'ad where the term
becomes a designation for divine judgment.

It has been suggested (Milik) that shé'd is a
poetic term for hell (Ps 35:8) into which David
hopes his enemies will fall. The meaning given
here then is “‘pit’’ or “hole in the ground.”
Zephaniah 1:15 describes the day of the Lord as,
among other things, *‘a day of ruin.’’ The unpre-
dictability and swiftness of such *‘devastation”’ is
underscored by Isa 47:11, part of a lament for
Babylon, or by Isa 10:3, on God's own backslid-
den people.

2339c

m'sho’a. Ruin, devastation, always used fol-
lowing the word sh6é’a: Job 30:3; 38:27; Zeph
1:15. Twice the word appears in the plural: Ps
73:18, °° You (God) cast them down into ‘destruc-
tion’ ** (hell?): Ps 74:3, °*Pick your steps (God's)
over these endless ‘ruins’.”’ Interestingly, both
times the plural is vocalised mashshu'dt. Should
it be m’shda'ét?
Bibliography: Milik, J., °**Deux documents in-
édits du Désert de Juda,’ Bib 38:249-5]1.
V.P.H.

2340 ssw (shab) (re)turn.

Derivatives

2340a MB8w OO (shiba) retirement, with-
drawal (isa 30:15).

2340b tma°w (shiba) restoration (Ps
126:1).

2340c t333Y (shébdb) backsliding.

2340d tasiw (shdbéb) backsliding.

2340e =tm35W7 (mm shibd) backsliding.

2340f imeswm (tshaba) answer.

We have cited simply the basic meaning of
shab but as we shall see the verb branches into
not a few different nuances. It is the twelfth most
frequently used verb in the oT, appearing just
over 1050 times. With very few exceptions shab
is restricted to the Qal and Hiphil stems. It ap-
pears most often in Jeremiah (111 times) followed
by Psalms (seventy-one times), Genesis (sixty-
eight times), Ezekiel (sixty-two times), 1 Kings
(sixty-two times), I] Chronicles (sixtyone times),
II Kings (fifty-five times), Isaiah (fifty-one
times).

The Bible is mch in idioms describing man’s
responsibility in the process of repentance. Such
phrases would include the following: ‘‘incline
your heart unto the Lord your God’ (Josh 24:23):
‘circumcise yourselves to the Lord’’ (Jer 4:4);
**wash your heart from wickedness” (Jer 4:14):
‘*break up your fallow ground” (Hos 10:12) and
so forth. All these expressions of man’s peniten-
tial activity, however, are subsumed and sum-
marized by this one verb shitb. For better than
any other verb it combines in itself the two requi-
sites of repentance: to turn from evil and to turn
to the good.

In the Qal stem it has been suggested that there
are ten different meanings for shib with subdivi-
sions within each, plus a few uses difficult to pin-
point (Holladay, p. S9ff.). Of these two or three
merit special observance. To begin with, the
basic meaning of shub ‘to (re)turn’’ implying
physical motion or movement appears over 270
times. A few times God is the subject, “At the
appointed time I will return to you (Sarah),”’
(Gen 18:14). Most often the subject is a person:
‘*! (Abraham) and the lad (Isaac) will go yonder
and worship, and return to you’ (Gen 22:5). In
the Hiphil there are eighty-seven occurrences of
shab in the sense of **bring back, carry back.”’

Second, often (over 120 times) shab acts as a
sort of an auxiliary verb whose function ts to re-
peat the action of the second verb: ‘‘and ‘again’
Isaac dug the wells (wayyvdshob yishaq
wayyahpor, Gen 26:18).

The third important use of shib in the Qal, and
theologically the most crucial, is in passages deal-
ing with the covenant community's return to God
(in the sense of repentance), or turning away

909

2340 33 (shib)

from evil (in the sense of renouncing and disown-
ing sin), or turning away from God (in the sense
of becoming apostate). In such contexts shi#b in
the Qal is used 129 times. By contrast, in the
Hiphil shab ts used only eleven times when dis-
cussing the divine-human relationship. ‘*turn
back (Qal imperative) and ‘let yourself be turned
from your idols’ (Hiphil) from your idols” (Ezk
14:6).

Taking all stems into consideration, Holladay
(p. 117) concludes that there are a total of 164
uses of shub in a covenantal context. The major-
ity of them, as one might expect, are to be found
in the classical/literary prophets 1]3 times, with
Jeremiah leading the way (forty-eight times). By
way of contrast with Jeremiah, the covenantal
usage of shub ts found only six times in the first
thirty-nine chapters of Isaiah (maybe only five if
we read 30:15 not, “*in returning (to God) and rest
shall you be saved,”* but “in sitting still vashab,
i.e. abstention from foreign alliances, resting
shall you be saved’). In the remaining twenty-
seven chapters it 1s found only four times: 44:22:
55:7. 57:17: 59:20. Thus, we encounter the in-
teresting phenomenon of two prophets back to
back in the canon, the first virtually silent on the
subject and the second quite vocal. Perhaps the
paucity of references in Isaiah is the prophet's
way of saying the die has already been cast. Quite
poignantly God says to Isaiah, *‘Make the heart
of this people fat... lest they be converted
(shiab) and healed.” A point of no return has
been reached. God has foreseen the stubbornness
of his people and has incorporated it into his plan.
The prophet, therefore, is not to be frustrated (Mt
13:13ff.).

It should be noted that in a number of places
shub means “to return from exile.”* In the Qal:
naturally in Ezr and Neh (Ezr 2:1: Neh 7:6); also
Isa 10:22: Jer 22:10: Zech 10:9, inter alia; in the
Hiphil: | Kgs 8:34: Jer 12:15, inter alia. The as-
sociation between the ideas of a return from exile
and a return to the covenant should be obvious.
A return from exile was reclamation as much as a
return from any form of sin. That God should
permit either return is corroborative of his cove-
nantal faithfulness.

To be sure, there is no systematic spelling out
of the doctrine of repentance in the oT. It is illus-
trated (Ps 51) more than anything else. Yet the
fact that people are called “to turn” either ‘‘to™’
or “‘away from” implies that sin is not an in-
eradicable stain, but by turning, a God-given
power, a Sinner can redirect his destiny. There
are two sides in understanding conversion, the
free sovereign act of God's mercy and man’s
going beyond contrition and sorrow to a con-
scious decision of turning to God. The latter tn-
cludes repudiation of all sin and affirmation of
God's total will for one’s life.

2341 sw (shweg)

shiba. Restoration, returning. Used only in Ps
126:1, "When the Lord returns ‘the returning’ of
Zion.

An older view is that shibar of Ps 126:1 should
be read sh‘ bit (BDB p. 986) and the phrase
should be translated **turned again the captivity”
(so av). This has therefore been called a post-
exiltc Ps! Dahood (Psalms III, AB, p. 218) agrees
with the view adopted here that shiba is in fact
from shib. He offers the translation ‘‘restore the
fortunes of citing the Sefire inscription in sup-
port. He treats the word sh bit of vs. 4 also as
from shib, offering a similar translation. This
view, now widely adopted, makes it unnecessary
to see in this phrase a mark of exilic literature
(see shaba).

shobab. Backsliding, apostate. Appears three
times, Jer 3:14, 22 and Isa 57:17, where kJv trans-
lates **frowardly,” and Jp “‘like a thtef.””

shobéb. Backsliding, Jer 31:22: 49:4 and a
somewhat problematic usage in Mic 2:4 where
the versions differ considerably from each other,
and several emend (Js).

m‘shuba. Backsliding, disloyalty, faithlessness.
This noun appears twelve times, nine of which
are in Jeremtah (3:6, 8, 11, etc.). Twice it appears
in Hosea: | 1:7 (where **backsliding’’ has become
a way of life) and 14:4 [H 5] which indicates that
Israel may still be cured from such a lamentable
condition. Only in Prov 1:32 is mshiubda applied
to an individual, °*The ‘turning away/error’ of the
simple shall slay them.”

t‘shiba. Answer, (re-)turn. Appears _ eight
times, five times in reference to the spring as the
‘*turn”’ of the year (II Sam 11:1: I Kgs 20:22, 26: |
Chr 20:1; I] Chr 36:10): once “return” to a place
(I Sam 7:17), and twice in the sense of ‘answer,
retort’ (Job 21:34; 34:36),

Bibliography: Dahood, M., “Some Ambigu-
ous Texts in Isaias," CBQ 20:41-43. Gordis, R.,
‘*Some Hitherto Unrecognized Meanings of the
Verb Shub, ’ JBL 52:153-62. Holladay, W., The
Root SUBH in the Old Testament, Leiden: Brill,
1958. Levine, B., **Notes on a Hebrew Ostracon
from Arad,” IEQ 19: 49-51. Milgrom, J., ‘‘Did
Isaiah Prophesy During the Reign of Uzziah?™
VT 14:164-82, esp. pp. 169-72. TDNT, IV, pp.
984-99: VII, pp. 723-26. THAT, II, pp. 884-90.

V.P.H.

sa5w (shdbéb) 3350) (shdbab). See nos.
2340c.d.

2341 aw (shwg). Assumed root of the
following. Probably a by-form of shdgag
(q.Vv.).

234la = maw «(mo shigd) error (Sob

19:4),

910

2342 mw (shdwa) I, agree with, be(come) like,

level.
Derivative

2342a mw (shaweh) level plain (Gen
14:5).

This verb ts to be distinguished from shdawa II,
“to set, place’ although the commentaries and
lexicons are often tn disagreement which of the
two verbs is so intended in a particular passage.

The suggestion has been made (Labuschagne:
see bibliography) that sidawd is a Shapel form of
the verb dvd “to be’ and means therefore ‘to
cause to be’ and in comparisons **to cause to be
like.’ Then developed the meanings “‘to be like,
alike,” i.e. “to resemble.” In seven passages
shadwa is used in comparisons. These are: Prov
3:15, “‘Nothing you could desire ‘is like’ her
(wisdom); Prov 8:11: 27:15: Lam 2:13, “To
what can I compare you, daughter of Jeru-
salem?’’: Est 7:4 (perhaps the hardest verse in
this book to translate), **For would not this afflic-
tion (liquidation of the Jews) ‘amount to/be com-
parable to’ a loss to the king?” or **for our afflic-
tion is not ‘to be compared’ to the king?” Two
verses, Isa 40:25: 46:5, use shadwd to express
God’s incomparability. With him no one can be
compared.

The verb occurs also in Est 3:8, 5:13 and Job
33:27 where the idea of comparison its latent but
not expressible in English translation.

Wieder has suggested a connection between
shawa and Ugaritic twy “to rule’* especially for
Ps 89:19 [H 20], °°a lad *] made king’ over the
mighty.’ Cf. too Gen 14:17 ("Valley of Shaveh/
the Ruler’’).

Bibliography: Labuschagne, C., The Incom-
parability of Yahweh in the Old Testament,
Leiden: Brill, 1966, p. 29. Wieder, A.’
** Ugaritic- Hebrew Lexicographical Notes,’ JBL
84: 160-62.

V.P.H.

2343 my (shawa) II, to set, place.

One cannot be certain of the exact relationship,
if any, of shdw4 II to shawa I. BDB (p. 1001a)
suggests the development of an original “‘set,
place’’ to ‘‘set together, compare.”

The verb occurs in Ps 16:8, ‘‘I have ‘set/kept’
Yahweh before me always.”” Obviously if one
translates shdwd as ‘“‘set’’ the passage must be
understood metaphorically. The idea of compari-
son, with the supporting preposition k* “‘like,’* is
found in Ps 18:33 [H 34] and II Sam 22:34: *‘He
has made my feet like those of a hind.’ The word
also designates the divine favors God bestows on
the king, Ps 21:5 [H 6]. Hosea 10:1 may be ren-
dered, **He is loaded with fruit for himself.”

The use of shadwd in Ps 119:30 is open to ques-

tion. Is it, "Your judgments have I ‘placed’ be-
fore me, (shdwa Il): or, “‘Your judgments |
have ‘accounted suitable’, (shawa I, BDB
p. 1000a): or, “Your judgments I ‘consider su-
preme’,”’ (Ugaritic twy, “‘to rule,’ ‘‘govern”
Dahood), in Psalms, II], in AB, p. 177; 1f, p. 316.

V.P.H.

2343.1 mw (shtiiah) be bowed down, humble.

Derivatives

2343.la mmIW (shuhd) pit.

2343.1b AM Ww (shiha) pit.

2343.lctmAmy (shahat) pit, destruction,
grave.

The verb shtiah occurs only three times, al-
ways referring to humiliation or moral danger. It
is, perhaps, a by-form of shahah, which is similar
in Meaning.

shahat. Pit, destruction, grave, corruption. The
RSV always translates “‘pit’’ or “‘Pit’’: the NASB
“pit” except Ps 16:10: 49:9 (H 10]: 55:23 |H 24};
Isa 51:14. Niv substantially the same. The Lxx
translates with words for corruption or destruc-
tion eleven times, death five times, and pit three
times—in those places where a verb ‘‘dig™ ts as-
sociated. The word occurs twenty-three times. It
is obvious that the modern treatment differs con-
siderably from the older.

It is usually held, indeed insisted upon, that the
noun comes from the verb shaah ‘“‘dig a pit.”
From there the word is taken to refer to a pre-
sumed netherworld deep below the earth. Such a
derivation is possible: note nahat “rest” from
niah “to rest."’ However, equally possible is a
derivation from shdadhat “to go to ruin,” note
nahat ‘‘descent”’ from nahat **go down.” Quite
possibly we are dealing here with two homonym-
ous nouns, one from shah **sink down’ (not
really *‘dig’’) and the other from shdahat ‘*go to
ruin.

The word is used three times in connection
with a word for ““dig™ (Ps 7:15 [H 16]; 94:13: Prov
26:27) and five times where a pit is implied to
serve aS a trap (Isa 51:14: Ezk 19:4,8; Job 9:31; Ps
9:15 [H 16]). It is used fourteen times in close
connection with death, possible death, or the
grave: Job 17:14; 33:18,22,24,28,30: Ps 16:10:
30:9 [H 10]; 49:9 [H 10]; 55:23 [H 24]: 103:4; Isa
38:17: Ezk 28:8; Jon 2:66.

Whether we are dealing with two words or one,
cannot be proved. It is possible that the word
‘pit’ came to mean “the grave’"—graves in
those times were usually caves dug into the
rock—and then was extended to mean the cor-
ruption of the grave. Or there may have been two
words originally. It seems clear that sometimes
shahat refers to the grave and its decay. In Job
17:14 it is parallel to ‘*the worm.”* In Job 33:18-

2348 *DIw (shawa’')

30 the subject is death by sword or disease. Psalm
16:10, like 49:9 [H 10], refers to decay in death
(cf. 49:14{H 15]). Psalm 55:23 [H 24] speaks of the
‘pit of corruption” (b‘’ér shahat). There is no
warrant here for the rsv “lowest pit."” The word
b*’ér is used twenty-nine times out of thirty-three
for a literal well. It just means a hole dug in the
ground: here it is the pit of burnal. This is the
reference also of Ps 30:9 |H 10] where the dust of
bodily decay is in the context. Isaiah 38:17 is al-
most a definition, shahat b°li. The root of b‘li
means ““worn out.’ The word bai is used for a
negative. shahat bli is the place of total decay.
The translation *‘grave’’ or ‘‘decay of the grave’
fits very well most of these passages which do not
refer to a pit dug for a trap. (For further treatment
see under shdhat.)

R.L.H.

2344 ww (shat) I, go or rove about, go to and
fro (e.g. Num 11:8: I] Sam 24:8).

Derivatives

2344a Ow O(shdt) scourge, whip (e.g.
I] Kgs 12:11, 14; I Chr 10:11, 12).

2344b «BOW (shotét) scourge (Josh
23:13).

2344c «=0fOSY O(shayit) rowing (Isa 33:21).

2344d ow (shit) row (Ezk 27:8, 26).
Denominative verb.

2344e 3opiwr (mashot) oar (Ezk 27:29).

2344f wiwe (mishshét) oar (Ezk 27:6).

2345 paw (shat) II, treat with contempt (Ezk
28:24, 26).

Derivative

2345a ONY (sh''at) despite, contempt
(Ezk 25:15; 36:5).

2346 Sw (shwil). Assumed root of the following.
2346a = OSW (shail) skirt, ofrobe (e.g. Nah
3:5; Jer 13:26).

bow (shdlal). See no. 2399a.
2347 pw (shtim) garlic (Num 11:5).

2348 *yIw (shadwa') cry out (for help).
Derivatives

2348a tyIw (shia’) cry.
2348b tpiw (shda’) cry.
2348c tAyIw (shaw'a) cry for help.

The intensity of the action conveyed by
shawa’ is aptly illustrated by the fact that the
verb occurs only in the Piel. It is used twenty-two
times, most often in Ps (ten times) and Job (eight
times). This leaves only four references in the

911

2349 ASW (shup)

rest of the oT: Isa 58:9; Lam 3:8; Jon 2:2 [H 3];
Hab 1:2.

Several observations emerge from a study of
the twenty-two uses of shadwa'‘. One ts that the
majority of them, thirteen of twenty-two, are in
the first person singular, ‘‘] cried.” Thus, the
verb is used autobiographically more than it is
descriptively, or for purposes of exhortation.
Second, it is usually in a context of a psalm
known as a lament or a hymn of thanksgiving that
this verb appears. Thus, in Ps 30:2 [H 3] the
Psalmist ‘“‘cries’’ unto the Lord because his foes
are rejoicing over him. Or, maybe he feels that
even God has rejected him (Ps 88:13 [H 14]). The
cry may be from the needy, the poor, who are
either forgotten or taken advantage of (Ps 72:12:
Job 29:13: 35:9). The same idea is expressed in
the Sodom/Gomorrah story (Gen 18:20-21; 19:13)
except that the verb here is zd‘ag/sd'aq. 2d‘aq
and shawa‘ are parallel in Lam 3:8.

It is possible to *‘cry’* to the Lord, but obtain
no answer: Hab 1:2; Job 19:7; 30:20; Ps 18:41 [H
42]; Lam 3:8.

shaw‘a. Acry(forhelp). Again Ps accounts for
the majority of uses of the noun (six of eleven
times, plus the parallel I] Sam 22:7; Ps 18:6 (H
7|). It 1s used to describe the cry of anguish, the
cry of the oppressed, the cry of those who are
approaching the breaking point. Exodus 2:23 il-
lustrates this nicely: ‘*The Israelites cried (zda‘agq)
and their cry (shan'adtam) came up to God.”* Cf.
Ps 39:12 [H 13): 40:1 [H 2].

shéa’. A cry (for help), used only in Isa 22:5 in
a day of the Lord context, *"They are shouting/
crying to/on the mountains.”

shaa’. Cry, ifitis from shdwa'; opulence, re-
lief if it ts from ydsha‘ “to save, deliver’’ (cf.
BDB p. 4476 and 1002b). The first meaning is
likely in Job 30:24, though the second meaning
cannot be ruled out. In Job 36:19 (the only other
occurrence) “‘opulence’™’ or “‘riches’’ seems to be
intended.

V.P.H.

Sysw (sha'al). See no. 2433a.

2349 maw (ship) bruise, crush, desire (7), seize
(?), strike at (7).

This verb is found in three passages in the oT+:
Job 9:17: Ps 139:11 (the first referring to the
crushing caused by a storm, the second crushing
caused by darkness). Two references are in the
memorable (and much debated) Gen 3:15, “It
shall ‘bruise’ your head and you shall ‘bruise’ its
heel.’ This passage has often been referred to as
the “‘protevangelium, the first good news of a
promised redeemer after man’s original fall away
from fellowship with God.

912

What, though, is meant by ‘bruising’ or
**crushing’’? That such would describe the action
of a man with a snake is obvious but would it
equally describe the thrust of a snake's bite at a
man’s heel? The Lxx translates both uses of shap
in Gen 3:15 with tered “to watch, guard.’’ The
Vulgate, on the other hand, uses two different
verbs. To describe what the woman's seed would
do to the serpent it uses the verb conterere “‘to
crush.’ To describe what the serpent would do to
the woman's seed, it uses the verb insidiari ‘to
lie in wait.’ This along with other factors has led
several commentators to connect the first shap
with another Hebrew verb shd’ap II, ‘‘to trample
under foot’ and the second shup with Hebrew
sha’ap 1, **to gasp, pant after.”

Taken in the context of the ot and the fulfill-
ment of promise, the verse finds a partial unfold-
ing at Calvary. It is, however, not until Rev 20
that the implications of the verse reach their
climax (cf. also Rom 16:20).

Bibliography: Driver, G. R., *“Some Hebrew
Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns, JTS 30:375-77.
Guillaume, A., **Paranomasia in the Old Testa-
ment,’ JSS 9:286-88. Wifall, W., “Gen. 3:15: A
Protevangelium? CBQ 36:361-65. Woudstra,
M., “Recent Translations of Genesis 3:15, Cal-
vin Theological Journal 6:194-203.

V.P.H.

“pw (shdépar). See no. 2449c.

2350 3¥ (shwq) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2350a tPiw (shdq) leg.
2350b 3=Iw «6(shaqg) $ street (Prov 7:8; Eccl
12:4, 5: Song 3:2).

shoq. Leg. When shdgq refers to a man’s body
it designates the lower part of the leg, the shank
from the knees downward. When shdég refers to
part of an animal's body it designates the upper,
thicker part of the leg. The distinction is main-
tained rigidly by the ksv which translates man’s
shég aS “leg” and an animal's shéq as **shoul-
der.’ The rsv less consistently renders the
former also as “‘leg’’ and the latter as “‘thigh.”’
The usual Hebrew word for the thigh of a person
is yarék (as with Jacob's “‘thigh,’* Gen 32:26).

Six times shdgq refers to the leg of a person: Jud
15:8, “And Samson struck them leg (shdg) on
thigh (yarék),’ perhaps a wrestling term (Bur-
ney; see bibliography). Cf. also Prov 26:7; Deut
28:35: Ps 147:10 (the infantry, “‘legs of a man’’);
Song 5:15, the legs of the bridegroom. Isaiah 47:2
is the one reference to the legs of a woman, here
figuratively the Babylonian empire.

The remaining thirteen references are to the
shéq of an animal, almost always a ram, and all
are in a cultic context (animal sacrifice) except

for | Sam 9:24 (Samuel's hosting Saul which in-
cluded sacrifice, cf. v. 12). In such sacrifices a
good number of the verses state that the shéq of
the animal is to be given to the officiating priest
as his portion in the offering (Lev 7:32-34;
10:14-15: Num 6:20).
Bibliography: Burney, C.,

Judges, Ktav, 1970, pp. 369-70.

The Book of

V.P.H.

2351 *>9Y (shag) HH, be abundant. Occurs in
the Polel (Ps 65:10) and the Hiphil (Joel
2:24: 4:13).

2352 Iw (shwq) HI. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
2352a tApIWwH (rt shiqgd) desire, longing.

This noun appears only three times in the oT,
once in Song 7:10 [H 11]. The woman says of her
beloved: *‘I am my beloved's and his ‘desire’ is
for me.’ The two remaining references are Gen
3:16 and 4:7. In the latter passage God is speaking
to Cain and says to him that sin is like a crouching
beast ‘“‘hungering, intent upon” Cain. In the
former passage God says, ** Your ‘desire’ shall be
to your husband and he shall rule over you." This
is obviously neither an intensification nor a warp-
ing of a pre-existing hierarchy between the sexes
for no such hierarchy is alluded to.

There are two differences between the Gen
passage (3:16) and that in the Song of Solomon.
In the former the reference is to the wife's desire
for her husband. In the latter it is the bride-
groom’s desire for the bride. Second, in the Gen
passage the reference to ‘‘desire’’ ts in a context
of sin and judgment. In the latter, the reference is
in a context of joy and love.

Bibliography: Trible, P., *‘Depatnarchalizing
in Biblical Interpretation, JAAR 41:30-48, esp.
p. 46.

V.P.H.

2353 oY (shir) I, travel, journey (e.g. Isa
57:9; Ezk 27:25).

2353a TSW Ot shard) gift, present (I
Sam 9:7).
2354 saw (shir) II, see, behold, observe.
Denvative
2354a oY (shorér) watcher (e.g. Ps

56:3; 27:11). This may be consid-
ered a Polel part. with mem omitted
(see below).

Altogether the root appears twenty-three
times, sixteen times tn the Qal, seven times in the
Polel (six of which are in the Psalter, the excep-
tion being Job 36:24). Most often it is used in Job,

913

2355 SW (shwr)

2355 33Y (shwr)

eleven times, seven of which are found in the
Elihu speeches.

In several instances shur II is simply a
synonym for rd'a “‘to see,’ and is often paral-
leled to this verb. This, for example, appears in
the oracles of Balaam: "‘From the top of the
rocks I see him (ra'a), from the hills I observe
him (shar) (Num 23:9). Cf. Num 24:17 (but here
Ina vision of the future).

In another context shar assumes the meaning
‘*to lie in ambush.” The ksv rendering of Hos
13:7, “‘as a leopard by the way I will ‘observe’
them” is quite timid. The forcefulness of the pas-
sage is brought out by something such as, **Like
a leopard J will ‘lurk’ ** (Niv). God stalks his own
apostate people. The same meaning is conveyed
by Jer 5:26.

This may be the relationship between s/ar in
the Qal and the six uses of the Polel participle in
Ps: 5:8 [H 9]: 27:11. 54:5 [H 7]: 56:2 [H 3]: 59:10
[H 11): 92:11 [H 12] the last a Qal form of similar
meaning. In all instances this is translated in kJv
and RSV as “‘enemy. Dahood's argument in
(Psalms, 1, AB, pp. 25-26) that the participle
should be translated as *“‘defamer, slanderer”™
seems unnecessary. To be sure, the Psalmist is
the butt of verbal abuse. But equally disconsoling
is the fact that his enemies *‘watch”’ his every
move and close in at the propitious time.

No unusual uses of shir emerge from the Job
passages. God may be the subject of the seeing
(7:8; 33:27; 35:13) or the object of the seeing
(34:29; 35:14).

Only in Hos 14:8 |H 9] does shar go beyond the
idea of gazing or inspecting to include that of car-
ing for, watching over, protecting.

V.P.H.

III. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
2355a thw (shor) ox, bull.
2355b NW (shur) wall (e.g. Gen 49:22:
Job 24:11).
2355c 80 MW O(shtird) row of olives or
vines (Job 24:11: Jer 5:10).

shor. Ox, bull. Sometimes it is used collec-
tively, but usually it refers to a single head of
cattle of either sex (BDB). Oxen were very valu-
able, particularly for their work and as food.
They were essential to abundant crops (Prov
14:4). However, they could not be yoked with an
ass (Deut 22:10), nor muzzled while treading
grain (Deut 25:4). The laws relating to them also
reflect their great value. They are mentioned in
two of the ten commandments: a neighbor's ox is
not to be coveted (Ex 20:17) and the ox is to rest
on the Sabbath (Ex 23:12). Several casuistic laws
in Ex 21-23 relate to the ox. E. g.. an ox that
gores someone was to be stoned; its owner was

2356 Tews

2356 WIw (shiishan)

clear unless the ox had been known to gore: then
he too was put to death (Ex 21:28f.: cf. Ex
21:35f.). One was even to return his enemy's ox if
he found it running away (Ex 23:4: cf. Deut
22: 1-4).

The shor, being the king of the domesticated
animals, possessed great prominence and con-
noted majesty. Therefore the bull was frequently
worshipped throughout the ancient near east, and
at times Israel was strongly tempted to such wor-
ship, e.g. the golden calf (Ps 106:19f.; cf. Ex
32:1-6). Positively the bull was considered the
most valuable sacrifice (cf. Deut 17:1; Lev 22:23,
(4:3, 14 pas.), Further, in Moses’ blessing on the
tribes, Joseph is compared to a firstling bull for
his majesty and superiority over all the nations
(Deut 33:17). Most prominently, the face of an ox
is one of the four faces of the living creatures that
bear Yahweh's throne (Ezk 1:10; cf. Rev 4:6f.).

J.E.H.

"iw (shorér). See no. 2354a.

(shashan) lily.

Related to sshshn, which means “‘big flower’
or ‘water lily’ in Egyptian. Some derive it from
Akkadian shushshu ‘‘six-sided,”’ referring to the
six leaves of this lily. It appears mainly in poetic
material as a symbol of beauty.

In the Song of Solomon, “‘lily” ts used several
times with reference to the bride. She is a “lily of
the valleys”’ (2:1, not a technical designation of
‘lily of the valley’’) and a “‘lily among the
thorns’ (2:2: cf. 4:5, 6:11). The delightful lips of
the bridegroom are compared with lilies in 5:13.
This may refer either to their shape or their fra-
grance. In Hos 14:5 Israel shall ‘blossom as the
lily,” a reference to its restored beauty and
abundance after repentance.

The temple of Solomon used the lily motif first
found in Egypt. The seven-foot capitals on the
pillars of Jachin and Boaz were made in the shape
of a lily (I Kgs 7:19, 22), and the large cast metal
sea had its rim decorated like a lily blossom
(I Kgs 7:26).

Four psalm headings use the expression *‘ac-
cording to” or “upon” the “‘lily’* or ‘‘lilies”’
(45:1, 69:1). Two of them use “‘the lily of tes-
timony’ as a part of the title (60:1; 80:1). This
obscure reference, which also baffled the Lxx
translators, is explained by most as a melody to
which the psalm was sung. It is a musical nota-
tion of some kind. For other such notations see
seld.

H.W.

2357 BIW (shazap) catch sight of, look on
(Job 20:9; Song 1:6).

914

2358 *3tw (shazar)

be twisted. Occurs only in
the Hophal (Ex 26:1, 31, 36; 39:24).

mw (shah). See no. 236la.

2359 smw (shahad) bribe, ransom, offer gifts.

Derivative
2359a T3MY (shohad)

The verb is used only in Job 6:22. Job says to
his friends, *‘Did I say, give me something, ‘ran-
som’ me with your wealth?’ and Ezk 16:33,
**You have given presents away to all your lov-
ers, you have ‘offered gifts’ to them.”

shohad. Bribe, present, gift, reward, gratuity, in-
ducement. One may begin by observing that
prohibitions on receiving bribes (presumably on
the part of judges) are found in the legal sections
of the Pentateuch: Ex 23:8; Deut 16:9. Although
both verses begin similarly, Ex 23:8 ends, ‘Fora
bribe blinds the eyes of the wise (hadkadmim).”° Cf.
Isa 1:23; 5:23; Mic 3:11.

If the price is right a bribe can even produce a
**hit-man”™ who will assassinate an innocent per-
son: Deut 27:25; Ezk 22:12; Ps 26:10, or at least
pervert judgment: Prov 17:23.

Only he who desists from such flagrant viola-
tion of both moral and criminal law can stand in
God's presence: I] Chr 19:7; Ps 15:5; Isa 33:15.
God himself is above reproach on this point: Deut
10:17 (cf. I Pet 1:17).

Given the greed of man in any age and any
civilization it is interesting that only three spe-
cific cases of bribery are alluded to (using
shohad) in the ot: the sons of Eli (I Sam 8:3);
kings Asa and Benhadad (I Kgs 15:19): and kings
Ahaz and Tiglath-pileser (II Kgs 16:8).

Once again we see the uniqueness of the oT in
contrast to pagan nations. In his study of
Mesopotamian texts Finkelstein’ can state,
‘*There is no known cuneiform law outlawing
bribery specifically’ (p. 79); “it (i.e. bribery) was
not only a common practice, but was recognized
as a legal transaction’’ (p. 80).

Bibliography: Finkelstein, J. J., ‘*Middle-
Assyrian suimdnu Texts,’ JAOS 72:77-80.

V.P.H.

bribe, present.

2360 Any (shaha) bow down.

Derivatives
2360a oo MSMw (sh hit) pit (Prov 28:10).
2360b 3 omemw (sh'hit) pit (Lam 4:20; Ps

107:20).

Possibly cognate with Akkadian shiha ‘to wal-
low,’ ‘‘to descend.’’ Used once in the Qal stem
of the Jews’ tormentors who had commanded,
‘‘bow down” or “‘lie down”’ (NEB) that they might
walk over their backs (Isa 51:23).

It occurs once in the Hiphil stem at Prov 12:25
of the heaviness in a man’s heart which **maketh
it stoop” (kv): “depresses it” (NAB); “weighs
him down” (Rsv).

The commonly occurring form hishtahawad “to
prostrate oneself or “to worship,’ which was
analyzed as a Hithpael of shaha, is now regarded
on the basis of Ugaritic evidence as an Eshtaphal
stem (the only example) of Aawa II (q.v.).

E.Y.
sinw (sh'hér). See no. 2368a.
minw (shChat). See no. 2360a.
2361 mmy (shahah) bow down.
Derivative
236la mw (shah) low, lowly (Sob 22:29).

This verb is used seventeen times in the oT,
eleven times in the Qal: four times in the Niphal:
and two times in the Hiphil. Eight of the seven-
teen times it Is parallel with sidape/ also meaning
“to be/become low, be abased.” The root ap-
pears most often in Isaiah, eight of seventeen
times: three times in the Qal, 2:11, 17: 60:14:
three times in the Niphal, 2:9: 5:15; 29:4; two
times in the Hiphil, 25:12: 26:5.

In all instances of sha@hah in the Niphal and
Hiphil the meaning is ‘‘to be brought low” in the
sense of be humbled, to have one's arrogance
knocked out of him. The one exception is Eccl
12:4 (Niphal): “And all the daughters of music
shall be brought low." Exactly what this means is
anybody's guess, but if we take chap. 12 as an
allegory of old age the phrase may refer to deaf-
ness or the weakness of the voice.

In the Qal the meaning of **to depedestalise™
the arrogant appears also in Isa 2:11. 17; Ps
107:39 and perhaps Job 9:13 where the best En-
glish translation would be, “‘they ‘grovel’ at his
feet.”

There are several extended meanings of
shdhah in the Qal. One ts to bow in the sense of
doing obetsance before another human being.
This is illustrated in Isa 60:14 and Prov 14:19,
‘The evil bow down before the good.’* A second
would be to bow in the sense of to walk in a
Stooped posture, dejected as in a period of
mourning: Ps 35:14: 38:6 [H 7].

V.P.H.
2362 enw (shahat) kill, slaughter.
Derivatives
2362a ommw (sh hitad) slaughtering.

2362b tranny

The verb shahat appears eighty-four times in
the or. All are in the Qal except for two instances
of the Niphal: Lev 6:25 (H 18) and Num 11:22.

(shahata) slaughter.

915

2362 wnw (shahat)

With five exceptions, where it means “‘beaten/
hammered out’ gold (1 Kgs 10:16, 17: I] Chr
9:15, 16), shdhat means “to kill’* most often in a
ritual sacrifice and a few times to kill another
person(s). It may be used for non-sacrificial kil-
ling of animals (Gen 37:31). It is translated in the
LXx aS sphazo and thud. In Jer 9:8 (H 7) alone is
the lethal weapon the tongue.

When shdhat is used in connection with the
killing of human beings such killing may be in one
of two contexts: the cultic, religiously prompted
killing or simply plain murder and assassination.
In the former category we may place Gen 22:10,
**And Abraham took up the knife to slay Isaac,”
plus Isa 57:5: Ezk 16:21: (child sacrifice a la
human sacrifice of Canaanite cults). In the latter
category is one hypothetical situation where God
himself would be the perpetrator of the deed and
his people the victims (Num 14:16). Zedekiah
was forced to observe the execution of his own
sons on orders of Nebuchadnezzar: II Kgs 25:7:
Jer 39:6; 52:10. Identical treatment was meted
out to the leaders of Judah: Jer 39:6: 52:10 (cf. too
Jer 41:7). Similar massacres happened to the
prophets of Baal (I Kgs 18:40), royal families (11
Kgs 10:7, 14), and the Ephraimites who could not
say “Shibboleth” (Jud 12:6).

It is in the realm of the sacrifice rituals that
shahat finds tts most popular usage. As such, it is
in the book of Lev that the root occurs most of-
ten, thirty-five times. When one comes into the
presence of God he never comes empty-handed.
**Nothing in my hands I bring” would be a con-
cept alien to the Israelite. The worshiper ts to
bring an animal, a domestic one and never a wild
one (""I will not offer unto the Lord that which
costs me nothing’’). Depending on the particular
situation the individual himself, the high priest,
or the Levites, after the worshiper has laid hands
on the animal's head, kills the animal and then
sprinkles the blood.

The Bible never really spells out how the ani-
mal was slaughtered. Rabbinic sources would in-
dicate that the animal was killed in the swiftest
and most painless way possible, by cutting hori-
zontally across the throat in an uninterrupted
movement.

The Greek root used in the txx for shahat,
sphazo, is used four times in the Revelation to
describe Chnist as the ‘'slain’’ lamb: 5:6, 9, 12:
13:8. A synonymous root for sha@hat is found in
Ps 44:22 |H 23], **We are counted as sheep for the
‘slaughter’ (fibha), and Isa 53:7, “As a lamb
which is brought to the slaughter’ (teba/t), both
from the root tabah, also meaning “to kill.”

sh‘hita. Slaughtering. Appears only once, in Il
Chr 30:17, “The Levites had charge of the
slaughtering of the passover victims,’ during the
Passover invoked by Hezekiah. Originally it was

2363 9MW (shh!)

the duty of the offerer himself to slaughter the
victim.

shahata. Slaughter (7). This noun appears
only in Hos 5:2 and its translation is open to ques-
tion. Literally the passage reads ‘“‘the revolters
have gone deep in slaughter... Many modem
commentators emend shdhat to shdhat ‘‘de-
struction” and redivide the MT. Driver (see bib-
liography) suggested that the noun is to be con-
nected with a semitic root sht ‘‘to corrupt’’ and
renders, “They deepened the corruption of Shit-
tim.””

Bibliography: On shahadtad: Driver, G. R.,
“Studies in the Vocabulary of the Old Testa-
ment, JTS 34:33-44, esp. p. 40. On shahat:
Michel, O., in TDNT, VII, pp. 925-38. On Rab-
binic sources for methods of slaughtering: Ber-

man, J., ‘‘Ritual Slaughtering,”’ Universal
Jewish Encyclopedia, \X, pp. $62-65. Rabi-
nowicz, H., ‘“Shehitah,’ = Encyclopaedia

Judaica, XIV, pp. 1337-44.

V.P.H.
mony (shhita). See no. 2362b.
mw (shhin). See no. 2364a.
menw (sh‘hit). See no. 2360b.
2363 2mw (shhl). Assumed root of the following.
2363a) = OmMw o(shahal) lion (e.g. Hos 5:14;
Job 4:10).
2363b tnemw (sh*hélet) onycha.
sh‘helet. Onycha. This noun is used only in Ex

30:34 as one of the ingredients in the production
of incense. Besides incense of plant origin,
aromatic ingredients were produced from fauna.
In this latter category we would include onycha,
to be connected perhaps with the shell of a
mollusk (snails, clams, oysters for example)
which when burned emits a pleasant odor.

This leads to the larger issue of the place of
incense in the ot cultic rituals. Following Haran
(see Bibliography) we suggest there are three dif-
ferent uses of incense. The first is as a supple-
ment to a sacnifice, especially the meal offering
(Lev 2:1, 15). Second is a separate incense offer-
ing offered in a censer. The ingredients of this
offering are not mentioned in the Scripture (Lev
10: 1ff.: Num 16:6ff.). Third is the incense placed
on the altar of gold (Ex 30:1-10, 34-37). Only
here is the composition of the incense detailed
(Ex 30:34-37): three kinds of powdered sweet
spices (of which one Is onycha) and frankincense,
all in equal quantities and seasoned with salt.

Most likely the burning of incense was as-
sumed to have a sanitary function in which it was
an antidote to the smell of the sacrifice. Both
Testaments draw a parallel between the offering
of incense and prayer (Ps 141:2; Lk 1:10; Rev 5:8:
8:3, 4).

Bibliography: Beck, H., “‘Incense,’’ in IDB,
I], pp. 697-98. Glueck, N., “‘Incense Altars,’* in
Translating and Understanding The Old Testa-
ment, ed., H. T.Frank, Abingdon, 1970, pp.
325-29 with plates and figures. Haran, M., *‘The
Use of Incense in the Ancient Israelite Ritual,”
VT 10:113-29. Thompson, J. A., “‘Incense,”” in
ZPEB, III, pp. 274-76.

V.P.H.

nonw (sh*hélet). See no. 2363b.
2364 Inw (shhn). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2364a Tinw (sh*hin) boil, inflamed spot.

The skin disease of boils was one of the ten
plagues brought by the Lord on Egypt (Ex 9:9-
11). The Lord threatens boils if Israel will not
obey him (Deut 28:27, 35). God is viewed as the
ultimate reason for the disease, even in the case
of Job, where the more immediate agent is Satan
(Job 2:7), and the proximate cause may well have
been germs.

E.A.M.

2365 mw (shhp). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2365a ARMY (shahap) gull (Deut 14:15 =
Lev 11:16).

2365b =MEMW (shahepet) wasting disease

(Deut 28:22: Lev 26:16).

momw (shahepet). See no. 2365b.

2366 yrmw (shhs). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2366a ynw (shahas) dignity, pride (Job
28:8: 41:26).

2367 mw (shahaq) rub away, beat fine, pul-
verize (e.g. Job 14:19; Ex 30:36).
Derivative
2367a SMW (shahaq) dust, cloud (e.g.
Isa 40:15: Deut 33:26).

2368 smy (shadhar) I, be black (Job 30:30).
Derivatives

2368a =o IMW (sh hor) blackness (Lam
4:8).

2368b SMW (shdhor) black (e.g. Lev
13:31, 37: Song 5:11).

2368c 390 mANNW «(shaharit) blackness of
hair, i.e. dawn of youth (Eccl
11:10).

2368d oo mnw (shtharhor) blackish (Song

1:10).

916

2369 “my (shdhar) HH, seek early, earnestly.
Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2369a TIMMY (shahar) dawn.
2369b 9 omw (mishhadr) dawn (Ps 110:3).

All but one of the thirteen occurrences of
shahar are in the Piel stem. The one exception is
the Qal participle of shadhar in Prov 11:27, ‘‘He
that ‘strives after’ good obtains favor.’’ Most
often the object of the seeking is God: Job 8:5; Ps
63:1 [H 2]; 78:34; Isa 26:9; Hos 5:15. Of these five
passages, four state that one seeks earnestly the
Lord in a moment of affliction: Job 8:5: Ps 63:1
{H 2]; Ps 78:34; Hos 5:15. In Isa 26:9, the wor-
shiper simply affirms his intense desire for
fellowship with God.

God himself may be the subject of the seeking
(Job 7:21). Wisdom may be the object of the seek-
ing: Prov 1:28; 8:17 (and cf. further, Von Rad,
Wisdom In Israel, p. 157ff.). Only in Isa 47:11
does the verb appear in a negative context, and
even here the translation is uncertain.

shahar. Dawn. A masculine noun generally
denoting the breaking of the day, that time just
prior to sunrise. Some have taken a clue from the
Ras Shamra texts in which Shr refers both to the
common noun ‘‘dawn’’ and to the name of a de-
ity, Dawn. Saar, along with Salim, is born to a
woman who has been impregnated by the god EI
(UT 16: Text no. 52). The suggestion is then that
there are (veiled) references to this Canaanite
deity in the oT, albeit in a demythologized fash-
ion.

It is of interest to observe the verbs with which
shahar is used. Most frequent is the verb ‘ala ‘‘to
ascend, rise.’’ Cf. Gen 19:15, *“When the morn-
ing arose/when the dawn broke’”’ (also Gen 32:24,
26 (H 25, 27]; Josh 6:15; Jud 19:25; I Sam 9:26;
Jon 4:7; Neh 4:21 [H 15]). Another is ‘ar ‘‘to
awaken” (Ps 57:8 [H 9]; 108:2 [H 3}). Should
these two verses, which are the same in parallel
Pss, be translated **I shall awake in the morning”’
or *‘I shall awaken the dawn”’ or **I shall awaken
Shahar’’? Cf. Job 38:12, dawn (shahar) is given a
daily assignment by God, though it would appear
obvious that this ts a case of poetic license. We
may assume the same license in operation when
the Psalmist (139:9) muses about riding on the
wings of the dawn, or in those references to the
dawn's eyelids: Job 3:9: 41:18 (H 10, Steadman).

The crux interpretum is Isa 14:12, **‘How you
are fallen from heaven Lucifer (kJv son of the
morning, hélél ben shahar).’’ That the passage
occurs in the context of a satire on the king of
Babylon no one will deny. Yet many Christians
have taken this verse (along with perhaps Ezk
28), and on the basis of verses such as Lk 10:18; I
Tim 3:6, have assumed that here is something on

917

2370 *nnw (shahat)

Satan's ongin, especially his expulsion from
heaven subsequent to his pompous display of ar-
rogance. The New Bible Commentary (rev. ed.,
p. 600) calls such exegesis *‘a precarious con-
jecture.’’ And E. J. Young can say flatly (p. 441),
‘‘It cannot apply to Satan.’’ Among evangelicals
Archer (WBC, p. 622) is the most open to a
supernatural, cosmic interpretation. We feel
safest with the application of the phrase to the
Babylonian tyrant whose gross pride provided
fuel for the prophet’s invective.

Bibliography: Clifford, R. J., The Cosmic
Mountain in Canaan and the Old Testament,
Harvard University, 1972, pp. 160-68. Craigie,
P., ‘‘Helel, Athtar and Phaethon (Jes 14 12-15),”°
ZAW 85: 223-25. Mackay, J., “‘Helel and the
Dawn-Goddess,’’ VT 20:451-64. Young, E. J.,
The Book of Isaiah, vol. 1, Eerdmans, 1965, pp.
439-4].

V.P.H.

many (shahdrit). See no. 2368c.
smsamw (sh*harhor). See no. 2368d.

2370 *mmyw (shahat) destroy, corrupt.

Derivatives
2370a ) otmemwe (mashhit) destruction.

2370b so AMw «(mashhét) destruction (Ezk
9:1).
2370c }3=6amwr «(mishhat) disfigurement of

face (Isa 52:14).
2370d tammy (shahat) pit, destruction.

The verb occurs 15] times in the oT. It is used
primarily in the Hiphil stem. It also occurs in the
Piel, Niphal, and Hophal stems. There is no dis-
cernible difference in translation. To illustrate,
Rabshakeh says to the envoys of Hezekiah,
‘*Have the gods of the nations delivered them
which my fathers have destroyed?” (shahat in
the Piel). The exact correspondence to this verse
is found in Isa 37:12 except that shahat appears
there in the Hiphil.

The object of this verb may be a city (Sodom,
Jerusalem); a dynasty (the house of David, I] Chr
21:7); nations who harass God’s people (Baby-
lon, Jer 51:11); most often God's own covenant
people and their possessions. Only against
Amaziah (II Chr 25:16) does God launch an indi-
vidual vendetta. Similarly Pharaoh Necho, con-
temporary of Josiah, said to the saintly king, **Do
not oppose the God who is with me or else he
may ‘destroy’ you”’ (II Chr 35:21). Rehoboam
averted God's destruction by repentance (II Chr
12:12).

mashhit. Destruction, destroyer. Morphologi-
cally, this is a Hiphil participle of shahat. It
is used to describe a lion (Jer 2:30), an angel
(I Chr 21:12, 15). The most familiar usage will be

2371 Mew (shitta)

in connection with the angel of destruction at the
Passover (Ex 12:23), “‘the destroyer.’ He is the
messenger entrusted with the execution of God's
vengeance.

shahat. Pit, destruction. At least two con-
troversies focus on the substantive shahat. First,
to what verbal root is the noun to be related?
Many scholars have connected it with the verb
shiiah **to sink down, (BDB, p. 1001), or shahda
“*to bow down,”’ or shahat ‘to destroy.’’ There
is a noun shahat meaning “‘pit’’ from shaah
**sink down” (Ps 7:15 [H 16] and 35:7). This does
not exclude the derivation of another shahat
from shahat. Cf. nahat 1 from niah and nahat Il
from nahat, (see shaah). The second problem is
to what degree, if any, can shahat legitimately be
taken as a poetic designation of Sheol and thus be
reflective of the Israelite concept of the afterlife?

shahat occurs twenty-three times in the oT,
most often in Psalms (nine times) and Job (seven
times). The ksv translates the word as “‘corrup-
tion’’ (Ps 16:10): *‘pit’’ (Ps 35:7); ‘‘destruction”
(Ps 103:4): “*grave’’ (Job 33:22); and ‘‘ditch”’ (Job
9:31). ot scholars, obsessed with the idea that the
concept of immortality and the afterlife was a rel-
atively late postexilic development in Israel,
conveniently, but incorrectly, understood shahat
only as an allegorical designation of the Babylo-
nian exile!

Specifically fourteen of the sixteen combined
references in Ps and Job would seem to entertain
no possible interpretation other than an afterlife
concept (exclude here Ps 7:15 [H 16]). See also
shahat, no. 2343.1c.

Bibliography: Murphy, Roland E., ‘*Sahat in
the Qumran Literature,'’ Bib 39:61-66. Pope, M.,
‘The Word snw in Job 9:31,’ JBL 83:269-78.
Tromp, N., Primitive Conceptions of Death in
the Netherworld in the,Old Testament, Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1969, pp. 69-71. TDNT, IX,
pp. 96-100. THAT, II, pp. 891-94.

V.P.H.

2371 muw (shitta) acacia, tree and wood (e.g.
Isa 41:19: Deut 10:3).

2372 maw (shatah). spread, spread abroad
(e.g. I] Sam 17:19; Jer 8:2).

Derivatives

2372a =omewr (mishtah) spreading place
(Ezk 26:5, 14).

23726 = mw = (mishtoah) spreading place

(Ezk 47:10).
wow (shorét). See no. 2344b.

2373 aw (shatap) wash, rinse, overflow, en-
gulf.

918

2374 Ow (shtr).

Derivative
2373a THY (shetep) flood, downpour.

The meaning ‘to overflow, engulf’ accounts
for the majority of the uses of shdtap. The trans-
lation ‘‘to wash, rinse,’ is found only in the fol-
lowing passages: Lev 6:28 [H 21]; 15:11-12; | Kgs
22:38; Job 14:19 (in the sense of ‘‘erode’’) and
figuratively Ezk 16:9, ‘‘f washed your blood off
you, and here parallel with rdhas ‘‘to wash”
(cf. Lev 15:11).

The verb shdatap is most often associated with
the flowing of water: ‘“‘torrent’’ (nahal): Isa
30:28, 66:12; Jer 47:2; I] Chr 32:4; Ps 78:20;
“river”? (ndhar): Isa 43:2; Song 8:7; “‘‘rain,
shower’ (geshem): Ezk 13:11, 13; 38:22;
““waters’’ (mayim): Isa 28:2, 17; Ps 124:4;
‘‘flood’’ (shetep): Dan 11:22.

A good many of the above verses used the
‘overflowing torrent’ idea as a figure of speech
for God's judgment on his people: Isa 8:8; 28:2,
15, 17-18; 30:28 (against Samaria in this case). It
does not stretch one’s imagination to feel the full
force of the analogy. Conversely, however, note
that the same combination of words occurs in Isa
66:12. But here the idea is the overflowing and
dissemination of blessing (the only time shdtap
carnes a positive force when a water metaphor is
employed). Also personal calamities, as well as
national emergencies, may be described by
shatap. From such the victim will pray for res-
cue: Ps 69:2, 15 [H 3, 16] and 124:4.

shetep. Flood, downpour, used to describe
‘flood water’’ in Ps 32:6; Job 38:25; Nah 1:8;
Dan 9:26; 11:22. The last three are in reference to
judgment. The remaining reference is Prov 27:4,
**The flood of wrath.”’

V.P.H.

Assumed root of the following.
2374a tyw (shotér) official, officer.
2374b «thew (mishtar) rule.

shoter. Official officer. This noun is a partici-
pial form from a root which is productive
throughout the Semitic family (cf. Akkadian Sat-
aru “‘to write’’; Arabic satara ‘“‘to write,’
‘rule,’ sitrun ‘‘row,” “‘line;’’ Aramaic/Syriac
§°tdra’ **document;’’ Sabean s¢r **inscription’’).
The word is used of a subordinate official. In dis-
tinction to many other known officials, these
were probably originally trained in the scribal
arts, as the root would indicate.

shotér is a general term, widely used for an
official in many areas of government and society.
It names the Jewish sub-officials under the Egyp-
tian overseers who drove the Hebrews to hard
labor (Ex 5:6, 10), being accountable for both the
amount and quality of the work (Ex 5:14-19).

During the years of wandering in the wilder-

ness (Num 11:16), it designates the sub-officials
of the seventy elders of Israel whom the Lord
gave to Moses to share the weight of administra-
tion (Deut 1:15). Throughout the early days of
Israel, they seem particularly attached to the el-
ders, sometimes in the civil administration (Deut
31:28) or in matters relative to military affairs
(Deut 20:5ff.; Josh 1:10; 3:2).

The position apparently continues into the
united and divided monarchies where they are
involved in military affairs (I Chr 27:1; I] Chr
26:11) and as Levites, in judicial and religious
matters (1 Chr 23:4; 26:29; Il Chr 19:11; 34:13).

mishtar. Rule. Depicts the rule of the
heavenly bodies over the surface of the earth
(only Job 30:33).

Bibliography: Manley, G. T., *’ ‘Officers’ in
the Old Testament," EQ 29:149-56. McKenzie,
John L., **The Elders in the Old Testament,’’ Bib
40:522-40.

R.D.P.

2375 "ZY (shay) gift offered as homage (Isa
18:7; Ps 76:12; 68:30). Derivation uncer-
tain.

See no. 2340b.
See no. 2340.1 b.
See no. 2344c.

maw (shiba).
mow = (shiha).
mw (shayit).

2376 mow (shiloh) Shiloh.

Shiloh was located about thirty miles north of
Jerusalem in Ephraim. Joshua chose this city as
headquarters (18:1) and had the tabernacle
erected there. It functioned primarily as a reli-
gious center, only secondarily as a base for mili-
tary operations. It is possible that at times there
existed in Shiloh some fertility cult practices.
This may be indicated in three ways: (1) the ref-
erence to an annual festival at Shiloh during
which the daughters of Shiloh engaged in some
kind of a dance. The Benjamites used this occa-
sion to abduct for themselves wives (Jud 21:15-
21); (2) the reference in I Sam 1:22 to sacred pros-
titution at the Shiloh temple engaged in by Eli's
sons and the women; (3) when Samuel's mother
Hannah went to the temple Eli saw her lips move
but heard nothing. His startling conclusion was
that she was drunk (1 Sam 1:13). Could Eli have
thought so presumably because it was quite
common for pilgrims to get drunk at the annual
festival?

Archeological excavations have shown that
Shiloh was destroyed around 1050 s.c., appar-
ently by the Philistines at the time they captured
the ark of the covenant from the Philistines (I
Sam 4). This fact is alluded to in Ps 78:60: Jer
7:12, 14; 26:6, 9.

The Jer passages are extremely interesting, for

919

2377 PW (shyn)

they occur in his famous ‘‘temple sermon’’ (7,
26). He threatens that God will do to Jerusalem as
he did to Shiloh. Why choose Shiloh for an anal-
ogy? Two reasons. One, Shiloh was the only loc-
ality that we know of outside Jerusalem with a
temple of Yahweh that housed the ark of the co-
venant. Two, at both places the people had at-
tempted to exploit their relationship to God (via
the ark and temple respectively) to achieve secu-
rity in a time of political distress. Religion had
become magic.

We must now consider the reference to the
verse in Gen 49:10, Jacob's blessing on his son
Judah: ‘The staff shall not depart from Judah,
nor the sceptre from between his feet until
‘Shiloh’ come, and the obedience of the people
be unto him.’ What is meant by the phrase ‘until
Shiloh come’’? If it is a prophecy of Jesus, the NT
nowhere alludes to it. It would be preferable to
say it is a prophecy of David as a type of the
Messiah, but what does Shiloh add?

What are the other possibilities of interpreta-
tion? One is to connect consonantal shylh with
the rare Akkadian word sé/lu *‘counselor.”’ A
second js to retain the translation Shiloh and read
either, as in KJv, ““Until Shiloh come(s)"* but
what can this possibly mean? Or read, ** Until he
(Judah/David) comes to Shiloh,’ expressing
some expansion of the base of power beyond
Judaean borders. A third suggestion is made on
the almost unanimous testimony of the ancient
versions (Lxx and Targums) that would infer a
slight change in the mr, 1.e. a change of shvlh to
shlh (= shellé *‘to whom it belongs*’), the rela-
tive particle sh, the preposition /, the third per-
son singular pronominal suffix -6. The phrase
then could read ‘‘until he comes into his own.”’
Allegro notes the messianic interpretation of Gen
49:10 at Qumran where the verse is applied to the
scion of David to come (see Bibliography). The
similarity to Ezk 21:27 |H 32] is striking. A fourth
suggestion is to divide the consonantal text shylh
into shay /6 ‘‘until tribute is brought to him”
(Moran, Speiser).

Bibliography: Among the copious treatments
of Gen 49:10 we note some of the more recent or
pertinent ones. Margulis, B., “"Gen XLIX _ 10/
Deut XXXIII 2-3," VT 19:202-10. Moran, W..,
‘Gen 49, 10 and Its Use in Ez 21, 32,’ Bib 39:
405-25. Sabottka, L., “‘Noch Einmal Gen 49,
10,” Bib 51:225-29. Speiser, E., in AB, Genesis,
pp. 365-66. Treves, M., ~“‘Shiloh (Genesis
49:10).° JBL 85:353-56. J. M. Allegro, °* Further
Messianic References in Qumran Literature,”
JBL 75: 174-87, especially p. 175.

V.P.H.

2377 Tw (shyn). Assumed root of the following.

2377a =P (shayin), YY (shén) urine
(II Kgs 18:27; Isa 36:12).

2378 °Y (shir)

2377b =*InY (shatan) urinate. Occurs only
in the Hiphil (e.g. I Sam 25:22, 34:
I Kgs 14:10). Doubtless derived from
above noun, perhaps as an infixed
“t’’ form.

2378 sw (shir) sing. Denominative verb.

Parent Noun

2378a t7°Y (shir) song.
2378b =I (Shira) song.

In the Qal stem (plural) participial, **singers,”
and imperative forms of the verb predominate,
‘sing unto the Lord.”’ shir also appears in the
Polel stem and again as a participle designating
the Levitical singers. This is found in numerous
references in Ezra and Nehemiah.

shir. Song. It is to the Psalter that one turns
for insight into the prevalence of singing in the
Israelite cult. Phrases such as *‘sing praises unto
the Lord” or **! will sing unto the Lord’* occur
over thirty-five times in the body of individual
Psalms (Ps 13:6, ‘I will sing unto the Lord”’;
27:6, ‘"I will sing praises unto the Lord”; 33:3,
‘Sing unto him a new song’’).

Thirty psalms are subtitled (in the superscrip-
tion) shir ‘‘a song.’ All of these are masculine
except for Ps 18 where shird is used. When a
psalm is designated as a ‘“‘song’’ this Hebrew
word appears alone only in the superscription of
Ps 46. Most often it is used in juxtaposition with
the word mizmor translated in the kJv as
‘*psalm.”’’ In five instances the order is_ shir/
mizmor (a song/a psalm): Ps 48, 66, 83, 88, 108,
and in eight instances the order is mizmo6r/shir (a
psalm/a song): Ps 30, 65, 67, 68, 75, 76, 87, 92.
The significance of the sequence, if any, eludes
our understanding.

It ts also unclear if there is any appreciable
difference between mizmor **a psalm” and shir
‘‘a song.’ Rabbinic interpretation (the Midrash
to Psalms) recognized mizmor as a psalm accom-
panied by instruments and shir mizmor as a
psalm sung by a choral group alone. Several
things are clear, however, in relating these two
words. One is that the noun mizmor appears ex-
clusively in the Psalms and there always as a title
and never in the body of a psalm. By contrast,
shir is not confined to the Psalter and within the
Psalter itself is used both as a title and in the
psalm proper. Second, although mizmor as a
noun is limited to psalm superscriptions the ver-
bal form (from which the noun is derived),
zamar, occurs in the Psalms and often in paral-
lelism with the verb shir: 21:13 [H 14]: **We will
sing (shir) and praise (z@mar) your power.’* This
is comparable to the synonymous arrangement of
the roots ysr/dmr in Ugaritic (for example, Da-
hood, in Psalms, Il, AB, p. 54 on Ps 57:7 [H 8}).

2379 ww (shayish)

A third observation to be made ts that mizmor
is limited to religious song. shir, on the other
hand, may occasionally refer to secular songs.
Isaiah 23:16 refers to the songs of the harlot
(Tyre). Amos 8:10 would indicate that religious
songs can be turned into lamentations just as
feasts can be turned into funerals.

A special category of psalms designated shir
are Ps 120—134, fifteen in all. In their suberscrip-
tion they are called shir ham-ma‘alét, ‘song of
degrees"’ (kJv) or ‘“‘song of ascents’’ (Rsv). It is
most likely that these psalms took their name
from their use in the festal procession of pilgrims
who at festival times *“went up”’ to Jerusalem, an
acropolis in itself. This is more likely than the
suggestion these represent songs sung by Jews on
the return from Babylon. Actually, in the group
only Ps 126 would be suitable to such a context.
(see ma‘ala for an additional alternative).

It is no accident that the hymn and the lament
are the two leading types of psalms in the Psalter,
both illustrating in turn the two ways of address-
ing God: praise and petition. In one way the
hymn is an expansion of the lament. To illustrate,
Ps 57 begins as a lament: *‘Take pity on me
God...1 take shelter in the shadow of your
wings until the destroying storm is over... I lie
surrounded by lions’ (js). By v. 7 [H 8], how-
ever, the Psalmist says, °*My heart is steadfast, I
will sing and make melody.’’ The abrupt change
of mood is obvious. Thus, most of the laments
evolve into songs of praise in anticipation of
God's deliverance. The Hebrew could always
sing to his God inspite of forbidding circum-
stances.

The hymn and the song of thanksgiving praise
God and sing to God not in anticipation for an
expected deliverance but in response to some-
thing already experienced. And even here there is
a distinction. One, the hymn, praises God for his
actions or extols him for who he is (descriptive
praise: God is... God does....). The song of
thanksgiving praises God for a specific deed (de-
clarative praise: God has...) (Westermann,
p. 31ff.).

Bibliography: Gaster, T. H., °*A Note on Isa.
46:4," JBL 73:237-38 on Sir in Ps 42:8 [H 9].
Sendrey, A., Music In Ancient Israel, Philoso-
phical Library, 1969. Westermann, C., The
Praise of God In the Psalms, Richmond: John
Knox, 1965. THAT, II, pp. 895-97.

V.P.H.

alabaster (1 Chr 29:2).
Perhaps a loan word.
2379a «6 WwO(shésh) alabaster or
Stone.

similar

2380 mw (shit) put, set.

920

Derivatives

2380a MSY (shit) garment (Prov 7:10; Ps
73:6).

2380b MW (shat) foundation (Ps 11:3:

Isa 19:10).

mw (shayit) thorn

Isa 9:17; 27:4).

shit appears eighty-five times in the o7. It oc-
curs in the Hophal stem twice in Ex 21:30. The
root appears most frequently in the Psalter,
thirty-one times, covering many different situa-
tions and contexts.

For at least one proper name the verb supplies
an etymology, that is for Seth, the third son of
Adam and Eve, ‘And she called his name Seth
(shét) for he has given/appointed (shat) me
another seed’’ (Gen 4:25). This in itself is quite
interesting for the translation of shit ‘to give’’ is
the exception, certainly not the norm in biblical
Hebrew. Perhaps only two other occurrences of
shit can be cited in support of the translation “to
give. These are: (1) Ps 12:5 (H 6): “I will ‘grant’
them safety who sigh for it’ (vs. kv and rSv); (2)
Ps 21:6 [H 7], *-You ‘confer’ on him blessings
forever."

The most frequent object of shit is the word
‘*heart.’” The phrase “to set the heart’’ is used
ten times. The phrase is used once even for God,
"What is man... that you set your heart on
him?** (Job 7:17). Negatively the phrase means
‘to ignore, dismiss, take no notice of” as of
Pharaoh's response to the first plague (Ex 7:23).
Cf. 1 Sam 4:20; II Sam 13:20. Positively it means
‘to consider” (Ps 48:13 [H 14]: Prov 22:17:
24:32; 27:23).

A sampling from the thirty-one passages in the
Psalter will give some idea of the extensive way
the root is used. First we may note those pas-
sages in which the setting is hostile: Ps 3:6 (H 7]:
"*T will not be afraid of myriads ‘set’ against me.”’
Cf. 140:5 [H 6]. Sometimes the tables are turned
and the Psalmist prays for retributive justice on
his enemies: Ps 9:20[H 21], °° ‘put’ them in fear, O
Lord.** Cf. Ps 21:9, 12 [H 10, 13]: 73:18; 83:11, 13
[H 12, 14]. Second is the number of times the
verb occurs in royal psalms dealing with the king:
110:1, “sit... until I have ‘made’ your enemies
your footstool.’’ Cf. Ps 21:3, 6 [{H 4, 7]: 132:11.
Third, even in the same psalm shit may apply in
quite different situations. The Psalmist says he
has ‘‘put’’ his trust in the Lord (73:28) but the
unbelievers in a sickening fashion ‘‘put’’ their
mouth against heaven (73:9).

Bibliography: Dijk, H. J. van, “A Neglected
Connotation of 3 Verbs,” VT 18:16—30 (shit in
Ex 10:1; Num 12:11, Ps 9:21 equals **to bring’’).
Ward, W.,°’Egypto-Semitic Roots,’ Orientalia
31: 407.

2380c bushes (e.g.

V.P.H.

921

2381 33Y (shakab)

2381 39W (shdkab) lie down.

Derivatives
238la tmaaw (sh°kabd) coating.
2381b tnssw (sh°kébet) copulation.

2381c tape (mishkab) couch.

shakab appears most often in the Qal primarily
with the meaning “‘to lie down (in death)” or ‘‘to
lie down (for sexual relations).”*

Whenever the derivatives of shdkab (see be-
low) are used in acontext of sexual relationships,
those relationships are illicit (Gen 30:15, 16; II
Sam 11:11 may be exceptions). This is no less
true with the verb shdkab itself. In one instance it
is used in legal statements that forbid certain
types of sexual liasons. Exodus 22:16 (H 15) out-
laws fornication: “If aman seduce a virgin who is
not betrothed and ‘sleep/lie’ with her he shall pay
her price and make her his wife.’’ Deuteronomy
22:22 advocates the death penalty for two people
caught in adultery: “If a man is caught ‘sleeping/
lying’ with another man’s wife both must die.’
Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13 use shdkab in the
statement that prohibits homosexual relation-
ships: *‘The man who ‘lies’ with a man... they
must die.”’ Finally in Deut 27:2] ‘‘lying’’ with
animals is cursed by the Law.

It is sobering to notice that for the above sexual
aberrations usually the death penalty was pre-
scribed. To be sure, the Bible does not tell us to
what degree the punishment was enforced across
the board. But why do the Scriptures inveigh so
forcefully against tampering with the sexual rela-
tionship. Could not at least one reason be that
Israel was surrounded by cultures in which such
practices were par for the course at the human or
even at the divine level? Perhaps one of the most
degrading features of pagan religions is the way in
which religious and sexual expression were often
one and the same thing. It was, however, not a
sacramentalizing of sex but rather an eroticizing
of religion.

Apart from legal texts shdxab is used in narra-
tive sections that describe incidents of inappro-
priate behavior. The daughters of Lot made their
father drunk and then ‘slept’ with him (Gen
19:32ff.). One of Abimelech’s subjects almost in-
advertently committed adultery with Rebekah
(Gen 26:10). The verb is used to describe the rape
of Dinah, Jacob’s daughter, by Shechem (Gen
34:2, 7). Reuben “‘slept’’ with his father’s con-
cubine Bilhah while Jacob was absent (Gen
35:22). The sons of Eli engaged in amorous pur-
suits in their free time (I Sam 2:22). Amnon vio-
lated his half-sister Tamar (II Sam 13:11, 14),
emulating, no doubt, the activities of his own
father with Bathsheba (II Sam 11:4).

By contrast when the Bible makes reference to
a sexual relationship that is within the boundaries

2382 *Row (shakda)

of God's will it usually uses a phrase such as
‘*Adam knew his wife and she conceived"’ (Gen
4:1, 17) or **Abraham went in unto Hagar and she
conceived’ (Gen 16:4). The latter phrase is used
even in Gen 38:18 of Judah and Tamar, father-in-
law and daughter-in-law respectively, where
Judah denied Tamar her levirate nights.

sh‘kaba. Coating, (seminal) discharge. In Ex
16: 13-14 the noun refers to the ‘coating’ of dew
on the ground. Elsewhere it connotes semen,
‘(seed of) copulation’’ (kjv, Lev 15:16—17;
19:20).

sh*kobet. Copulation, bed. Occurs four times
always with the verb natan “to give’ (Lev 18:20,
23; 20:15; Num 5:20) in context of adultery (Lev
18:20: Num 5:20) or bestiality (Lev 18:23; 20:15).

mishkab. Couch, bed, lying down. The mean-
ing *‘couch/bed’* predominates, at least as a part
of the furniture decor to be associated with the
bedroom. As such the mishkab is a place for
sleeping (II Sam 17:28; Job 33:15); for sexual ac-
tivity (Isa 57:7-8; Prov 7:17; Gen 49:4, the first
two references in a context of harlotry, the last
one in a context of incest); for recuperation from
injuries (Ex 21:18); and a mishkab could even
function as a coffin (II Chr 16:14, in which King
Asa was cremated).

We may also note that the Scriptures a few
times state that the bedroom was a proper place
for the expression of the most intense emotions.
Thus Ps 149:5 states, **Let the saints be joyful, let
them sing aloud on their beds’’; Ps 4:4 [H 5}:
‘‘Commune with your heart on your bed"’ or
‘‘upon your beds weep.’’ This same idea is ex-
pressed in Ps 6:6 [H 7]: ‘‘I water my ‘couch’ with
tears’’ except that the Hebrew word for couch is
‘ere§, not mishkab. Conversely, iniquity can be
plotted and schemed from one's bed (Ps 36:4 [H
5]).

Bibliography: Orlinsky, Harry M., “The He-
brew Root SKB, JBL 63:19-44.

V.P.H.

masw (shkdbet). See no. 2381b.

2382 *R=y (shaka). Occurs only once, in the
Hiphil, in Jer 5:8. Meaning uncertain,
perhaps *‘lustful,’” NAsB, Niv, **well-fed.”’

Sow (sh°kdl), 928 (shakul), 23Y

(shakkal). See nos. 2385a,b,c.

2383 maw (shakah) forget, ignore, wither.
Derivative

2383a tmow (shakéah) forget(ting).

The verb appears 102 times in the oT, mostly in
the Qal (eighty-six times) but also in the Niphal

922

(thirteen times) and once each in the Piel (Lam
2:6), Hiphil (Jer 23:27) and Hithpael (Eccl 8:10).
It occurs most often in Ps (thirty-three times) fol-
lowed by Jer (thirteen times) and Deut (eleven
times). Interestingly though shakah means ‘‘to
forget,’’ the same root in Biblical Aramaic (in the
Haphel stem) means almost the opposite, “‘to
find,’ e.g. ‘‘I have found (shkh) a man of the
captives of Judah’’ (Dan 2:25). One explanation
for this phenomenon is that the root may origi-
nally have meant “he could not find,’ a meaning
reflected perhaps in Jer 50:6, ‘*they have gone
from mountain to hill, they have ‘forgotten’/they
‘cannot find’ their resting place’’ (Rabin).

The general meaning of shadkah *‘to forget,”
without a specific theological nuance, is the ex-
ception for this verb. A few passages will, how-
ever, illustrate this basic meaning: Gen 27:45,
‘*And (Esau) forgets what you (Jacob) have done
unto him’; Gen 40:23, ‘The butler forgot
Joseph’: Job 19:14, **My friends have forgotten
me™’: Job 39:15, “‘Ostrich... leaves her eggs on
the ground... forgetting that a foot may tread on
them.”

It is in God and man’s reciprocal relationship,
that the verb shakah finds its most steady use.
About ten times it is used as an antonym for
zakar *‘to remember’ as in Deut 9:7, ‘‘Re-
member, never forget how you _ provoked
Yahweh your God in the wilderness.”’ Or,
shakah may be used as an antonym for yada‘ *‘to
know’ especially in Hos 2:13 [H 15]; 4:6; 13:46
(Wolff). To forget God is not to know God.

Either God or man (Israel) may be the subject
of shakah. Seventeen times God is the subject,
nine of which are in the Psalter. Some of these
may be statements of affirmation in God's faith-
fulness, ‘‘He forgets not/ignores not the cry of
the humble”’ (Ps 9:12 [H 13]). More often it ap-
pears in the form of a lament, ** How long will you
forget me?’’ (Ps 13:1, [H 2]); ““Why have you
forgotten me?’’ (Ps 42:9, [H 10]); ‘‘Why do you
hide your face and forget our affliction?’’ (Ps
44:24, (H 25]); ““Why do you forget us forever?”
(Lam 5:20). Of the wicked, however, God has no
amnesia (Ps 10:11).

More often man is the subject of shakah, the
one who forgets. Forgetting is not simply a
psychological act of having a thought pass from
one’s consciousness, a temporary or permanent
lapse of memory. This is indicated by the fre-
quent identification of the verb with an action. To
forget God is to ignore his commandments (Deut
8:11). To forget God 1s to follow other gods (Deut
8:19); to forget God is to stand in fear of harm and
danger, to live fretfully and timidly (Isa 51:13).
To forget God is to challenge him (Ps 106:13).
The Bible would indicate that satiety is the major
factor for forgetting God (Deut 8:12ff.; Hos 13:6
for example).

In a few instances shakah cannot mean ‘to
forget’? but something like ‘“‘to wither.’’ Psalm
137:5 illustrates this, ‘If I forget you (shakah), O
Jerusalem let my right hand ‘wither’ (shadkah)”
and not as KJv who must supply ‘‘Let my right
hand forget (its cunning).’’ Cf. also Ps 31:12 {H
13}; 59:11 {H 12}; 77:9 [H 10]; 102:4 [H 5].

shakéah. Forget(ting), forget(ter), appears only
in participial form in Isa 65:11, “You who have
forgotten my holy mountain,’’ and Ps 9:18, **May
the wicked return to Sheol, all the nations forget-
ful of God.”’

Bibliography: Albright, W. F., “‘Anath and
the Dragon,’’ BASOR 84:14-17, esp. p. 18. Da-
hood, M., in Psalms, AB, I, p. 190; I], p. 72: IIT,
pp. 11-12, 271. Rabin, C., **Etymological Miscel-
lanea,’ Scripta Hierosolymitana 8:384—400, esp.
pp. 399-400. Wolff, H., ““Wissen um Gott bei
Hosea als Urform von Theologie,”” EvTh
12:534-54, esp. pp. 539-43. THAT, II, pp. 898-
903.

V.P.H.

2384 s9¥w (shakak) subside, abate.

Used only five times in the oT, four times in the
Qal: Gen 8:1; Jer 5:26; Est 2:1; 7:10; once in the
Hiphil, Num 17:5 (H 20). In the last example the
meaning is “‘put an end to’: **This is how ‘I shall
put an end to’ the complaints.*’ There follows the
story of the sprouting of Aaron's branch.

The translation in Jer 5:26 is uncertain (Bright,
Jeremiah, in AB, pp. 38, 40), “‘who ‘watch/
crouch’ (?) tike fowlers.’* In the Est passages the
verb clearly describes the subsiding of the Per-
sian king’s wrath.

The Gen reference (8:1) is in the deluge epi-
sode. We are informed that the flood lasted forty
days and nights (Gen 7:12, 17). The water level
prevailed above the highest portions of the land
for 150 days (Gen 7:24). Then the waters began
gradually to subside (8:1).

V.P.H.

2385 %Sw (shdkal) be bereaved, make childless,
miscarry.

Derivatives

2385a tw (sh*kdl) bereavement.

2385b t¥3Iaw (shakul) childless.

2385c tospw (shakkal) bereaved.

2385d tesoaw (shikkulim) childlessness.
238Se tn2aw (mshakkelet) miscarriage.

The verb is used twenty-five times in the oT
mostly in the Piel (eighteen times) but also five
times in the Qal: Gen 27:45; 43:14 (twice); I Sam
15:33; Isa 49:21, and twice in the Hiphil: Hos 9:14
and Jer 50:9 (though many here emend mashkil to

923

2385 22 (shakal)

maskil, *‘Like a ‘trained’ warrior’). In | Sam
15:33 the verb is used in two different stems
without significant difference: **As your sword
‘has made childless’ (shdkal in the Piel), so shall
your mother ‘be made child!ess’ (shakal in the
Qal) among women.”’

When the translation of shdkal is *‘to make
childless” inevitably the verb is used in a context
of divine judgement: Lev 26:22; Deut 32:25; Jer
15:7; Ezk 5:17: 14:18; Hos 9:12; Lam 1:20. The
poignancy of the threat to make one childless and
barren is underscored when one recalls the pre-
mium the oT places on progeny and inheritance.
Many an Israelite cried as did Rachel, **Give me
children or else I die’ (Gen 30:1).

There is acurious triad of uses of shaédal in Ezk
36:12, 13, 14. Judah is accused of ‘robbing her
nation of its children.”’ Does this refer to the
practice of infant sacrifice or cannibalism?

We may note that this is not the word used of
Jeconiah in Jer 22:30. He indeed had children
though they went to Babylon as slaves. The word
there from ‘drar is somewhat more general,
‘*stripped, destitute.”

Finally we note those passages in which the
idea of ‘“‘miscarriage’’ is prominent. The refer-
ence may be to the miscarriage of (1) animals:
ewes and she-goats, Gen 31:38; sheep, Song 4:2;
6:6; calf, Job 21:10; (2) the land (non-productive):
Il Kgs 2:19, 21; Mal 3:11; (3) a woman: Ex 23:26;
Hos 9:14, ‘‘give them a ‘miscarrying’ womb.”

sh‘k6l. Bereavement, loss of children, deso-
lation. Only three times: Isa 47:8—-9, in a lament
for Babylon who pompously says, *‘1 shall never
know loss of children” (v. 8). The third is Ps
35:12, ‘*There is ‘desolation’ in my soul.’

shakil. Childless. Already discussed above in
the Qal forms, appearing in Isa 49:21 as a Qal
passive participle feminine: **Who has borne me
these, "I was childless’ and barren.’ Even after
exile a remnant has survived, a second genera-
tion.

shakkil. Bereaved, robbed. Perhaps a Piel pas-
sive participle without the preformative mem.
Three times it is used in the analogy of a bear
**robbed"** of her whelps (II Sam 17:8; Hos 13:8:
Prov 17:12), a graphic picture of fierceness and
determination. Cf. also Jer 18:21; Song 4:2; 6:6.

shikkilim. Childlessness. Only in Isa 49:20,
‘‘The children ‘you thought were lost’ (JB) shall
speak in your hearing.”* The exile does not termi-
nate Israel/Judah’s existence.

m'shakkelet. Miscarriage. An abstract femi-
nine noun, only in J Kgs 2:21, **But the water is
bad and the earth suffers from miscarriages’ *”
(i.e. fails to be productive and fruitful).

V.P.H.

2386 *DSw (shakam)
B°sw (shikkulim). See no. 2385d.

2386 *a5v (shakam) rise early. This denomi-
native verb occurs only in the Hiphil.

Parent Noun

2386a tasw (sh°kem) I, shoulder, back.
2386b tosw (sh*kem) II, Shechem.

How the verb shdkam is related to sh°kem
‘*shoulder,’’ or vice-versa, is not clear. Pope
(Job, in AB, p. 8) gives the following suggestion.
‘*The verb is apparently denominative, from the
noun sikm, shoulder, and perhaps originally had
to do with the early morning activity of breaking
camp which would involve the use of the shoul-
ders of both man and beast, and no small degree
of exertion.’ So also BDB.

The important thing to be observed here is that
the meaning of shdkam as *‘to rise early’ can be
certain only when some qualifying phrase or fact
is added such as babbéger *‘in the morning”
(Gen 21:14), the reference to early morning dew
(Hos 6:4; 13:3), the contrast with staying up late
(Ps 127:2) and evening (I Sam 17:16). And even
here the finite use of the verb is rare. Most often
it ts used adverbially and is coordinated with
another verb. Thus Gen 19:2 (and many more)
should read not, ‘* You shall rise early and go on
your way, but **You can start ‘early’ on your
way.’

In this vein note that the root shakam some-
times has nothing to do with the idea of ‘‘earli-
ness'’ but rather ‘‘diligence, persistence, eager-
ness.’ Thus Jer 7:13 reads, *"You did not listen
though I spoke to you ‘earnestly/continuously’ *’
(Rsv) vs. “though I spoke unto you, ‘rising up
early’’’ (kjv). The Niv has ‘again and again.’
This idiom occurs eleven times in Jer and in
If Chr 36:15 and Zeph 3:7, ‘‘They corrupted
‘continually’ their deeds.’* The idea of shdkam as
‘*to get/be busy’* (a Hiphil elative) is illustrated
by Job 1:5, ‘‘He would get busy tn the morning”
(Pope); Jud 7:1, “‘Jerubbaal and all the people
busied themselves” (also Jud 19:8-9; 21:4).

When shdkam means “to rise early’’ the rising
is for several purposes, one, obviously to get a
good start on a long journey: but two, to get a
good start on a good day by engaging in some act
of worship: Gen 22:3: 28:18; Ex 24:4, 32:6; 34:4;
Josh 6:12; I Sam 1:19: II Chr 29:20; and three, to
engage in battle.

sh‘kem 1. Shoulder, back. Designates not just
the shoulders, but also the upper part of the back
in general. Hebrew sh“kem can designate either
the common noun ‘‘shoulder/back’’ or the place
name ‘‘Shechem.’"’ How Shechem is derived
from shoulder will be explained below. In at least
one instance it is difficult to know which of the
two is meant. In Gen 48:22 the ksv has Jacob

924

saying to Joseph, ‘I have given you one ‘portion’
above your brothers.’ For ‘‘portion’’ the rsv has
‘‘one mountain slope’’ and the jp and Speiser
(Anchor Bible, p. 358) ‘‘Shechem.”’ There is here
a play on words. Jacob parcels out to Joseph
Shechem, a place which becomes eventually the
latter's burial place (Josh 24:32), just as one par-
cels out at a meal (and the shoulder is one of the
choicest parts) various portions for consumption.

As one would expect, frequently the shoulder
is referred to when something is being carried
either in a literal sense (piggybacking, Gen 21:14;
water pitcher, Gen 24:15, 45; dough, Ex 12:34;
stone, Josh 4:5: branches, Jud 9:48), or in a
figurative sense (the burden of Assyria, Isa 10:27;
14:25; a beating rod, Isa 9:4 [H 5]; oppression of
the Israelites in Egypt, Ps 81:6 [H 7]).

Second, to wear something on the shoulder is
to wear or display it proudly and assert authority.
Isaiah 22:22, **The key of the house of David will
I lay upon his shoulder.”* Job 31:36, “Surely |
would take it (a letter of acquittal?) on my shoul-
der.’ In this context note in the messianic pas-
sage (Isa 9:6 [H 5]) the phrase, *‘The government
shall be upon his shoulder.’’ The Child is to be a
King and Ruler.

One final usage should be observed. In Ps
21:12 {H 13} David says that God will make his
enemies ‘‘turn their back,’ i.e. put them to flight
(almost all versions). Dahood (Psalms, 1, AB,
p. 134) suggests the translation, *‘ You make them
all shoulder." The enemies are now supine and
the King can put his feet on their necks as a sign
of conquest.

sh¢kem JI. Shechem. Located tn the territory
of Ephraim between Mount Ebal and Mount
Gerizim, and about forty miles north of
Jerusalem. The significance of Shechem meaning
‘*shoulder’’ is to be found in this geographical
situation. The city’s terrain could be thought of
as the slope (shoulder) of the two surrounding
mountains.

The most significant places where Shechem
occurs in the of are in the following. (1) Abraham
stopped here shortly after his arrival in Canaan
and there he built an altar (Gen 12:6). (2) Jacob
visited there on friendly terms (Gen 33: 18~—20) but
his only daughter among thirteen children is sub-
sequently violated there (Josh 24:32) in a plot
purchased by his father. (4) Shechem is not men-
tioned among the cities conquered by the Israel-
ites under Joshua, perhaps indicating that it sur-
rendered peacefully, but it was the scene of the
great covenant rehearsal for which Joshua as-
sembled all the tribes (Josh 24: Iff.). (5) It was the
center for Abimelech, the son of Gideon, who
attempted to establish the _ institution of
monarchy, something from which his own father
had backed away (Jud 9: 1ff.). The whole fiendish

plan ended in a bloodbath. (6) After Solomon's
death, Rehoboam was repudiated as king by the
10 tribes at Shechem (I Kgs 12:!) when he re-
fused to provide a charter. Jeroboam, crowned
king in his place, established his first capital at
Shechem (1 Kgs 12:25). Little more is said in the
oT about the city. Shechem ts referred to once in
the NT, in Acts 7:16. Thus, throughout its htstory
Shechem functioned as a base for worship (Ab-
raham and Jacob) and as a base for political oper-
ations which eventually erupted into bloodbaths.
It was at separate times a shrine and a morgue.

Bibliography: Reviv, H., "The Governmental
Shechem in the El-Amarna Period and in the
Days of Abimelech,” /srael Exploration Journal
16:252-57. Wright, G. R. H., ““Shechem and the
League Shrines,’ VT 21:572-603.

V.P.H.
2387 pw (shakan) dwell, tabernacle.
Derivatives
2387a = 3W SO (shéken) dwelling (Deut
12:5).

2387b TIDY «(shakén) neighbor, inhabitant.
2387c «t1DWI «(mishkdn) tabernacle.

The verb sha@kan is used 129 times in the or,
most often in the Qal (111 times) and in the Piel 12
times, in the Hiphil (6 times). God is the desig-
nated subject of the verb 43 times. He may dwell
on Mount Zion (Ps 74:2). He dwells among his
people (Ex 25:8). He will dwell in Jerusalem
(Zech 8:3). It is Jerusalem in which God has cho-
sen to cause his “‘name’’ to dwell (Deut 12:11,
etc.). On several occasions some symbolic repre-
sentation of the divine presence dwells among the
people: the glory (of God) is to dwell in the land:
Ex 24:16; Ps 85:9 [H 10]. More often, the subject
of the dwelling is the cloud: Num 9:17, 18, 22:
10:12, Job 3:5 in a different sense.

The verb is translated most often in the Lxx by
kataskénoo rather than simply skénoo “to tent”
On approximately a two-to-one ratio. Why the
longer prefixed form should predominate is not
totally clear but one suggestion ts that the longer
form reinforces and lays further stress on the idea
of a longer or permanent stay rather than an
overnight hop (Michaelis, see Bibliography, pp.
387-88).

There is another verb in Hebrew that also
means **to inhabit, dwell” and it is ya@shab. What
is the difference between the two”? Occasionally
they are used in parallelism. [satah 18:3, **All ye
inhabitants (vashab) of the world and dwellers
(shdkan) on earth.’ Jeremiah 49:31, *‘Arise,
march on a nation that dwells (vdshab) in confi-
dence... that dwells (shdkan) alone.”” Second
Chronicles 6:!1-2, “‘Lord has chosen to dwell
(lishk6n) in thick darkness, I have built a dwell-

925

2387 1aW (shakan)

ing (makon I shibt’ ka) for you.’ Basically the
distinction ts that ydshab ts reserved for passages
describing man's dwelling among his people on
earth. Seldom is vashab used when God's dwell-
ing on earth is under discussion. Solomon even
asks the rhetorical question, **Will God indeed
dwell (vashab) on the earth?’ (I Kgs 8:27). When
ydashab is used in connection with God's dwelling
it is his heavenly abode that is alluded to. “He
that sits (yéshéb) in the heavens shall laugh’ (Ps
2:4): **You remain forever’ (Ps 102:12, [H 13}).
The word is suggestive then of majesty and regal-
ity. For God's dwelling (vadshab) is Jerusalem
and Zion (cf. Ps 135:21; 9:11, [H 12}). shadkan, on
the other hand, underscores the idea not of lofti-
ness but of nearness and closeness.

shakén. Neighbor, inhabitant. The latter mean-
ing is shown in Hos 10:5, “The inhabitants of
Samania shall fear.” As neighbor shakén may
designate those that are friendly (Ex 3:22: Ruth
4:17) or unfriendly (Ps 44:13, [H 14]: 79:4, 12).

mishkan. Tabernacle. The portable sanctuary
constructed by the Israelites in the wilderness
described in some detail in Ex 25-31 and 3540.

Until recent decades biblical scholarship,
vis-a-vis the tabernacle, was preoccupied with
either affirming or denying the reconstructionist
approach of Wellhausen in the nineteenth cen-
tury. In a nutshell, he concluded that the Exodus
account of the tabernacle was a literary fiction
composed in the postexilic period, and was an
idealization of the wilderness era using Sol-
omon's temple as the model. To substantiate his
position Wellhausen paraded such *‘proofs”’ as: it
is doubted whether the Israelites possessed the
necessary skills in the wilderness period, espe-
cially when they need Phoenician help with Sol-
omon’s building or, the quantities of material re-
quired and their costliness seem beyond the
means of a wandering people recently freed from
bondage. The weaknesses in these arguments
have been fairly well detected by modern biblical
scholarship.

[As to the structure itself, there is a close archi-
tectural and chronological parallel in the inmost
chapel surrounding the sarcophagus in the tomb
of Tutankhamun. The sides were demountable,
made of framework boards covered with gold and
fastened with sliding bolts. Over the structure
was a linen curtain adorned with gold rosettes.
The structure is on display in the Catro Museum.
R.L.H. |

A more pressing issue 1s the degree to which
the institution of the tabernacle solves, or com-
plicates, the problem of dovetailing the ideas of
God's transcendence and immanence. The taber-
nacle is the dwelling place of the Lord among his
people and yet the “heaven of heavens"’ are un-
able to contain him. How to reconcile the appar-

2388 13 (shakar)

ently paradoxical? Those who accept the validity
of source identification and criticism see at work
here an antagonism between two sources, P vs.
Deuteronomy and deuteronomistic literature.
The former does not hesitate to conceive of and
express the divine presence in a corporeal sense,
i.e. the actual abiding of God in his abode. This
could be called an anthropomorphic theology.
God dwells in a tabernacle/house/tent. By con-
trast, Deuteronomy does not speak of the taber-
nacle as a place where *‘God dwells/I dwell’* but
uses the phrase, ‘““he causes his name to dwell
there’ (12:11; 14:23: 16:2, 6, 11: 26:2, all shakan
in the Piel). [t is then suggested that the writer(s)
of Deuteronomy are attempting to combat the
idea that God actually dwelled in the tabernacle,
the abstract vs. the corporeal. (The Scripture
passages emphasizing the “placing of God's
name’ are conveniently listed in Weinfeld, see
Bibliography, pp. 324-25.) It is God's name, not
God himself, who dwells in the tabernacle.

Why exactly these phrases and conceptions are
mutually exclusive rather than two sides of the
same coin, and thus complementary, is hard to
see. One phrase, *‘God dwells,” is a polemic
against Israel's temptation to make her God
emeritus and deistic. The phrase, ‘‘God’s name
dwells,’ is a polemic against the temptation to
localize God. Such circumstances dictated this
dialectical conception of God's dwelling.

Something of the cruciality of the tabernacle
can be gauged by observing how many chapters
the Bible devotes to the orginal event. Here it 1s
thirteen chapters, Ex 25-31, 35—40, in contrast to,
say, creation and the fall which menit a total of
three skeletal chapters in Gen. If the tabernacle ts
the place where God and man meet for worship,
the latter to worship the former, it is imperative
that this institution be spelled out intricately. Ev-
erything is made by explicit command of God:
nothing is done on the ad hoc ideas of human
architects.

The tabernacle section in Ex follows the sec-
tion describing the giving of the law and the es-
tablishment of the covenant. What is the relation
between Sinai and the tabernacle? Moses re-
ceives the tablets from God on the mountain, the
top of which is completely enfolded by a cloud
and the glory of God. There he also receives tn-
structions tn building the tabernacle. After its
completion the glory of God, once on Sinai, now
fills the tabernacle. What happened at Sinai ts
continued in the tabernacle. There is a continuity
between God's former revelation of his will and
his continual revelation in the tabernacle.

Bibliography: Articles on the physical struc-
ture of the tabernacle can be found in any stan-
dard Bible dictionary or encyclopedia. We men-
tion only those that emphasize linguistic or
theological concerns. Childs, B., The Book of

926

Exodus, Westminster, 1974, pp. 512ff. Cross, F.,
‘The Priestly Tabernacle,’ Biblical Ar-
chaeologist Reader, |, pp. 201-28, esp. pp. 224—
26. Michaelis, W., “‘skéné’*’ in TDNT, VII,
p. 368ff. Weinfeld, M., Deuteronomy and the
Deuteronomic School, Oxford: Clarendon, 1972,
esp. pp. I9Iff., “The Concept of God and the
Divine Abode.”’ THAT, II, pp. 904-908.

V.P.H.

2388 “aw (shakar) I, be drunk, intoxicated,

Derivatives

2388a ot 3W (shékar) strong drink.
2388b t3Dw (shikkor) drunkard.
2388c iw (shikkar6n) drunkenness.

This verb is used nineteen times in the or,
twelve of which are in the prophetic books. In the
Qal stem (ten times) the verb js intransitive, **be
drunk.*’ In the Piel and Hiphil stems (four times
each) it is transitive, ““make drunk.”

With very few exceptions shdkar and its de-
rivatives are used in a highly unfavorable and
negative context. But the few passages where the
root is used in an acceptable sense should be ob-
served. Genesis 43:34, Joseph's brothers with
Joseph in Egypt, says literally “*they drank and
‘became drunk’ with him” (Kjv “‘were merry with
him’’). The emphasis is on conviviality, not
drinking to the point of drunkenness. Second,
‘*strong drink” was to be used in the drink offer-
ing (Num 28:7) which of course was not drunk,
but poured out as a libation. Third, the annual
tithe to be paid to the Lord, the owner of the soil,
might involve strong drink (Deut 14:26). Fourth,
shékadr could be used as a stimulant; Prov 31:6,
**Give strong drink unto him that is about to per-
ish’ (and cf. Mt 27:34; Mk 15:23 at the cross;
however the av of Mt 27:34 say Jesus refused the
vinegar, but the better texts call it wine. He ac-
cepted the (dilute) vinegar later, Mt 27:48). Fifth,
Song 5:1. Thus of almost sixty uses of the root
shakar, only five refer to something good and
acceptable.

Several instances of intoxication, caused by
shékar, are noted in Scripture: (1) Gen 9:20-27,
Noah: (2) I Sam 25:36, Nabal; (3) Il Sam 13:28-
29, Amnon: (4) I Kgs 16:9, Elah; (5) 1 Kgs 20:16,
Ben-hadad |. Of special interest are those pas-
sages which indicate that God sends drunkenness
upon people. So, Jer 13:13 says, **] am going to
fill with drunkenness (kings, prophets, and
priests), or Isa 63:6, °"I will make them drunk in
my fury.’* The idea is that drunkenness indicates
helplessness. Thus, God says to his people (Isa
49:26), “1 will make your oppressors eat their
flesh and they shall be drunk with their own
blood.’ Here, **to be drunk*’ means *‘to be help-
less, **I will reduce your oppressors to a state of
total helplessness.’ Cf. Jer 25:27; 51:39, 57.

shekar. Strong drink, beer. Most likely not
‘liquor’? for there is no evidence of distilled
liquor in ancient times. It denotes not just barley
beer but any alcoholic beverage prepared from
either grain or fruit. In all but two of its twenty-
three uses in the oT (Num 28:7: Ps 69:12 [H 13]) it
appears in connection with yayin ‘“wine’’ usually
following it, once preceding it (Prov 31:6).

shikkor. Drunkard. Eijther literally: I Sam

1:13; 25:36: I Kgs 16:9; 20:16; Prov 26:9, or
figuratively: Isa 19:14; 24:20; Jer 23:9; Ps 107:27.

shikkaron. Drunkenness. Only in Jer 13:13;
Ezk 23:33; 39:19.

V.P.H.

2389 Saw (shkr) HH. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2389a = NDWS OCeshkar) gift) (Ezk 27:15).
maaw (shikkdron). See no. 2388c.
2389.1 SY (shal) possibly error from Aram
sh la’. Only in If Sam 6:7, meaning and

derivation uncertain.

2390 *39w (shdlab) be bound, joined. Occurs
only in the Pual (Ex 26:17; 36:22).

Derivative

2390a sow (sh"labbim) joinings of
bases (1 Kgs 7:28, 29).
2391 *39¥ (shdlag) to snow. This denomina-
tive verb occurs only once, in the Hiphil (Ps
68:15).

Parent Noun

239la 35’ (sheleg) snow (e.g. Isa 1:18;

Ex 4:6). Symbol of cleansing.

2392 mow (shala) I, be ut rest, prosper.
Derivatives
2932a 7N9W (shal) prosperity.
2932b tw (sh°li) quiet, private.
2392c Wow (shaléw) quiet, prosperous.
2392d thw (shalwd) quietness, prosper-

ity.

The meaning of shald, “be at rest," is applica-
ble only in Job 3:26, ‘I have ‘no rest’, no quiet,
no repose.’ In the remaining four passages the
emphasis is on prosperity: of those who love
Jerusalem, Ps 122:6; of the wicked, Job 12:6; Jer
12:1; Lam 1:5.

shal. Prosperity. A separate word and found
only in Ps 30:7 (according to BDB, p. 1017). The
context suggests the idea of the gross delusion
that prosperity guarantees stability and is foun-

2394 mow (shalah)

dational: *"In my prosperity I used to say, nothing
can ever shake me.”’

sh‘li. Quiet, private. Only in IT Sam 3:27. Joab
took Abner aside to speak with him in private and
there killed him. Why did Joab do such a thing?
For at least two reasons. One is for blood-
vengeance on Abner for his killing of Joab’s
brother Asahel (II Sam 2:23). The second is that
Joab viewed Abner as a rival of David whose
mission of peace to Hebron was only a camou-
flage. Thus, since Abner has now started to show
his hand he must be eliminated, quietly.

shalew. Quiet, prosperous. The word may
apply to the life of an individual (Job 16:12, pnor
to his physical calamity) or to a nation/country/
city (I Chr 4:40, Palestine: Zech 7:7, Jerusalem,
in a good sense, but in a bad sense, i.e. *‘care-
free,’ Ezk 23:42). This root is also used to pin-
point the prosperity of the ungodly (Ps 73:12).

shalwa. Quietness, prosperity. A blessed
character trait in anybody's life (Ps !22:7: Prov
17:1). Yet it can become an open door to disaster.
Note that one of Sodom’s sins was “‘abundance
of idleness (shdgat, Ezk 16:49). It may produce
‘carelessness’ (Prov 1:32). And a political plat-
form promising peace at all costs can be nothing
more than a subterfuge and a personal expedient.

V.P.H.
2393 mow (shala) IH, draw out, extract (Job
27:8).
2393a mW O(shilya) afterbirth (Deut
28:57).
nanow (shalhebet). See no. 1077c.
yoy (shala), 98 (shdléw). See nos.
2392a,c.
mow (shalwa). See no. 2392d.
mow (sh liha). See no. 2394c.
eemow (sh lihim). See no. 2394b.
oibw (shalém), 012W (shillim). See

nos. 240la,g.

2394 mow (shalah) I, send, send away, let go.
Derivatives
2394a tm?w (shelah) weapon.
2394b tasmsby (shillaihim) sending away.
2394c 0 AMNOW (sh lahd) shoot, branch
(Isa 16:8, only).
2394d =o mow (mishlah) undertaking (that
to which one stretches out the hand),
pasture (place where animals are let
free).
2394e 9 mow (mishloah) outstretching,
sending.
2394f mmowr (mishlahat) discharge, de-
putation,

927

2395 mow (shih)

The verb shadlah means ‘‘to send,’ ‘‘to send
away, ‘to let loose,” “‘to spread, used of
strife and discord, “‘to stretch out,’ *‘extend,””
used of the hand or a rod, “to extend,’ “‘reach

out, used of roots and branches, and with 'ésh
‘fire, “‘to light a fire.”

In the first category a man sends another per-
son somewhere (Gen 28:5: 37:13) or he may send
such things as tribute (Jud 3:15) or letters (I Kgs
21:8: II Kgs 5:5).

God is often depicted in a similar way as send-
ing men on an Official mission as his envoys or
representatives. Thus God often speaks of send-
ing his prophets with great earnestness that they
might warn Israel (cf Isa 6:8; Jer 1:7; 25:4; 26:5;
35:15; Ezk 2:3-4; Jud 6:8). False prophets are not
sent by God (Jer 14:14-15). Moses was God's
representative (Ex 4:28, Deut 34:11), as was Gid-
eon (Jud 6:14). The message of the prophets is
likewise regarded as being sent from God (Zech
7:12: Isa 9:8 [H 7]) and will accomplish God's
purpose (Isa 55:11). Most important, God will
send his Saviour to bind up the brokenhearted
and set the prisoners free (Isa 61:1).

God sent signs and wonders as he delivered
Israel from Egypt (Ps 135:9), but he also warns
them that if they turn from him to idols, he will
send rebukes, confusion, and a curse on them
(Deut 28:20).

The meaning ‘‘send away is generally found
in the Piel and is seen in Gen 12:20: 18:16.
Genesis 3:23 clearly involves an expulsion, and in
Jer 28:16 the meaning involves death. Divorce is
a sending away of the wife (Deut 22:19, 29; Isa
50:1).

The third meaning “‘let loose, free’ is also
found mostly in the Piel. It is used in the mild
sense of formally allowing a guest to leave (Gen
18:16; 24:54) or in the stronger sense of releasing
captives such as Israel in Egypt (Ex 4:21), the
exiles in Babylon (Isa 45:13), and the prisoners in
the pit (Zech 9:11). In Ps 81:12 God gives rebel-
lious Israel up to go their own ways and to suffer
the consequences.

Those passages in which God releases various
types of plagues on his people should no doubt be
regarded in this same category, since the Piel is
used. This means that God removes his protec-
tive hand and unleashes various hostile forces
(Num 21:6; Jer 9:16; Amos 4:10 etc.).

Proverbs 6:14, 19 illustrates the fourth cate-
gory, spread” of strife, while the fifth, **stretch-
ing out’ the hand ts seen in I Sam 24:6 [H 7]. In
Ps 110:2 Messiah extends his scepter as he rules
the nations. The reaching out of roots and
branches is seen in Jer 17:8 and Ezk 17:6, while
the last category, ‘‘to light a fire,’ “*send a fire”
is seen in Hos 8:14 and Amos 1:4, 7, 10, 12.

Shelah. Weapon, missile. Probably originally
one that was thrown. Thus Nehemiah's men

928

worked with one hand while carrying a weapon in
the other (Neh 4:17, 23). The word is used eight
times with cognates in Uganitic and Arabic. (This
latter word may not be a true cognate since the
Arabic verb means “‘to arm’’ and “‘to fight’’
rather than *‘to send or throw.’’)

shillahim. Sending away, parting gift. Used
three times. Ugaritic tlh *“‘dowry’’ is cognate.
Bibliography: TDNT, 1, pp. 413-20. THAT,
II, pp. 909-15.
H.J.A.

2395 mow (shih) Il. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2395a tnbw (shalhdn) table. (So also in
ASV and RSV.)

The verb shdlah is not found in the ort. Its
Arabic cognate means “‘to strip off hide.’ The
Syriac shalha refers to the hide that has been
stripped from an animal. The Hebrew usage
would seem to derive from the practice of spread-
ing a hide on the ground for use as a table. Ugari-
tic employs the noun ¢t/hn in a sense similar to
that of the Hebrew. There are problems, how-
ever. The Ug cognate tlhn indicates a first con-
sonant ‘‘r’’ which should be represented by ‘‘r’’
in Syriac and by “‘t’’ in Arabic. The connection
with Arabic and Hebrew may be misleading or
some kind of borrowing may be involved. In any
event, the meaning is table or more generally
place of eating.

shalhan is used in the ot with several var-
iations, all of them denving from the use to which
a table is put. In the first place, it describes the
physical table itself, as in II Kgs 4:10 and Jud 1:7.
In the latter passage conquered kings are pictured
as gathering up scraps of food under the table of
their conqueror. More frequently the word de-
scribes the table spread with food, as in Neh 5:17.
Here the emphasis is on the meal rather than on
the table itself. (This is true of the table of shew-
bread also.) From this the metaphorical use de-
rives easily, namely God's provision for man’s
needs (so Ps 78:19).

An important use of the word is to evoke the
picture of the fellowship shared by those seated
around the table, such as the beautiful family
scene in Ps 128:3 or the false, treacherous fellow-
ship of Dan 11:27, or the fellowship in evil coun-
sel of Ps 69:22 [H 23]. This concept no doubt
enters into the imagery of I Cor 10:21. Lastly the
word is used to describe the altar of sacrifice, as
in Ezk 40:39 and Ezk 41:22.

H.J.A.

wmow (shalhan). See no. 239Sa.

2396 wow (shalat) I, exercise power (over),

dominate, have mastery.

Derivatives

2396a = tex>y (shallit) master.
2396b = HMPwW (shiltén) mastery.
2396c tneey (shalletet) imperious.

The essential idea of this root ts ‘‘to exercise
autocratic control over,’’ ‘‘to have one’s way
with’’ anyone. It appears with its derivatives fif-
teen times in the Hebrew and thirty-two times in
the Aramaic, where the meaning is similar to the
Hebrew. Akkadian and Arabic use the root in
similar fashion. (The Arabic word ‘‘Sultan’” is
formed from the same root.) In Ugaritic, shlyt is
used as an epithet of /tn (Leviathan).

The basic meaning of the root is well illustrated
in Neh 5:15, in which the officials serving under
the government of Judah before Nehemiah acted
in a tyrannical, self-serving, domineering way
with the people in imposing heavy burdens of
taxation on them. The people were powerless to
resist. In Ps 119:133, the psalmist prays that in-
iquity shall not have dominion over him. He
wants to be firmly established in the Word of God
so that he can be free from the terrible tyranny of
sin. In a slightly modified sense the verb appears
in Eccl 2:19, with the meaning *‘to exercise con-
trol over’’ the fruit of one’s labor.

The causative force of the Hiphil is seen in
Eccl 5:18 and 6:2 with the sense **empower.”” In
the one passage God gives a man riches and
wealth with the power or ability to enjoy them,
whereas in the other, he has riches and wealth
but lacks the power to enjoy them.

shallit. Master, ruler, tyrant. Used in Gen 42:6
to describe Joseph as ruler over all the land of
Egypt. Pharaoh had delegated to him absolute
control and authority. In Eccl 8:8, both shallit
and shiltén are used to state that just as man has
no authority over the wind to restrain it, so is he
lacking in power over the day of death.

shalletet. Imperious, domineering. This femi-
nine adjective occurs only once, in Ezk 16:30. It
refers to a prostitute who behaves as if she were
a law unto herself (‘brazen harlot,’’ Rsv).
H.J.A.

2397 wow (shit) Il. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2397a «= OW «(shelet) shield (e.g. 11 Sam
8:7 = I Chr 18:7).

neew (shiltén). See no. 2396b.
noow (shalleter). See no. 2396c.
vow (sh’li). See no. 2392b.

mow (shilya). See no. 2393a.

wow (shallit). See no. 2396a.
wry (shalish). See nos. 2403e,f,g.
wey (sh°lishi). See no. 2403b.

929

2398 *59W (shdlak) throw, cast, hurl.

2398 *99W (shalak)

Occurs
in the Hiphi!l and the Hophal.

Derivatives
2398a =o32w (shdalak) bird of prey, perhaps
the cormorant (Deut 14:17: Lev
11:17).
2398b 3=onsew (shalleket) felling of tree

(Isa 6:13).

shaélak occurs 111 times, always in Hiphil or
Hophal. It is the verb normally used with the
general meaning “‘to throw.” tal and rdmd are
synonymous, but are not nearly as common (used
eleven times and two times respectively). Other
verbs which are sometimes synonymous have
specialized meanings, such as shdmat ‘'‘let
drop,” sdgal ‘‘throw stones,’ ndapal Hiphil,
‘*cause to fall.”’

The verb is used in a wide variety of situations
ranging from the physical act of throwing an ob-
ject to the metaphorical use of abandoning or re-
jecting a person or thing. A common use is illus-
trated in Jud 8:25; Ex 4:3; 7:9; Gen 37:20. In Ex
32:19 and Deut 9:17 Moses casts the tablets of the
Law down to the ground as an expression of his
wrath and indignation at Israel's defection from
God. But it is more than an expression of wrath;
it symbolizes as well the bitter truth that Israel
had no sooner entered into the Covenant of Sinai
than they had broken it.

Casting someone or something to the ground
may be used as a gesture of victory over, and
utter annihilation of, someone, as in Dan 8:7 in
which the ram (Persia) is thrown to the ground
and trampled on in complete defeat by the goat
(Greece).

Another important use of shalak is ‘throw
away,’ ‘‘cast off or out.’* In Neh 13:8, Nehemiah
throws Tobiah’s things out of the temple. Simi-
larly in Isa 2:20, when God begins to speak in
judgment, the idolaters will throw away their
idols and run to the caves and rocks. So in Ps 71:9
the Psalmist prays that God will not cast him
away (1.e. abandon him) in his old age (cf. also Ps
102:10 {H 11)).

This usage seems to afford a proper explana-
tion of Gen 21:15 in which Hagar *‘cast the child
(Ishmael) under one of the shrubs.’ Since
Ishmael was at this time a teenager it would not
seem probable that a physical throwing was in-
volved. Rather what is meant is that Hagar aban-
doned him under a bush, considering him to be in
such a weakened condition that there was no
hope for him. Though she remained and watched
over him she had given him up for lost.

The sense of *‘abandon”’ appears in Ezk 31 and
20:7-8, in which God admonishes his people to
abandon, renounce their sins, to throw them
away entirely, having nothing more to do with
them. This is an important spiritual truth as is

2399 Soy (shalal)

also the admonition in Ps 55:23 to cast our bur-
dens on the Lord. That is, our cares and burdens
are to be thrown away, abandoned into his care,
so that we have nothing more to do with them.

God's total forgiveness of sin is graphically
portrayed in Mic 7:19, in which God casts the
sins of his people into the depths of the sea. The
obvious inference is that they are gone forever,
never again to be brought to light. Similar to this
is Isa 38:17 in which God has cast Hezekiah’s
sins behind his back (cf. Ps 103:12 using a dif-
ferent verb {Hiphil of rdhaq| for the same idea)

Casting someone or something out may also be
a symbol of rejection, as in I Kgs 14:9. The idea
of rejection is also portrayed as a ‘‘casting away
from someone's presence or face,” as in II Kgs
13:23: 17:20; 24:20.

Bibliography: Cogan, M., **A Technical Term
for Exposure,’ JNES 27:133-35. THAT, II, pp.
916-18.

H.J.A.

mobw (shalleket). See no. 2398b.

2399 %5yW (shalal) 1, draw out (Ruth 2:16).
Derivative
2399a 998W) (shdlal) barefoot (Mic 1:8;
Job 12:17). Cf. yahép of similar
meaning in Isa 20:4.
2400 %9y (shalal) II, plunder, take spoil.

Derivative
2400a 99 = (shalal) plunder.

shalal I¥ occurs fourteen times, in the Qal and
Hithpoel. It is frequently used in parallel to
bdzaz. Also bearing the same meaning are shdasa
and its by-form shdsas. There seems to be no
significant difference among these synonyms.

Taking spoil or booty, was customary. Indeed
it was sometimes one of the principle motivations
for going to war. Thus Gog, in Ezk 38:10—13, will
see a prosperous and apparently vulnerable Israel
and will be moved to invade and plunder. Mili-
tary raids were sometimes ill-disguised plunder-
ing expeditions, such as the ill-fated Amalekite
raid against Ziklag described in 1 Sam 30.

God permitted Israel to take spoil in most bat-
tles (Deut 20:14). This consisted of women, chil-
dren, cattle and valuable goods. That a portion at
least of the spoil was commonly dedicated to the
Lord and used in connection with the tabernacle
or temple service is evident from II Sam 8:12 and
especially I Chr 26:27, in which David is said to
dedicate part of the spoils of victory to the Lord.

There were some occasions when the taking of
spoil was not permitted, such as on the victory
over Jericho or when an idolatrous Israelite city

930

was to be destroyed (Deut 13:17). Similarly when
Saul was sent to exterminate the Amalekites, no
spoil was to be taken (] Sam 15).

The Scripture is very clear that the downfall
and spoiling of cities is not an accident of military
or political history, but that here also God is in
sovereign control. Thus Jerusalem is given into
the hands of foreigners (Ezk 7:21), and in Isa 10:6
God sends the Assyrian armies as his instruments
of judgment to take spoil. That God will not allow
the nations to plunder his people forever is clear
from Zech 2:8 [|H 12] and Hab 2:8, and in Jer
50:10 it is Babylon's turn to be despoiled. The
tables are turned also on Gog in Ezk 39:10.

Ill-gotten gain is called spoil in Prov 1:13, and
in Ilsa 10:2 a corrupt administration takes advan-
tage of those who are defenseless, and makes
widows their spoil.

The great joy and the exuberant celebrations
attendant on the division of spoils (cf. I Sam
30:16) becomes a point of comparison with the
joy of an Israel finally freed from the yoke of
oppression in Isa 9:3. The Psalmist (Ps 119:162)
rejoices over the treasure of God’s word as oth-
ers rejoice over spoil. The division of spoil is
used as a symbol of the fulfilled triumph of Jesus
the Messiah (Isa 53:12).

shalal. Plunder, spoil, booty. Used seventy-
five times. Frequently used in parallel is baz less
frequently bizzé, and in one passage malqéah.
Note the name Maher Shalal Hash-Baz (Isa 8:1, 3
and see bazaz).
Bibliography: Stoebe, N. J., ‘“‘Raub und
Beute,’’ Supp VT 16:340-54.
H.J.A.

2401 aby (shalém) be complete, sound.

Derivatives

240la toioy (shalo6m) peace.
2401b toow (shelem) peace offering.

240lc O9Y (shdlam) be in a covenant of
peace. Denominative verb.

240id Boy (shalém) perfect, whole, full.

240le aby (shillém) recompense (Deut
32:35, only).

2401f 99Y (shalmén) reward, bribe
(Isa 1:23, only).

2401lg ashy (shillam), BW (shillim)
recompense, reward,

240Ih 9 mow (shillama) reward (Ps 91:8,
only).

24011 tmaow (sh*lomdh) Solomon.

The general meaning behind the root sh-l-m is
of completion and fulfillment—of entering into a
state of wholeness and unity, a restored relation-
ship.

Of this group, some take their meanings from
the comparatively infrequent simple stems while

the others shillém, shillam, and possibly shal-
mon reflect the intensive Piel sense. The appar-
ant diversity of meanings between the two stems
can be accounted for in terms of the concept of
peace being restored through payment (of tribute
to a conqueror, Josh 10:1), restitution (to one
wronged, Ex 21:36), or simple payment and com-
pletion (of a business transaction, II Kgs 4:7).

The payment of a vow (Ps 50:14) completes an
agreement so that both parties are in a state of
shalom. Closely linked with this concept is the
eschatological motif in some uses of the term.
Recompense for sin, either national or personal,
must be given. Once that obligation has been
met, wholeness ts restored (Isa 60:20; Joel 2:25).

Adjectivally, shalém is used of an attitude (a
*“perfect’’ heart: e.g. I Kgs 8:61; I Chr 28:9), and
of a complete amount (of money, Ruth 2:12: of
sin, Gen 15:16; of a whole nation, Amos 1:6, 9).
An accurate weight is called ‘‘perfect’’ (Deut
25:15) or “‘yust’’ (Prov 11:1).

Interesting is that sha/ém is used of the whole
(i.e. uncut) stones for the altar (Deut 27:6; Josh
8:31) and also of the dressed stones used for the
temple (I Kgs 6:7).

shalom. Peace, prosperity, well, health, com-
pleteness, safety. ASV and Rsv similar.

shalom, and its related words shalém, shelem
and their derivatives, are among the most impor-
tant theological words in the ot. shalém occurs
over 250 times in 213 separate verses (so
Durham, p. 275. BDB lists 237 uses). The kv
translates 172 of these as *‘peace.’’ The remain-
der are translated about 30 different ways. many
only a single time each. The Lxx uses various
members of the sdéz6, eiréné, and teleios word
groups to translate shdl6m. shal6m which occurs
in other members of the Semitic language family,
was influential in broadening the Greek idea of
eiréné to include the Semitic ideas of growth and
prosperity.

shalom means ‘absence of strife’’ in approxi-
mately fifty to sixty usages; e.g. I Kgs 4:25 [H
5:4] reflects the safety of the nation in the peace-
ful days of Solomon when the land and its
neighbors had been subdued.

**Peace,’’ in this caSe, means much more than
mere absence of war. Rather, the root meaning of
the verb shdlém better expresses the true con-
cept of shalé6m. Completeness, wholeness, har-
mony, fulfillment, are closer to the meaning. Im-
plicit in shdlém is the idea of unimpaired rela-
tionships with others and fulfillment in one’s
undertakings.

About twenty-five times in the oT, shalém is
used as a greeting or farewell (Jud 19:20; I Sam
25:6, 35). To wish one shal6m implies a blessing
(II Sam 15:27); to withhold shal6m implies a
curse (1 Kgs 2:6). In modern Hebrew shalém is

931

2401 Bow (shalém)

used for ‘‘hello’’ and ‘‘goodby.’’ Note the cog-
nate Arabic salaam.

shalém is the result of God’s activity in coven-
ant (brit), and is the result of righteousness (Isa
32:17). In nearly two-thirds of its occurrences,
shalom describes the state of fulfillment which is
the result of God's presence. This is specifically
indicated in those references to the **covenant of
peace’ (b‘ rit shadl6m, Num 25:12; Isa 54:10; Ezk
34:25; Mal 2:5) with his chosen representatives,
the Aaronic priests and the Davidic monarchs.
The peace that marks the conclusion of an
agreement between adversaries (Isaac and
Abimelech, Gen 26:29), business partners (Sol-
omon and Hiram, I Kgs 5:12 [H 26]), and man
and God (Abraham, Gen 15:15) is couched in
terms of covenant agreement.

This sort of peace has its source in God. He is
the one who will speak shdadl6ém to his people (Ps
85:8 [H 9]). His promise to David in I Chr 22:9-10
puts shal6m in context with m*nahd *‘calm-
ness, nuah ‘‘rest,’’ and sheget “to be quiet,”
as these are gifts from God. The classic statement
of this concept is the Aaronic benediction (Num
6:24-26) which identifies the man to whom God
has given shalém as the one who its blessed
(badrak), guarded (shdmar), and _ treated
graciously (hdnan), by Yahweh. This is fulfill-
ment through the divine gift.

There is also a strong eschatological element
present in the meaning of shadlém. Messiah,
‘*David’s greater son,’ is specifically identified
as the Prince of Peace (Sar shal6m—the one who
brings fulfillment and righteousness to the earth.

Paul (Eph 2:14) links these themes in his iden-
tification of Christ as our peace. He is the mes-
Sianic prince who brings wholeness, but he is also
God’s last word—the **concluding sacrifice’ that
brings redemption to mankind.

Bibliography: Delling, Gerhard, “‘téAoc,”’ in
TDNT, VII, pp. 49-87. Durham, John ‘‘aioy
and the Presence of God,’ Proclamation and
Presence: Old Testament Essays in Honor of
G. H. Davies, John Knox, 1970, pp. 272-93.
Fohrer, Georg, “‘omfw and owtyota in the Old
Testament,’’ in TDNT, VII, pp. 970-72. JTOT,
pp. 126, 179-80, 259. Kohler, Ludwig, Old Tes-
tament Theology, Westminster, 1958, p. 240 n.
21. Rad, Gerhard von, Old Testament Theology,
Harper and Row, 1962, 1965, I, p. 130, 372; II,
p. 170. ,aioy in the Old Testament,”
in TDNT, II, pp. 402-6. Al, pp. 254f.

shelem. Peace offering, thank offering. Asv and
RSV Similar, with Rsv using ‘‘sacrifice’’ in Prov
7:14.

shelem occurs nearly ninety times in the oT, all
but once (Amos 5:22) in the plural form
sh°lamim. Along with many other words in the
cultic vocabulary, shelem has its roots in the

2402 now (shalap)

common ancient Northwest Semitic language
group. It occurs in Ugantic (slmm, UT 19: no.
2424) and the apparent plural form parallels other
loanwords (e.g. ‘arim, tummim, t©rapim.

The ritual for offering a shelem is like that for
the ‘old (q.v.), except that only the fat around the
intestines, the kidneys, the liver, and the fat of
the sheep’s tail is burned on the altar (Lev 3).
Characteristic of the shelem is the fact that the
rest of the victim was shared by the priest and the
worshiper who offered the sacrifice. The priests
received as their part the breast and the right leg
(‘sample,’’ t*ramd, t°napa. See Driver, JSS
2:100 for a discussion of these terms usually
translated *‘wave-offering’’ or ‘‘heave-offering,’”’
Lev 7:28—34; 10:14-15). The remainder was to be
shared by the worshiper, his family, and guests.
Whatever remained after three days was to be
burned.

According to the prescriptions in Lev 7:12-17
and 22:18—-30, there were sh*lamim of praise
(toda) which was a free gift (minhah, q.v.) ac-
companied by leavened and unleavened cakes of-
fered in thanksgiving: sh“lamim of free inclination
(n°daba) offered freely out of devotion; and
sh®lamim of special vows (nadar) offered in fulfill-
ment of a previous promise. The distinctions
among these three categories are not always precise.

Current understanding of the meaning of
shelem follows three main lines of thought. First,
shelem symbolizes the gift of shalom, i.e. the
blessing of wholeness, prosperity, and the status
of being at peace with God. This involves more
than forgiveness of sin, tn that fullness of life,
prosperity, and peace with men is the expected
result of shalém status.

A second alternative is identified by de Vaux
as “‘CcOMmunion sacrifice,” i.e. one in which
there is a sharing of the sacrificial animal and the
resultant fellowship around a meal. The
sh‘lamim, then, were social occasions ‘*before
the Lord (never *‘with’’ the Lord: cf. Deut 12:7,
18; 14:23, 26: 15:20). There is no sense of attain-
ing mystical union with God through these sac-
rifices. Rather there is a sense of joyful sharing
because of God's presence. Note too, that a quar-
ter of the animal is shared with the priest (Lev
7:32).

Thirdly, the fact that the shelem usually comes
last in the lists of the offerings (though not in the
description of Lev 1-5), has prompted some
scholars to argue that this is a ‘“‘concluding sac-
rifice... This derives shelem from the rare Piel
meaning “‘to complete.” If this sense is correct,
the nt references to Christ our Peace (e.g. Eph
2:14) become more meaningful, as he is the final
sacrifice for us (cf. Heb 9:27; 10:12).

Bibliography: Fohrer, Georg, “‘owtyotoc, * in
TDNT, VII, pp. 1021-23. Gerleman, Gilles, **Die
Wurzel sim,” ZAW 85:1-14. JTOT, pp. 126,

932

179-80, 258-59. Kohler, Ludwig, Old Testament
Theology, Westminster, 1958, pp. 188-89, 250, n.
149.

sh‘lomoh. Solomon (the man of peace). Sec-
ond son of David and Bathsheba, third king of the
united kingdom.

The last years of David's life were marred by
political strife caused by his sons as they strove
for the throne. Under the influence of Nathan the
prophet and Bathsheba (I Kgs 1:11ff.), David ac-
knowledged Solomon as his successor.

Solomon’s reign is significant, for it marks the
first of the dynastic rulers of Judah. Solomon is
noted for his wisdom and his contributions to the
OT Scriptures.

His insight into the strategic value of his terri-
tory and his monopolistic control of the ancient
near eastern trade routes plus his important cop-
per mining from south of the Dead Sea and all his
metal working, provided him with great wealth
that enabled him to sustain a large standing army
and to construct and maintain the fortified cities
(e.g. Megiddo, Hazor, Eglon, Gezer), that
guaranteed his independence. The institution of
corvée (mas) and its imposition on Israelites was
extremely unpopular, and when his son Re-
hoboam tried to continue this policy, he forced
the division of the kingdom.

Solomon's prize jewel was the Jerusalem tem-
ple which was built under his direction. He ap-
pears as the precursor of the great messianic king
(II Sam 7:12-16).

Bibliography: Bright, John, A History of [s-
rael, 2nd ed. Westminster. 1972, pp. 206-24. Hub-
bard. David A.. “Solomon.” in NBD, pp. 1201-4.

G.L.C.

ywaow (shalmon). See no. 240If.

2402 AYwW (shdlap) draw out, draw off (asv and

RSV Similar).

shalap is used twenty-four times, mainly of the
drawing out of a sword from the sheath. It occurs
similarly in Akkadian.

shalaup is used in the ordinary sense of **draw-
ing out’ a sword in I Sam 17:51. The Qal active
participle is used in such passages as Jud 8:10, I
Sam 24:9 and II Kgs 3:26 to describe warriors:
**those who draw the sword’’ (Nass translates
**swordsmen, NEB “armed men’’).

An important series of passages involves the
use of the Qal passive participle, and describes
the Angel of the Lord as standing with “‘drawn
sword.’* This expression portrays him as stand-
ing ready to strike. Thus in Num 22:23, 31
Balaam is met by the Angel and receives by this a
solemn warning that he is in imminent danger of
being struck down in judgment. In I Chr 21:16,

David sees the Angel standing between heaven
and earth, drawn sword in his hand.

Two passages require brief mention. In Ruth
4:7-8, shdlap is used of drawing off a shoe. In Ps
129:6 it is used of grass growing on the rooftops.
Commentators are divided here between the
translation “‘before it sprouts (or shoots up)’’ and
‘before it is plucked up’’. The latter would seem
to be preferable (so Lxx).

Bibliography: Dahood, Mitchell, Psalms III,
AB, p. 232. Speiser, E. A., ““Of Shoes and
Shekels,’ Oriental & Biblical Studies, Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1967, pp. 151-56.

H.J.A.

2403 *wow (shalash) do a third time, do three
times. Denominative verb occurring in
the Piel and Pual.

Parent Noun

2403a twow (shdlésh) three.

2403b wsoy (sh*lishi) third, one third.
Used fifteen times.

awow (shilshém) three days ago,
day before yesterday. Used
twenty-five times, always in con-
junction with ‘etmol or t* mol.

pswow (sh*loshim) thirty. This is
the plural form of shaldsh *‘three.”’

wow (shdlish) I, third part (of a
measure). Found twice.

wow (shalish) I, a musical in-
strument, three stringed (?), or trian-
gular (?), or three-barred (?).

twsow (shadlish) IH, shield carrier,
adjutant. Used sixteen times.

2403h «=wow = (shillésh) third generation.

24031 towow (shalishim) (Qere), aww

(Kethib) excellent things.

shalosh. Three. This number plays a signifi-
cant role in the Old Testament. As the first of the
plural numbers (two is considered dual) it very
easily came to represent the smallest complete
cycle. It cannot be accidental that periods of
three days, weeks, months or years are so fre-
quently encountered in the Scriptures. When
Ezra assembled the Jews at the river in prepara-
tion for the return to Jerusalem (Ezr 8:15) he
stayed there three days, during which time he
mustered the people and found no Levites pre-
sent. This was evidently a time of final prepara-
tion. After they arrived, he waited three days be-
fore tallying all the wealth they had brought along
(Ezr 8:32-33). Similarly, Nehemiah waited three
days after arriving in Jerusalem before beginning
his survey of the walls (Neh 2:11).

A period of three units of time seems to have
been appropriate for justice to have run its course
when tempered by grace. Thus Joseph impris-

2403¢

2403d
2403e

2403f

24032

933

2403 *wow (shalash)

oned his brothers three days (Gen 42:17). Israel
experienced a famine of three years (I] Sam 21:1)
before discovering the reason, and Elijah’s
drought lasted three years (1 Kgs 18:1). In each
case the deliberate design was a full taste of retri-
bution to be followed by a gracious restoration. It
is highly probable that there is a similar signifi-
cance in the choice of the three. day sojourn of
Jesus’ body in the grave, i.e., man’s sin fully
judged, yet grace triumphant.

A threefold act gives a sense of finality, of def-
initiveness. Elijah stretched himself three times
on the dead boy (I Kgs 17:21). After Leah had
given birth to three sons she felt that now she had
proven herself and that Jacob must now surely
accept her fully (Gen 29:34). The threefold bless-
ing of Aaron in Num 6:24-27, in which the name
of the Lord is invoked three times on Israel, has a
definitive quality, as does the trisagion of Isa 6:3,
and while the doctrine of the Trinity is not hereby
proven, it is at least consistent with the New Tes-
tament revelation.

As the number of the smallest plurality, three
was appropriate as representing an innermost
circle of friends or followers. Thus, of David's
thirty mighty men, three were distinguished as
being most select (II Sam 23:9). (Cf. also the
three select disciples among Jesus’ twelve.)

The religious year had gone full cycle when the
three major feasts had been celebrated (Ex 23:14,
17), and Daniel made it a rule to pray three times
daily.

shalish. Shield carrier, adjutant, originally re-
ferred to the third man in a war chanot, the one
who was the shield carrier for, and assistant to,
the warrior. This followed the custom of the Hit-
tites and Assyrians. Bidkar, in II] Kgs 9:25 has
this function. In most passages the word is used
in the more general sense of a high military offi-
cer serving as adjutant to the king (cf. II Kgs 7:2
and 10:25).

shalishim (Qere) shishwm (Kethib). Excel-
lent things. This word is difficult. kJv, NASB, NIV
marg. translate “excellent things’ as the pl. of
shalish. Rsv, Niv and many translate ‘thirty say-
ings’? as from sh*loshim. Another possibility ts
shilsho6m *‘‘formerly’’ (Niv marg., NASB marg.).
The question is complicated by the somewhat
similar Egyptian work *‘Wisdom of Amen-em-
Opet’’ which is divided into thirty chapters and
urges attention to “‘these thirty chapters.’’ Some
claim that a dependence on this work can be found
in the following sayings of Prov 22:22-24:22 which
can be divided into thirty sayings. First, it may be
said that dependence on the Egyptian work is
sometimes overemphasized and cannot be found
at all in the latter part of this section. Second, the
division into thirty sayings is not certain. They
may be divided differently. Still, it may be that

2404 aw (sham)

there was a schematic use of the number thirty
in such writings and that this stylistic device is
witnessed to both in the Egyptian work and in this
section of Prov. For further discussion, cf. Harris,
R. L., **Proverbs,’> WBC, pp. 556-57.
Bibliography: For shalosh: Pope, M.,
‘‘Number,’’ in IDB. White, W., ‘‘Number,”’ in
ZPEB. For ~ sh@lish: Thompson, J.A.,
‘‘Chaniot,’’ in ZPEB. AI, p. 122. Wevers, J. W.,
**Chariot,”” in IDB.
H.J.A.

pweow (sh’loshim). See no. 2403d.
eww (shalishim), Kethib pywow. See
no. 2403).

pwow (shilshom). See no. 2403c.

2404 ow (sham) there (so ASV and RSV).

sham 1s a very common adverb which has cog-
nates in Ugaritic §m, Arabic tamma and tumma,
ancient Aramaic shm and Biblical Aramaic
tamma.

It may have 1) a locational significance such as
in Amos 7:12, ‘“‘Eat your bread there and
prophecy there’’; 2) an ablatival use with the pre-
position min, Gen 2:10 *from there,’ I Kgs 17:13
‘from it,’’ i.e. “‘out of it’’; 3) a directive force,
with or without the *‘ Directive he’’ (Gen 2:8, Jer
19:2); or 4) a temporal force ‘then,’ ‘‘at that
time’ (Ps 132:17, ‘‘then will I cause the horn of
David to spring up’’).

H.J.A.

2405 aw (shém) name.

This noun appears 864 times, but less than 90
times in the plural. No certain etymology has
been established for this root. Two earlier conjec-
tures are now rejected: Redslob (Zeit. deut. mor-
genlandische Gesellschaft 1872: 751-56) sought
to derive it from the root shmw ‘‘to be high’’ and
thus *“‘monument”’ (Gen 11:4), *‘excellence’’ or
‘*majyesty’’ (Ps 54:1 [H 3]), while others have re-
garded it as a shortened form of shéma’‘. But the
argument put forth by W. R. Smith (Kinship,
213) is preferred by some today. It derives shém
from the Arabic root wim *“‘to mark or brand,”’
hence an external mark to distinguish one thing
or person from another.

The concept of personal names in the oT often
included existence, character, and reputation
(I Sam 25:25). Often the plural form of shém is
rendered as ‘‘persons,’’ (e.g. Num 1:2, 18, 20;
3:40, 43; 26:55). Further ‘‘to cut off the name”’
was equal to liquidating the person himself (Deut
7:24; 9:14; I Sam 24:21 [H 22] etc.). The name
chosen for a child was often descriptive of the
parent's wishes or expectations for the personal-
ity that was to mature. This is particularly evi-

934

dent in the renaming process, e.g. Jacob becom-
ing Israel (Gen 35:10).

One of the favorite devices (found in seventy-
nine passages) was the use of word play; observe
this literary form in Jer 1:11-12; Mic 1:10-15;
Hos 1:4—-5, etc. The same device is found in the
Egyptian Westcar Papyrus, a story about the
birth of triplets and how they were named and
then a pun on each name was recorded!

The name of YHWH, generally vocalized as
Yahweh is the great theme of the oT name-
theology. In Ex 6:2-3 the Lord indicates that no
special revelation had been granted to the pat-
riarchs by his name, Yahweh. But since that
name occurs in Genesis almost 150 times, many
have been misled to conclude that this either in-
dicates the lateness of those parts of Genesis or a
flat contradiction between two traditions in the
Pentateuch. The solution lies in the Niphal reflex-
ive verbs in Ex 6:2-3 and the Beth Essentiae be-
fore El Shaddai and its extended force before
Yahweh. The resulting affirmation made in the
text is that God claims ‘‘I manifested myself in
the character of [Beth Essentiae| El] shaddai but
in the character [Beth Essentiae implied}
Yahweh, I did not make myself known to them.”’
The same idea is implied in Ex 3:13 where the
interrogative mda **what’’ asks for the character
of a person, while mi **who?’’ only requires iden-
tity.

In some passages shém Yahweh is so inextric-
ably bound up with the being of God, that it
functions almost like an appearance of Yahweh
(Ex 23:20-21; Isa 30:27). Cf. the tabernacling of
the Name at various spots almost like a Christ-
ophany (Ex 20:24; Deut 12:5; I] Sam 7:13, etc.).

The name of God also signifies the whole self-
disclosure of God in his holiness and truth (Ps
22:22 {H 23)). This Name can be ‘‘walked in,”
l.e. people are to live according to its teaching
(Mic 4:5).

Several important formulas or prepositional
phrases using shém must be observed. ‘‘To call
one’s name’”’ over something signifies ownership,
possession, and protection, e.g. of David over a
city (II Sam 12:28), of seven women requesting
one man’s name (Isa 4:1), of God over the nations
(Amos 9:12) and over Israel (Isa 63:19). This is to
be sharply set off from the formula *‘to appoint a
name”’ (sim shém I") (Jud 8:31; II Kgs 17:34; Neh
9:7) which means ‘“‘to confer a new name.’’ More
usual is the sense of commission by the use of
b°shém Yahweh or b¢ sh‘ mi (I Sam 17:45; I Kgs
18:32: Jer 14:14; Deut 18:20).

Contrary to the emphasis of von Rad (Studies
in Deuteronomy, pp. 37-44), ‘*‘name-theology”’
does not replace the older ‘‘glory-of-the-Lord
theology’’ associated with the ark, cloud, and
fire. Von Rad suggests an evolutionary develop-
ment, whereby material presence was replaced

by a more sophisticated tendency toward hypo-
stasis for all these concepts: the ark, the angel of
the Lord, the face of the Lord, the glory of God
and the Name of the Lord are presented as repre-
sentations and pledges of Yahweh's presence.
Rather it is our Lord’s preparation for the full
disclosure of the Trinity as well as the Incarna-
tion of his Son to come.

Bibliography: Motyer, J. A., The Revelation
of the Divine Name, London: Tyndale, 1956, pp.
3-31. Bietenhard, Hans, *‘Onoma,’’ in TDNT,
pp. 252-61. THAT, II, pp. 935-62.

W.C.K.

2406 *iw (shamad) be destroyed, extermi-
nated (Niphal); destroy, exterminate
(Hiphil). (asv and rsv *‘be destroyed’’ and
**destroy.’’)

shadmad occurs sixty-three times. There are a
number of Hebrew verbs whose semantic range
includes the meaning ‘‘destroy”’ (thirty-eight are
so translated one or more times in the ksv), but
many of them take on this meaning only in certain
contexts. kdld, for example, has the perfectly in-
nocent meaning “‘be complete,’’ but may in the
Piel mean ‘put an end to, destroy.” Similarly
bala’ ~‘to swallow’? and ‘dsap ‘‘to gather.”’
shdmad, on the other hand, always means “‘to
destroy’ or “‘annthilate.”’ It is always used in
passages dealing with vengeance or with the
judgment of God.

The objects of destruction occurring with
shadmad are mostly persons, whether a nation
(Deut 4:26; 28:20, 24, 45), groups of nations (Deut
7:23), a family, etc. Of the sixty-three occur-
rences of the verb, in only four (Lev 26:30: Num
33:52; Hos 10:8; Jer 48:8) is the object of destruc-
tion other than personal.

The destruction depicted by shamad usually
involves a rather sudden catastrophe such as
warfare or a mass killing, but in one passage it is
the result of attrition due to famine and oppres-
sion (Deut 28:48, 63). In yet another passage God
is depicted as the basic cause of the destruction
(shamad), while his people are his instruments of
destruction ('dbad, Deut 9:3).

The destruction may be permanent (Moab in
Jer 48:42, Jacob in Gn 34:30, God’s enemies in Ps
83:11) or, less frequently, impermanent as in
Il Kgs 10:28 in which Baalism was destroyed, but
whose roots remained, and which reemerged
later (II Kgs 21:3).

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 963-64.

H.J.A.

2407 mw (shmh). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2407a tea (shamayim) heaven, hea-
vens, sky. (ASV and RSv similar).

935

2407 mw (shmh)

Cognates are found in Ugaritic shmm, Akka-
dian shama (singular, **rain’’; plural, ““heaven’’),
Aramaic, Arabic, and South Arabic.

The usage of shamayim falls into two broad
categories, 1) the physical heavens, and 2) the
heavens as the abode of God. Under the first cat-
egory, heaven includes all that is above the earth,
and any given passage may include all or merely a
part of the whole. Heaven and earth together
constitute the universe (Gen 1:1). They yield rain
(Gen 8:2), snow (Isa 55:10), frost (Job 38:29), fire
(II Kgs 1:10), dew (Deut 33:13), and thunder (1
Sam 2:10). They hold the sun, moon, planets, and
stars (Gen 1:14; 15:5; Isa 14:12: Amos 5:26).
Zechariah 2:6 (H 10] speaks of the four winds of
the heavens, and Ps 135:7 says that God brings
forth the wind from his storehouses.

The heavens are frequently described in figura-
tive language as having windows (Gen 7:11:
Il Kgs 7:2; Mal 3:10, though the word here is
more likely sluice-gates such as are used in irriga-
tion, see ’drubba), gates (Gen 28:7), doors (Ps
78:23), pillars (Job 26:11), and foundations (II
Sam 22:8). They are stretched out and spread out
like a tent or a curtain (Isa 40:22).

The use of such figurative language no more
necessitates the adoption of a pagan cosmology
than does the modern use of the term ‘‘sunrise”’
imply astronomical ignorance. The imagery ts
often phenomenological, and is both convenient
and vividly forceful. Thus a disobedient Israel
would find the heavens to be like iron (Lev 26:19)
or like bronze (Deut 28:23), not yielding the
much-needed rain. Note that if the heavens were
conceived of as a metallic vault, as is commonly
suggested from Gen 1:8, 14 etc., the above pas-
sages would be meaningless, since the skies
would already be metal. The word rdqia‘ (q.v.)
comes from the verb meaning “‘to hammer out”
and ‘‘stretch (a piece of metal) out’’ as an over-
lay. It is the idea of spreading out that carries
over to the noun, not the idea of a metallic sub-
stance. *‘Expanse’’ is an acceptable translation.

Heaven is, secondly, the abode of God (Deut
26:15; | Kgs 8:30), and it is from there that he
reaches down to do his will on earth. As the
heavens are infinitely high above the earth, so are
God’s thoughts and ways infinitely above man’s
ability to comprehend (Isa 55:8-9). God is in sov-
ereign control (Ps 2:4). He is able to reach out in
judgment (Gen 19:24ff) and in salvation alike (Ps
57:3 (H 4]; Deut 33:26). Jeremiah 23:24 states that
God fills heaven and earth, and Solomon recog-
nizes that all of heaven and the highest heavens
themselves (‘heaven of heavens’’) cannot con-
tain the Almighty God. As vast as the heavens
are, they are merely part of God's creation, and
he stands above it all. Therefore Solomon has no
illusions that God has need of his temple or that it
can contain him. Yet God has graciously conde-

2408 wry (shamat)

scended to dwell there and to be approached by
sinful man. Isaiah states (Isa 57:15) that though
God dwells in the high and lofty place, he will
also dwell with those of a contrite and humble
spirit.

The heavens tell of the glory of God (Ps 19:1 [H
2]), declare his righteousness (Ps 50:6), and
praise him (Ps 69:34 [H 35]). As grand as they
are, they merely point to the Creator and are not
to be worshiped (Ex 20:4: Jer 44:17-25). Though
the heavens are his throne, they will one day van-
ish like smoke (Isa 51:6) and be rolled up like a
scroll (Isa 34:4). Then God will create a new
heaven and a new earth, unmarred by the effects
of sin (Isa 65:17: 66:22). The joy and glory of
completed redemption will be reflected in all of
creation.

Bibliography: Gaster, T. H., *‘Heaven,’’ in
IDB. Innes, D. K., **Heaven and Sky in the Old
Testament,’ EQ 43:131-43. Morris, L. L.,
**Heaven,’’ in NBD. von Rad, G., in TDNT, V,
pp. 502-9. Rayburn, R. G. *“*Heaven,”’ in WBE.
Rosmarin, Trude, W., °“-The Term for * Air’ in the
Bible,’ JBL 51:71-72. Smith, W. M., **Heaven,”’
in ZPEB. THAT, II, pp. 965-69.

H.J.A.

See no. 2409d.
See no. 2412d.

maw (shamma).
api (sh mia).

2408 ww (shamat) release, let drop, let loose,

let rest. (ASV and RSv Similar.)
Derivative
2408a 9 muw (sh mitta) a remitting,

used five times, always in connec-
tion with the dropping or remission
of debts.

The verb is used in both the physical and the
metaphorical senses. In the physical sense it
means “‘to drop’’ something or someone or “‘to
throw (something) down.” In I! Sam 6:6 and the
parallel I Chr 13:9, the verb has been generally
treated in one of two ways, 1) ‘“‘the oxen stum-
bled’’ (ASv, NEB, RSV, NIV, Keil), or 2) ‘“‘the oxen
upset it’’ (NASB, KB) or “shook it’? (KJV, LXxx).
Since the Qal is generally transitive, the second
choice seems preferable, “the oxen caused (the
ark) to drop.”

The noun sh‘ mitta occurs only in Deut, al-
ways with the sense of the remission of a debt
(Deut 15:1-2, 9; 31:10). The commandment with
regard to the releasing of a debtor from his debts
every seven years was a continuing reminder that
those who had themselves experienced the grace
of God in the remission of sins ought also to man-
ifest the spirit of grace in their interpersonal rela-
tionships.

In another context the verb is used in the

936

command of Ex 23:11 to ‘‘let (the land) rest, lie
fallow’’ every seven years. The lesson is one of
obedience and trust in the provision of God. God
promised to bless far beyond any loss that would
come about by letting the land rest or by releasing
the debtor every seven years.

Bibliography: Hoenig, Sidney B., **Sabbatical
Years and the Year of Jubilee,’ JQR 59:222-36.
Kline, Meredith, G., Treaty of the Great King,
Eerdmans, 1963, p. 88f.

H.J.A.

ovew (shamayim). See no. 2407a.
saw (sh mini). See no. 241 Ic.
mew (sh*minit). See no. 241 Ic.
saw (shamir). See no. 2416a.

2409 ony (shamém) be desolate, appalled.

Derivatives
2409a ow (shamém) devastated, deserted.

2409b =maraw «(sh*mamad) devastation,
waste.

2409c = raw (shim md) devastation (Ezk
35:7).

2409d thy (shammd) waste, horror, ap-
pallment.

2409e § = HW = (shimmamon) horror (the

feeling of inner desolation at the
prospect of divine judgment, Ezk
4:16: 12:19).

2409f maw (m°shumma) devastation (e.g.
Ezk 6:14: 33:28), horror (Ezk 5:15).

shamam is used with its derivatives 195 times
in the Hebrew Old Testament and once in Bibli-
cal Aramaic. Basic to the idea of the root is the
desolation caused by some great disaster, usually
as a result of divine judgment. The verb harab
with its derivatives is frequently found in close
association with shamam and often overlaps it
semantically, but Adrab has as its basic idea a
state of heat and dryness with lack of vegetation.
This may be due to divine judgment, but not at all
necessarily so. In the case of shamam, heat or
dryness is not inherent in the root, but rather it
describes the result of disaster and judgment.

**Desolation’’ most frequently applies to places
and things. In Isa 64:10, Isaiah is praying for a
restoration of Jerusalem, which had come under
God's judgment and was now a desolation (q.v.).
In Joel 2:3 the land which had been “‘like the
Garden of Eden” before the locust plague has
become a ‘‘desolate wilderness.’’ Other objects
of desolation are the high places (Ezk 6:6), the
gates of Jerusalem (Lam 1:4), a camp (Ps 69:25
[H 26}), storehouses (Joel 1:7), highways (Isa
33:7 [H 8]), altars (Ezk 6:4).

The book of Daniel has four passages employ-
ing the Polel form of the verb (m* shomém and

sh6mém). There is a causative (or, better, factt-
tive) force here similar to the use of the Hiphil,
except that the Hiphil generally involves a physi-
cal devastation, while the Polel seems to put
more stress on the fact that someone has caused
the sanctuary or altar to be polluted, thus render-
ing it unfit for the worship and service of God.
These passages are Dan 8:13; 11:31: 9:27; and
12:11. In the first two, Antiochus Epiphanes ts
depicted as doing away with proper sacrifices and
in 11:31 as setting up an ‘“‘abomination’’ (shiq-
gus), generally understood to be an idol or pagan
altar. In this activity he foreshadows the Anti-
christ as described in 9:27 and 12:11. Jesus refers
to the coming idolatrous practices of Antichrist
by the term ‘‘the abomination of desolation’ (Mt
24:15 and Mk 13:14). The presence of this abomi-
nation in the sanctuary makes it desolate, unfit
for proper worship.

In just a few special instances, people are the
objects of devastation. Thus Jeremiah speaks of
himself as having been ‘‘torn to pieces’’ and
**made desolate’ in Lam 3:11 (cf. also 1:13). This
is obviously figurative language. There are three
passages in which a woman 1s referred to as
‘*desolate.’’ In Isa 62:4 God says that when he
redeems Israel, his people will no longer be called
a woman that is ‘‘forsaken’’ and ‘‘desolate,’’ but
rather Hephzibah (**My delight is in her’’) and
Beulah (*‘Married’’), Similar to this ts Isa 54:1.

From the above it is not difficult to see how the
second major use of the root is derived, the sense
of ‘‘horror’’ and **shock”’ brought about by the
vision of desolation. It is the inner response to
the outward scene. Examples are Jer 4:9; I Kgs
9:8; Ps 40:15 [H 16]. In such passages as IJ Kgs
22:19 and Deut 28:37 Israel becomes an ‘‘object
of horror’’ to those who behold him, shamma

here used with words such as “‘taunt,’’ “‘prov-
erb,’’ “‘curse.”’
shamma. Waste, horror, appalment. Used

thirty-nine times. The basic distinction between
shamma and sh*mam4a seems to lie in the fact
that shammad in most passages stresses the hor-
ror caused by the desolation of judgment. It is
frequently used with words such as ‘‘curse,’’
“reproach,” ‘byword,’ “‘object of hissing.’’
Thus in sh®mamda the stress is usually on the
desolation itself, while in shamma the emphasis
is on the spectacle of the desolation, the reaction
it causes. The verb shamam covers both ideas.
Bibliography: Deward, Eileen F., *‘Mourning
Customs in I, I] Samuel,’’ JJS 23:1-27, 145-66.
TDNT, JI, pp. 29-36. THAT, JI, pp. 970-73.
H.J.A.
See no. 2409e.

Traew (sh*mamon).

2410 ew (shamén) I, be(come) fat.

937

2410 Yew (shamén)

Derivatives

2410a trew (shamén) fat, rich.

2410b tw (shaman) fatness (Gen
27:28, 39, only).

2410c trew (shemen) oil.

2410d = Dw ('ushmannim) _ the stout
(Isa 59:10, only).

2410e wow (mishman) fatness (e.g. Isa
17:14; Dan 11:24).
2410f vowld (mashman) richly prepared
food (Neh 8:10, only).
shamen. Fat, rich, an adjective used ten

times. It is used to convey the idea of prosperity
and well-being. A synonym is bari’ which has
reference to physical fatness, and then also to
well-being. x

shaman. Fatness, used twice, in Gen 27:28,
39. It is used metaphorically, of the richness of
the field.

shemen. Oil, generally olive oil whether pure
or prepared for various uses such as perfume or
ointment. It is used 190 times. A synonym is
yishar which also means “olive oil.’ shemen is
the general word for olive oil in its various uses,
while yishar refers to the fresh product. It is regu-
larly associated with firédsh ‘“‘new wine’’ and
dagadn **grain’’ in reference to the produce of the
land. (shemen is sometimes associated with
yayin as a part of provisions *‘wine.’’) The word
héleb refers to animal fat, though it may be used
metaphorically in reference to that which ts best
or select. shemen has cognates in Akkadian,
Phoenician, Arabic, Syriac, and Ugaritic.

It ts generally used in the literal sense, though
its metaphoric use is not uncommon. The oil re-
ferred to is generally olive oil (Est 2:12 ‘‘oil of
myrrh’’ may be a liquid form of myrrh, or it could
be myrrh mixed with oil), and it played a very
important role in the life of the ancients. 1) It was
used for shortening in cooking (I Kgs 17:12-16),
mixing the oil with flour in the baking of bread. 2)
It was used in various ways in connection with
sacrifices and worship. The oil itself was given as
an offering (Lev 2:15-16; Ezk 45:14), or it was
mixed with flour (Lev 8:26; 2:1-3: Ex 29:40). Cer-
tain offerings were specifically not to have any oil
with them, the sin offering (Lev 5:11) and the
grain offering of jealousy (Num 5:15). 3) shemen
played an important symbolic function in various
consecration ceremonies. Thus kings and priests
were anointed with oil (I Sam 16:13: I Kgs 1:39;
Lev 8:12; Ex 30:23-33 gives the formula for pre-
paring the anointing oil), symbolizing the rich
blessing of God. The tabernacle and its contents
was so consecrated (Lev 8:10). 4) It was impor-
tant in cosmetics and perfumery (Amos 6:6; Song
1:3; 1] Sam 14:2; Ps 104:15) as well as 5) for medi-

2411 778w (shmn)

cinal purposes (Isa 1:6). 6) Oil was also used in
lamps (Ex 25:6; 27:20; Lev 24:2).

Oil came very naturally to be a symbol of pros-
perity. So in Moses’ blessing on Asher, *‘Let him
dip his foot in oil’’ (Deut 33:24). A mark of pecu-
liar blessing of God on his people is given in Deut
32:13 as a situation in which even the rocks give
forth honey and oil. That is, even that which
would normally be sterile and unproductive gives
forth rich yields under God's blessing (cf. also
Job 29:6).

In Isa 61:3 and Ps 45:7 [H 8] the ‘oil of joy”’
symbolizes the blessed condition of one who is
under God's special favor.

The verb, the adjective shamén and the nouns
shaman and mishman speak, with one exception
(Isa 6:10, where the hearts are fat—insensitive,
unresponsive), of well-being and prosperity. So
in Deut 32:15 and Jer 5:28, God’s people have
become fat and prosperous and have turned from
their God who made their prosperity possible.
What is in view here is not obesity but a state of
being well-fed and healthy.

Bibliography: McCarthy, Dennis J., ‘**Hosea
XH 2: Covenant by Oil,’’ VT 14:215-21.
H.J.A.
2411 aw (shmn) TI. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
241la maimw (sh*moneh), 7Iw (sh“mona)
eight.
2411b omw (sh°monim) eighty.
24l1c fw (sh*mini), MINOW (sh*minit)

eighth, sheminith.

A musical term meaning “‘eighth’’ found in
I Chr 15:21 and in the headings of Ps 6 and 12.
Possibly it refers to an instrument with 8 strings
or to an octave. Each time it occurs with the
preposition ‘a/, “‘upon’’ (KJV, NASB), “‘according
to’’ (NIV), or “‘tuned to’* (NASB, I Chr 15:21). In I
Chr 15:21 several musicians were celebrating the
bringing of the ark to Jerusalem by playing harps
***althe sheminith.”’ For other such terms see se/a.

H.W.
pnw (sh*monim). See no. 2411b.
2412 pw (shama') hear, listen to, obey.
Derivatives
2412a tyrow (shema‘') sound (Ps_ 150:5,
only).

2412b tyrmw (shéma') report.

2412c tymw (shdma') news, fame.
2412d tmyyaw (sh°mi'da) news, rumor.
2412e =o miyewe = (hashma'‘at) communication
(a causative form, **that which is
caused to be heard,’’ Ezk 24:26).
2412f yrwr (mishma') rumor (Isa

11:3, only).

938

2412g =nprmw (mishma‘at) subjects (Isa
11:14), body guard (1 Sam 22:14;

I] Sam 23:23 = J] Chr 11:25).

The verb shama‘ is used 1050 times in the Qal,
Niphal, Piel (twice), and Hiphil. Cognates are
found in Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Ugantic,
and Ethiopic. The basic idea is that of perceiving
a message or merely a sound. Synonyms are
qashab in the Hiphil, “*give attention,’ ‘be at-
tentive,’ ‘azan ‘give ear,’’ a denominative from
‘dozen “‘ear’’ (hence’*use the ear’), and ‘ana
**answer.”’

shama‘ has the basic meaning “‘to hear.’’ This
is extended in various ways, generally involving
an effective hearing or listening: 1) “listen to,”
‘*pay attention,” 2) “‘obey’’ (with words such as
‘“commandment’’ etc.), 3) “‘answer prayer,’’
‘*hear,’’ 4) ‘‘understand’’ and 5) “hear criti-
cally,’’ **examine (in court).’’ The derived stems
have appropriately modified meanings.

Instances of the basic use of the verb are nu-
merous. Examples are Num 12:2 (the Lord heard
Miriam’s and Aaron’s grumbling), Deut 4:12 (the
Israelites heard the sound of God's voice but saw
no form) and Gen 3:8 (Adam and Eve heard the
voice of God in the garden). The object of the
hearing may be expressed in a dependent clause,
such as in Gen 37:17 “heard (them) saying, ' Gen
14:14 ‘heard that his brother had been taken cap-
tive,’ Jud 7:11 ‘“‘hear what they say.”

The meaning ‘‘listen to’ is illustrated in Gen
3:17 (Adam, to the voice of his wife, i.e. he fol-
lowed her lead), I Kgs 22:19, **Hear thou the
word of the Lord,’’ Ps 81:11 [H 12], **My people
would not listen to my voice’’ and Prov 12:15,
‘‘He that listens to counsel is wise.’” This usage
shades into that of **to obey,’’ such as in Ex 24:7;
Isa 42:24 *‘obey his law’’: Neh 9:16, ‘They did
not obey Thy commandments’; and Jer 35:18,
‘“You have obeyed the commandment of
Jonadab.”’

In Jud 13:9 God “hears the voice of Manoah"’
in the sense of responding to, answering his
prayer. Similar usage is found in Ezk 8:18; Ps 4:1
{H 2], *‘Hear my prayer,’’ which 1s parallel to
**answer me (‘anda) when I call’’; and Ps 34:17 [H
18], ‘The Lord hears the cry (of the nghteous).”’

In connection with answered prayer, God
states a very important and sobering principle in
Jer 11:10-11. Because Israel has refused to listen
to the words of God when he spoke to them, they
will find that when they cry to him in time of
trouble he will not hear (respond to) their cry.
Micah 7:7 expresses the confidence of the right-
eous, the one who himself heeds the voice of God,
that God will indeed hear his prayer. A further
strong word of encouragement is given us in Ps
94:9, **He who planted the ear, will he not hear?”’

Effective hearing involves also the idea of

‘““understanding.’* Thus in Gen 11:7, after the
confusion of languages at Babel, men could no
longer “‘hear’’ (i.e. “‘understand’’) one another.

shema‘. Report, news, fame, rumor. Used 1) of
news generally, whether good or bad, 2) of the
fame attached to a person, and 3) of hearsay, as
opposed to personal experiential knowledge.
Thus it is used in Isa 23:5 of the report or news of
Jacob’s arrival. In] Kgs 10:1 it is used to describe
Solomon's fame that had reached as far as Sheba.
In Job’s great confession (Job 42:5) he testifies
that his former knowledge of God had been but
hearsay, and that as a result of his personal en-
counter with God he has come to see his own
nothingness in the face of the greatness of God.

shema‘. A sound. Used with “‘cymbals”’ in Ps
150:Sa, *“‘sounding cymbals.’* According to KB
these are small tinkling cymbals as opposed to
the loud, crashing cymbals of v. 5b.

shéma‘. News, fame. Is similar in meaning to
shéma’ and means 1) ‘news,’ ‘‘report’’ of an
invasion (Jer 6:24), or of the deeds of God (Josh
9:9), and 2) ‘‘fame”™’ (Josh 6:27).

sh°ma‘a. News, rumor, report, message. Used,
as is shéma’‘, of ‘“‘news’’ or a “‘report’’ that is
received, whether good or bad. The ‘“‘report”’
heard in II Kgs 19:7 and Dan 11:44 may possibly
be of a less definite nature, not so much ‘‘news’’
as a “‘rumor’ or ‘‘disquieting report.’’ In Ezk
16:56 the word is used in the more basic sense
(with regard to the morphology of the word),
namely “‘something that is heard.”’

Exclusive to this form of the root, and theolog-
ically significant, is the meaning *‘(prophetic)
message,’ i.e. the message which the prophet
himself hears from God and which he then trans-
mits to the people. This use emphasizes the di-
vine origin of his message.

Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 974-81.

H.J.A.

2413 prow (shms). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2413a = pm «6(shémes) whisper (Job 4:12;
26:14).

2413b 0 MRwW (shimsad) whisper, derision
(Ex: 32:25);

2414 srw (shamar) I, keep, guard, observe, give

heed.
2414a omarew (shomrd) guard, watch (Ps
141:3, only).
2414b maw (sh°mura) eyelid (Ps 77:4,
only).
2414c 30 w O(shimmar) night watch (Ex
12:42, only).

2414d tw (shomrén) Samaria.

939

2414 "aw (shamar)

2414e NOW S Cashmara), DVS (Cash-

moret) night watch.

2414f tow (mishmar) guard, guard
post.

2414g tnawr (mishmeret) obligation, ser-
vice.

shamar is used 420 times in the Qal, 37 times in
the Niphal, 4 times in Piel and Hithpael. The Ak-
kadian cognate shamadru means “‘wait upon,”
‘attend to’’; the Phoenician, ‘‘watch; guard’’;
the Arabic samara ‘‘watch.”’ The closest
synonym is nasar ‘‘watch,’’ *‘guard,”’ “‘keep,”’
‘-observe,’’ which is used in much the same way
as shamar. There are other verbs which occa-
sionally overlap one of the uses of shamar, but
which are otherwise quite distinct.

The basic idea of the root is ‘*to exercise great
care over.’’ This meaning can be seen to underlie
the various semantic modifications seen in the
verb: In combination with other verbs the mean-
ing is ‘‘do carefully or diligently’’. Thus Prov
19:8, *‘Give heed to understanding’: Deut 11:32,
‘*Be careful to do (i.e. perform carefully) all the
statutes and ordinances) and in Num 23:12, speak
carefully or faithfully.

Secondly it expresses the careful attention to
be paid to the obligations of a covenant, to laws,
statutes, etc. This is one of the most frequent
uses of the verb. Thus in Gen 18:19 Abraham is to
command his children to keep the way of the
Lord, that is, give careful heed to God’s ways (cf.
also Ex 20:6; Lev 18:26: Deut 26:16; Ezk 11:20).
It should be noted that the observance of God's
laws was not to be a matter of theory only or of
perfunctory compliance. The expression “‘to do
them”’ ts frequently appended, such as in Ezk
37:24. Proverbs 4:21 states they are to be kept in
the heart. Furthermore, the expression is used
not only of an obligation to laws, etc, but also toa
sacred occupation such as the priesthood (Num
18:7).

A third ramification 1s “‘take care of,”
‘‘guard.”’ This involves keeping or tending to
things such as a garden (Gen 2:15), a flock (Gen
30:31), a house (I] Sam 15:16). Or it may involve
guarding against intruders, etc., such as the
cherubim guarding the way to the tree of life in
Gen 3:24, or gatekeepers (Isa 21:11) or watchmen
(Song 5:7). The same is true with regard to per-
sons. Thus Cain asks, *‘Am I my brother's
keeper’ (Gen 4:9). David frequently speaks of
God's care and protection in such passages as Ps
34:20 [H 21]; 86:2: 121:3-4, 7, and others. In Job
2:6 God uses shadmar in his injunction to Satan
not to touch Job’s life. Again, David touchingly
admonishes Joab, before he enters battle against
Absalom to ‘‘watch over Absalom for me”’ in I]
Sam 18:12.

Frequently the verb is used to speak of per-

2415 sw (shmr)

sonal discipline, the need to take heed in respect
to one's life and actions: Ps 39:2 ‘I will heed my
ways’; and Prov 13:3, of guarding the lips.

A fourth category is the meaning *‘‘regard’’
‘*give heed to.’ It is used of a man’s attitude of
paying attention to, or reverence for, God or oth-
ers. Thus in Hos 4:10, Israel has abandoned pay-
ing heed to God. Psalm 31:6 [H 7] speaks of those
who revere (shamar) vain idols. In another re-
lated use, the Psalmist says in Ps 130:3, ‘‘If Thou
shouldest mark (shamar, truly pay attention to)
iniquities, who would stand?’’ (see also Job
13:27). This may be used in a hostile sense as in
It Sam 11:16, or in an expectant sense, as in Zech
11:11 and Ps 59:9.

The last category has to do with *‘preserving,”’
‘*storing up,’’ such as the anger against Israel
which Edom cherishes and preserves (Amos
1:11), or knowledge in Mal 2:7. So also with food
in Gen 41:35 and I Sam 9:24, or anything that is
precious (Ex 22:7 [H 6)).

shomrén. Samaria (so aSsv and Rsv), used 190
times, is the name of the city which Omri built as
the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel. It
was located seven miles northwest of Shechem
on a 300-foot hill which he had purchased from
Shemer (I Kgs 16:24-32). Omn named the city
after Shemer, with possibly a double significance
intended, since the name may mean ‘‘Watch-
post.”’

In Isa 28:1-4, though not mentioning it by
name, Samaria is referred to as ‘“‘crown of
pride,’’ ‘‘the glorious beauty, which is at the head
of the fat valley.’’ But though Israel gloried in
Samaria because of its beauty and strategic loca-
tion, God condemned it as the center and heart of
Israelite idolatry. In Mic 1:5 it is called the
‘transgression of Jacob,”’ that is, it epitomized
Israel’s rebellion against God. Jeremiah 23:13
speaks of its false prophets who prophesy by
Baal and lead Israel astray. (Cf. also Hos 7:1 and
Amos 4:1.)

It was for this reason that God pronounced
judgment on the city (Amos 4:2-4; Isa 28:1-8).
Second Kings 17 describes the downfall of
Samaria at the hands of Assyna which removed
its people and repopulated it with people from
other vanquished countries. The territory over
which Samaria had been capital was made a prov-
ince and incorporated into the Assyrian, and
later, Babylonian and Persian, empires. When
Nehemiah, after the exile, was engaged in re-
building Jerusalem, the inhabitants of Samaria
formed his chief opposition. The hostility there
exhibited continued into New Testament times.

mishmar. Guard, guard post, division of ser-
vice. This noun is used 1) of the confinement in
which someone is kept (Gen 40:3; Lev 24:12), 2)
of a guardpost (Neh 4:3, 16-17; 7:3), and 3) of a

940

division of service, generally of the temple ser-
vice, such as Neh 12:24 and 13:14.

mishmeret. Obligation, service. This noun is
used in two principle senses. The first is an ‘*ob-
ligation”’ or a “‘service’’ to be performed. The
second has to do with something that is to be kept
or preserved, such as the Paschal lamb in Ex
12:6, the manna in Ex 16:32—34, or the ashes of
the red heifer in Num 19:9.

Bibliography: Beegle, D. M., ‘‘Samaria,”’ in
WBE. Kelso, J., ‘“Samaria,”’ in ZPEB. Wise-
man, D. J., ‘“‘Samana,’’ in NBD. Wright, G. E.,
**Samaria,’” Biblical Archeologist 22:67-78.
TDNT, IX, pp. 237-39. THAT, II, pp. 982-86.

2415 sw (shmr) Ul. Assumed root of the fol-

lowing.
2415a Ow (shemer) lees,

dregs (e.g.
Isa 25:6; Zeph 1:12).

2416 34 (shmr) III. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
2416a i%Y (shdmir) thorns, adamant,

flint (e.g. Isa 5:6; Jer 17:1).

wsw = (shomrén). See no. 2414d.

2417 ww (shmsh). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2417a twrRw (shemesh) sun; only plural
in Isa 54:12, ‘‘pinnacles.’’ (asv and
RSV Similar: they vary on translating

mizrah shemesh *‘‘sunrising,’’ *‘the
rising of the sun,” or ‘‘east-
ward.’’)

The word shemesh appears 131 times. The sun
is used to designate time and direction; its rising
equals the east and its setting the west (Zech 8:7).
Sunset marks the end of the day and the begin-
ning of a new calendar day. *‘When the sun be-
comes hot’’ refers to midmorning (e.g. Neh 7:3).
Anything done in the light of the sun is considered
done deliberately; e.g., one who killed a thief
while breaking in during the day was held respon-
sible for his blood (Ex 22:3 (H 2]; cf. II Sam
12:11f.). [Another view of this interesting passage
is that the law allows killing a thief in self-defense
while the thief is breaking in at night, but it for-
bids retaliatory killing of a thief who is caught
later in the daytime—such a thief should be re-
quired to make restitution. Stealing was not a
capital crime. r.L.H.} The book of Eccl frequently
repeats the phrase ‘“‘under the sun’’ to emphasize
that this earthly life is lived in monotonous
drudgery with little meaning when viewed from a
godless perspective.

The sun is believed to have power. It could

strike a man and cause him to faint (Jon 4:8). The
Shunammite’s son probably died of sunstroke
(II Kgs 4:19-20). But the Lord protected the pil-
grims from the sun's striking (Ps 121:5 (H 6)).
More frequently the sun was considered a bless-
ing. It helps the fields bring forth rich crops (Deut
33:14). A just ruler is ‘‘like the sun shining forth
upon a cloudless morning”’ (IJ Sam 23:4). The
Lord himself is compared to the sun due to the
fact he brings warmth and prosperity to the be-
liever’s life; *‘the Lorp God is a sun and shield;
he bestows favor and honor’ (Ps 84:11 [H 12)).
Since the sun survives the generations, it stands
as a sign of longevity, e.g. for the enduring throne
of David (Ps 89:36 [H 37]).

In the ancient world the sun was worshipped.
In Egypt as Re, he was the supreme God. The
ninth plague was a direct contest between
Yahweh and Re; by eliminating the light of the
sun through thick darkness Yahweh demon-
strated his superior power. For the same reason
Jeremiah pronounced the coming judgment on
Egypt, “‘break the obelisks of Heliopolis,’’ stone
monuments raised to the sun in the city of the sun
(Beth-shemesh asv, Jer 43:13; cf. Ezk 32:7). In
Mesopotamia the sun played a crucial role as the
god of justice. But in Israel worship of the sun
was strictly forbidden (Deut 4:19). Israel’s wor-
ship stressed that the sun owed its existence sole-
ly to God (Gen 1:14~—19). The sun as a creature
renders him praise (Ps 148:3). The sun also re-
sponds to his commands; e.g. it stood still for half
a day so that Joshua could continue the rout of
his enemies and to signify the healing Hezekiah
was to experience it went backwards ten degrees
according to the sun dial (or 10 steps on the royal
buildings if sun dials were not yet used). Unfor-
tunately sun worship entered Israel at various
times, particularly at at the time of Manasseh;
then even the chariots of the sun were placed at
the entrance to the temple (II Kgs 23:11). Ezekiel
too describes worship of the sun conducted at the
temple. Twenty-five men were worshipping the
sun, facing east with their backs to the temple
(Ezk 8:16). In looking for the sun, they had ar-
rogantly turned away from Yahweh, provoking
him to anger (Ezk 8:17).

The Lord’s anger will reach its fullest outburst
on the Day of the Lord. As God judges the na-
tions, catastrophic events will take place in the
heavens. ‘‘On that day... the sun (shall) go
down at noon’’ (Amos 8:9; cf. Joel 2:31 [H 3:4);
Rev 6:12). Then in the new age the sun will not be
needed as the source of light, but rather Yahweh
will be the everlasting light and glory (Isa 60: 19f. ;
Rev 21:23; 22:5). According to Malachi, the sun
of righteousness will rise with healing in his wings
(Mal 4:2 [H 3:20)).

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 987-98.

J.E.H.

941

2419 maw (shana)

See no. 2422a.
See no. 2421d.

Ww (shén).
WIW (shin’an).

2418 33” (shnb). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.

2418a 3208 (‘eshnab) window lattice

(Jud 5:28; Prov 7:6).

2419 maw (shana) I, change.

Derivative
2419a tmaw (shana) year.

The verb shana is sometimes used to describe
a change in character or way or life. Thus the
immutability of God is expressed in Mal 3:6 by
the statement that God does not change, and his
faithfulness to his promise is shown in the state-
ment that he will not alter that which he has spo-
ken (Ps 89:34 [H 35)]).

The verb is also used in the sense ‘‘be dif-
ferent,’ such as in the statement in Est 3:8 that
the Jews have laws and customs different from
any other people.

A change of clothes for Jehoiachin is involved
in Il Kgs 25:29 when he is released from prison.
In I Sam 21:14 and I Kgs 14:2 it ts used of a
disguise. In the former verse David feigns mad-
ness, while in the second Jeroboam's wife dis-
guises herself before visiting Ahijah the prophet.
In one passage (Est 2:9) there is a physical trans-
fer from one location to another.

shana. Year. This noun is most frequently
employed in ways paralleling modern usage. But
certain expressions do call for comment here. Isa
16:14 and 21:16 speak of ‘‘years of a hireling.”’
These passages speak of the coming downfall of a
nation, and describe the intervening years by this
expression as years of wearisome and dreadful
counting of time. Date formulas generally relate
to the reign of a king, but often they attach them-
selves to significant events such as a famine (Gen
41:50) or an earthquake (Amos 1:1).

Not date formulas, yet highly descriptive and
sometimes with prophetic significance are such
year names as sh“ nat rdson ‘year of favor’ (Isa
61:2). This speaks of the salvation provided by
the Messiah and uses imagery derived from the
sh*nat d°roér ‘year of release’ (Lev 25:10-11;
Ezk 46:17), also called the sh nat yébél ‘‘year of
Jubilee’? (Lev 25:13) in which all who had sold
themselves into slavery are released. Similar is
the sh°nat sh*mitta “year of remission’ (of
debts, every seven years, Deut 15:1; 31:10). The
sh‘ nat g° ’ulim ‘‘year of vengeance,’ is a time of
deliverance for God's people as God deals with
their former oppressors (Isa 63:4).

Two expressions refer to the seasons of the
year (the spring or fall equinox): f*qgépat
hashshand ‘‘the turning of the year (Ex 34:22

2420 sv (shnh)

{fall}: I} Chr 24:23 [spring}), and t*shibat
hashshanda, *‘the returning of the year’’ (II Sam
11:1; I Kgs 20:22, 26 [spring}).

Bibliography: Bruce, F. F., “Calendar,” in
NBD. Finegan, J. Light from the Ancient Past,
Princeton University, 1959, pp. 561-98. Lilley,
J., ‘Calendar,’ in ZPEB. Smick, E. B., ‘*Calen-
dar,’ in WBE.

H.J.A.

2420 m3’ (shnh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2420a tw (shani) scarlet (asv and Rsv
similar), used forty-two times.

Ugaritic has a cognate, tn. The word refers to
the dye (or sometimes the dyed material) ob-
tained from the eggs of the female kermes or
cochineal scale insects which attach themselves
to the kermes oak. It occurs most often in
Exodus in combination with télé‘a “‘kermes in-
sect,’ ‘*scarlet.’’

shani is associated with well-being and with
luxury in I] Sam 1:24 in which Saul is described
as having provided well for the women of Israel.
Scarlet material was used in the making of such
things as the curtains (Ex 26:1), the veil (26:31),
the ephod (28:5-8), and the robe of the priest
(28:33). Thus the best possible materials were
used. But it also seems to have acquired a sym-
bolic significance in that it was used in such
purification ceremonies as in the cleansing of the
leper (Lev 14:4, 6) and the leprous house (Lev
14:49, 52), and for general ceremonial unclean-
ness (Num 19:6). Since shani was the color of
blood it would be its natural symbol in such a
ceremony. The word occurs again in Isa 1:18.
Having told Israel that their worship is un-
acceptable to him because of the stains of blood-
guiltiness on their hands (v. 15), God tells them
that they must be cleansed and then cease from
evil. Verse 18 is his invitation to come for cleans-
ing. He will remove even bloodguiltiness, sym-
bolized by a garment dyed scarlet. As impossible
as it would otherwise be, God makes the garment
pure, shining, white, representing an unsullied
righteousness (cf. Ps 51:7 [H 9]; Rev 7:14).

Bibliography: Johnson, A. F., ‘‘Colours,”’ in
WEB. Wickwire, C. L., **Scarlet,’’ in IDB.

H.J.A.

2421 may (shana) II, repeat, do again.
Derivatives

2421a TOx3w (sh“nayim) two.
2421b = 33Y (shéni), MW (shénit) second,

2421c TmIwl (mishneh) second, double,
repetition.
2421d Hew (shin’aGn) repetition.

942

The verb shana is used of the repetition of an
action such as in Elijah’s command to repeat the
pouring of water on the wood and sacrifice on the
altar in I Kgs 18:34. Proverbs 26:11 compares a
fool who repeats his folly with the dog returning
to his vomit, while in Prov 17:9 it is used of one
who repeats or broadcasts a mistake or failing of
another.

shtnayim. Two. Used 768 times. Morphologi-
cally sh“ nayim is not plural but dual, a formation
common in the Semitic languages. This indicates
a conceptual differentiation between unity on the
one hand and plurality on the other, 1.e. a ‘‘pair,”’
‘‘couple.’’ In Hebrew this formation is restricted
to naturally occurring pairs such as feet, arms,
legs, eyes, etc. It is more widely used in Ugaritic.
sh“ nayim, is used, in addition to the counting
of items, in passages which 1) show a pairing or
joining together, 2) stress contrast or differentia-
tion, or 3) indicate an indefinite small number. In
the first category are included the frequent in-
stances of the making of a covenant or agreement
between two parties, such as between David and
Jonathan in I Sam 23:18, and between Solomon
and Hiram in 1 Kgs 5:12 (cf. also Zech 6:13).

Contrast and opposition is seen in I Kgs 18:2],
in which Israel is undecided between two ways.
Ezekiel 37:22 speaks of the end of the division
and conflict between the two kingdoms of Israel.
Job (9:33) desires someone who can bridge the
gap between himself and God, who can lay his
hand on both.

An indefinite small number ts indicated by the
expression ‘‘one or two” (Ex 21:21: Ezr 10:13),
‘two or three’’ (II Kgs 9:32: Amos 4:8) or simply
‘two’ (I Kgs 17:12).

The granting of a double portion, pi sh nayim,
is the right of the heir, Deut 21:17 (cf. also II Kgs
2:9).

mishneh. Second, double, repetition. mishneh
basically involves a doubling of an onginal item,
whether it be 1) getting twice as much as ongi-
nally, or 2) making a duplicate so as to have an
exact copy, or 3) having a second item or person,
a second rank or section. Thus Jacob’s sons, on
their second trp to Egypt took double the money
they took on the first trip (Gen 43:15). In Zech
9:12 and Isa 61:7 God promises Israel a double
portion, which may mean a superabundance of
blessing, or perhaps better the full blessing and
inheritance as the firstborn heirs, that special
place which the heir occupies in the father’s
household and in his plans.

The sense of ‘‘duplicate’’ or “‘copy”’ ts found
in Josh 8:32, in which Joshua makes a copy of the
Law from the very stones that Moses had in-
scribed (cf. Deut 17:18, hence the title of the He-
brew book on the Pentateuchal legislation, The
Mishnah.)

The third sense of the noun is seen in Gen 41:43
in which Joseph rides in Pharaoh's second
chariot. Several passages, such as II Kgs 22:14
and Zeph 1:10 speak of the Second Quarter or
Section of the city.

shin’an. Repetition. Occurs once, in Ps 68:17
(H 18] following the word “thousands of."’ BDB
and most (including asv and rsv) translate
‘‘thousands upon thousands.’ This interpreta-
tion understands the root shana’ to be a by-form
of shana II ‘to repeat.’’ KB relates it to Arabic
saniya, “‘be high in rank,’ and translates it
‘*highness.”* Albright (Norsk teologisk tidsskrift
56:24) identifies it with Ugaritic tnn and with
shananu from the Alalakh tablets, both meaning
‘warrior’ or better, ‘‘archer’’ (cf. also Ward,
JNES 20:39). The rendering then would be
‘twenty thousand (chariots) and thousands of ar-
chers.”’

Bibliography: Pope, M.H., “‘Numbers,*” in
IDB. White, W., Jr., ““Numbers,”’ in ZPEB.
H.J.A.

See no. 2422c.
YW (shéni). See nos.

pamw (shenhabbim).
IY (shani),
2420a, 2421b.
Bw (sh nayim).
mw (shénind).
MW (shenit).

See no. 242]a.
See no. 2422b.
See no. 2421b.

2422 33W (shanan) sharpen.
Derivatives
2422a tw (shén) tooth, ivory.
2422b tmIW (sh'nind) sharp word.
2422c = BIW oO (shenhabbim) ivory, pos-

sibly compounded of shén **tooth,”’
and habbim ‘‘elephant”’ (African
word, cf. KB). Occurs in I Kgs
10:22; If Chr 9:21.

Arabic sanna ‘‘whet,’ **sharpen”’ is cognate
to shdnan. It is used in the Qal, Piel, Hithpoel.
The Piel is used once in Deut 6:7 in connection
with the diligent instruction of children in the
word of God. KB, however, followed by NEB and
Jerusalem Bible take this from a second root
shadnan, with the meaning “‘repeat’’ (q.v.).

The verb shdanan is used of the sharpening of
swords and of arrows (Deut 32:41; Isa 5:28; Ps
45:6; 120:4: Pr 25:18). Twice it is used metaphon-
cally of the sharpening of the tongue. Evildoers in
Ps 64:3 [H 4] are depicted as sharpening their
tongues like a sword in preparation for attacking
the innocent.

shen. Tooth, ivory. May be used to describe
the appearance of someone’s teeth (Gen 49:12;
Song 4:2; 6:6). It is also used in a variety of ex-
pressions that form vivid and colorful descrip-

943

2424 spi

2424 pow (shin‘ar)

tions of various emotions and situations. Thus
the law of retribution is illustrated in the expres-
sion ‘‘a tooth for a tooth ** (Ex 21:24; Lev 24:20;
Deut 19:21). To break someone's teeth is to rob
him of his power (Ps 3:7 [H 8]; 58:6 [H 7}). Ex-
pressions still current are to “‘escape by the skin
of the teeth’ (Job 19:20) and to ‘have one’s teeth
Set on edge’ by sour grapes or vinegar (Jer 31:29,
30; Pr 10:26).

shén is also used of ‘‘ivory’’ (such as in I Kgs
22:39 and Amos 6:4), the tine of a fork (I Sam
2:13), and of rock crags (1 Sam 24:4 [H 5]).

sh‘nina. Sharp word, taunt. This noun de-
scribes the type of cutting remark made by the
enemies of Israel, using the same symbolism em-
ployed with the verb *‘to sharpen the tongue (for
malicious words)"’.

H.J.A.

2423 *Dlw (shdnas) gird up. This verb oc-

curs only once, in the Piel (I Kgs 18:46).

(shin‘ar) Shinar (so aSv and RSv),

used eight times.

Shinar is the oT designation for southern
Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain between the riv-
ers Euphrates and Tigris. The area was known by
the Sumerians as Sumer and Akkad. It later be-
came known as Babylonia. In two of the eight
passages Shinar is called Babylonia in the Lxx
(Isa 11:11 and Zech 5:11).

In Gen 10:10 we are told that the great tyrant
and empire builder Nimrod founded his kingdom
in Babel, Erech (Sumerian Uruk), Akkad (Agade)
and Calneh in the land of Shinar. From here he
pushed north into Assyria. It was here also, in
Shinar, that rebellious man built the well-known
tower of Babel in direct defiance of God (Gen
11:2). In Dan 1:2 it is the land of Shinar to which
Nebuchadnezzar removes the vessels of the tem-
ple of God, and in Isa 11:11 we are told that Shi-
nar is one of the lands from which regathered
Israel will return when the Millenial age is estab-
lished. In Zech 5:11 the woman in the ephah,
representing a concentration of evil (v. 8), is re-
moved to the land of Shinar where a temple is
built for her.

All of this points to a sinister significance for
Shinar as being the major center for the develop-
ment of a culture and civilization built on coun-
terfeit religion, rebelliousness against the true
God and his revealed word, the cradle of imperial
tyranny and the enemy of God's people, in short,
the epitome of wickedness. (Cf. as well the many
biblical references to Babylon.)

In addition to the above passages, Amraphel
who makes war on the king of Sodom is stated to
be king of Shinar (Gen 14:1, 9). Also, part of the

2425 now (shasd)

illegal spoil taken by Achan (Josh 7:21) is a gar-
ment from Shinar.

Bibliography: Jacobsen, Thorkild, ‘‘Shinar,”’
in IDB. Smick, Elmer, ‘‘Shinar,”” in WBE.
Wiseman, Donald J., *‘Shinar,’’ in ZPEB.

H.J.A.

2425 mow (shdsd) plunder, take
and rsv similar.)

spoil. (ASV

shasd is used twelve times, usually in the Qal,
once in the Poel. It is sometimes used in parallel
with bdzaz which in turn is often in parallel with
shalal. It has a by-form in shdsas.

This verb is used very much the same as shdlal
(q.v.), and the observations made there apply
here as well. Most frequently the verb is used in
the participial form and is translated **plun-
derer(s).’’ Thus in the capsule statement summa-
rizing the times of the Judges (Jud 2:6—23), a dis-
obedient Israel is given into the hands of plunderers
(v. 14). When they cry out to God and repent,
God sends judges to save them from the plund-
erers (v. 16).

In Ps 44:10-12 (H 11-13] the Psalmist com-
plains that God has sold his people for a trifle,
scattered them among the nations, made them
objects of plunder and as sheep to be eaten at
will. But Isaiah encourages Israel (Isa 17:12-14),
saying that the gentile nations will, at God’s di-
rection, be subject to great upheavals, that terror
will strike suddenly in the evening, and before
morning they will cease to exist, ““Such will be
the portion of those who plunder us’’ (NAsB).
Jeremiah states the same principle in Jer 30:16
and 50:11.

H.J.A.

2426 DbY (shadsas) plunder, spoil.

Derivative
2426a

This root, a by-form of shdsd, is used similarly
to shalal, (q.v.) and the comments made there
apply here as well. In addition to the common
uses of the word plunder, this root is clearly used
to point out a moral to Israel. In Zeph 1:13, those
who said in their hearts, **God won’t do any-
thing, whether good or bad,’’ will find their
wealth become plunder. Yet in Isa 42:22—25 God
bitterly laments the fact that, though Israel *‘is a
people plundered and despoiled,’’ they don’t ask
themselves who it is that gave them over to be
plundered, that is, they did not respond to the
teaching of God’s chastising. Therefore more se-
rious punishment awaited them.

mpwte (m*shissd) plunder, spoil.

H.J.A.

2427 yew (shdsa‘) cleave, part.

944

2428 *nowW (shdasap)

2429 mpy

Derivative

2427a =yow (shesa‘) cleft, split.

shdsa’ occurs nine times, in the Qal, always
describing the cloven hoof of quadrupeds. In the
Piel it is used of tearing an animal apart.
Synonymous is paras in the Hiphil. The distinc-
tion seems to be that pdras refers to a cleft or
split in the hoof, but one which does not neces-
sarily go all the way through, while shdasa‘ refers
to a hoof that is completely split through. The
general or common word for split or breach is
paras.

shasa‘ in the Qal is used in the description of
clean animals. Those that divide the hoof, making
split hoofs (NAsB, similarly NEB), if they chew the
cud, are clean (Lev 11:3; Deut 14:6). Those that
do not meet all these conditions are unclean (Lev
11:7; Deut 14:7). Leviticus 11:26a refers to ani-
mals whose hoofs are not completely split from
top to bottom. (The camel, which has a divided
hoof but a broad single pad underneath, would
seem to fall in this category.)

The Piel is used in Lev 1:17 in which the priest
tears the sacrificial bird by the wings, and in Jud
14:6, in which Samson tears the lion apart.

H.J.A.

hew in pieces. This verb
occurs only once, in the Piel (I Sam 15:33).

(sha‘a) look at, look to, regard. (ASV
and RSV similar.)

sha‘a is used fifteen times, mostly in the Qal,
once in the Hiphil and twice in the Hithpael. Both
Akkadian and Ugaritic have cognates in use. A
frequent synonym is rd’a@ ‘*see,’’ which is the
most common verb relating to vision in general.
Another verb with somewhat similar meaning is
nabat ‘‘look,”’ in the Hiphil, also quite common.
Its semantic range, though occasionally overlap-
ping that of shd‘d, is considerably broader.

The basic idea of shda‘da is *‘to look at with
interest.’’ It is never a casual or disinterested
glance. This can be seen in the following ex-
panded definitions. In Gen 4:4—S, it means ‘‘to
look at with approval,’ ‘‘to approve of.’’ Thus
God approved of Abel, but not of Cain. And
again in Isa 17:7-8 God says that the time is com-
ing when a *‘man will regard his maker’’ and no
more have regard for the altars which his hands
have made.

The latter passage comes close to falling under
the second meaning, ‘look to,’’ ‘‘look with ex-
pectation.’’ Thus in Isa 31:1] Israel is described as
going to Egypt for help, relying on horses,
chariots, etc., and ‘‘not looking to”’ the Holy One
of Israel.

The third meaning is ‘‘look away from,’’ used

with the preposition min, always in the request
meaning “leave me alone!"’ (Isa 22:4; Job 7:19;
14:6; Ps 39:14).

In one passage, Isa 32:3, the verb must be re-
garded either as a by-form of shd‘a‘ ‘‘be
blinded,’’ or repointed as the Qal of shd‘a‘ (this
involves no consonantal emendation). So
virtually all commentators and translations.

The Hithpael, used twice, in Isa 41:10, 23
means “‘look about in fear.”

H.J.A.

2430 yw (sh'r). Assumed root of the following.

2430a = ABePW (sha‘ata) stamping (of hoofs;
Jer 47:3).
2431 teyw (sha‘atnéz) mixed stuff (Deut

22:11; Lev 19:19). Perhaps a loan word.

2432 “yw (sh‘l). Assumed root of the following.
2432a = Spy (shd‘al) hollow of hand (Isa
40:12), handful (I Kgs 20:10;

Ezk 13:19).
2432b 0 SSpwr (mish‘dl) hollow way (i.e.

road shut in, Num 22:24).

2433 Syw (sh‘l) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2433a 0 Op (shi‘al) fox (e.g. Neh 3:25;
Song 2:15).

2434 * pw (sha‘an) lean on, trust in. (asv and
RSV similar.) Occurs only in the Niphal.

Derivatives

2434a t1ywr (mish'adn) support. (asvand
RSV, ‘Stay.’’) Used four times.

2434b «yw = (mash'én) support. (ASV
and rsv ‘'‘staff.’’) Used once.

2434c 890 mgpwr (mish’énd) support. (AsV
and rsv, ‘‘stay.’’) Used once.

2434d tmaywr (mish'enet) staff, support.

(asv and rsv similar.) Used eleven
times.

The verb shd‘an means primarily to lean on
something or someone, as on a Staff (Ezk 29:7), a
spear (I] Sam 1:6), or an arm or hand (II Kgs
5:18; 7:2, 17). The latter use probably refers to
the relationship of a king to his confidant or sec-
ond in command. Most importantly the verb is
used figuratively of an attitude of trust. Thus in
Prov 3:5 we are told not to rely on, shd‘an, our
own understanding. Rather we are to trust the
Lord. Ezekiel 29:6—7 vividly illustrates both lit-
eral and figurative uses of the word. Egypt is a
reed staff (mash‘enet) that breaks in the hand of
whomever is foolish enough to lean on it (le.
trust in Egypt). (Cf. also Isa 10:20; 30:12; 31:1;
50:10.)

2437 syw (sh'r)

mish‘an. Support. Is used figuratively as that
on which one relies. David in II Sam 22:19 says
that in the day of calamity God was his effective
support. In Isa 3:1 it is used of the basic physical
life supports, bread and water, that God will re-
move from Jerusalem. mash‘én and mash'‘éna
are used in the same passage with similar mean-
ing.

mish‘enet. Staff. Eliyah had one (II Kgs 4:29-
31), as did the Angel of the Lord in Jud 6:21 and
the nobles depicted in Num 21:18. In Ps 23:4, the
Shepherd’s staff is a comfort to His sheep.
H.J.A.

2435 yyw (sha‘a‘) I, be smeared over, blinded
(e.g. Isa 29:9; 32:3).
2436 *yye (shd‘a') II, sport, take delight in.
Occurs in the Pilpel (e.g. Isa 29:9), Palpel
(Isa 66:12), and Hithpalpel (Ps 119: 16).

Derivative

Bywyw (sha‘dshi'im) delight (e.g.
Isa 5:7; Jer 31:20).

2436a

2437 syw (sh'r) I. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2437a t3YY (sha‘ar) gate.
2437b tspw (shod'ér) gatekeeper, porter.

sha‘ar. Gate. This noun has cognates in
Ugaritic, Arabic, and Phoenician. The root idea
is ‘to split open’’ (so the verb in Ethiopic), ‘‘to
break through’’ (so the Arabic). Two other words
are sometimes translated ‘‘gate’’ petah and de-
let. The former actually means ‘‘entrance,’’ from
the verb meaning ‘‘to open.’’ The latter refers to
the ‘‘door leaves’’ making up part of the gate.
sha‘ar refers to the whole gate complex and to
the open area on either side of it.

The sha‘ar ‘‘gate’’ was of course the means of
controlled access to a walled city. Depending on
its size a city had varying numbers of gates, but
always one main gate which often consisted of an
outer and an inner gate (II Sam 18:24) and some-
times three or four doors, such as the Solomonic
gateways at Hazor, Gezer, and Megiddo. The
doors were generally wood, often covered with
metal (Ps 107:16; Isa 45:2). They were secured by
great bars, often of iron (Ps 107:16). The gate
complex often had rooms at the sides for the
guards. Second Samuel 18:24 speaks of a room
above the gate. Towers also were built to
strengthen the defense of the gate (II Chr 26:9)
which was closed at night (Josh 2:5; Neh 7:3). In
some passages the word refers to the gate of the
temple, as in II Kgs 15:35; Jer 36:10; Ezk 9:2.

The city gate was extremely important in the
life of the people, for social, administrative, and
business intercourse took place there. The Ugan-

945

2438 syw (shda‘ar)

tic literature gives an interesting parallel here,
‘*He (Daniel) sits in front of the gate, by the dig-
nitaries who are on the threshing floor’ (2Aght
5.6-7). I Kgs 22:10 says, ‘‘The king of Israel and
Jehoshaphat king of Judah were sitting, each on
his throne—at the threshing floor at the entrance
of the gate of Samaria.”’ Here kings as well as
city elders sat to administer justice (Deut 21:19;
Josh 20:4). When Absalom laid the groundwork
for his insurrection, it was at the gate where he
intercepted the people who were coming to see
the king (11 Sam 15:2). It was considered an
honor to sit among the elders at the gate (Prov
31:23).

The square (often a threshing floor) in front of
the gate was the most natural congregating place,
and it was here that the prophets frequently
spoke to the people (IJ Kgs 7:1; Jer 17:19-20;
36:10) and to kings (I Kgs 22:10). It was here that
Ezra read and explained the Law to the Jews in
Neh 8:1, 3. Legal transactions also took place
here (Ruth 4:1; Gen 23:10, 18), and it served as a
marketplace as well (II Kgs 7:1).

The process of the administration of justice
was frequently referred to as ‘‘at the gate.’’ Thus
Prov 22:22 ‘(do not) crush the afflicted at the
gate’’ (NASB). Amos 5:15 calls for *‘justice in the
gate.". By metonymy the gate represents the
whole city in Gen 22:17 and 24:60, in which Ab-
raham is promised that his seed will possess the
gate of his enemies. As a symbol of the means of
access or entrance, gate is used in expressions
such as ‘‘gate of death"’ (Ps 9:13 (H 14]), ‘‘gate of
the Lord’’ (Ps 118:20), and ‘‘gate of heaven”
(Gen 28:17).

[It is of interest that the descriptions and mea-
surements of the gates of the courts of the temple
in Ezk 40 accord in general with the Solomonic
gateways unearthed in Megiddo, Hazor and
GeZer. R.L.H.]

‘*Those who enter the gate’’ (Gen 23:10) refer,
according to Speiser, BASOR 144:20-23, to those
that have a voice in community affairs. *‘Those
who go out the gate”’ in Gen 34:24 refers, accord-
ing to Speiser, to those capable of bearing arms.

sho‘ér. Gatekeeper, porter. This is a participial
form meaning ‘‘one who is occupied with the
gate, that is, the gatekeeper or guard. It is used
of the gatekeeper: of the city in II Kgs 7:10-11,
but otherwise mostly of the temple gatekeepers
(I Chr 9:17-26; Neh 7:1).

Bibliography: Barabas, S., *‘Gate,’’ in ZPEB.
Easton, B. S., ‘Gate,’ in ISBE. Pope, M., Job
in AB, p. 186. Riger, H. P., ““Das Tor des
Konigs,'’ in Bib 50:247-S0. Schoors, A., in Ras
Shamra Parallels, 146, Rome: Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1972. Speiser, E. A., BASOR 144:20-
23. Wright, G. E., Biblical Archeology, pp. 74,
129, 132, 133, 135, 156, 163.

H.J.A.

2438 yw (shd‘ar) I, calculate, reckon
(Prov 23:7).
Derivatives
2438a YYW (sha‘ar) measure (Gen
26:12).
2439 syw (sh'r) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2439a = YW (sho‘ar) horrid, disgusting (Jer
29:17).
2439b oo MISpw (sha‘drira) horror (i.e.

horrible thing, Jer 5:30; 23:14).

2439c NNW (sha‘dririya), AeIVY
(sha‘Grurit) horrible thing (Hos
6:10; Jer 18:13).
may5yw (sh‘drird). See no. 2439b.

massypyw (sha‘dririyad). See no. 2439c.
measpw (sh‘drarit). See no. 2439c.
BywEw (sha'dshi‘im). See no. 2436a.

2440 *RBY (shapd) I, sweep bare. This verb
occurs in the Niphal (Isa 13:2) and Pual
(Job 33:21).
Derivatives
2440a «MIDW o(sh*pét) cream (II Sam
17:29). Meaning dubious.
2440b Dw (sh*pi) bareness (Job 33:21),
bare place (e.g. Num 23:3; Isa
41:18).
2441 mBwW (shph) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
244la MBW (shapat) set (on the fire,
e.g. I] Kgs 4:38; Ezk 24:3); or-
dain (Isa 26:12).
2441b BWR (‘ashpdt) ash heap, refuse
heap (e.g. | Sam 2:8 = Ps 113:7).
2441c enpwr (mishp*tayim) fire places

or ash heaps (Jud 5:16; Gen
49:14). Meaning uncertain.

See no. 2443b.
See no. 2440a.

(sh° pot).
(sh® pdt).

pipy
nipy

2442 mpw (shph). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2442a tampw (shipha) maid servant.
2442b tAMEwi (mishpahad) family, clan.

shiphé. Maidservant, maid (asv and Rsv simi-
lar). Used sixty-two times. Apparently shiphda is
indistinguishable from, and in several passages
interchangeable with ‘ama (I Sam 1:16, 18; Gen
30:3-4). The root shiphd has cognates in Uganitic
(where it means “‘family’’ and sometimes ‘‘off-
spring’) and tn Phoenician, “‘family.’’ (The con-
nection with Arabic safaha is not clear. The sim-
ple verb means “‘to pour’’, and KB sees the con-

946

nection with the idea of a maid pouring water
over her mistress’ hands. Hava, in the Al-Faraid
Arabic Dictionary, lists saffaha as meaning ‘‘to
work without profit.’’ This forms a plausible
connection with shiphad, ‘‘maidservant.’’) It is
possible that the shipha was originally more in-
timately associated with the family group, the
mishpahd, than the other slaves were, though
this is not evident in the Old Testament itself.

The variation of shiphad and ’ama has been
thought to be an argument for the division into
Pentateuchal documents. The occurrence of both
these roots in Ug now argues otherwise.

The shipha *‘maid,’’ was a slave who could be
given as a gift to a daughter when she married
(Gen 29:24, 29). Pharaoh presented Abraham
with gifts, including maidservants. Though the
word seems to have had a wider use in the sense
of ‘‘female slave’’ generally, those who are men-
tioned as individuals in the Old Testament are
personal maids-in-waiting to a married woman.
According to Nuzi law, a sterile wife could give
her maid to her husband so that she might
vicanously bear a child through her (Gen 16:2ff:
30:3-4). A boy born of such a union would be-
come the heir unless the wife herself later bore a
son.

Hebrews were not to acquire other Hebrews as
slaves, including maidservants (Jer 34:9-11; I]
Chr 28:10). To be reduced to such a status among
foreigners was a mark of degradation that would
result from national apostasy (Deut 28:68), yet
ultimately gentiles will so serve Israel (Isa 14:2).

mishpaha. Family, clan, kindred. This noun is
used in a wider sense than the English term **fam-
ily’’ usually conveys. The word for the inhabi-
tants of one house is usually bét ‘house, house-
hold” or bét ‘db. mishpahad most often refers toa
circle of relatives with strong blood ties.

mishpaha 1s frequently used as a subdivision of
a larger group such as a tribe or nation. Thus in
Num 11:10 Moses hears the people weeping ‘‘by
families.’’ In Josh 7:16—18, in which the search is
carried out to find the man guilty of causing
God's displeasure on Israel, first the tribe of
Judah is isolated, then the *‘family”’ (mishpaha)
of the Zerahites, then the next smaller unit, the
‘*household’* (bét) of Zabdi. The household of
Zabdi is then examined, and it is found that one
of his grandsons, Achan, who is himself the
father of children, is the guilty one. Jud 18:19 also
contrasts the **house of one man”’ with a tribe or
family (mishpaha).

In Num 27:11, if an heir was lacking in a
household, a man’s own brothers, then his
father’s brothers were next in line. After that the
succession goes to the ‘‘nearest relative’’ from
his family. The kinsman-redeemer, the g0’él,

comes from the family clan in a similar order of:

preference.

947

2443 wew (shapat)

Bibliography: Mitchell, T. C., **Family,”’ in
NBD.

H.J.A.
2443 BEY (shdpat) judge, govern.
Derivatives
2443a tepyw (shepet) judgment.
2443b twipwW (sh pdt) judgment.
2443c «fOpwI (mishpat) justice, ordinance.

The primary sense of shdapat is to exercise the
processes of government. Since, however, the
ancients did not always divide the functions of
government, as most modern governments do,
between legislative, executive, and judicial
functions (and departments) the common transla-
tion, “to judge,’’ misleads us. For, the word,
judge, as shdpat is usually translated, in modern
English, means to exercise only the judicial func-
tion of government. Unless one wishes in a con-
text of government—civil, religious, or
otherwise—consistently to translate as ‘‘to gov-
em or rule,’’ the interpreter must seek more
specialized words to translate a word of such
broad meaning in the modern world scene. For
the participle Niv uses ‘‘leader.*’

The meaning of shdpat is further complicated
by the fact that although the ancients knew full
well what law—whether civil, religious, domestic
or otherwise—was, they did not think of them-
selves as ruled by laws rather than by men as
modern people like to suppose themselves to be.
The centering of law, rulership, government in a
man was deeply ingrained. *‘The administration
of justice in all early eastern nations, as among
the Arabs of the desert to this day, rests with the
patriarchal seniors... Such... would have the
requisite leisure, would be able to make their de-
cisions respected, and through the wider inter-
course of superior station would decide with ful-
ler experience and riper reflection.”’

Hence the following analysis of use of this
basic word for exercise of government appears.

1. To act as ruler. This might be done by the
congregation of Israel (Num 18:22-28), by indi-
vidual judges (Deut 1:16; Jud 16:31; I Sam 7:16,
17), by a king (Jud 8:20): by Messiah (Ps 72:4) or
even God himself (Ps 96:13). God alone can exer-
cise the true ultimate rulership for, he is **the one
judging all the earth’’ (Gen 18:25). But Moses
deciding cases (whether criminal, domestic, reli-
gious or otherwise) acts for God and by divine
authority (Ex 18:13, 15) and the same is true of
other rulers in the ot theocracy (Deut 1:17).

2. By way of eminence, shadpat means to de-
cide cases of controversy as judge in civil,
domestic, and religious cases. In such cases it
was the judge’s duty specifically to judge with
mishpat (judgment, justice) and sedeq/s* daqa
(righteousness) (see Ps 72:2-4) and in case of

2443 BEYy (shapat)

charges **they shall justify the righteous and con-
demn the wicked’’ (Deut 25:1).

3. Inasmuch in a situation of government by
persons rather than merely of laws, the civil offi-
cer (the shdpét *‘one judging’’) had the executive
as well as judicial powers. He also executed or
caused to be executed judicial decisions. Hence,
for example, in David's appeal to God as judge in
his controversy with Saul he declares, **The
Lorp will be a judge and he shall judge (shdpat)
between me and thee and he will see and will
plead my case and he will judge me (yishp* téni
1.e. “deliver me’’) out of thy hand”’ (I Sam 24:15
(H 16]). Hence such words as deliver, vindicate,
condemn, punish, and related words of judicial-
executive import are justly used in the transla-
tions.

4. Because all true authority is God's and he
shall ultimately act as judge of the world in the
last great assize, he is shdépét pre-eminent (Ps
96:13; 50:6: 75:8 [H 7] and meanwhile through
providence he is always supreme shdpét (Ps 94:2;
cf. 103:19) of the universe.

All the above uses are in the Qal.

The Niphal, in the occasional reciprocal sense
of that stem, furnishes cases where the sense of
governmental process is extended to carrying on
a case of litigation. In such cases ’ét “*with’’ is
furnished before the object of the verb; thus, *‘I
will enter into judgment with thee’’ (Jer 2:35; cf.
Ezk 17:20; 20:35, 36, 3; 38:22, in each God is
actor and speaker). **Plead,’’ in the legal sense of
plead a case often occurs, viz. ‘*that I may plead
with you before the Lorp’’ (I Sam 12:7); ‘have a
controversy’ (Isa 43:26, BDB) and ‘‘execute
judgment’’ (Isa 66:16, RSv).

The Poel participle has the sense of denuncia-
tory judgment, as ‘‘those who condemn” (Ps
109:31, Rsv), “‘accuser’’ (Job 9:15), and ‘‘the
judgments against you”’ (Zeph 3:15).

shépat, with its derivative noun mishpat, is
the commonest word to designate the function of
government in any realm and in any form. It ap-
parently differs from the rarer din (verb and
noun) chiefly in being the more formal and tech-
nical term while din is more poetic.

shephet. Judgment, always plural sh*patim.
Like sh¢poét, this noun seems to take its meaning
from shadpat BDB, p. 1047, judgment in the penal
sense, i.e. punishment. In several cases the
punishments are divine punishments. The
plagues of Egypt are divine sh’ potim (Ex 6:6;
7:4: 12:12). God punished Jerusalem with sword,
famine, evil beasts and pestilences, all called
God's ‘‘four... sh potim (Ezk 14:21). sh° pétim
inflicted by men may be divine punishments (Ezk
16:41; cf. v. 38). Civil magistrates’ punishments
of breakers of human laws are also called
sh potim (Prov 19:29).

948

There is a definite theology of punishment as
retribution, vindicative of justice, both divine and
human, expressed in shepet and sh° pot.

sh‘pét. A judgment. This word in the two
cases of its appearance takes the sense of
punishment (penal judgement), parallel to mean-
ing 3c of BDB (p. 1047) *‘condemning and punish-
ing.’’ The harlot’s judgment is to be slain with the
sword (Ezk 23:10). sh®pdt is parallel to sword,
famine, and pestilence, divine punishments (II
Chr 20:9).

mishpat. Justice, ordinance, custom, manner.
Represents what is doubtless the most important
idea for correct understanding of government—
whether of man by man or of the whole creation
by God. Though rendered ‘‘judgment”’ in most of
the four hundred or so appearances of mishpat in
the Hebrew Bible, this rendering is often defec-
tive for us moderns by reason of our novel way of
distinctly separating legislative, executive, and
judicial functions and functionanes in govern-
ment. Hence shdpat, the common verb (from
which our word mishpat is derived) meaning *‘to
rule, govern,’ referring to all functions of gov-
ernment is erroneously restricted to judicial pro-
cesses only, whereas both the verb and noun in-
clude all these functions.

An analysis of all uses in the Bible turns up at
least thirteen related, but distinct, aspects of the
central idea, which if to oe rendered by a single
English word with similar range of meaning,
ought by all means to be the word ‘‘justice.”’
Even the asv, which inclines strongly toward
regular rendering of Hebrew and Greek words
has thus updated the rendering of mishpat,
though not regularly (contrast *‘thy judgments’’
[Ps 72:1] with *‘with justice’ [72:2]). The noun
mishpat can be used to designate almost any as-
pect of civil or religious government, as follows:

1. The act of deciding a case of litigation
brought before a civil magistrate. BDB finds 204
instances beginning at Ex 21:31—though rsv and
NASB disallow this first, rendering otherwise. But
most of the occurrences are very clear (Deut
25:1; Josh 20:6 are examples).

2. The place of deciding a case of litigation. A
clear case of this rather rare (because indecisive)
use is I Kgs 7:7.

3. The process of litigation is called mishpat.
There are many doubtful cases, it being hard to
distinguish between meanings | and 2. An in-
stance is Isa 3:14. ‘‘Litigation’’ would be an apt
rendering for this class. The clearest instances
employ ‘im with a following noun ‘‘a judgment
with so-and-so” (Job 22:4 or ‘et (Ps 143:2).

4. A case of litigation (i.e. a specific cause
brought to the magistrate). Solomon, e.g., asked
God for understanding that he might ‘‘hear mish-
pat.’’—a case brought before him (I Kgs 3:11,

ASV marg.) If this case be disallowed (rsv) then
Job's ‘d@rakti mishpadt (°I have set in order [my]
case’’ 13:18) seems unassailable. See also 1 Kgs
8:59. This usage parallels the noun rib.

5. Asentence or decision issuing from a magis-
trate’s court. This is very common. In such cases
the prevalent ‘“judgment"’ as rendering is entirely
correct (1 Kgs 20:40). In Jer 26:11, 16 “*worthy of
death’’ renders mishpat mawwet, in each case
clearly meaning, a sentence of death.

6. The time of judgment. A clear case is Ps 1:5;
Eccl 12:14, **God will bring every work into
mishpat’’ is close to presenting the same.

BDB assert that ‘execution of judgment” in
general is the meaning in a group including the
preceeding instance. The cases cited, however,
seem better classified in relation to the idea or
attribute of justice.

All the above are examples mainly of mishpat
in the judicial side of government.

There now follows a use closely parallel to
what men now think of as authority.

7. Sovereignty, the legal foundation of gov-
ermment in the sense of ultimate authority or
right. Men today are accustomed to finding this in
constitutions and the nature of man (‘‘natural
rights’’) but in the Hebrew Scriptures (a) all au-
thority is God’s and it is this authority which ts
denominated mishpat. ‘“‘The mishpat is God's”
(Deut 1:17): **The lot ts cast into the lap; but the
whole mishpat thereof is of the Lorp’’ (Prov
16:33). Individual men, as created by God, have
inalienable mishpdadtim (‘rights’). (See R. D.
Culver, Toward a Biblical View of Civil Govern-
ment, 1974). (b) The magistrate’s mishpat 1s con-
ferred by God as best shown by the reference to
King Messiah's magisterial authority (Ps 72: 1-2).
Of course the doctrine of providence is basic to
this idea (Ps 103:19: cf. Rom 13:1ff.). This uni-
versal reign and rule of God seems to be the idea
conveyed by mishpdat in Jer 8:7, ‘‘My people do
not know the law [mishpat| of God.”

There are also uses involving the legislative
side of government.

8. The attribute of justice in all correct per-
sonal civil administration is emphasized.

(a) This justice is primanly an attribute of God,
all true mishpat finding its source in God him-
self and therefore carrying with it his demand.
‘‘When therefore the Scripture speaks of the
mishpat of God, as it frequently does, the word
has a particular shade of meaning and that is not
so much just statutes of God as the just claims of
God. God, who is the Lord, can demand and He
does demand’*’ (Koehler, OT Theology, pp. 205—
206). All the right (justice, authority, etc.) there is
is his, ““-because Jehovah is the God of justice”’
(Isa 30:18; cf. Gen 18:25). God loves mishpat in
this sense (Ps 37:28). Psalm 36:6 [H 7] in k°tib
reads, ‘‘Thy mishpdt (singular) is a great abyss.”

949

2444 SEW (shapak)

(b) mishpat, as justice, i.e. mghtness rooted in
God’s character, ought to be an attribute of man
in general and of judicial process among them (Ps
106:37). Wise men speak it (Ps 37:30) and think it
(Prov 12:5) and God requires it of them (Mic 6:8).
The righteous enjoy it (Prov 21:15) and righteous
magistrates employ it in judgment (Mic 3:1; cf.
Prov 29:4).

9. mishpat also designates an ordinance of
law—often used co-ordinately with hég ‘‘ordi-
nance’’ (Ex 15:25) and téra ‘‘law’’ (Isa 42:4). The
Pentateuchal ordinances are mishpat (Lev 5:10;
9:16, et al.), in fact the individual ordinances of
Mosaic law are mishpat (Deut 33:10, 21; 16 times
in Ps 119).

10. A plan (Ex 26:30) or 11. custom (II Kgs
17:33) or even 12. a fitting measure taken (I Kgs
5:8) seem to come under the scope of this word,
though they are extended meanings, hardly stan-
dard.

13. One’s right under law, human or divine, is
denominated mishpat (Deut 18:3; Jer 32:7).

Frequently associated with sedeqg and s“ddqa
in oT descriptions of God’s reign and ways with
his creatures, this idea lies at the very heart of a
true understanding of the Biblical world-and-life
view.

Note: The breastplate worn by the high priest
is called a “‘breastplate of judgment” (Ex 28:15,
29-30), not from any alleged revelation given by
the stones Urim and Thummim but because the
breastplate covered Aaron's heart and “‘they
shall be upon Aaron’s heart when he goeth in
before the Lorp and Aaron shall bear the judg-
ment (mishpat) of the children of Israel upon his
heart before the LorD continually.” What Aaron
was concerned with before God was Israel’s jus-
tification, i.e. judicial sentence (see above) of
guiltiness. Thus “‘in prophetic vision as in actual
oriental life, the sentence of justification was
often expressed by the nature of the robe
worn.... Isaiah 61:10 is a good illustration of
this.”" Also see Isa 62:3; Rev 3:5; 7:9; 19:14: Est
6:8-9, 12 (A. C. Hervey, Smith's Dictionary of
the Bible, Hackett ed., Il, pp. 1066-67).

Bibliography: McKenzie, Donald A., ‘*The
Judge of Israel,’ VT 17:118-21. THAT, II, pp.
999-1009.

R.D.C.
Dw (shpi). See no. 2440b.
1DDW (sh pipon). See no. 2448a.
2444 SBwW (shdadpak) pour, pour out.
Derivatives
2444a SBwW (shepek) place of pouring

‘(Lev 4:12).

2445 SBy (shapél)
2444b «MDBW (shopka) penis (as fluid
duct, Deut 23:2).

This verb is used 113 times. Cognates are
found in Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Ethiopic,
and Ugaritic. There are four common verbs that
are synonymous in varying degrees with shdpak.
1) rig in the Hiphil means “‘pour out,’’ but the
Qal means ‘be empty,’’ so the pouring out gen-
erally involves the emptying of a container; 2)
nasak means to “pour a libation’’; 3) ndatak
means ‘‘pour forth’ in an intransitive sense (note
that the Accadian cognate means ‘‘to drip’’) in
the Qal, while the infrequent Hiphil means **pour
out,’ “*melt’*: 4) y@sag is, with shapak, a general
word for pouring, but it is interesting to note that
of the fifty-three occurrences, fifteen involve the
oil of consecration or anointing on a head and
another fifteen have to do with some form of
metal casting. shdpak 1s not found in either of
these latter usages. That there is some overlap,
however, is seen from the comparison of Lev
8:15 with Ex 29:12. In the former ydsagq is used of
pouring blood on the base of the altar. In the
latter, shadpak ts employed. On the other hand,
ydsag is not used of the shedding of blood, as is
shadpak.

shdpak is used in both physical and metaphoni-
cal senses. In the former sense it is the common
verb for describing the pouring out of a wide va-
riety of materials. Thus, what is poured may be
water (Ex 4:9; I Sam 7:6), broth (Jud 6:20), dust
(Lev 14:41), or blood. This latter, the pouring of
blood, constitutes the single most frequent use of
the verb. In this connection it may be used in the
ordinary sense of pouring, almost always as a
part of the sacrificial ritual. More often it is used
of the pouring out of a man’s lifeblood, i.e. the
shedding of blood. Thus in Num 35:33 God states
that unpunished bloodshed (shdpak) pollutes the
land (cf also Gen 9:6; Deut 21:7; II Kgs 24:4;
Zeph 1:17; Ezk 22:3; Isa 59:7). In two passages in
Amos (5:8; 9:6), it is said of God that he ‘‘calls for
the waters of the sea and pours them out upon the
surface of the earth,’ a vivid description of the
rain cycle.

In two passages shapak is used of pouring
water out as a libation (ndsak is the normal word
for a libation; but a libation was not usually
water). The first is I Sam 7:6 in which Samuel
gathered a repentant Israel at Mizpah, prayed for
them, then they “‘drew water and poured it out
before the Lord and fasted.’’ The pouring out of
the water perhaps symbolized their spirit of com-
pletely pouring out their souls before the Lord in
devotion to him. The second passage is Isa 57:6,
in which the libation is made, not to God, but to
the pagan nature gods.

A common idiom is the use of shdpak in con-
nection with the building of siege ramps (II Sam

950

20:15: Isa 37:33; Jer 6:6; Ezk 4:2). This usage
may derive from the fact that soldier workmen
carried dirt in baskets to the designated spot,
then poured the dirt out.

In the category of metaphoric uses, that of the
outpouring of God's wrath is most frequent. Thus
in Isa 42:25 God is depicted as pouring out on
Israel the heat of his anger. The symbolism is
certainly obvious but nonetheless intensely sob-
ering, and underlies the imagery of the bowls or
vials of wrath in Revelation.

The expression ‘‘pour out your harlotnes on
every passer-by’ (Ezk 16:15; 23:8) describes Is-
rael’s promiscuous idolatry. Pouring out one’s
heart or soul is an expression still commonly used
and well understood.

Lastly there is the wonderful promtse of the
outpouring of the Spirit of God on his people, a
lavish and blessed provision on God's part of his
Spirit of grace which will bring about a startling
change in men’s hearts, lives and condition (Joel
2:28-29 (H 3:1-2]: Zech 12:10; Ezk 39:29).

H.J.A.

2445 Sew (shapél) be low, sink, be humbled.

Derivatives

2445a BW (shépel) lowliness.
2445b «-MBDW (shipla) lowliness.
2445c = ORY «(shadpal) low, humble.

2445d tmoDw (sh péla)
helah.
miopw (shiplit) sinking (i.e. las-
situde, Eccl 10:18, only).

shapél is used thirty times in the Qal and
Hiphil. Cognates appear in Ugaritic, Arabic, Ak-
kadian, Aramaic, and South Arabic. Similar in
meaning and sometimes appearing in parallel is
shahah which basically means ‘‘to crouch,”
**‘bow down.”

Though the idea ‘*be low’’ in the physical sense
underlies the verb and its derivatives, its most
important use is in the figurative sense of
*‘abasement,’’ “*-humbling,’’ ‘**humility.”’ The ex-
ception is the proper noun Shephelah which will
be treated separately.

‘**Be low,’* in the physical sense is seen in the
use of shapal in connection with leprosy in Lev
13:20-21, 26 and in 14:37.

The most frequent use of the root is in those
passages dealing with God's threat or promise to
bring low and abase those who are haughty and
proud, while he exalts those who have walked
humbly before him. The humbling and restora-
tion of Nebuchadnezzar in Dan 4 affords a
graphic example. Even though this passage ts in
Aramaic, verse 34, which is part of the king's
testimony, uses the root sh‘ pél in exactly the

lowland, the Shep-

2445e

same sense as in Hebrew, ‘‘He is able to humble
those who walk in pride.’’ Similarly Dan 5:19,
also Aramaic and I Sam 2:7, Hannah’s prayer,
and II Sam 22:28, David's testimony.

This truth is an important part of Israel’s es-
chatology. Isaiah 2:6—-22 warns of the coming
downfall of the haughty and arrogant, in which
there will be a day of reckoning against them. The
enemies of Israel will all suffer this fate (Isa
25:11-12; 26:5). The ability to humble and exalt in
this fashion is God’s alone, and in Job 40:11, Job
is challenged and asked, ‘Are you able to do
this?"’

The root is also used in the admonition to culti-
vate a humble spirit. In Isa 57:15 God says that he
dwells with those of a humble spint and will re-
fresh and revive them. Again in Ps 138:6, though
God is highly exalted, he nevertheless concerns
himself with the lowly, but he keeps aloof from
the haughty. Proverbs 29:23 reminds us that pride
will bring a man low, but a humble spirit will
obtain honor. Proverbs 25:7 advises that it is bet-
ter to take a lowly seat at a banquet and then be
invited to a more important spot than to suffer the
reverse.

sh‘pela. Shephelah (asv ‘‘lowland,’’ — RSv
Shephelah “‘lowland’’). The idea of being low
indicated in the root has reference to the fact that
the range of hills represented by this word is low
with respect to the Judean hills to the east. The
average height of the Judean hills is 2000-3000
feet. For the Shephelah it is 500-800 feet, with a
maximum height of 1500 feet. This range is 27
miles long and 10 miles wide, and intersected by
several strategic valleys that lead from the coast
to the Judean hills, the major ones being the val-
ley of Ayalon, where Joshua fought his historic
battle while the sun stood still; the Sorek valley,
where Samson had his frequent skirmishes with
the Philistines; and the valley of Elah, where
David defeated Goliath.

That the Shephelah is a distinct geographical
area (except for Josh 11:2, 16) can be seen from
Josh 10:40; Jud 1:9; Jer 17:26 and others. Here it
is distinguished particularly from the Negev and
the Judean hills. In Deut 1:7, I] Chron 26:10 and
Ob 19 it is distinct as well from the coastal plain.
Historically it formed an important line of de-
fense for Judah with regard to attacks from the
west. Until the Philistines were finally subdued
under David it formed a buffer zone between
them and Judah.

Bibliography: Aharoni and _ Avi-Yonah,
Macmillan Bible Atlas, maps 56-58. Baly, D.,
Geography of the Bible, Harper & Row, 1974,
pp. 140-43. Morton, W. H., ‘‘Shephelah,” in
IDB. Turner, G. A., The Historical Geography
of the Holy Land, Canon Press, 1973.

H.J.A.

2449 "bw (shapar)

miopw (shiplat). See no. 244S5e.
2446 DW (shpn). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2446a IpY (shdpdn) rock badger, coney,

the hyrax. See Klotz, J. W. “*Ani-
mals of the Bible,’ in W.B.E., I,
p. 78.
2447 yppw (shp‘). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
2447a YEW (shepa') abundance (Deut
33:19).
2447b =Mmppw (ship'ad) abundance, quanti-

ty (e.g. II Kgs 9:17; Ezk 26:10).

2448 Sw (shpp). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2448a IP’DwW (sh*pipén) horned snake
(Gen 49:17).
2449 “bY (shapar) be pleasing.
Derivatives
2449a ="BW (sheper) beauty (Gen 49:21).
2449b mapwW (shipra) fairness, clearness
(of sky, Job 26:13).
2449c t3BIW (shépar) ram’s horn.
2449d o99PY (shaprir) (Kethib), °75Y
(shaprir) (Qere), canopy.

shadpar is used once, in the Qal (Ps 16:6). In
this passage David is filled with praise to his God,
not so much because of what God has done for
him as for what God means to him personally. It
is God who ts his portion and his inheritance, and
he is eminently satisfied and pleased with his in-
heritance, saying that that portion allotted to him
is indeed most beautiful.

shoépar, shopar. Shophar, ram’s horn (asv,
‘‘trumpet,'’ sometimes ‘‘cornet,'’ RSV ‘“‘ram’s
hom,’ **trumpet,’’ “‘horn’’). Used seventy-two
times. The word is related to Akkadian shapparu
‘‘wild sheep’? and Arabic sawdfirun *‘‘ram’s
horns.** In the Old Testament it is always used of
the curved musical instrument made of the horn
of a ram. The general word for the horn of an
animal is geren. This is used only once as a refer-
ence to a musical instrument. The word ydbél
means basically ‘‘ram’’ (so also in Phoenician
and Arabic), but in the Old Testament it is used
as an instrument and then as a name of the year
whose beginning it signalled, the Jubilee (Year).
The word ydbél is seemingly interchangeable
with shépar (cf., for example, Ex 19:13, 16; Josh
6:4-5). Another word for “trumpet” is Adsosrd.
This latter ts a straight tube, often metallic.

The shépar played a very important role in Old
Testament history. When Israel was at Mount
Sinai, it was a Strong blast on the shépa4r that was

931

2450 BYADW (sh*pattayim)

the signal for Israel to approach. The arrival of
the new moon and new year was heralded by a
signal from the shophar (Ps 81:3 (H 4]), as was
the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:9). It played a vital
part in Israel’s expressions of praise (Ps 98:6;
150:3).

It was important in civil and military affairs as
well. It announced a new king (I Kgs 1:34; II Kgs
9:13). It served as a bugle for signals in battle (Jud
3:27; I] Sam 20:1). It was important in the fall of
Jericho (Josh 6) and Gideon's defeat of the Mid-
ianites (Jud 7).

The Scripture frequently uses shophar in a
figurative sense. The prophet is likened to the
watchman who sounds the warning of impending
disaster (Ezk 33:3-6; Isa 58:1; Jer 6:17).

Bibliography: Best, H. M., and Hutton, D.,
‘**Music”’ in ZPEB, IV, p. 320. Miller, J., *‘Music’”’
in ISBE, III, p. 2100. Rayburn, R. G., **Music”’
in WBE, II, p. 1162. Sellers, Ovid R., ‘*Musical
Instruments of Israel,’’ BA 4:33-47. TDNT, VII,
pp. 76-85.

H.J.A.

ab ial =)7
Mew (shapat).

(shapruar). See no. 2449d.
See no. 244la.

2450 BYADW (sh pattayim)
hooks

hook-shaped pegs,
(Ezk 40:43). Meaning doubtful.
nsw (sheset). A variant of no. 2373a.

2451 “py (shaqad) watch, wake.

Derivatives
245la “py (shaqéd) almond tree, al-
monds.

2451b *"DY (shaqad). This verb occurs
only once, as a Pual participle
meaning “cups shaped like al-
mond’’ (blossoms, Ex 25:33, 34;

37:19, 20).

shagad has cognates in both Phoenician and
Syriac. shdgad occasionally overlaps, and is
used with, shamar, ‘“‘guard ,”* ‘‘watch over.” In
the latter the emphasis is on careful attention and
preserving, while in shdgad, alertness is basic.
Used in Qal and Pual, the latter in participial form
only.

The idea of watchfulness which is basic to the
root affords the key to the explanation of the He-
brew name for the almond tree. This tree, which
in Israel blooms as early as January and February
and is affectionately looked upon as the harbinger
of spring, is appropriately enough called shagéd
‘the waker.”’

This name for the almond forms the basis for
God's vivid object lesson on the occasion of
Jeremiah's call (Jer 1:11-12). The almond rod,

952

2452 *mpw

shadqgéd, is a reminder to Jeremiah that God will
be watchful and punctual, shdqgéd, in carrying
out what he has promised. The point of this is
reinforced later in Jer (31:28) when God refers to
this passage (cf. also 1:12 and 44:27) which forms
the basis of Jeremiah’s ministry. Daniel 9:14 indi-
cates that this symbolism had impressed itself on
Daniel.

The quality of alertness necessary to a watch-
man is stressed in Ps 127:1, but even this alert-
ness is of no avail unless the Lord guards the city.
This alertness takes on a sinister quality in Jer 5:6
where the calamity to befall Jerusalem is likened
to a leopard watching its prey and awaiting the
opportune moment to leap.

H.J.A.

(shaqa) give to drink, irrigate.
Derivatives

2452a PY (shiqgiy) drink, refreshment.

2452b APW (shdéqget) watering trough.

2452c «tmMpw (mashqeh) cup bearer; irri-
gation, drink.

shaqa is used in the Hiphil sixty times, and in
the Pual once. It serves in place of the causative
shata.

The verb shdqd is used in the ordinary sense of
giving drink to men (water in Gen 21:19, wine in
Gen 19:32) or animals (camels in Gen 24:14,
flocks in Gen 29:2 and Ex 2:16). It is also used in
the sense of ‘‘watering’’ or “‘irrigating’’ the
ground (Eden in Gen 2:6, 10, a garden in Deut
11:10, a forest in Eccl 2:6). Though ma@tar (in
Hiphil) ts the normal word for giving rain, shadqa
seems to portray the rain in Ps 104:13 as a more
personal activity of God. Unusual situations per-
tain in the following examples: Water out of the
rock in Num 20:8; remains of the golden calf
ground up in drinking water in Ex 32:20; water of
bitterness (for a suspected adulteress) in Num
5:24-27, vinegar in Ps 69:21 (H 22].

In Jer 8:14, 9:14 and 23:15, God is said to give
poisoned water to his people. This speaks of the
bitter punishment Israel is being called on to
bear, and from which there is no escape. Psalm
80:5 [H 6] speaks of the tears that Israel is made
to drink. But in Ps 36:8 {H 9] David speaks of the
abundant delights of fellowship with God, **Thou
dost give them to drink of the river of thy plea-
sures.”

mashgeh. Cupbearer, drink, beverage, well-
watered. The Hiphil participle of shaqa. It is
used 1) to describe the chief cup-bearer of a king,
a position of trust and responsibility (mostly of
Pharaoh's cup-bearer in Gen 40 and in Neh 1:11
in reference to Nehemiah), 2) of a beverage or
drink (Isa 32:6; Lev 11:34, and in the expression

“drinking vessels’’ in I Kgs 10:21), and 3) of a
wellwatered land (Gen 13:10; Ezk 45:15).
H.J.A.

pw (shiqqgiy). See no. 2452a.
mipw (shaqup). See no. 2458b.

2453 wey (shaqat) be quiet, tranquil, at peace.

Derivative
2453a BpY (sheqget) tranquility (1 Chr
22:9).

shadgat occurs forty-one times, in the Qal and
Hiphil. Some of the words with which it ts as-
sociated or whose meanings it sometimes over-
laps are 1) betah ‘security,’ ‘‘a feeling of confi-
dence’; 2) nitah ‘settle down,” “‘rest’’; 3)
harash ‘‘be silent,’ ‘‘be inactive’’; 4) dama ‘‘be
silent’’:; 5) damam ‘‘be motionless, physically
quiet’; 6) sha’Gndn ‘ease,’ ‘‘undisturbed,
without anxiety”’ and 7) shdbat ‘‘cease, rest from
activity.”’

The basic idea of the root is ‘‘tranquility.”’ It
implies the absence of strife, war, or trouble on
the one hand, and worry or anxiety on the other.
It may also imply the absence of a pressing obli-
gation, or again, of some disturbing element that
mars a relationship between individuals.

The meaning ‘‘rest from war’’ is found particu-
larly in Joshua, Judges, and Chronicles. Thus
Josh 11:23 says, *‘The land had rest from war,”
that is, Joshua’s portion of the task was now
complete. Judges shows a pattern of peace, then
apostasy, oppression, deliverance, followed once
again by peace and rest from war and oppression.
This state of peace and tranquillity is clearly seen
to be dependent on, and a direct result of, God’s
blessing on an obedient people. Both Asa and
Jehoshaphat were godly kings whose kingdoms
were blessed by God with lengthy periods of
quiet (II Chr 14:1, 5-6 and II Chr 20:30).

Moab in Jer 48:11 is depicted as having for a
long time been untroubled (shdgat), like wine sit-
ting too long on the lees. Now God will pour it
out, i.e. judge the nation. Similarly in Zech 1:11
the nations that have troubled Israel are them-
selves untroubled, but God will judge them as
well. On the other hand God will bring Israel
back to his land and cause him to live in tranquil-
ity, with no threats or dangers to disturb him (Jer
30:10; 46:27). Isa 14:7 states that the whole earth
will be at rest when Babylon has fallen.

But shdgqat is not only used when the threaten-
ing or disturbing element has been actually re-
moved; God repeatedly challenges his people to
rest in him, no matter how great the threat and
danger might be. Thus he challenges Ahaz to be
calm, completely at rest, despite the threat of an
invasion. This sense of calm is not dependent on

953

2454 %aw (shaqal)

some sort of psychological legerdemain, but ina
willingness to put his trust in a God who is far
greater than all his foes. The wicked on the other
hand cannot know this peace, for they are like the
tossing sea which never finds rest, but is in con-
stant turmoil (Isa 57:20).

Another aspect of the verb is seen in Isa 62:1:
He cannot keep quiet as long as Jerusalem is
afflicted. He cannot be still until his full redemp-
tive purpose is fulfilled. In Jer 47:6—7, the sword
of the Lord cannot rest until it has completed its
mission of judgment; and in Ps 83:1 [H 2] the
Psalmist implores God not to rest while his
enemies are raging and threatening his people.
But in Ezk 16:42, God says that when his minis-
try of judgment has been completed he will be
quiet, and no longer angry. And Job asks perti-
nently, “‘When he keeps quiet, who can con-
demn?”’

H.J.A.

2454 %DwW (shaqal) weigh, weigh out.

Derivatives
2454a topw (sheqel) shekel.

2454b 0 Sipwr = (mishgdl) weight (Job
4:10).

2454c t9puI §«(mishqal) weight.

2454d mOpwr (mishqelet), R2>wWrR (mish-

qolet) leveling instrument, plummet.

shaqal is used twenty-two times, in the Qal
and Niphal. This common Semitic root appears in
Akkadian, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Ara-
bic, and Ethiopic. It means to weigh something in
the balance to measure its amount, then very
commonly to weigh out silver or gold as payment
for something.

The verb shadqgal may be used in the simple
sense of weighing an object, such as in J] Sam
14:26, in which the weight of the hair cut off Ab-
salom’s head at his annual haircut was ‘two
hundred shekels by the king's weight.’’ In Isa
40:12 both the greatness of God and his ability to
care for every part of his creation is portrayed in
the expression *‘weighed the mountains in a bal-
ance.’’ This recalls Dan 5:25—26, in which the
Aramaic equivalent appears, ¢’qél ‘‘weighed"’
(and found wanting).

More commonly the verb means “‘to weigh
out’’ silver (sometimes gold), that is, “‘pay,”’
such as in Gen 23:16 and | Kgs 20:39.

sheqel. Shekel. This was the common unit of
weight throughout Canaan and Mesopotamia.
The weight of the shekel seems to have varied
somewhat according to time and place, but recent
evidence indicates that in Israel there were three
shekels in use, the temple shekel which weighed
approximately ten grams, the ordinary or mer-
chant’s shekel which weighed eleven and one-

2455 miapw (shiqma)

half to twelve grams, and the heavy or royal
shekel which weighed approximately thirteen
grams.

The temple shekel was equivalent to twenty
gerahs (Ex 30:13; Lev 27:25). It is not known how
the ordinary and the heavy shekel were related to
the gerah. There were three thousand shekels to a
talent (kikkar) as can be seen from Ex 38:25—26.
An intermediate weight was the mina which was
worth fifty shekels (Ezekiel 45:12 gives an alter-
native value of 60 probably reflecting Babylonian
practice). Fractions of shekels were used for
convenience's sake. Thus Saul’s servant had in
his possession a quarter shekel that could be used
as a gift for Samuel (1 Sam 9:8). Israel’s yearly
contribution for the sanctuary was one-half
shekel (also called a bega‘, Ex 38:26) for each
man of twenty years and over (Ex 30:13). In
Nehemiah’s time the amount was one-third
shekel (Neh 10:33).

The purchasing power of the shekel can be
seen in several passages.

According to the usual understanding of Lev
5:15, a ram was worth two or more shekels. In
the New Testament the shekel was the standard
wage for a day's labor. Abraham purchased the
cave of Machpelah for four hundred shekels,
which seems excessive in the light of Jeremiah’s
purchase of a field for seventeen shekels (Jer
32:9-10), even taking into consideration that in
Jeremiah’s time land values must have gone
down and that Abraham’s purchase may have in-
volved more than the cave itself. Omri purchased
the hill of Samaria for two talents (six thousand
shekels), and David purchased the threshing floor
from Ornan for fifty shekels (II Sam 24:24), and
the larger area on which the temple was built for
six hundred shekels of gold.

The valuation placed on the firstborn for pur-
poses of redeeming him (Num 3:47; 18:16 was
five shekels. Leviticus 27:3-6 gives monetary
values for Israelites in connection with dedi-
catory vows. These range from fifty shekels for
an adult male to three shekels for an infant girl.
The value of a slave was thirty shekels (Ex
21:32). This renders the selling of the Shepherd in
Zech 11:12 for thirty shekels all the more signifi-
cant.

mishqal Weight. Used in Lev 19:35 to express
God's law that in all transactions honest weights
shall be used. This admonition was very appro-
priate in the light of the ease of using differing
weights in order to defraud another person (cf.
also Amos 8:5).

Bibliography: Hamburger, H., ‘‘Money,”’ in
IDB. Huey, F. B., ‘*Weights,’’ in ZPEB, V, pp.
920-21. Scott, R. B. Y., ‘‘Weights and Measures
of the Bible,’ BA 22:22-39. Loewe, Raphael,
‘‘The Earliest Biblical Allusions to Coined

954

2455 mmpw (shiqma)

Money?” PEQ_ 87:141-S0. Sellers, O. R.,
‘‘Weights,’’ in IDB. Thomas, D. W., Documents
from Old Testament Times, London: Nelson,
1958, pp. 227-30. AI, pp. 195-206.

H.J.A.

sycamore tree (e.g.
Amos 7:14; Isa 9:9). This 1s not the com-
mon sycamore of America, but a fig syca-
more, a large tree bearing edible figs.
Johnson, P. C., ‘Plants’? WBE, HII, p.
1372.

2456 yoy (shdqa‘) sink, sink down (e.g. Amos

9:5; Ezk 32:14).
Derivative

yowl (mishqa') what is
clarified (Ezk 34:18).

2456a settled,

2457 "py (shdqap) I, overlook, look down.

(asv and rsv similar.)

Used twenty-two times in Niphal and Hiphil.
The South Arabic equivalent means ‘“‘to put a
ceiling or roof over,’’ the Arabic, *‘ceiling,’’
‘‘roof,’’ ‘‘sky,’’ the Aramaic, “‘rocky pinnacle,”
‘**rock.’’ The basic idea is ‘‘to look down at a
sharp angle from a great height’? as one would
look down from a pinnacle or onto the street from
a high housetop.

The first category of passages employing the
verb are those which speak of a peak or ridge
which overlooks at a steep angle a plain or valley
below. Such is Num 21:20, speaking of ‘‘the top
of Pisgah which overlooks the Jeshimon (or
wasteland)’’ (similarly also Num 23:28 and I Sam
13:18 and cf. Gen 18:16; 19:28).

A second category of passages speaks of God
looking down from heaven upon earth and its in-
habitants. In Ex 14:24 God looks down on the
Egyptian army from the glory cloud. This ts a
hostile look. In Ps 14:2 and 53:2 [H 3] he looks
down to see if there are any who seek after him.
In Ps 102:19 [H 20] he looks down to redeem and
set the prisoner free, a look of grace. Blessing is
also in view in Ps 85:11 (H 12] which becomes
true because ‘‘righteousness and peace have kis-
sed each other.”’

The third major category compnises those pas-
sages in which someone looks out from a high
window. Such is clearly the case in II Kgs 9:30,
32, since Jezebel fell to her death from that same
window, and probable in Jud 5:28, II Sam 6:16, I
Chr 15:29, Gen 26:8, Prov 7:6.

H.J.A.

massyow (sh’qa‘drara). See no. 2047b.

2458 pw (shgp) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2458a ASW (sheqep) framework, casing of
doors (I Kgs 7:5).
2458b MIDY (shagup), NPY (shqip)
frame, casing of windows (1 Kgs
6:4; Ezk 41:16).
2458c = SPW «=(mashqép) lintel of door

(Ex 12:7).

2459 *ppy (shiqgés) detest, make abominable.
Denominative verb, occurring only in the
Piel.

Parent Noun

2459a tPpw (sheqes) detestable thing.
2459b trpw (shiqqus) destestable thing, de-
testable idol.

shiqgés is used seven times, in the Piel. The
Akkadian has a cognate, saqdsu ‘be spotted,
unclean.’” Found in close association with
shdgqas are tamé’ in the Piel, ‘“make unclean”
and td‘ab, ‘‘abhor.”’

The verb shdgas is used both in the sense of
‘consider abhorrent, detestable’ (Lev 11:11, 13)
and in the causative ‘‘make abominable,’ ‘‘con-
taminate’’ (Lev 11:43; 20:25). In the latter pas-
sages the one eating the abominable foods ts said
to make himself abominable in God's sight.

The object of abhorrence may be the forbidden
foods as above, or ‘‘the abomination” (16'éb4é),
an idol. In one beautiful song of praise, the psal-
mist says of God, **He has not despised (shaqas)
nor abhorred the affliction of the afflicted’’ (Ps
22:24 (H 25}).

sheges. Detestable thing. In contrast to shiq-
qus, sheqes is not necessarily related to idolatry,
but rather is mostly used in reference to unclean
and forbidden foods. Thus in Lev 11:10-12, it
refers to forbidden sea creatures generally
characterized as having no fins or scales. In Lev
11:13 it refers to various unclean birds, in Lev
11:20, 23 to winged insects (cf. sheres, and in
Lev 11:41-42 to animals crawling on their belly
(sheres).

Relegating certain animals to the category of
‘‘unclean’’ and ‘‘abominable’’ may in a number
of instances involve considerations of health. Yet
the main consideration here must be that, what-
ever the reason, or however much or little it was
understandable to the Israelites, certain foods
were forbidden and regarded as detested. This
was to be accepted on the simple basis of trust in,
and obedience to, God.

shiqqus. Detestable thing, idol. This noun 1s
always used in connection with tdolatrous prac-
tices, either referring to the idols themselves as

955

2461 S2v (shaqar)

being abhorrent and detestable in God's sight, or
to something associated with the idolatrous
ritual. Idols generally are referred to as an
abomination (Jer 16:18; Ezk 5:11; 7:20; Hf Chr
15:8, etc). Not only are the idols an abomination,
but they that worship them ‘become detestable
like that which they love’ (Hos 9:10), for they
identify themselves with the idols.

Antiochus Epiphanes, as prophesied in Dan
11:31, and who ts typical of Antichrist, set up an
altar to, and image of, Zeus in the temple. This is
called the *‘abomination that causes desolation,”
a desecration of the altar which destroys its true
purpose. Just so will Antichrist establish an
abomination in the sanctuary, a demonic counter-
feit worship (Dan 9:27, 12:11).

The *‘abominable filth’’ of Nah 3:6 is shigqdas.
It seems likely that, since shigqus is everywhere
else clearly related to idolatrous worship, the
same would be true here.

It is important to recognize that by the use of
such a strong word as shiqqgus God wants his
people to recognize the extreme seriousness and
wickedness of this sin, however attractive and
popular it might be. God's own people need to
view sin from God's perspective (Deut 7:26).

Bibliography: Harris, R. L., Man—God's
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 139-44.

H.J.A.

2460 PPY (shaqaq) run, run about, rush (e.g.

Isa 33:4: Nah 2:5).

Derivative

2460a Pwd (mashshaq)
ing (Isa 33:4).

running, rush-

2461 “BW (shaqar) deal falsely, be false.

Derivative
2461a t3pw (sheqer) lie.

shdqar is used six times in the Qal and Piel.
There are cognates in Akkadian, Aramaic, and
Arabic. It is used of the breaking of a promise,
being false to a treaty or commitment, hence an
empty promise. A close synonym is kdzab which
is the general word for ‘‘lying’* (some cognates of
this root refer to an ‘“‘unreliable spring’ of
water). Other words occasionally translated ‘‘to
deceive” or ‘‘lie’’ are kdhash Piel, ‘‘deny the
truth’’; pata Piel, “lead astray, seduce’’; and
rama Piel, **betray, forsake.”’

The significance of the verb in relation to
covenant-breaking has been recognized by
Moran, Bib 42:239: Wagner, Supp VT 16:364ff.;
and Thomas, JSS (1960), p. 283. Thus the Psalm-
ist can say that he has not been false with God's
covenant (Ps 44:17 [H 18]), and God says in Ps
89:33 [H 34}, ‘‘I will not break off my lovingkind-

2462 S93 (shrb)

ness (or covenant loyalty [but see hesed R.L.H.])
from him, nor deal falsely (shagar) with my faith-
fulness.’’ Verse 34 goes on, *“*My covenant I will
not violate.’’ The other passages are to be under-
stood similarly (cf. Gen 21:23; I Sam 15:29; Isa
63:8; Lev 19:11).

sheger. Lie, falsehood, deception. Used of
words or activities which are false in the sense
that they are groundless, without basis in fact or
reality. Thus David says in Ps 38:19 [H 20),
‘*‘Many are they that hate me without cause
(sheger). The false witness of Ex 20:16 and
Deut 19:18 involves a false accusation, an ac-
cusation that is groundless, not based on fact.

Jeremiah 23:32 speaks of those who ‘“‘prophesy
lying dreams,’’ that are founded on nothing more
substantial than the dreamer’s imagination. He
speaks similarly of those who prophesy falsehood
in 27:10 (cf. also Zech 10:2; 13:3). No matter how
persuasively or ‘‘logically’’ the prophet might
speak, his words are groundless and false unless
they are based on God's self-revelation. Isaiah
59:13 forms part of repentant Israel’s confession.
Included in this is the statement that they had
conceived and uttered from their hearts lying
(sheqger) words. Mic 2:11 portrays this attitude of
Israel by saying that if a man whose way of life is
‘‘wind and falsehood (sheger)’’ were to come to
them with lies, that is the one they would choose
as their prophet.

Job (13:4) accuses his friends of being ‘*daub-
ers of deceit.”’ In a different context, Jeremiah
(8:10; 11) says that from prophet to priest
everyone is greedy for gain and practices deceit
(sheger) healing God's people superficially, pro-
nouncing peace, that all is well when in fact all is
not well.

Idols are called sheger in a number of passages
(e.g. Isa 44:20; Jer 51:17). Jeremiah 10: 14-15 says
of them that they are sheqger because ‘‘there is no
breath in them. They are worthless, a work of
mockery’ (NASB). Habakkuk 2:18 speaks simi-
larly of idols, asking what value they have, being
‘teachers of falsehood,’’ that is, making empty
promises and raising vain hopes.

There are other passages in which sheger is
used in a more general sense, such as Jeremiah's
vigorous denial sheger (‘‘that’s a lie!’’) in Jer
37:14. In II Kgs 9:12 the implication ts, ** You’re
evading the issue, holding something back!”’
sheqer is used in Prov 12:22 and 26:28 of lying
lips and tongues, in Zech 5:4 and 8:17 of false
oaths, and in Prov 20:17 of food gained by lying
and fraud. In whatever context or circumstances
sheger is used, God will not condone it, for he is
the God of truth, reality, and faithfulness, and his
people are also to be so characterized.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 1010-1018.

H.J.A.

(shdget). See no. 2452b.
See no. 2469a.

mpw
"YW (shor).

2462 ssw (shrb). Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2462a = NY «(shadradb) burning heat (Isa
49:10), parched ground (Isa
35:7).
many (sharbit). See no. 2314b.

2463 may (shara) I, let loose
15:11).

(Job 37:3; Jer

2464 saw (shrh) I. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2464a = mSwr (mishra) juice (Num 6:3).
2465 mw (shrh) HI. Assumed root of the fol-
lowing.
2465a maw (shirya) weapon, perhaps

lance or javelin (Job 41:18).

2466 mw (shrh)
lowing.
2466a Ww (shiryén), ww (shiryan)
body armor (e.g. I Sam 17:5, 38;
I Kgs 22:34 = II Chr 18:33).

IV. Assumed root of the fol-

See no. 2469b.
maw (shirya). See no. 246S5a.
yaw (shiryén). See no. 2466a.
moraw (sh*riqa). See no. 2468b.
“3¥ (sharir). See no. 2469c.
mvsw (sh‘rirait). See no. 2469d.

maw (shéra).

2467 Paw (sharas) teem, swarm.

Derivative
2467a tPaW (sheres) teeming, swarming
things.

sharas 1s used fourteen times, only in the Qal.
The Syriac cognate has the meaning *‘to crawl’
and the Ethiopic, **to sprout.’’ The verb rdmas is
to some extent synonymous and used inter-
changably, yet there is clearly a distinction:
sharas views the same creatures as a teeming,
swarming, prolific multitude, whereas rdmas
views them as a creeping, crawling, wriggling
mass.

The basic idea of the root can be clearly seen in
three passages: Ex 8:3 [H 7:28]), Ps 105:30, and
Ex 1:7. In the first two references the subject is
the plague of frogs that came on Egypt: ‘*The
river shall teem (swarm) with frogs’’ (The kjv
rendering ‘‘the river shall bring forth abun-
dantly"* is somewhat misleading.) In the third
passage, the prolific nature of Israel’s growth ts
the subject: ‘‘The children of Israel were fruitful

956

and increased abundantly (lit. *“*teemed’” shdras)
and multiplied, and the land was filled with
them.’’ From the Egyptian perspective the land
was teeming with Israelites just as though a
swarm of insects had come on them. The idea of
‘“teeming’’ is the point of the use of shdras in
Gen 1:20-21 (cf. also Gn 8:17).

sheres. Teeming, swarming things. (RSV simi-
lar; asv “‘creeping things.’’) Used fifteen times, it
maintains the same similarities to and distinctions
from the noun remes as does the verb shdras to
its counterpart ramas.

In Lev 11, sheres is used 1) of sea creatures
(‘those things that teem in the sea,’’ v. 10), 2) of
flying insects (verses 20-21, 23), 3) rodents and
various types of reptiles (vv. 29, 31), and 4) gen-
erally of small creatures that *‘go on the belly,”
‘‘go on all fours’’ (i.e. insects that stand horizon-
tally, as opposed to birds which stand upright on
two legs; cf. v. 20), or ‘“‘have many feet”’ (vv.
41-43).

In Lev 11:46, sheres is used to broadly classify
all the smaller land animals as opposed to birds
and beasts (the larger animals). Sea creatures are
here referred to as those that wriggle (rdmas) in
the water. More commonly, when land animals
are grouped into these three broad categories,
remes ‘‘crawling creatures’’ is used instead of
sheres (cf. Gn 1:30; 7:8, 14). On the other hand
all land animals are depicted as ‘‘crawling’”’
(rdmas) on the earth in Gen 7:21. Here sheres
represents the third broad category of animals.

Bibliography: Klotz, J. W., ‘‘Animals of the
Bible,’ in WBE.

H.J.A.

2468 pnw (shadraq) hiss, whistle.

Derivatives
2468a =mpIw (sh*réqa) hissing, whistling.
2468b =mp IW (sh*riqad) piping, whistling.

This group of words most often describes the
reaction displayed by those who pass by the ruins
of a once great city or power, either a hiss or a
whistle. Since it is used to describe the piping of a
shepherd for his sheep (Jud 5:16), it must be
understood to be a clearly audible sound. KB
suggests that a form of whistling was practiced as
a protection from the demons of destruction, but
most see it as a sign of either shock, since it Is so
often found together with shammda “‘horror,” or
amazement (Jerusalem Bible), or derision (NEB, I
Kgs 9:8; Jer 19:8; 18:16 etc.). Dension and joy at
Jerusalem’s discomfiture is seen in Lam 2:15-16
and Mic 6:16.

In Isa 5:26 and 7:18, God whistles for the na-
tions to gather to destroy Israel, but in Zech 10:8
the whistling is God's signal to Israel, inviting
them to return to enjoy God's blessing in the land

957

2470 alway

2471 *w9w (shdarash)

2471 *waw (sharash)

of promise. These last passages can be construed
as piping with a shepherd’s pipe.

H.J.A.
2469 ssw (shrr). Assumed root of the following.
2469a WY (shor) umbilical cord (e.g.
Ezk 16:4; Prov 3:8).
2469b =mNY (shérd) bracelet (Gen 24:22;
Isa 3:19).
2469c 099 «(shdrir) sinew, muscle (Job
40: 16).
2469d tmiaw (shirt), MINIW (sh¢rirat)
stubbornness.
sh‘rirat. Stubbornness. This noun is used ten

times, eight times in Jeremiah. The root sh° rar is
found in Aramaic with the meaning ‘be hard,”’
*“firm.”’
sh‘ rirat is always found with /éb ‘‘heart,”
‘*mind’’ and refers to a people who stubbornly
refuse to respond to God's admonitions. Thus Jer
7:24 says of Israel that they did not obey, but
walked in their own counsels and in. the stub-
bornness of their evil heart (cf also 9:13; 11:8).
H.J.A.

(sharsh*ra) chain (e.g. Ex
28:14, 22: I Kgs 7:17). Denvation uncer-
tain.

uproot (Piel); take
root (Poel, Poal, Hiphil). This denomina-
tive verb does not occur in the Qal.

Parent Noun
2471a twaw (shdresh) root.

This noun has cognates in Ugaritic, Akkadian,
Phoenician, Aramaic, South Arabic, and
Ethiopic.

shoresh is used mostly in a figurative sense in
the Old Testament. It serves as a natural figure
for the lower parts or foundations of something.
Thus Job 28:9 speaks of miners’ excavations at
the roots of the mountains, and in Job 36:30 God
covers the roots (i.e. depths) of the sea. The
‘‘root of a matter’’ is the key to a problem or a
situation (Job 19:28).

More frequent is the concept of shdresh as the
source of an existence, whether personal or cor-
porate. Thus in Jud 5:14 Ephraim's root is said to
be in Amalek, that is, Ephraim’s territory was in
the hill country of the Amalekites (Jud 12:15). In
Dan 11:7 a ‘*branch of the roots” of the daughter
of the king of the south will arise, that is, one of
her descendants will gain prominence.

The ability of the roots of certain trees, though
they have been felled, to sprout again and de-
velop new branches is used by Job (14:7-9) by
way of contrast to man’s future when he is struck
down (but see halap). It lies behind the imagery

2472 *n3v (sharat)

in Dan 4:15, 26, in which the Aramaic cognate is
used. Nebuchadnezzar will be struck down, but
his root remains so that ultimately he will flourish
again. Most importantly it underlies the Mes-
sianic use of the word. In Isa 11:1 a branch (Mes-
siah) comes out of the (apparently defunct) root
of Jesse. He will flourish and establish God's
ideal kingdom. In v. 10 Messiah himself is re-
ferred to as the ‘‘root’’ of Jesse, that is, he is the
root-sprout (cf. Adter, néser, and semah). This
root-sprout is described in Isa 53:2 as being in an
arid land, indicating the humble origins of, and
seemingly unlikely prospects for, Jesus as the
Messiah. In some passages the complete destruc-
tion of a nation’s support in its past and its hope
for a posterity is depicted as a destruction of root
and branch (or fruit; cf. Amos 2:9; Mal 4:1 [H
3:19)).

To be firmly rooted, means to be secure and
flourishing. Thus God had taken Israel out of
Egypt as a vine and planted it in a good land
where it took firm root. This is also the lot of the
righteous (Prov 12:3, 12). Likewise, to have the
roots well-watered promises a prosperous and
fruitful future (Ezk 31:7, Job 29:9). The man who
trusts in God rather than in man is as such a tree
(Jer 17:8) and will flourish (cf. Job 8:17). After
God has restored Israel, it will take firm root, and
drawing from the rich provision of God’s grace,
will prosper and be fruitful as never before.

Bibliography: Hiebert, D. E., ‘‘Root,”’ in
ZPEB, V, pp. 171-72. Maurer, C., in TDNT, pp.
985-987. Pea, J., ‘Root,’ in WBE. Wharton,
J. A., “Root,” in IDB.

H.J.A.

2472 *may (sharat) minister, serve.
Derivative

maw (shdrét) service in the
tabernacle (Num 4:12; II Chr
24:14).

sharat occurs ninety-six times, always in the
Piel. Of the ninety-six occurrences, twenty are in
the form of the participle m shdrét, used as the
noun ‘‘minister.’’ Phoenician uses the verb with
the same meaning. shdrat is distinguished from
the more common ‘dbad (q.v.) in that shrt is
generally a higher category of service, while
‘dbad is often used of menial employment.

The use of shdrat falls into two natural
categories: 1) of the personal service rendered to
an important personage, usually a ruler, and 2) of
the ministry of worship on the part of those who
stand in a special relationship to God, such as the
priests.

The high rank of the servant designated by this
verb and the special relationship in which he
stands in respect to his master is seen in Gen

2472a

958

39:4. Here Joseph was put over all the affairs of
Potiphar’s estate, and in vv. 8 and 9 Joseph was
able to say that Potiphar did not concern himself
with anything in the house. He left it all to
Joseph's care, nothing being withheld from him
except Potiphar’s wife. In II Chr 22:8, king Aha-
ziah’s nephews stand as ministers (mshar‘tim)
to Ahaziah. These men would obviously not be
menials. In Est 2:2 the king's attendants stand in
a relationship close enough so that they have his
ear and are able to make suggestions which the
king follows. Elisha’s personal servant was desig-
nated a m°sharét ‘*‘minister’’ (II Kgs 4:43; 6:15).
Elisha himself, when he was first called to be a
prophet, stood in this relationship to Elijah (I Kgs
19:21). Joshua was Moses’ chief assistant (Ex
24:13; 33:11; Josh 1:1). Later, as was the case
with Elisha, he succeeded his former master.

The second category involves mostly the Le-
vites and priests who served in the tabernacle,
and later the temple (in one passage, Ps 103:21,
the angelic hosts are so designated). In a number
of passages their service is specifically related to
the sanctuary. Thus Ex 28:35 speaks of Aaron's
ministry in the holy place, and v. 43 speaks of
Aaron’s sons as they minister at the altar (cf. Joel
1:13). The Levites were also so designated. I Chr
6:17 and 16:4, 37 speak of their ministry in song,
worship, and praise. Samuel, in I Sam 2:11, 18
and 3:1, serves in the tabernacle as Eli’s assis-
tant.

The special status of the priest was not merely
one of ritual or ceremony. He had the grave re-
sponsibility of representing the people before
God, and it was through his ministry that Israel
had access to God. He also stood before the
people as God's official representative. As such
they settled disputes among individuals (Deut
2:15), and in Deut 17:12 God decrees that who-
ever refuses to heed the priest, God’s servant,
shall be put to death.

Psalm 101:6 is an important reminder that he
who would dwell in God’s presence and serve
him must walk blamelessly before him. This ob-
viously goes far beyond mere ritual purity. Even-
tually the whole nation of Israel, not only one
tribe, will serve God as his priests (Isa 61:6), thus
fulfilling their calling as a ‘‘kingdom of priests’’
(Ex 19:6). Beyond that, the addition even of gen-
tiles to this privileged class is anticipated in Isa
56:6-9. It should be noted here that they humbly
recognize themselves as lowly servants (‘ebed),
but they love the name of the Lord and will minis-
ter to him.

Bibliography: Bodey, R. A., ‘‘Ministry,’’ in
ZBEB. Davies, G. H., ‘‘Minister in the Old Tes-
tament,”’ in IDB. Feinberg, P. D., ‘*Minister,
Ministry,’’ in WBE. Strathmann, H., in TDNT,
IV, pp. 219-22. THAT, II, pp. 1019-1021.

H.J.A.

2473 ww (shésh) fine linen.

The noun shésh is used thirty-eight times. The
word is derived from the Egyptian ss and is used
in the Old Testament for fine white linen of ex-
ceptional quality imported from Egypt. Other
words translated ‘‘linen’’ are bus *‘fine white li-
nen,’ used only in Ezk and Chr, bad ‘'‘piece of
fabric, linen,’ péshet, ‘‘flax,linen,”’ pishta
‘flax, linen,’’ ‘étdn ‘‘red linen’’ from Egypt, and
sddin, a luxury cloth.

Since shésh was Egyptian linen, it is under-
standable that it is most frequently found in the
book of Exodus. It formed part of the gifts that
the Israelites gave in connection with the con-
struction of the tabernacle, whose curtains were
made of linen (Ex 25:4; 35:6, 23, 25, 35). The
priest’s clothes were all made of linen (Ex 28:5,
39; 39:28-29). One purpose of wearing the fine
linen was to avoid making the priests sweat in
their heavy labor near the heat of the altar (Ezk
44:18). Joseph had been magnificently clad in
linen (Gen 41:42). It was also later part of a wo-
man’s wardrobe (Prov 31:22) as a mark of fine
clothing.

Bibliography: Fensham, F. C., ‘‘Linen,”’ in
NBD. Myers, J. M., ‘‘Linen,’’ in’ IDB.
Robertson, I., **Linen,’’ in WBE.

(So ASV and RSV.)

H.J.A.
ww (shésh). See nos. 2336a, 2379a.
2474 Sww (shishshé’) lead on (Ezk 39:2).

mww (shishsha). See no. 2336d.
ww (shishshi). See no. 2336b.
pwy (shishshim). See no. 2336c.

2475 sww (shéshak) Sheshak (asv ~*Sheshach,”’
RSV ‘‘Babylon.’’)

This name is used twice, by Jeremiah (25:26;
51:41).

shéshak, which refers to Babylon, is taken by
most scholars to be an example of **Atbash,”’
which involves a substitution of successive let-
ters of a word by letters from the opposite end of
the alphabet. Thus bb/ (‘“‘Babel,’’ **Babylon’’)
becomes sh sh k. The second letter of the al-
phabet b is replaced by the second to last, sh,
and the / by the k. The purpose of this code here
is not clear, since Jeremiah certainly didn’t hesi-
tate to speak openly of the demise of Babylon.
Keil suggests that sheshak is not only the result
of Atbash, but signifies a crouching, sinking
down, thus speaking of Babylon's fate. KB
suggests a possible connection with the name
Shish-ku found in late king lists. Another proba-
ble case of Atbash is found in Jer 51:1 where /éb
qamay stands for Chaldeans (kasdim).

959

2477 mw (shata)

Bibliography: Bright, J., Jeremiah in AB,
p. 161. Keil, C. F., ‘‘Jeremiah,”’ p. 383. Payne,
D. F., ‘‘Sheshach,’’ in NBD. Helmbold, A., At-
bash, in ZPEB.

H.J.A.

2476 “Ww (shashér) red color, vermilion (Jer

22:14).

my (shét). See no. 2478a.
my (shat). See no. 2380b.

2477 mmy (shata) I, drink.

Derivatives
2477a «=oNW (sh®ti) a drinking (Eccl 10:17,
only).

2477b «=o ASAW (sh’tiya) manner of drink-
ing (Est 1:8, only).
2477c «tmAwr (mishteh) drink, banquet.

Besides the common, expected use of shdtd
(e.g. Gen 9:21; 24:14, 30:38), there are sometimes
special circumstances surrounding its use as well
as special expressions which invite attention.
‘*Eating, drinking, and rejoicing’’ is used with
variations to describe the feasting associated with
celebrations (I Sam 30:16; I Kgs 1:25). In I Kgs
4:20 it describes conditions during Solomon's
reign as being prosperous and peaceful, as though
it were a perpetual celebration. It may express a
heedless unconcern for one’s soul as in Isa 22:13,
**Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we may
die’’ (cf. also 56:12; Lk 12:19; 17:26-29). When
Messiah has completed his work, then this ban-
queting and rejoicing will be appropriate for
God's people (Isa 65: 13f.).

When Israel drank of the waters from the rock
and at Meribah and Marah (Ex 17:1-6; Num
20:5-13; Ex 15:23-24) they were experiencing
God's provision for their needs in hostile sur-
roundings. On the other hand, Hag 1:6 is a re-
minder that no amount of drinking can satisfy
unless God's blessing is present.

Figuratively, Canaan is said to drink the waters
of heaven (Deut 11:11), referring to an agriculture
based on rain rather than irrigation. A full imbib-
ing ts described as drinking “‘iniquity’’ in Job
15:16, ‘‘derision”’ in Job 34:7, ‘‘violence’’ in Pr
4:17. To drink of one’s own cistern (Pr 5:15)
means to enjoy married love (cf. Song 5:1).

mishteh. Drink, banquet, feast. 1In Dan 1:5, 8,
16 and in Ezr 3:7 refers to that which is drunk,
such as wine. Elsewhere it means a ‘“‘banquet”™’ or
a ‘‘feast.’’ It is used of a special meal prepared
for honored guests, as in Gen 19:3, in which Ab-
raham hosts the angels (cf. also Gen 26:30 and II
Sam 3:20). It is used also of wedding feasts such
as Jacob's in Gen 29:22 and the seven day wed-
ding feast of Samson in Jud 14:10-17. Anything

2478 Bnw (shth)

that called for a celebration might be marked by a meaning. In Akkadian it means a shoot or cut-
mishteh. Yearly holidays were also called a mish- ting.
teh (cf. Est 9:19, 22 and Job 1:4-5). All occurrences of the verb involve figurative
God castigates Judah in Isa 5:12 for occupying usage and refer to Israel or the righteous man in
themselves in elaborate revelry and not heeding the form of a tree or a vine. Six of the ten occur-
the works of God. rences appear in Ezekiel, four in chap. 17 (vv. 8,
A cheerful heart is likened to a ‘‘continual 10, 22-23). This is in the parable of Israel as a
feast’’ in Prov 15:15, while the rich blessings transplanted tree. Apparently the word means
awaiting Israel after God has completed his re- either ‘‘plant’’ or ‘‘transplant.’” In this parable
demptive work is compared to a lavish, rich ban- Israel, which has broken its treaty with Babylon
quet (Isa 25:6). The rejoicing here is unmixed and depended on Egypt for help, is uprooted and
with grief or the prospects of sorrowful days in caused to wither away. Such a tree cannot grow
the offing. again, no matter how well it is planted. But God
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 1022-25. will ultimately plant Israel on a lofty mountain
H.J.A. and cause it to thrive permanently. Ezekiel 19:10,
13 speaks of Israel as a flourishing vine planted in
2478 smw (shth) HU. Assumed root of the follow- an ideal location. Then because of sin it is
ing. plucked up and Set out in the wilderness where it
2478a mw (shet) seat of body, buttocks cannot thrive. This describes Israel’s deporta-
(Isa 20:4; II Sam 10:4). von:

Psalm 1:3, Jer 17:8 graphically describe the
righteous man who seeks God with all his heart

2479 mnw (shth). Ul. Assumed root of the fol- and turns from evil. He shall flourish and be fruit-
lowing. . ful because he is planted by abundant and never-
2479a (DW (sh*ti) warp (Lev 13). failing waters. However great the drought, he will
prosper. Psalm 92:13 [H 14] adds that even in old
‘nw (sh*ti). See nos. 2477a, 2479a. age he will be full of sap and vigor and will thus
mnw (sh*tiyad). See no. 2477b. by his vigor and fruitfulness declare the upright-

nw (shatil). See no. 2480a. ness and faithfulness of God.
H.J.A.

2480 Ymy (shatal) plant.
2481 Bnw (shadtam) open (Num 24:3, 15).

Derivative
24802 ny (shatil) plant cutting (Ps 2482 PHY (shdtaq) be quiet (Jon 1:11, 13;
128:3). Prov 26:30; Ps 107:30).

shatal is used ten times in the Qal. Its cognate 2483 AnW (shdtat) set, appoint (Ps 49:15,
is found in Arabic and Aramaic with the same 73:9).

960

2484 SM (1a') chamber (e.g.
I] Chr 12:11; Ezk 40).

I Kgs 4:28 =

2485 38m (1a’eb) long for (Ps 119:40, 174).
Derivative
2485a M3N8M (ta'aba) longing (Ps
119:20).
2486 *S8H (ta’ab) loathe, only Amos 6:8.

Perhaps a by-form of td‘ab.

2487 *m8M (ta'a) mark out (Num 34:7, 8).
This verb occurs only tn the Piel.
2488 ISM (1''d) antelope (Deut 14:5; Isa
51:20).
MNP (fa‘'dwd). See no. 40d, 2496b.
monn (ta’ala). See no. 94b.
2489 axm (1a'am) be double (e.g. Ex 26:24;
36:29). Denominative verb.
Parent Noun
2489a = ONIN «(16’am) twin (e.g. Gen 25-
724; Song 4:5).
2490 MONA (1nd) fig, fig tree. (asv and RSV

similar.) Derivation uncertain.

The fig tree, Ficus carica, is native to western
Asia and has flourished in Palestine especially in
the hill country throughout recorded history.
Since sugar cane was not introduced into the re-
gion until the time of Alexander the Great, the fig
was an important source of sweetness (Jud 9:11)
in Palestine (and westward as far as northern
Egypt; see Ps 105:33) during the oT period, as
was honey also (Jud 14:18). More often than not,
the fig is mentioned together with the grapevine
in the ot. When figs and grapes were in short
supply or lacking altogether, it was a sign of
human distress or divine judgment (Ps 105:33; Jer
5:17; 8:13; Hos 2:12 |H 14]; Joel 1:7, 12; Hab
3:17; Hag 2:19). On the other hand, to be able to
sit under one’s own vine and fig tree was to share
God's blessings of peace, prosperity and secu-
rity, whether in past remembrance (I Kgs 4:25 |H
5:5}: see also I Macc 14:12) or in future es-
chatological hope (Mic 4:4; Zech 3:10). For simt-
lar imagery, see also IJ Kgs 18:31 = Isa 36:16;
Joel 2:22. In Jotham’s parable the olive, the fig,
and the vine have first claim to royal dignity
among fruits (Jud 9:7-15).

The earliest clothing was made by sewing to-
gether the tough, palmate leaves of the fig tree
(Gen 3:7), but this does not necessarily imply that
the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and
evil (2:17; 3:Sf.) was the fig, as some have held.
But its presence in Eden is presupposed; in fact,
it is the only tree mentioned by name.

Unlike the olive, the fig casts its leaves in au-
tumn and blooms in the spring (late March). The
early figs begin to form in March and are ripe in
May (cf. Isa 28:4). The late figs, developing on
new shoots, ripen in late summer and are
gathered from the middle of August into October.
For an excellent brief discussion of the miracle of
the cursing of the barren fig tree in Mt 21:18f.;
Mk 11:12~14, see F. F. Bruce, Are the New Tes-
tament Documents Reliable?, pp. 76-78. While
the fig tree seems to have symbolized the Jewish
nation on that occasion, there would appear to be
no evidence that such was the case in the oT: see
J. W. Wenham in JTS 5 (1954), pp. 206f. The
closest oT parallel is the restricted comparison in
Jer 24, where good figs (not fig trees) symbolize
Judeans going into exile and bad figs symbolize
Zedekiah, his princes, the remnant of Jerusalem
staying in the land, and Judaeans who fled to
Egypt (see also 29:17).

R.F.Y.

MIND (fa'ana) See nos.
126a,b.
MINA (ta'dniya).

DINK (f° anim).

MINA (16' and).

See no. 124b.
See no. 48b.

2491 SSH (ta’ar) be drawn.

Derivatives

2491la
2491b

TIM (t0'ar) shape, form.

*3N8M (ta ar) draw in outline, trace
out. This denominative verb oc-
curs only in the Piel (Isa 44:13;
Num 34:7, 8).

td’ar is used in the Qal in Josh 15 and 18 with
the boundaries of the tribal allotments of Judah
and Benjamin as subject. Piel: mark out. (asv and
RSV similar.) Found only in Isa 44:13 (twice) of
tracing out the shape of an idol preparatory to its
manufacture. The Pual m‘t6é’ar, found only in
Josh 19:13, was understood by ksv as part of a
compound proper name, while ASv, RSV, NASB and
Niv with greater plausibility translated it like a
verb. Traditional Jewish commentaries explain
td’ar as a synonym of sdbab ‘‘to circle, trace,
mark, sketch, delineate.”’ BDB, with scant jus-
urfication, considers the Piel a denominative verb

963

2492 non (1éba)

derived from the noun t0’ar, thereby needlessly
separating it from its Qal base.

to’ar. Shape, form, beautiful, comely, fair, fa-
vored, goodly, resemble, visage. (ASV similar; RSV
usually similar with exceptions noted below.)
The various nuances of the verbal root described
in the preceding paragraph indicate that the
noun means basically ‘‘shape, form.”’ It probably
never means ‘‘appearance’’ (contrast RSv in I
Sam 28:14) because of the tautology that would
result in passages like Gen 29:17. Furthermore,
the phrase shém to’ar was used by traditional
Hebrew grammanians to refer to ‘‘a certain type
of noun which does not express a quality or a
characteristic in the abstract... but denotes the
agent or the bearer of a quality or characteristic”’
(D. J. Kamhiin Bulletin of the School of Oriental
and African Studies 34: 261). Thus to’ar in the oT
describes the form, rather than the appearance,
of a beautiful woman (Gen 29:17; Deut 21:11; I
Sam 25:3; Est 2:7), a handsome (rsv) man (Gen
39:6: I Kgs 1:6), sleek (Rsv) or gaunt (RSV) cows
(Gen 41:18f.), etc.

Especially noteworthy is the use of td’ar twice
in the fourth Suffering Servant Song (Isa 52:13-
53:12). The Servant’s form was horribly marred
and disfigured (52:14), repulsive to look at (53:2).
As H. C. Leupold (Exposition of Isaiah, Il,
p. 224) puts it: ‘“‘Little wonder that many of the
fathers of the church of days of old claim that the
account reads as though Isaiah had sat at the foot
of the cross’’ (see Mk 14:65; 15:15—20).

R.F.Y.
“WKAR (f’ashshar). See no. 186g.
2492 man (téba) ark. (asv_ similar; RSV ren-
ders ‘‘basket** in Ex 2:3, 5.)

In Gen 6-9, the word is used twenty-six times
to denote the huge, rectangular, box-shaped ves-
sel which Noah, his family and the animals en-
tered to escape the judgment of the flood. In Ex
2:3, 5, it denotes the tiny vessel in which Moses
was hidden among the reeds in the Nile river to
escape the wrath of the pharaoh. Generally
thought to be an Egyptian loan word (although T.
O. Lambdin does not include it in his comprehen-
sive discussion in Journal of the American Orien-
tal Society 73: 145-55), it is found only in Gen 6-9
and Ex 2, and is to be distinguished from the
much more common word for ‘‘ark,”’ ‘drén
(q.v.), used to refer, among other things, to the
ark of the covenant.

The Gen and Ex narratives both have Akka-
dian parallels, the closest correspondent to the
Gen account being the famous eleventh tablet of
the Gilgamesh epic (cf. ANET?, pp. 93~97) while
the Ex account may be compared to the legend of
Sargon of Agade (cf. ANET?, p. 119). The dis-

964

2494 man (thh).

similarities between the oT narratives and their
Akkadian counterparts are more theologically
significant, however, than the similarities, as
most recent commentators have pointed out (see,
e.g., A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old
Testament Parallels?, pp. 268f.).

But the many theological similanties between
the Gen and Ex narratives themselves are doubt-
less due to the working of the Spirit that inspired
them both. In commenting on the Gen account,
U. Cassuto summarizes as follows: ‘‘In both
cases there is to be saved from drowning one who
is worthy of salvation and is destined to bring
deliverance to others; here it is humanity that is
to be saved, there it is the chosen people’’ (A
Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part II,
p. 59). Furthermore, Noah’s ark as a symbol of
salvation is compared to the ordinance of baptism
in I Pt 3:20f., and as a symbol of God’s protection
from external evil, it was frequently sketched by
the early Christians on the walls of the catacombs
under the streets of ancient Rome.

R.F.Y.

meisn (f° bia'a). See no. 212c.

mam (t° bana). See no. 239c.

moiam (f° basa). See no. 216c.

93m (tebel), 93m (tébél). See nos.
248d, 835h.

neoan = (tablit).

bbs (t°ballil).

See no. 246c.
See no. 248e.

2493 33h (teben) straw (e.g. Ex 5:10; Jer

23:28). Derivation uncertain.

Derivative
2493a IM (matbén) straw heap (Isa
25:10).
myan (tabnit). See no. 255d.
“aan (tagmal). See no. 360c.
main (tigrad). See no. 378b.
sain (tidhar). See no. 408b.

Assumed root of the following.
2494a TISM (t0ha) confusion.
2494b -M9RR (tohdla) error (Job 4:18).

toha. Confusion, the empty place (Job 26:7; asv
‘*empty space’’; rsv “‘the void), nothing, nought,
vain, vanity, waste, wilderness, without form.
(asv similar; RSV renders ‘‘chaos”’ in Isa 24:10;
45:18f.). Since the word has no certain cognates
in other languages, its meaning must be deter-
mined solely from its oT contexts. It refers to a
desert wasteland in Deut 32:10; Job 6:18 (see asv,
RSV): 12:24b = Ps 107:40b: to a destroyed city in
Isa 24:10 (see also 34:11); to moral and spiritual
emptiness or confusion in I Sam 12:21 (twice) and
several times in Isa (29:21; 41:29; 44:9; 45:19;
59:4): and to nothingness or unreality in Isa

40:17, 23; 49:4 (see also the Heb. text of Sir
41:10). In most (if not all) of these cases, dha has
a negative or pejorative sense.

Two passages in particular call for more ex-
tended comment. The first is Job 26:7: ‘*(God)
stretches out the north over tdha; he hangs the
earth upon nothing.’ The context of chap. 26
stresses not only the omnipotence and sover-
eignty of God in creation and providence but also
the ease with which he does whatever he pleases.
While it would be improper for us to rigidly im-
pose our own contingent, twentieth-century
cosmology on this chapter and insist on interpret-
ing it literally throughout (see, e.g., the obvious
metaphor in verse 11), it is nonetheless striking
that 26:7 pictures the then-known world as sus-
pended in space. In so doing, it anticipates (at the
very least!) future scientific discovery.

The other passage requiring discussion is, of
course, Gen 1:2a: “‘The earth was ftohia
waboha.’’ The meaning of bdha@ itself is uncer-
tain (it appears elsewhere only in Isa 34:11 and
Jer 4:23, both times tn context with dh), al-
though it apparently signifies ‘‘emptiness’’ (cf.
the possible Arabic cognate bahiya ‘‘was
empty’’). Therefore, the phrase tdha waboha in
Gen 1:2a has been variously understood as a
hendiadys meaning ‘‘a formless waste’ (E. A.
Speiser, Genesis, p. 5), “absolutely nothing
whatever’ (H. Renckens, /srael’s Concept of the
Beginning, p. 84), ‘‘void and vacancy” (H. E.
Ryle, The Book of Genesis, p. 4—though without
complete conviction). But the traditional render-
ing, “without form and void”’ (or *‘unformed and
unfilled,’’ to preserve something of the euphony
of the Hebrew phrase), is ably defended by W. H.
Griffith Thomas in Genesis—A Devotional
Commentary, p. 29, where he writes that ‘‘the
adjectives ‘formless’ and ‘empty’ seem to be the
key to the literary structure of the chapter. The
record of the first three days refers to the heaven
and earth receiving their ‘form,’ and the record of
the last three days to the filling-up of their ‘emp-
tiness.”’’ See further R. Youngblood in JETS
16:219-21. The ‘‘gap’’ or “‘interval’’ theory,
which posits a millennia-long period of time im-
plied by or in Gen 1:2 and which usually trans-
lates 1:2a by the less likely *‘but the earth became
without form and void,’ has come into increasing
disfavor in recent years. Its main exegetical sup-
port, Isa 45:18, reads *‘(God) did not create (the
earth) r6ha,*’ and has been interpreted to mean
that therefore an original creation (described
briefly in Gen 1:1) was destroyed; that the
geologic ages ensued (during the ‘*gap’’); and that
the new creation portrayed in Gen 1:3ff. was built
on the wreckage of the old. But Isa 45:18, after
the phrase quoted, goes on to say that God
‘‘formed (the earth) to be inhabited,’’ thereby as-
suring the reader that t6ha was not his ultimate

965

2495 ann

2495 arn (thm)

purpose in creation. (For extended critiques of
the ‘‘gap’’ theory, see especially O. T. Allis, God
Spake by Moses, pp. 153-159, B. Ramm, The
Christian View of Science and Scripture, pp.
195-210). The word téha@ in Gen 1:2, likewise,
refers not to the result of a supposed catastrophe
(for which there is no clear biblical evidence) but
to the formlessness of the earth before God's
creative hand began the majestic acts described
in the following verses. As Jer 4:23 indicates, the
earth always has the potential of returning to
toha waboha if God decides to judge it.

But as difficult as tohd is to define, it is even
more difficult for us to conceptualize it. Augus-
tine, in his Confessions (Book XII, 6), admitted
his failure to grasp it visually; Haydn, in the
**Representation of Chaos’ overture to his
oratorio, The Creation, was much more success-
ful in expressing it musically. (On the other hand,
since ‘‘create’’ in Gen 1:1 is a summary state-
ment epexegeted in the remainder of the chapter
(cf. concluding summary in Gen 2: 1-3), it may be
that Isaiah designates by “‘create’’ all of God's
works during the six days. He did not *‘create’’
chaos but a cosmos (cf. Bruce K. Waltke, Crea-
tion and Chaos (Portland, Oregon: Western Bap-
tist Theological Seminary, 1974). B.K.w.]

R.F.Y.

See no. 2494a.

See no. 249Sa.
See no. 2494b.
See no. 500c.
See no. 498e.

IMM (toha).
Ban (t°hdm).
monn (tohdla).
moan (t¢hilla).
mpyenn (tahalaka).

(thm). Assumed root of the following.
2495a toinm (1° hém) deep, depths, deep
places. Modern versions are simi-
lar, but sometimes use **springs’’ or
‘‘seas."’ The word is used thirty-
five times.

A number of times this word is used merely for
a large body of water. Isaiah 51:10 and 63:13 refer
to the crossing of the Red Sea as does Ps 77:16 [H
17]; 106:9; Ex 15:5 and others. There are other
references to the deep waters of the Mediterra-
nean Sea; Jon 2:5 [H 6] is clear, probably also
Ezk 26:19; Ps 107:26 and others. There are some
references to surface springs as coming from the
deep waters below. What concept the Hebrews
had of ground water we do not know, but they
had the practical knowledge to dig wells and find
springs in the valleys: Deut 8:7; Ps 78:15. They
probably had not thought of a connection of
springs with an underlying ocean because of the
simple observable fact that oceans are salt and
springs are fresh. Springs are more like the rivers
they feed.

Both BDB and GB use this word to foster a
strange cosmology. GB list one meaning as ‘‘the

2496 *nyn (tawa)

Ocean, usually united to the great sea on which
the earth rests and from where all the water of the
earth comes.’ They do not note that Job 26:7
says that the earth is suspended on nothing. Pas-
sages alleged by GB include Gen 8:2 which sim-
ply speaks of sub-oceanic movement; Isa 51:10
and Ezk 26:19 which are not applicable; Ezk 31:4
which refers to ordinary springs and several other
verses. They cite Gen 49:25 |H 24] *‘the deep that
lies below,’ but the previous line shows that this
is the deep that lies below the heavens above, not
below the earth. Deuteronomy 33:15 is similar
and may be dependent on the Gen poem. In fine,
the interpretation of these verses is part of the
fallacious cosmology foisted upon the oT by criti-
cal scholars and supported by overliteralizing
such things as the windows of heaven (better
‘*sluicegates’’ or ‘floodgates, ° Niv) in the flood
account (cf. Harris, R. L., ‘‘The Bible and Cos-
mology,’ JETS 5:11-17).

An older treatment of Gen 1:2 found a similar-
ity between ¢t°hém of the Gen creation account
and the Enuma Elish story in which Tiamat was
vanquished by Marduk and from her body earth
and heaven were made. It is said that in Gen also
there is implied a fight in which the spint of God
rushed on the chaos monster ¢°hém and thus
made the ordered universe. Much of this is ten-
dential exegesis. It is now admitted that linguisti-
cally t°hom cannot be derived from Tiamat be-
cause the middle radical, a laryngeal, is lost in
Akkadian and would not be manufactured in a
borrowed word. Thus, ba'‘al becomes in Akka-
dian Bel and is borrowed back in Isa 46:1 as bél.
Actually Tiamat and t*°hém come from the same
root. The root referred merely to deep waters and
this meaning was kept in Hebrew as a noun for
water in the deep ocean and deep in the ground.
But in the animistic thought of Akkadian it be-
came divinized into the goddess of the ocean,
Tiamat. In Ugaritic the #4 is preserved (thm) as in
Hebrew and the ocean is sometimes divinized as
in Akkadian, though Ugaritic so far shows no
creation account (UT 19: no. 2537).

Bibliography: White, W. **Tiamat,’ in ZEPB,
V, pp. 744-45. For the cnitical view, cf. May,
H. G., **Some Cosmic Connotations of Mayim
Rabbim “Many Waters’,”’ JBL 74:9-21.

R.L.H.

mopmn (tahpakad). See no. 512f.
In (taw). See no. 2496a.

BSIM (16'am). See no. 2489a.
main (taga). See no. 839b.
maim (téda). See no. 847b.

2496 *mIm (tawa) I, scrabble (Piel); limit (Hiph-
il). Denominative verb.
Parent Noun

2496a Th (taw) desire, mark.

966

2497 *myn

2496b MIND (ta'dwa)

49:26).

This verb, probably denominative from the
noun ¢dw, is used in 1 Sam 21:13 [H 14] of making
marks on a door and in Ezk 9:4 of putting a mark
on a person’s forehead. In Ps 78:41, kjv trans-
lates the verb as ‘‘limited,’’ but because of the
parallelism it is perhaps better to use there the
homonym twh II, *“‘to provoke, cause pain’’ (so
ASV, RSV, BDB, KB). The root ¢’h ("38N), found in
the Piel with the meaning “‘point out’’ (Asv and
RSV “‘mark out’’) in Num 34:7f., may very well be
a secondary formation from the root twh I (so
KB).

taw. Desire (Job 31:35; AsSv, RSV “‘Signa-
ture’’), mark. The ftdw, the last letter (con-
sonant) in the Hebrew alphabet, was shaped like
an ‘‘x’’ in the most ancient script. Job 31:35 uses
the word in the sense of a man’s signature or
mark of attestation, as the context shows. In Ezk
9:4, 6, it is used of a divinely authorized mark
placed on a person's forehead for protective pur-
poses. (A somewhat similar procedure is de-
scribed also in Gen 4:15, although a different He-
brew word is used there and the forehead is not
mentioned.) In ancient Mesopotamia, a cross-
shaped mark on the forehead was called
ishpalurtu(m) in Akkadian, written sometimes
with the Sumerian logograph BAR which looks
exactly like the older forms of the taw (cf. CAD,
VII, p. 253; E. A. Speiser in H. G. Giiterbock and
T. Jacobsen, editors, Studies in Honor of Benno
Landsberger on His Seventy-fifth Birthday, p.
393). God’s special marks of protection will be
placed on the foreheads of his people in the es-
chatological future (Rev 7:2f.; 9:4; 14:1).

J. Finegan, in his recent historical novel enti-
tled Mark of the Taw, notes that in the early
Church the believers would use and think of the
tdw as a sign of future salvation (because of the
Ezk 9 references); of the Messiah (because it re-
sembled the first letter of the Gr. word for Christ,
‘*the Anointed One, the Messiah'’); and, because
of its shape, of the crucifixion of Jesus (see espe-
clally pp. 145f.).

boundary (Gen

R.F.Y.

(tawad) II, pain, wound. This verb
occurs only once, in the Hiphil (Ps 78:41).

nomn (téhelet). See no. 859b.

2498 “3H (tawek) midst. Derivation unknown.
Derivative
2498a on (tikén), 19° (tikon) middle.

Isaiah 66:17 presents an interesting case where
the very difficult word ‘‘in the midst’ (battawek)
can be read with different vocalization ‘‘your
houses”’ (battékd) (see niv text and footnote).

See no. 2509a.

See no. 86S5a.
See no. 865b.
See no. 867g.

See no. 2516b.

See no. 2516b.

See no. 2530a.

TIM (t6k).
MASA (t6kéha).
mmDA (tokahat).
mis’in (t6lédodt).
mprin (16lé'a).
myesn (1dla‘at).
mavIn (16'éba).

myin (t6'a). See no. 253la.
mDyIn (16'apd). See no. 886a.
2499 MIN (twp). Assumed root of the following.
24992 MBN (tdpet) act of spitting (only
in Job 17:6).
MN¥IN (16sa’a). See no. 893e.
2500 9m (tur) seek, search out, spy out.
Derivatives
2500a SM (tdr), 3M (tor) circlet, plait
(e.g. Song 1:10; Est 2:12).
2500b tIMs (y"lar) range.
2500c iM (tér), A (tér) dove. Deri-

vation uncertain.

In Prov 12:26, a difficult verse, kjv under-
stands ydatér (Hiphil jussive of tar) as an anomal-
ous form of the root ytr and translates *‘is excel-
lent’’ (cf. Targum) and rsv emends to ydsar (Qal
imperfect of sar) and translates ‘turns away”
(cf. ICC for full discussion), while asv makes the
best sense out of the text as presently vocalized
by reading *‘is a guide to”’ and by understanding
the following méré‘éha not as a suffixal form of
réa’ ‘‘friend, neighbor,’’ with prefixed min, but
as a suffixal form of méréa‘ **friend, neighbor,"
exactly as in Gen 26:26.

Of the twenty-three occurrences of tar in the
oT, more than half are found in Num 13f. in the
sense of ‘‘spying out, reconnoitering’’ the land of
Canaan preparatory to conquering it. *‘Careful
examination’’ would thus seem to capture the
basic meaning of the root, a meaning that ts espe-
cially clear in Eccl 1:13; 2:3: 7:25, where an in-
tense search for wisdom is such an important
preoccupation in the mind of the author.

y‘tar. Range (Job 39:8; asv similar; rsv takes
it as a verbal form because of the parallelism, an
analysis that may be correct in the light of the
many unusual verbal forms that Job exhibits).
R.F.Y.

msm (t6rd). See no. 910d.

sayin (t6shab). See no. 922d.
mwsn (tashiya). See no. 923a.
masa (tatah). See no. 933a.

2501 *ttM (tazaz) strike away. This verb oc-
curs only once, in the Hiphil (Isa 18:5).

MINA (taznat). See no. 563c.
moamn (tahbula). See no. 596a.

967

2503 wnn

2504 AR

2504 ARH (tahat)

Exomn (tahali’im). See no. 648a.
menm (r°hilla). See no. 661d.
Biemn (tahmas). See no. 678b.
Mmm (t°hinna). See no. 694f.
mmm (tahdnd). See no. 690d.
BINH (tahdnin). See no. 694g.
2502 Samm (tahra’) corselet (Ex 28:32; 39:23).

Meaning uncertain.

(tahash) badger. (asv “‘seal,’’ marg.
‘‘porpoise’’; RSV “‘leather’’ in Ezk 16:10,
elsewhere *‘goat.’’)

Except in Num 4:25 and Ezk 16:10, the word is
always governed by ‘dér(6t)**skin(s),"° and is
therefore doubtless the name of an animal. In
Ezk 16:10 it refers to the leather in a woman's
sandals; its thirteen other occurrences (in Ex
25-39 and Num 4) all refer to the skins used in
covering the tabernacle and its accessories. Since
the badger is rarely if ever seen in Sinai, and
since Arabic tuhas *‘dolphin,’’ seems to be cog-
nate to Hebrew tahash, most recent commen-
tators translate the Hebrew word as “‘dolphin,
porpoise, dugong’’ or the like (Rsv ‘‘goat,”’
though not impossible, lacks cognate language
support, as does kJv “‘badger’’). The bottle-nosed
dolphin (7ursiops truncatus) is found tn the east-
ern Mediterranean, while the dugong (Dugong
dugong) is plentiful in the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aqaba: the skin of the latter is still used by Be-
douin to make sandals (see Fauna and Flora of
the Bible, United Bible Societies, p. 22). If (as
seems likely) the tahash was the outermost pro-
tective covering of the tabernacle (see especially
Num 4:25), the skin of a marine animal like the
dolphin or dugong would have been eminently
suitable, both for its toughness and for its
waterproofing properties.

R.F.Y.

(tahat) beneath, instead of, as, for,
for the sake of, flat (Josh 6:5), unto,
where, whereas.

Derivatives

2504a) oo nAmn (tahtén) lower, nether.
2504b foAMA (tahti), MANA (tahtit) low.

Although ‘“‘beneath, instead of, in exchange
for’’ would seem to be the basic meanings of
tahat (which is used adverbially and preposi-
tionally), its range has been broadened by recent
research; see, e.g., J. A. Fitzmyer in Journal of
the American Oriental Society 81:190, and espe-
cially J. C. Greenfield in ZAW 73:226—28. When
it is combined or compounded with other parti-
cles, its meanings are rarely affected to any ex-
tent.

The word taat is attested almost five hundred
times in the of and appears in numerous theolog-

2504 ARH (tahat)

ically significant contexts. The phrase ‘‘under the
sun’ wends its doleful way through the book of
Eccl and has become common parlance in our
own skeptical age, especially in the expression
‘*There is nothing new under the sun” (Eccl 1:9
rsv). The phrase itself seems to signify simply
‘‘on this earth’’ (see especially 7:20; 8:16: 11:2)
and perhaps underscores the frequently non-
religious emphasis of the author of Eccl who both
describes the apparent futility of life and yet lives
by faith in it (see further J. Gammie in JBL 93
(1974), p. 363). ‘‘Under the tongue”’ is a place
where something is held temporarily to be re-
leased when desired, e.g. sweetness (Song 4:11),
evil (Job 20:12; Ps 10:7), or praise (Ps 66:17 in
The Amplified Bible and marg. of asv). Although
God has given man dominion over everything on
earth and has put all things ‘‘under his feet’’ (Ps
8:6 [H 7], quoted in Heb 2:8), ultimate dominion,
highlighted by the same expression, belongs to
Jesus Christ (I Cor 15:25, 27; Eph 1:22). Thus
‘‘under’’ by itself can mean ‘‘under the authority
of,’ as of a wife under the authority of her hus-
band (Num 5:19-20, 29; Ezk 23:5; cf. similarly
the use of hypandros, literally ‘‘under a man,” in
Rom 7:2). Likewise, *‘under the hand of”’ often
means ‘‘under the authority/control of,’ as in
Gen 41:35; Jud 3:30: Isa 3:6. But tahat can also
be used to express the idea of support and stabil-
ity, as, e.g., in the widely-quoted and well-loved
phrase from the Blessing of Moses: *‘ Underneath
are the everlasting arms’’ (Deut 33:27).

taat in the sense of *‘in exchange for’’ finds
widespread usage in the of /ex talionis, the law of
retaliation, best known in the ‘‘eye for eye, tooth
for tooth’ phraseology of Ex 21:24 and Lev 24:20
(the same expression occurs in Deut 19:21, but
there the preposition is 6"). Far from being cruel
and vengeful, the /ex talionis was doubtless in-
tended to insure that no more than a just and
appropriate penalty would be exacted for crimes
committed, whether accidentally or with malice
aforethought, in an otherwise relatively cruel
age. See further Harris, R. L., ‘‘Inspiration and
Canonicity of the Bible,” Zondervan, 1969,
p. 51-52.

tahat frequently means ‘‘instead of,” as, e.g..,
when a man succeeds to the throne of a dead
monarch and is then said to rule *‘instead of** him
(I Kgs 11:43 and often). In this sense tahat is also
used in a passage prefiguring substitutionary
atonement where Abraham Is pictured as sacrific-
ing a ram as a burnt offering ‘‘in the stead of his
son’ (Gen 22:13). The willingness of Abraham to
offer Isaac, if necessary, made a deep impression
on Paul, who saw in it the willingness of a greater
Father to offer up a greater Son (cf. Gen 22:12, 16
with Rom 8:32).

tahti. Low, lower, lowest, nether. The deriva-
tive tahti is used twenty times. About a third of

968

these occurrences describe literal situations—the
lower story of the ark, the lower springs of Caleb
(Jud 1:15), the lower millstone (Job 41:24 [H 16])
etc. The other cases are used metaphorically to
qualify the terms “‘the pit,’ “‘the earth,’ or
**sheol’* (q.v.). In Isa 44:23 the *‘earth beneath”
is merely the earth in contrast to the heavens
above (cf. niv). But in most of the cases of the
usage with ‘eres (six times in Ezk, twice else-
where) the reference is to the place of those who
have died. Much discussion revolves around this
usage and what it involves. One view equates the
‘*earth below”’ with ‘the realm of the dead’ or
the ‘‘netherworld.’’ The netherworld is pictured
in Akkadian sources as a cheerless place, a kind
of cavern deep in the earth to which all people go
at death and where there is deprivation and hard-
ship (not penal suffering) but conscious exis-
tence. None of these details are in the oT picture,
but the view is that the ot pictures some such
realm deprived of its pagan associations.

Theologically, this view seems to have some
problems. It differs from Christ's presentation in
Lk 16 which describes two places widely sepa-
rated and greatly different. An old view in the
church is that in ot times there was one limbus
patrum with two divisions from which Christ
freed the believers when he descended into hell.
This phrase in the Apostles’ Creed is found only
in forms of the creed used after the fourth cen-
tury. It is not used in the Nicene Creed, an elab-
oration of the Apostles’ Creed. The phrase may
have originated in connection with this belief in a
limbus patrum or in connection with a growing
belief in purgatory: it is not clear. The verse in
Eph 4:9 is sometimes cited in support of the idea,
but it will not stand up. This verse merely refers
to the descent of Christ to this earth from which
he ascended again to heaven (cf. Eph 4:9 niv).
Besides, Lk 23:43 seems to make this interpreta-
tion impossible. The phrase in the Apostles’
Creed has been otherwise interpreted—of
Christ's suffering on the cross (Heidelberg
Catechism) or of his bunal and continuation in
the grave for three days (Westminster Cate-
chism).

An alternative view would find in the passages
in Ezk and elsewhere merely a reference to the
grave. The phrase ‘lower parts of the earth”’ is
found eight times. Of special significance are
those in Ezk 31-32, where Pharoah and his con-
temporary kings are pictured as fallen, slain,
lying with the uncircumcised. Note Ezk 32:24
where Elam and her army are said to be in the
“*grave’ (qgeber), in the “lower parts of the
earth” (eres tahtiv6t) and in the “‘pit’’ (bér). In
these two chapters the place where the heathen
lie is called ‘‘grave’’ (geber ) six times; ‘*sheol”’
five times; “‘pit’’ (bdr) eight times and “‘lower
parts of the earth”’ five times. It seems likely that
these terms are here used as synonyms referring

to the tomb, which was typically a bunal cave
with ledges on the sides where bodies were
buried, sometimes in state and with their armor.
In this usage, ‘eres tahtiyét means no more than
a place below ground where the dead are buried.
It need not refer to any mythical location or sub-
terranean place inhabited by ghosts or shades.

No special cosmology or mythology is implied.
The other usages of tahti are Deut 32:22 and Ps
86:13 (both “the depths of Sheol’’ rsv); Ps 63:9
(H 10] and 139:15 )both ‘‘the depths of the earth”’
rsv); and Ps 88:6 [H 7] (“the depths of the earth”’
RSV) which would seem to be in line with Ezk’s
usage. No emphasis on ‘‘depth’’ seems necessary
in the translation. Naturally this does not deny
that other vss. speak of conscious existence of
the spirit after death. For extended treatment of
these and other passages, cf. A. Heidel, ‘* Death
and the Afterlife in the OT,” in The Gilgamesh
Epic, University of Chicago, 1949, pp. 137-223.
R.F.Y.

NAMA (tahtén). See no. 2504a.
‘ANA (taht?), MAMA (tahtit). See no.
2504b.
WM (tikdn).
vA (timan).
mar (timara).

See no. 2498a.
See no. 872e.
See no. 2523d.

2505 wisn
wine.

(tirésh), Wah (tirdsh) wine, new

The ksv usually has *‘wine,’* rsv has *‘wine”’
except for ‘“‘new wine’’ in Hos 4:11; 9:2; Hag
1:11; Zech 9:17. NasB has ‘‘new”’ or ‘*fresh’’ wine
(once ‘“‘grapes’’) except for ‘“‘wine’’ in II Chr
32:28; Neh 13:5, 12. niv has *“*new wine’’ (once
‘“juice,"’ once ‘‘grapes’’) except for ‘‘wine’’ in
Jud 9:13.

BDB defines tirédsh as ‘“‘must, fresh or new
wine.’’ The word is used thirty-eight times,
twenty of these in conjunction with grain and/or
oil as the fresh produce of the field. It is said to be
‘in the cluster’’ (Isa 65:8); the vats or presses
overflow with it (Prov 3:10; Joel 2:24). In Mic
6:15 yayin *“wine’’ (q.v.) is said to be produced
from tirésh. The word is never associated with
drunkenness except perhaps in Hos 4:11 where
yayin is also mentioned. It is natural to suppose
that this word for a product often associated with
fruitfulness, productivity and blessing is to be
distinguished from the yayin and shékar (q.v.)
which definitely are intoxicating and are often
mentioned together.

BDB lists this word under the root yarash, but
recent evidence from Uganitic studies suggests
that it is a borrowed word (cf. Albright, YGC,
p. 186). Albmght says that because it was the
name of a deity Tirshu the etymological argument
for it being unfermented wine does not hold. But,
as shown above, the view depends on Hebrew

969

2508

2509 39m (tkk).

2510 mean (t*kélet) blue. (asv

2510 nan (t°kélet)

usage rather than etymology. The Hittite tuwarsa
means “‘vine’’ according to Gordon. He trans-
lates the word (trt as *‘wine’’ in his Glossary (UT
19: no. 2613) but as ‘‘must”’ in his Ugaritic Liter-
ature (Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1949) p. 89.

R.L.H.
2506 wT (tayish) he-goat (e.g. Prov 30:31;
Gen 30:35). Derivation uncertain.
1m (t6k). See no. 2509a.
2507 2m (taka). Meaning uncertain, perhaps,

‘‘were led’’ or “‘were assembled’’ (Deut
33:3).

mM (r°kand). See no. 964e.

B32 (tukkiyim) peacock (BDB), baboon,
ape (KB from the Egyptian) (I Kgs 10:22
= II Chr 9:21).

Assumed root of the following.

2509a t33m (t6k), 3M (t6k) fraud, de-
ceit, deceitful. (asv and RSV “‘op-
pression,’’ ‘‘oppressor.’’)

To be carefully distinguished from té6k I, the
construct form of tawek (root twk), **midst,’* this
word (root tkk) occurs three times in the singular
in Ps and once in the plural (¢’kakim) in Prov.
The singular form is always found in context with
words like ‘‘cursing’’ and ‘‘deceit’’ (Ps 10:7),
‘*guile’’ (Rsv ‘‘fraud’’; Ps 55:11 [H 12]), and **vio-
lence’’ (Ps 72:14), and is condemned as a charac-
teristic of wicked people. In Prov 29:13, the op-
pressor (literally, ‘‘man of oppressions’’) is
paired with the poor man as a recipient of God’s
evenhanded blessing, emphasizing the fact that
all people owe their existence to him.

R.F.Y.

See no. 982e.
See no. 982f.

mom (tikla).
me9on (takiit).

similar; RSV
usually ‘“‘blue,’’ but ‘violet’? in Jer 10:9
and ‘purple’ in Ezk 23:6.)

Virtually all recent commentators agree that
the dyes used by ancient peoples were rather im-
pure and that the uncertainty of the results of
dyeing in those days made it almost impossible
for them to reproduce colors with any degree of
precision. Words like t’ kélet and ’argamdn (and
their Akkadian cognates), therefore, denoted
colors that spanned the spectrum from brilliant
red through deep purple, and ‘‘blue’’ is simply a
conventional translation of t°kélet. It may well
be that the ancients were more interested in rich-
ness, darkness, brilliance, and the hike than in
precision of tint or hue. At any rate, the best and

2511 33H (takan)

costliest ancient dyes were the blues and violets
and purples that were made from the secretions
of various mollusks (primarily Murex brandaris
and Murex trunculus) that swarm in the coastal
waters of the eastern Mediterranean, particuarly
near Sidon and Tyre (whence **Tynan purple’’)
but also near Elishah (probably Cyprus); see Ezk
27:7, and cf. especially R. J. Forbes, Studies in
Ancient Technology, 1V, pp. 110-22. The impor-
tance of such dyes to the prosperity of the region
is underscored by the likelihood that ‘‘Canaan”’
is a Hurrian word meaning ‘‘land of purple’’;
‘*Phoenicia’’ has the same meaning in Greek.
Murex dyes (and cheaper imitations) were prized
far and wide by kings (II Chr 2:7, 14 [H 6, 13];
3:14; Est 1:6; 8:15; cf. our expression “royal
blue’’) and others who could afford them (Jer
10:9; Ezk 23:6; 27:24). Of the nearly fifty occur-
rences of ¢“ kélet in the oT, fully forty are found in
Ex and Num, where they describe cloth used in
the tabernacle and worn by the priests engaged in
the ritual of worship. The same motif was carried
over to the temple (I Chr 2:7 (H 6], 14 {[H 13};
3:14). Such regal colors were most appropriate to
adorn the sanctuary of the King of kings. Then,
too, the sons of Israel wore as a distinctive badge
of their identity a cord of blue on the corner of
each tassel on the corners of their garments (Num
15:38).

R.F.Y.
2511 Ih (takan) ponder, weigh (Qal); be
equal (Niphal); weighed out (Pual).
Derivatives
25ila IR (tdken) measurement (Ex
5:18; Ezk 45:11).
2511b M925R (toknit) measurement, pro-
portion (Ezk 43:10).
2511c MIM (matkénet) measurement

(e.g. Ex 5:8; Ezk 45:11).

According to Dhorme the basic meaning of the
root thn is ““gauge,’’ i.e., ‘“‘estimate a thing by
comparing it with a standard’’ (E. Dhorme, Le
Livre de Job, Paris, 1926). This is also its mean-
ing at Qumran (cf. M. Z. Kaddari in Revue de
Qumran, 17:219-224). Driver, however, rejects
this meaning and opts for the sense ‘’to adjust (to
a Standard) set right” (G. R. Driver, '‘Hebrew
Notes,’ V¥ 1:242f.). But R. N. Whybray con-
tends that while the basic root meaning cannot be
determined, both meanings are found. He finds
the sense ‘‘to adjust’’ appropriate in Ezk 18:25,
29; 33:17-30; Ps 75:4, and the meaning ‘gauge,
estimate’’ the only one possible in Prov 16:2;
21:2; 24:12; I Sam 2:3 (R. N. Whybray, The
Heavenly Counsellor in Isaiah XI, 13-14 [Cam-
bridge: At the University Press, 1971], pp. 13ff.).
Driver’s sense ts established in Ezk 18:25 where

970

it is said of God: **The way of the Lord its not
just” (i.e. “‘not adjusted to ordinary standards’’).
In the second set of passages the point is made
that God is able to gauge or correctly estimate the
state of man’s heart.

The tension between these two possible mean-
ings is seen in Isa 40:13. Here the KJv, asv, and
RSV ambiguously translate our word by “‘direct.”’
But in the preceding verse the same word is trans-
lated *‘measured out’’ and the sense, “‘to gauge,”’
is extremely appropriate to the passage. The Lxx
correctly interprets the verse: ‘‘Who_ has
known/comprehended the mind of the Lorp"™’ (cf.
I Cor 2:16). Whybray translates the verse as fol-
lows:

Who has understood the mind of Yahweh,

of who was his counsellor, who instructed him?
Whom did he consult for his guidance,

and who taught him the way to achieve order,
and showed him how to exercise creative skill?

Unlike Marduk who needed the wisdom of his
father Ea to effect the creation, Yahweh acted
alone in his sublime intelligence. Unlike the
pagan notion that creation continually takes place
through opposing gods locked in deadly conflict,
the cosmos is in fact orderly because it is the
product of one creative mind.
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 1043-44.
B.K.W.

See no. 2511b.

See no. 1037a.

See no. 25]3a.

See no. 1066a.

See no. 106S5a.
See no. 107Sc.

msn (taknit).
MISDR (takrit).
SA (rél).
meon (t°la’a).

mow?n (tal uba).
mysen (talbdshet).

2512 mR (tala) hang. (asv and Rsv similar.)

Derivative

2512a PR (tli) quiver.

The parallel form tala’ (cf. E. Kautzsch and
A. E. Cowley, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, sec-
tions 75 nn and rr), rendered ‘‘be bent,’’ ‘‘hang,”’
‘*hang in doubt” (asv and Rsv similar), is attested
only in Deut 28:66, Hos 11:7, and II Sam 21:12,
the latter in a Qere-Kethib situation, whereas the
major form, tala, is found twenty-eight times (if
II Sam 21:12 is included).

The verb means basically *‘to hang,’’ whether
a utensil on a peg (Isa 22:24; Ezk 15:3), weapons
on a wall (Ezk 27:10f., both Piel; Song 4:4), ora
lyre on a tree (Ps 137:2). Job 26:7 stnkingly pic-
tures the then-known world as suspended in
space, thereby anticipating future scientific dis-
covery, when it states that God ‘‘hangs the earth
upon nothing.’’ Other (more grisly) examples of

the verb may be seen in Lam 5:12 (Niphal);
I] Sam 4:12; 18:10.

Most frequently, tala is used in reference
either to the execution of a person or to the public
display of his corpse after execution. Since
Herodotus (History, 3.159) indicates that impal-
ing was acommon method of execution in Persia
(see also Ezr 6:11 asv and rsv), perhaps tala’
al‘és, traditionally rendered “‘he hanged on a
gallows/tree,’’ means rather ‘‘he impaled on a
stake,’’ especially in Est (ef. particularly Lxx
stauroo *‘impale/crucify,’’ which is used to trans-
late rala in Est 7:9). The same notion underlies
Gen 40:19,22; 41:3, reflecting Egyptian practice.
A somewhat similar sense underlies Lam 5:12 re-
flecting Mesopotamian practice. In any event,
there is no evidence that the hangman's noose
was employed in such contexts, while Assyrian
reliefs during the time of the Hebrew monarchy
often picture corpses hanging on the stakes
where they have been impaled. If this interpreta-
tion is correct, Deut 21:22f. takes on greater
vividness: ‘‘If a man has committed a sin worthy
of death and he is put to death, and you hang him
on a tree, his body shall not remain all night on
the tree, but you shall bury him the same day,
because a hanged man is accursed by God.”
(However, this passage may indicate that Israel’s
method of executing the criminal differed from
that of her pagan neighbors; whereas the latter
executed the offender by hanging or impaling, Is-
rael stoned him and supplemented his punish-
ment by hanging/impaling his body (II Sam 4:12;
Josephus, Ant. 4.202; cf. Josh 10:26; 8:29). Since
this supplementary act demonstrated that the
victim was cursed by the Lord, his body had to
be buried by nightfall in order not to defile the
blessed land; cf. Dt 21:22, Niv. B.K.w.] This fa-
mous passage, alluded to in the commentary on
Nahum found in Qumran Cave IV (see J. M. AI-
legro in JBL 75: p. 91), is also referred to in Acts
5:30; 10:39 and quoted in part in Gal 3:13. In all
three NT passages, the crucifixion of Jesus is in
view, OT impaling was accomplished most likely
on the single upright post or crux simplex, while
our Lord was crucified most probably on the
notorious and __all-too-familiar upright-plus-
crossbar, the crux immissa (see Irenaeus,
Against Heresies, 2.24.4), enabling the super-
scription to be nailed to the cross above his head
(Mt 27:37; Lk 23:38). More significantly, his
hanging on a tree denoted that he bore the curse
of God for us.

R.F.Y.

99m (talal). See no. 2513b.

2513 9°m (tll) 1. Assumed root of the following.
2513a Tom (tél) mound, heap.

971

2514

2515 Bom (tlm).

2516 yon (tl')

2413b 0 8m (ralal) exalted, lofty (Ezk
17:22).
2513c 8360 PRP (taltallim). Meaning — un-

certain; used figuratively of a wo-
man’s hair (Song 5:11).

tel. Mound, heap, tel. <A tel (Akkadian tillu;
Arabic tallu) is a large mound covering ruins,
usually shaped like a truncated hill, representing
the site of an ancient city (or succession of cities
built on top of each other). Its characteristic ap-
pearance is caused by the collapse of walls and
buildings and/or the construction (primarily in the
Hyksos or Middle Bronze II B-C period, c.
1750-1550 B.c.) of enormous sloping fortifications
technically known as a glacis. The landscape of
the Middle East is dotted with thousands of tels
that (under current excavating and interpreting
procedures) will keep archaeologists busy for
centuries as they attempt to reconstruct the his-
tory of the sites (see especially E. Yamauchi, The
Stones and the Scriptures, pp. 146-66). In the oT,
nearly all the occurrences of té/ are in reference
to the results of God’s judgment on sinful people
(Deut 13:16 (H 17]: Josh 8:28; Jer 49:2: and, by
implication, Jer 30:18). During the exilic and
postexilic periods, a few sites in Babylonia were
already notable for their ruined condition, as
their names demonstrate (Ezk 3:15; Ezr 2:59 =
Neh 7:61).

R.F.Y.

*O9m (talal) II, mock, deceive, trifle with.
Occurs in the Hiphil and Hophal (e.g. Gen
31:7: Isa 44:20).

Derivative

2514a mene (mahdatalld) illusions.

Assumed root of the following.

251Sa Bom (telem) furrow (e.g. Hos
4:10; Job 31:38).
som (talmid). See no. 1116c.
mom (t°lannad). See no. 1097a.
2516 yon (tl'), Assumed root of the following.
2516a ty9Im (16la') worm, scarlet, crimson.
2516b tmpin (16lé'a), My?m (tdla‘at)
worm.

2516c *P2m (tala') clad in scarlet. This
denominative verb occurs only
once, in the Pual (Nah 2:4).

2516d omen (m°tall’'6t) teeth (Job
29:17; Joel 1:6; Prov 30:14). On
malt’é6t fangs (Ps 58:6|H]). See
Dahood AB, Ps II, p. 61.

tola‘, tdle‘a, tola‘at. Worm, scarlet, crim-

son. All three forms of this word mean ‘‘worm,
maggot, larva’’; two of them (td/a’ and tola‘at)

2517 nib? (talpiydt)

also mean “‘scarlet, crimson.’’ The worms re-
ferred to are probably the larvae of certain kinds
of insects, primarily flies, moths, and beetles. In
the oT they often symbolize the weakness and
insignificance of man (Job 25;6; Ps 22:6 [H 7]; Isa
41:14); they are of a type that devour decaying
matter (Ex 16:20), including corpses (Isa 14:11;
66:24; cf. also especially ta#/tu in this sense in
Akkadian; Gilgamesh refused to believe that En-
kidu was dead “‘until a worm fell out of his
nose’’; see ANET, p. 90). They also are of a
kind that feed on various plants (Deut 28:39; Jon
4:7), a fact that helps us to understand the rela-
tionship between ‘‘worm’”’ and “‘scarlet.’’ In an-
cient times a brilliant scarlet or crimson dye was
obtained from the female bodies of the kermes
(Arabic girmiz, whence our word ‘“‘crimson’’) in-
sect, Coccus ilicis, which lives on the kermes
oak, Quercus coccifera, native to the Middle
East (see’ J. Laudermilk in Natural History
58:116f.; R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient
Technology, 1V, pp. 102-6). The dye was highly
prized (Lam 4:5) and as such was employed to
color cloth used in the tabernacle and by those
who worshiped there; ‘d/a‘at is attested twenty-
six times in Ex with the meaning ‘‘scarlet
(stuff)..’ The permanent quality and deep red
color of the dye made it suitable for use in the
striking figure in Isa 1:18, where a forgiving God
says to his wayward people: ‘‘Though your
sins... be red like crimson, they shall be as
wool.”
Bibliography: TDNT, VIII, pp. 453-55.
R.F.Y.

2517 mispen (talpiyot)
Meaning doubtful.

weapons (Song 4:4).

penem (taltallim). See no. 2513c.
BN (tom), BM (tam). See nos. 2522a,c.

2518 Mam (tamah) be amazed, astonished.
Derivative

2518a tmp (timmahdn) astonishment.

The root meaning is ‘be’ astounded,
dumbfounded, bewildered,’ with an element of
fear, whether because of an amazing or fearful
sight (Ps 48:5 [H 6]; Isa 29:9; Hab 1:5; Eccl 5:8
{H 7]; Jer 4:9; Sir 11:13) or a terrifying sound (Job
26:11). Frightening or bewildering events may
cause people to look at each other in amazement
(Gen 43:33) or terror (Isa 13:8). The element of
startled astonishment is also found in the context
of Isa 14:16. The Aramaic cognate noun ft’ mah
occurs three times in Dan (4:2f. (Aram. 3:32f.];
6:27 [Aram. 28]) with the meaning ‘“*wonder’’ in
the sense of ‘‘marvelous act, miracle,’ and also
with the element of the fearful.

972

2519 32H (fammiz) Tammuz.

timmahén. Astonishment. The Heb. noun oc-
curs only twice (Deut 28:28; Zech 12:4), both
times in context with shigga’én ‘*madness,”’ and
‘iwwaron ‘blindness,’ the three rhymning nouns
all denoting aspects of divine judgment, a factor
often in the background of the passages where
the root tmh appears.

R.F.Y.

mpm (timmahén). See no. 2518a.

(ASV and. RSV
similar.)

The proper name Tammuz derives ultimately
from Sumerian DUMU.ZI(D), *‘The Quickener
of the Child (in the mother’s womb),”’ the god of
Mesopotamian myth who was the patron deity of
the city of Bad-tibira in the broad and grassy
steppeland in the heart of southern Babylonia.
Tammuz was a food or vegetation deity embody-
ing four different aspects: a power in the sap that
rises in trees and plants, a power in the date palm
and its fruit, a power in grain and beer, and a
power in milk. This fourth aspect was his most
characteristic one; since he represented the mys-
terious potential in the female sheep of giving
birth to young and of producing milk with its
life-giving powers, he became the patron saint of
shepherds, the god of fertility and producer of
new life who managed and cared for cattle pens
and sheepfolds.

Of the three most important Sumerian ritual
dramas (in which cultic concepts were acted out
in a formal setting in order to coerce the gods to
perform the desires and fulfill the needs of the
actors), two related directly to Tammuz. The first
was the hieros gamos, in which the king, taking
on himself the identity of Tammuz, cohabited
with a priestess (representing the goddess
Inanna/Ishtar, the lover of Tammuz) to insure
that the power of fertility would pervade nature
and guarantee prosperity and plenty. The second
was based on the observable fact that the end of
spring brought the end of new life in nature, the
end of the milking and lambing season, the obvi-
ous conclusion was that Tammuz, the power who
had produced all these blessings, had died! So a
dramatic lament for the dead god was held annu-
ally at the beginning of the hot, dry summer, in
the fourth month of the Mesopotamian calendar
(our late June and early July), the month that was
named ‘‘Tammuz”’ after him. In the rites he was
mourned by women who represented his be-
reaved mother, sister, and young widow. A
characteristic Akkadian ritual reads tn part as fol-
lows: ‘‘In the month of Tammuz, when Ishtar has
the entire population wail over her lover Tammuz
and one's family is gathered there, Ishtar is pre-
sent...’ (for the Akkadian text see E. Ebeling,
Tod und Leben, Part I, p. 49).

In Ezk 8:14, “women weeping for Tammuz” is
mentioned among several abominations that
Ezekiel observed taking place in the Jerusalem
temple area. Tammuz was represented in
Mesopotamian literature as a youth, handsome,
attractive, having no responsibilities (see espe-
cially T. Jacobsen, Toward the Image of Tam-
muz and Other Essays, passim). His cult was
thus primarily (perhaps exclusively) a woman's
cult, without positive ethical or religious value.
[Believing that Tammuz rose from the dead,
many scholars have used the myth to explain or
illustrate material in the oT, Nt, and Apocrypha.
But E. Yamauchi has demonstrated that there is
no good evidence that Tammuz rose from the
dead (‘Tammuz and the Bible,’ JBL 84:283-—90).
B.K.W.}| It is no wonder that the one true God,
who brooks no rivals, judged its Jerusalem de-
votees without pity (Ezk 8:17f.).

Similar to the cult of Tammuz was that of
Adonis in Syria, which may have been simply a
local variant of it. Many recent translators and
commentators (cf., e.g., The Amplified Bible,
The New English Bible, Leupold, ICC) find a ref-
erence to gardens planted in honor Adonis in Isa
17:10. It is also possible that the ‘‘desire of
women’ of Dan 11:37 is Adonis (see footnote in
The Jerusalem Bible, p. 1447).

R.F.Y.
mvon (tf mind). See no. 1191tb.
maven (t°mura). See no. 1164a.
mnivwn (t°mata). See no. 1169d.
wom (1amid). See no. 1157a.

pon (famim). See no. 2522d.

2520 ‘On
support.

(tamak) grasp, lay hold of, hold fast,
(ASV, RSV Similarly.)

The basic idea of this West Semitic root is
‘*grasping securely.’ hence, it is found in parallel
with verbs like “Ghaz ‘‘seize”’ (e.g. Prov 3:18).

The root is most frequently used in contexts
that deal with moral matters or spiritual truths.
To the former category belong most of the usages
in Prov: The thinking son holds fast the wise
words of his father (4:4). Indeed, all who lay hold
on wisdom are happy (3:18). A humble man
(29:23) and a gracious woman (11:16) attain
honor, while a strong man lays hold on wealth
(29:23). Unlike the virtuous woman who is
praised for her industriousness (Prov 31:19), the
steps of the adulteress lay hold on Sheol (5:5).
While the wicked are held fast by their own sin
(5:22), if the believer holds to God's paths (Ps
17:5) he shall have God’s reward (Isa 33; 15ff.).

The verb is also used of God's sovereign order-
ing of the affairs of history. He brings judgment
where needed (Amos 1:5, 8) until he sends forth
his righteous servant whom he will ‘‘uphold”’ in
his just rule of the nations of the world (Isa 42:1).

973

2522 DIA (tamam)

Similarly in Ps 16:5 God “‘upholds’** the Messiah
(the form of the verb is an irregular active partici-
ple, or a mispointing for t6mék).

R.D.P.
2521 97m (t’mol), aan (fmol), rbtelal
Cetmil), 2V2m8 (itt’mdl) before, be-

fore that time, beforetime, heretofore, of
late, of old, these days, time(s) past, yester-
day. (aSv_ similar, although reading
‘‘aforetime’’ in Josh 4:18; rsv similar, al-
though reading “long” in Isa 30:33; ‘*hith-
erto”’ in Ex 5:14; “the past’’ in Ex 21:29;
‘always’ in I Sam 21:5 [H 6]; “some time
past’? in 11 Sam 3:17: and *‘formerly”’ in
II Kgs 13:5.)

The word ¢t’mdodl and its derivatives signify
**yesterday, but they are used in isolation only
six times in that sense (1 Sam 20:27; II Sam 15:20;
Job 8:9: Ps 90:4: Isa 30:33: Mic 2:8: see also Sir
38:22). In all twenty-four occurrences they are
combined with shilshém ‘three days ago, the
day before yesterday," in some fashion; cf., e.g.,
t“mél shilsh6m (Ex 5:8), literally ‘‘yesterday
(and) the day before,’ idiomatically ‘‘formerly,
recently, before.’’ The phrase is an ancient one,
appearing twice in a Canaanite Amarna letter of
the fourteenth cen. B.c. as tumal shalshami (cf.
Revue d’Assyriologie [1922], p. 102, lines 14,
16). In or poetic literature, ¢° mdi refers to the
brevity and insignificance of life from man’s
standpoint (Job 8:9) and of time from God's
standpoint (Ps 90:4).

R.F.Y.
2522 fm (tamam) be complete.
Derivatives
2522a tam (ftom) integrity.
2522b TMM (tamma) integrity.
2522c tam (1am) perfect.
2522d ton (1amim) complete.
2522e =ont (m°tom) entirety.

tamam may assume an auxiliary function, e.g.
in Josh 3:16 the literal rendering, *““They were
complete, they were cut off,’ represents, **They
were completely cut off.”

With the verb’s fundamental idea of complete-
ness, Samuel inquired of Jesse, ‘“Are here all
(Heb ha-tammi) thy children?” (I Sam 16:11).
Cf. tamim (the root tamam’s most common de-
rivative), describing an entire day (Josh 10:13) or
a whole, and therefore healthy, vine (Ezk 15:5).
mtom indicates soundness of flesh (Ps 38:3).
tamim delimits Israel's sacrifices, which were to
be without blemish, perfect in that respect, so as
to be accepted (Lev 22:21-22) as types of Chnist,
the spotless Lamb of God (1 Pet 1:19). Speech
which is tamim (Amos 5:10) corresponds to

2523 WR (tmr)

‘‘what is complete, entirely in accord with truth
and fact’? (BDB, p. 1071). Elthu was enabled to
assure Job, ‘*‘My words are not false; one who is
perfect (tamim) is with you”’ (Job 36:4), because
of his inspiration by God, who is perfect (tamim)
in knowledge (37:16; cf. 32:8, 18; 33:4). In the
fullest sense it 1s Yahweh's acts (Deut 32:4:
I] Sam 22:31 = Ps 18:30 [H 31] and law (Ps 19:7
{H 8} that are perfect.

tamam moves naturally toward that which is
ethically sound, upright (Ps 19:13 [H 14]). The
‘perfect’? (tamim) decision, as made by lots, is
the correct one (I Sam 14:41). As made by men, tt
is the right one (Jud 9:16, 19). Asaph praised the
completeness (t6m) or integrity of King David's
heart (Ps 78:72). tamam is used with the com-
mandments of God meaning to fulfill them (Josh
4:10). The av translates Job 22:3, “if you make
your ways perfect."’ Abraham was instructed to
be tamim (Gen 17:1), as was all Israel (Deut
18:13; cf. IT Sam 22:33: Ps 101:2a,6). They were
to be ‘‘wholly’’ God's; for, even here, ‘“‘the
words which are rendered in English by ‘perfect’
and ‘perfection’ denoted originally something
other and less than ideal perfection’’ (IDB, III,
p. 730).

From a concept of being “‘used up,’ as of
money (Gen 47:15, 18), t@mam takes on the
meaning of **come to a close, cease,’’ as of a year
(v. 18: cf. Ps 102:27 (H 28]). The verb denotes the
finishing of various actions, such as building
(I Kgs 6:22) or writing (Deut 31:24, 30). Finally, it
refers to a people's destruction (Num 14:33).

Two problems of ot theology concern the verb
tamam: self-righteousness and perfectionism. II-
lustrating the former, David expresses the re-
solve, ‘‘I will walk within my house with a per-
fect (tom) heart’’ (Ps 101:2b kjv, Asv: marg. and
RSV, ‘in the integrity of my heart’’): cf. his not
infrequent professions of mghteousness (Ps 7:8
{H 9}; 18:20). Yet the connection with NT
Pharisaism remains one of *‘mere appearance”
(KD, Psalms, 1, p. 72). *“Some of these utter-
ances are no more than asseverations that the
speaker is tnnocent of particular crimes laid to his
charge; others are general professions of purity of
purpose. ... Those who make them do not pro-
fess to be absolutely sinless, but they do disclaim
all fellowship with the wicked, from whom they
expect to be distinguished in the course of Provi-
dence” (A. F. Kirkpatrick, Cambridge Bible,
Psalms, 1, p. 1xxxviil).

For the latter, other than in the above-listed
passages referring to God himself, the oT resists
claims to ultimate perfection. Noah was said to
be tamim “‘perfect’’ (Gen 6:9; NasB, ‘‘blameless
in his time’’). But compare Genesis 9:21-23 and
even the creature *‘in Eden’’ (Ezk 28:13, whether
Adam or Satan, see satan) who was tamim from
his creation until unnghteousness was found in

974

him (v. 15), was by no means incapable of sin.
Scripture’s preeminent example of the tam ** per-
fect’’ man, is Job (Job 1:1). He claimed to be tam
(9:21-22) and tamim (12:4) and held fast to his
tumma ‘integrity’ (27:5; 31:6), as recognized not
only by his wife (2:9) but also by Yahweh in
heaven (1:8: 2:3). In reference to the root mean-
ing of ramam, he was a “‘finished product,” well
rounded and balanced (IB, III, p. 909). Job, how-
ever, prefaced his own assertions by granting,
**Though I be perfect, it (marg., he) shall prove
me perverse’ (9:20 asv). He admitted his sins
(7:20-21; 9:2, 15; 10:6; 14:16—-17), even from his
youth (13:26), confessed that he could not be held
innocent (9:28), and ended by retracting his rash
charges against God and by repenting in dust and
ashes (42:6). As he explained, “‘If I have truly
erred, my error lodges with me’’; i.e. he was not
guilty of the accusations made by his ‘‘friends”’
(22:6-9) and was tamim, wholehearted in his
commitment to the person and requirements of
God.

tom. I/ntegrity. (In eleven of twenty-three us-
ages); also strength, perfection (Isa 47:9; asv, RSV
translate ‘‘full measure’’), or uprightness. The
phrase /°t6m, concerning a soldier's bow, shot
‘at a venture’’ (I Kgs 22:34), literally (marg.) **in
his simplicity,” means unsuspectingly. The
plural, tummim ~‘perfections,” describes the
Thummin, the precious stones of Aaron’s
breastpiece (see ‘arim).

tumma. Integrity. Appears five times in oT
wisdom literature (e.g. Job 2:3; Prov 11:3).

tam. Perfect. So translated in nine of thirteen
occurrences, many of which refer to the patriarch
Job. Also means undefiled, upright. For young
Jacob's identification as a ‘“‘plain’’ man (Gen
25:27 KJv), the revised versions render tam as
harmless (marg.), quiet.

tamim. Complete. Refers to animals which are
without blemish; also translated as such related
adjectives as full, whole, upright, perfect. It rep-
resents the divine standard for man’s attainment.
Bibliography: Deissley, A., ‘‘Perfection,” in
Sacramentum Verbi, II, 1970, pp. 658-63. Payne,
J. B., Theology of the Older Testament, Zonder-

van, 1971, pp. 336-38. THAT, II, pp. 1045-S0.
J.B.P.

Dem (temes). See no. 1223c.

2523 33M (tmr). Assumed root of the following.

2523a tM (témer) palm tree.

2523b tam (tamar) palm, palm tree.

2523c tam (timdra) palm tree.

2523d TANIA (timara) pillar.

2523e oven (tamrir) high
31:21).

leap (Jer

tomer. Palm tree. (asv and rsv similar in Jud
4:5, but in Jer 10:5 asvmarg. has pillar and rsv has
scarecrow.) Virtually all recent lexica and trans-
lations (BDB, KB, The Amplified Bible, The Liv-
ing Bible, Moffatt, The New English Bible, and
so forth) read ‘‘scarecrow’’ in Jer 10:5 on the
basis of the parallel passage in the Apocryphal
book of Baruch 6:70 (6:69 Gr.; = Epistle of Jer,
verse 70 [verse 69 Gr.]), where the Gr. text uses
the word probaskanion.

tamar. Palm, palm tree. Among the tallest and
most graceful of all trees found in the Middle
East, the date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, per-
formed numerous functions in oT times. It was
used as a landmark (Jud 1;16), for shade and food
(see Ex 15:27), as building material (Neh 8:15f.),
and as a craftsman’s model in adorning temples
(I Kgs 6:29; Ezk 40:16). [These ‘trees of life,’ as
some think these palm trees were considered to
be, were carved on the face of the pilasters and at
the height of the wainscoting in the holy place (cf.
Paul Leslie Garber, ‘‘A Reconstruction of Sol-
omon’s Temple,’ Archaeological Discoveries in
the Holy Land (1967), pp. 101-11; cf. I Kgs
6:21-35. B.K.w.] The palm was also a symbol of
stateliness (Song 7:7 {H 8]) and prosperity (Ps
92:12 [H 13)).

timora. Palm tree. (asv and Rsv similar.) Used
only in reference to architectural ornamentation.

timara. Pillar. (asv similar; Rsv column.) Used
only of a column of smoke in Song 3:6; Joel 2:30
[H 3:3].

R.F.Y.

See no. 1246b.
See nos. 12481, 2523e.

Piven (famriq).
WH (tamrir).

1A (tan). See no. 2528a.
2524 2h (tana) I, hire. (asv and rsv similar.)
Derivative
2524a =MIDN (etna) reward. asv and RSV
**hire.’’)

The basic meaning of these words is **(to give/
pay) the price demanded by a prostitute (for her
services.’’ The word must be carefully distin-
guished from favorable words for hire, such as
Sakar, maSkeret, and p‘ulla. BDB posits two re-
lated roots for this group of words, tny and tnn,
both of which it claims are akin to ntn. The root
ytnintn ‘‘to give/pay,’’ may in fact be the ultimate
origin of the group; KB, p. 101, states that ’entan
(root ntn) is the forerunner of ’etnan, from which
‘etna developed later. If so, tana could in turn
have been derived as a denominative verb from
‘etna. At any rate, most recent scholars assume a
relationship with ntn, however distant. Perhaps
we should also note Ezk 16:33 where neden and

975

2525 *mIn (tana) Id,

2526 “33K

2526 “43K (tannar)

neden (cf. Akkadian nadanu ‘‘ti give/pay,’’ cog-
niate to the Hebrew root nin) are equivalent to
"etnan in 16:31, 34, 41.

The oT passages in which this group of words
occurs (a) are always in contexts of condemna-
tion and (b) always have spiritual considerations
and/or ritual prostitution in view. Deuteronomy
23:18 [H 19] states that wages earned through
prostitution were not to be brought as an offering
to the house of the Lord. Micah 1:7 indicates that
such wages (almost certainly from ritual prostitu-
tion in this case) will be destroyed by God. The
words are used elsewhere in a figurative sense,
usually of religious apostasy, in passages like Isa
23:17f. and Hos 8:9f. The blending of the literal
and figurative meanings of these words is no-
where better illustrated than in Hos 2:12 (H 14]
and its context, where Gomer’s unfaithfulness to
Hosea Is a striking paradigm of Israel’s unfaith-
fulness to God.

R.F.Y.

recount, rehearse. Oc-
curs only in the Piel (Jud 5:11; 11:40).

msm (rnd’a). See no. 1317a.
moun (t'nibad). See no. 1318c.
MIM (t’nuk). See no. 2527a.
main (f°numa). See no. 1325b.
mewn (t’ndupa). See no. 1330b.

(tannair) furnace, oven. (asv_ and
Rsv similar, although rsv renders ‘‘fire
pot’’ in Gen 15:17.)

The word denotes basically the relatively small
and sometimes portable stove or oven rather than
the larger furnace. Constructed of clay and often
sunk into the ground, they had a cylindrical or
beehive shape and were two to three feet in
diameter. (Similar ovens are still made and used
today in the hinterlands of Palestine.) Bread and
other foods were baked in them (Lev 2:4; 7:9;
26:26; cf. also 11:35 and Ex 8:3 [H 7:28}), and
apparently a special area in the northwest sector
of ancient Jerusalem was reserved for the bakers
of the city, because it was defended by the Tower
of the Ovens (Neh 3:11; 12:38). In Gen 15:17 a
smoking oven and flaming torch represent the
presence of God in a fiery theophany. The heat of
an oven is used as a simile of anger and passion in
Hos 7:4, 6—7 and of destructive famine in Lam
5:10. The fires of divine judgment are represented
by a blazing oven in Isa 31:9 and Mal 4:1
[H 3:19]; (cf. also Sir 48:1), as well as in Ps 21:9
[H 10], with which G. R. Driver compares an Old
Babylonian parallel (in Archiv fur Orient-
forschung 18:129).

R.F.Y.

2527 39M (tnk).

2527 337 (tnk)

Biman (fanhiim). See no. 1144d.
T3R (tannin). See no. 2528b.

Assumed root of the following.
2527a 9 IN (t"nuk) tip, i.e. lobe of ear
(Ex 29:20; Lev 8:23,24; 14:14, etc.)

2528 433m (tnn) 1, Assumed root of the following.
2528a nh (tan) dragon, whale.
2528b 92H (tannin) dragon, sea monster.

tan. Dragon, whale. (asv, RSV and Niv ‘‘jack-
al," except in Ezk 29:3: 32:2, where asv and NIV
read ‘““monster’’ and rsv reads ‘“‘dragon.’’) The
word fan is attested only in various pl. forms, the
most common being tannim, which was trans-
lated by ksv throughout the ot as “‘dragon,
whale’’ through confusion with the unrelated
sing. form tannin *‘sea monster’ (q.v.). The
same confusion exists in the Masoretic text itself
in Ezk 29:3; 32:2, where the context demands
that tannim be rendered “*sea monster’ or the
like. The jackal (Canis aureus), a scavenger that
feeds on carrion, was often observed in the oT
period as roaming about in the ruins of aban-
doned cities and so was almost always used as a
symbol of desolation and of divine judgment
against sinful nations and individuals.

tannin. Dragon, sea monster, Serpent,
whale. (asv and rsv similar, although asv never
renders ‘dragon’ or “‘whale’’ and sometimes
reads simply ‘“‘monster’: RSV never uses
**whale’’; asv and rsv both read *‘jackal,”’ at Neh
2:13 and Lam 4:3.) The word denotes ‘‘any large
reptile’’ (Ex 7:9, asv marg.) and is twice spelled
tannim in the Masoretic text (Ezk 29:3; 32:2),
apparently through confusion with the plural of
tan ‘jackal’ (so BDB). In Lam 4:3 the context
demands *‘jackals”* for tannin, the Qere, in fact,
reads tannim. If the spring mentioned in Neh
2:13 was named after jackals that drank there (so
ASV and RSv), fannin in that passage would be an
Aramaized pl.; Lxx translates there ton sykon “‘of
the fig trees,’ possibly from a Hebrew text that
read t’nym. Referring to anything from large
snakes (Ex 7:9-10, 12; Deut 32:33: Ps 91:13) to
enormous sea creatures (Gen 1:21: Ps 148:7),
tannin/m is also often used in a figurative sense to
denote God's most powerful opponents, whether
natural (Job 7:12) or national (Babylon: Jer 51:34:
Egypt: Isa 51:9: Ezk 29:3: 32:2; see especially
A. Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis, pp. 102-14).
Ugaritic tnn refers to a mythological sea mon-
ster, and certain passages in which it occurs bear
strong resemblances to OT passages mentioning
tannin, including Ps 74:13f. and especially Isa
27:1 (cf. ANET, p. 138). If, as seems likely, the
OT writers used such motifs of the Canaanite
poets, they did so only in a literary and
thoroughly demythologized (in the best sense!)

976

way to highlight the fact that the one true God
always defeats all his enemies (see J. Bright, The
Authority of the Old Testament, pp. 129, 178-80).
More particularly, Israel's poets used this im-
agery to show the Lorp’s power in history over
his political enemies (Jer 51:34; Isa 51:9), and
after history over the ultimate spiritual power
(Isa 27:1; cf. Rev. 12, 13). On the subject of the
biblical use of mythological allusions, see the ju-
dicious remarks of M. Dahood, in AB, Psalms IT,
p. xxxv., also Smick, E. B., **Mythology and the

Book of Job,’ JETS 13: 101-108.
R.F.Y.

2529 33F (tnn). II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2529a «1108 ~('etnan) hire of prostitute
(e.g. Ezk 16:34, 41; Isa 23:18). A
by-form of 'etnd (q.v.).

newan (fanshemet). See no. 1433b.

2530 *Ssym (ta'ab) abhor (Piel), be abomin-

able (Niphal), do abominably (Hiphil).
Does not occur in the Qal. A denominative
verb.

Parent Noun

2530a tmgpin (t6‘éba) abominable (cus-
tom, thing).

The asv and rsv translate this verb similarly,
although rsv renders ‘‘loathe’’ in Isa 14:19; Ps
107:18 and ‘‘prostitute’’ in Ezk 16:25. Attested
twenty-two times in the oT, ta@‘ab never occurs in
the Qal stem. The alternate spelling ta’ab ap-
pears in the Piel in Amos 6:8.

Since it never appears in the Qal stem, perhaps
the verb is derived from the noun rather than vice
versa (so BDB), since the Piel is frequently a de-
nominative stem. Its basic meanings in the Piel
are ‘‘abhor, loathe’’ in a physical sense (Job 9:31;
19:19: 30:10; Ps 107:18) and ‘detest, exclude”’
for ritual or ethical reasons (Deut 7:26; 23:7
{H 8]). Often the two meanings coalesce (Amos
5:10; Mic 3:9); in any event, the subject may be
either God (Ps 106:40) or man (Isa 49:7). In the
Hiphil, the verb means “‘commit abominable/
detestable deeds’? (I Kigs 21;26; Ps 14:1; 53:1
[H 2]; Ezk 16:52), while in the Niphal it means
‘‘be loathesome, detestable’’ (1 Chr 21:6; Job
15:16; Isa 14:19).

to‘éba. Abominable (custom, thing), abomina-
tion. (ASV and rsv similar, although rsv reads
‘*thing of horror’ in Ps 88:8 [H 9] and inexplica-
bly omits the word entirely in Ezk 16:36.) The
frequency of this word attests to its importance;
it occurs 117 times in all. (For the notonous
‘‘abominations of desolation,’* see under the root
shaqas.)

The nuances of 16'éba are numerous indeed
(for the most complete recent study of both the
noun and the verb, cf. P. Humbert, **Le substan-
tif to'éba et le verbe t'b dans l’Ancien Testa-
ment,’’ ZAW 72:217-37). As with the verb, so
also with the noun the abomination may be of a
physical, ritual or ethical nature and may be
abhorred by God or man. Sharing a meal with a
Hebrew was ritually offensive to an Egyptian
(Gen 43:32), as was offering certain kinds of sac-
rifices (Ex 8:22). Homosexuality and other per-
versions are repugnant to God and fall under his
judgment (Lev 18:22-30; 20:13). Idolatry (Deut
7:25), human sacrifice (Deut 12:31), eating ritu-
ally unclean animals (Deut 14:3-8), sacrificing de-
fective animals (Deut 17:1), engaging in occult
activities (Deut 18:9-14), conducting one’s busi-
ness dishonestly (Deut 25:13—16), practicing
ritual prostitution (I Kgs 14:23f.), and similar acts
of disobedience (for seven more abominations,
see the list in Prov 6:16~-19) were sure to bring
God's wrath on those who perpetrated them.
Twelve times the book of Proverbs uses the
phrase, “‘is an abomination to the Lorp.”’ In Ps
88, a prayer for help written by a man close to
death, the physically repulsive appearance of a
t6‘éba is stressed: the man’s former friends avoid
him because they consider him to be a thing of
horror (Ps 88:8 [H 9]).

Sometimes 16‘'éba is used as a synonym for
“idol,” as in Isa 44:19, or even for a specific
pagan deity, as in II Kgs 23:13 where Milcom is
called “‘the abomination of the Ammonites,”
parallel to *‘Ashtoreth the abomination (shiqgis)
of the Sidonians’’ and *‘Chemosth the abomina-
tion (shiqq&és) of Moab.”’ At the other end of the
spectrum, even prayer is an abomination if of-
fered by one who refuses to obey God’s Word
(Prov 28:9).

Whereas f6‘é64 includes that which is aesthet-
ically and morally repulsive, its synonym sheqes
denotes that which is cultically unclean, espe-
cially idolatry.

Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 1051-54.
R:F.Y:.
2531 MYH (ta'a) err, wander, go astray.
Derivative
253la TRYIM (16d) error.

The verb fa‘ad means “‘err, stagger, stray, wan-
der.’’ It occurs most frequently in the Qal stem
but also appears twice in the Niphal (Job 15:31;
Isa 19:14) and often in the Hiphil (with its normal
causative stress). td‘d attested only in Ezk 13:10
(Hiphil), is probably a secondary formation from
this root.

It is possible to wander in a physical sense (cf.,
e.g., Gen 21:14), to stagger because of drunken-
ness (cf. Isa 28:7), and to err or stray mentally,

977

2532 *PYR (ta'a’) deceive

2533 BER (tupinim) broken

2533 OEM (tapinim)

morally, or spiritually (Ps 95:10 and often). In Ps
58:3 [H 4] it is said of the wicked that they go
astray from the very moment they are born. The
most familiar passage in which tda‘a@ appears ts Isa
53:6, where the physical and spiritual nuances
blend beautifully: ‘*All we like sheep have gone
astray....’ Whereas in the past _ Israel's
shepherds led them astray (Jer 50:6), in the future
the son of David will be their shepherd (Ezk
14:11).

to‘a. Error (Isa 32:6; asv and rsv similar),
hinder (Neh 4:8 [H 2]; asv and rsv ‘‘confusion’’).
The noun clearly carries the same basic meanings
as the verb.
Bibliography:
II, pp. 1055—S6.

TDNT, VI, pp. 233-36. THAT,
R.F.Y.

spn (1° ada).
moyn (1° ‘ala).
peoopn (ta‘alalim). See no. 1627f.
mpaoyn (ta'dlamma). See no. 1629a.
AYR (ta'dnig). See no. 1648c.
mph (ta'dnit). See no. 1652f.

See no. 1575g.
See no. 1624n.

(Pilpel), misuse
(Hithpalpel). Does not occur in the Qal.

Derivative

2532a TO YRYR (ta'tu‘im) errors.

The verb means “‘mock"™’ and appears only
twice in the or. In Gen 27:12, Jacob fears that
Isaac will think he is mocking him if he pretends
to be Esau. In II Chr 36:16, the people of Judah
are criticized for having ridiculed the prophets; in
the same verse, two other verbs meaning respec-
tively ‘“‘mock’’ and ‘‘despise’’ are used.

ta‘ti‘im. Errors. (asv and rsv ‘‘delusion’’; asv
marg. ‘‘mockery’’ in Jer 10:15.) This abstract
plural noun means ‘‘mockery™’ and likewise ap-
pears only twice (Jer 10:15 = 51:18). Used in the
phrase ‘work of delusion,” it is an epithet of an
idol in parallelism with hebel, *‘worthlessness,
insubstantiality."* As such, idols delude men and
mock God.

mMepn (f° '’upa). See no. 1583c.
mMezyn (fa'asuma). See no. 1673e.
"YAH (ta‘ar). See no. 1692e.
Me3¥n (ta'driba). See no. 1686d.
Bynyn (ta‘tu‘im). See no. 2532a.
Am (top). See no. 2536a.

MINER (tip'arad). See no. 1726b.
MBA (tapptah). See no. 1390c.
M¥IDM (t°pdsa). See no. 1745b.

pieces. Used
only in Lev 6:14 [H 21]. Meaning dubious.

2534 *oBm (tapal)

2534 *95m (tapal) I, show oneself unsavoury
(Hithpael, only).

Derivatives

DM (tapél) foolish (Lam 2:14;
Job 6:6, only).
2534b fmpen (tipla) folly.

The verb is found only in II Sam 22:27, and
since the corresponding verse in Ps 18 exhibits
the root pdatal (Ps 18:26 [H 27}) instead of tapal,
perhaps we should assume that pdtal was the
original root in II Sam also (cf. asv, RSV, and En-
glishman’s Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance,
p. 1055). In any event, tdpal 1 should be distin-
guished from tdpal II, the root of tapé/ *‘untem-
pered (mortar)”’ (asv similar; Rsv “‘whitewash’’;
so also in Ezk 22:28 asv marg.).

The root tp/ I and its derivatives have ‘‘folly,
foolishness”’ as their basic meaning but as Jer
23:13 shows, the folly is sinful folly, not mere
mental weakness. The classic treatment of this
important oT concept, as well as of many other
Heb. words so rendered, is still that of Geerhard-
us Vos in HDB, II, pp. 43f. It is possible that
Ahithophel ‘a@hitoépel, David's counselor, now
trusted, now treacherous, means ‘‘(My) Brother
Is Folly’’ or *‘Brother of Folly’’ (see especially II
Sam 15:31).

tipla. Folly, foolishly. (asv similar; Rsv reads
‘‘wrong’’ in Job 1:22, “‘unsavory thing” in Jer
23:13, and revocalizes as tf pilla, prayer, in Job
24:12, but without sufficient justification.) At-
tested only three times.

2534a

R.FLY.

2535 %Bpm (tpl) Il. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

2535a = 9B «(tapél) whitewash (Ezk 13:10,

11, 14, 15; 22:28).

The meaning is uncertain. Some think it is the
poor quality mortar that contributes to the
downfall of a wall (kJv); others say it is the
whitewash that covers over the wall’s defects
(RSV, NASB, NIV).

R.F.Y.

mopm (t*pilla). See no. 1776a.
ngopm (tipleset). See no. 1778c.

2536 MPR (tapap) play the timbrel. Denomina-
tive verb.

Parent Noun
2536a THR (top)

{apap is attested only twice. It is probably de-
rived from top (so BDB, KB); see S. B.
Finesinger in HUCA 3:64. In Ps 68, it means
‘*beat (a tambourine),’’ in Nah 2 ‘‘beat (one’s
breast).”’

timbrel, tambourine.

978

top. Tabret, timbrel. (asv similar; Rsv ‘‘tam-
bourine, timbrel’’ and, in Ezk 28:13, ‘‘setting.’’)
The noun fdp is a general term for tambourines
and small drums (the most common instruments
of percussion in ancient times), examples of
which have been found in Egyptian and
Mesopotamian excavations. Often, though not
always (cf., e.g., I Sam 10:5), used by women,
they appear in contexts of merriment (Gen 31:27;
I] Sam 6:5; I Chr 13:8; Job 21:12; Isa 5:12; 24:8;
Jer 31:4), victory in battle (Ex 15:20; Jud 11:34;
I Sam 18:6; Isa 30:32), and, most importantly,
praise to the Lord. However the timbrel is not
among the instruments mentioned in Chr with the
others prescribed for the temple worship (I Chr
15:16—24; 16:46, 42; 25: 1-6). Only in the proces-
sion that brought the ark to Jerusalem were
drums used (I Chr 13:8) and in three of the Pss (Ps
81:2 [H 3]; 149:3; 150:4). In Job 17:6, Kjv ‘‘tab-
ret’’ (for Hebrew tdpet, probably from the root
twp, is better rendered ‘“‘spit’’ in context [So Asv,
RSV, BDB, KB]}).

R.FLY.
2537 “PH (tapar) sew together (e.g. Gen 3:7;
Job 16:15).
2538 WEAR (tapas) catch, handle, lay hold.

This verb appears forty-nine times in the Qal
stem and fifteen times in the Niphal. It 1s also
attested once in the Piel, in Prov 30:28, where, in
light of context, we should probably read, ** You
can take a lizard in your hands’’ (cf. Asv marg.,
RSV, BDB).

The verb means basically ‘‘seize, take hold
of,’ sometimes preparatory to further action. It
is therefore often used of capturing people (II
Kgs 14:13) or towns (Josh 8:8), or of grasping
weapons (Amos 2:15) to use them or musical in-
struments (Gen 4:21) to play them. It also thus
has the figurative sense of ‘‘being expert/skilled
in’’ the law (Jer 2:8) or warfare (Num 31:27). In
fact, the figurative uses of the verb are in many
respects the most interesting. In Ps 10:2, the
wicked are said to be caught in their own
schemes, while in Ezk 14:5 the Lord expresses
his intention to seize or terrorize the hearts of his
idol-worshiping people. Prov 30:9 warns against
seizing or profaning the name of God and is an
excellent example of how oT wisdom literature
presupposes the Mosaic legislation (Ex 20:7; Lev
19:12; Deut 5:11).

R.F.Y.

2539 MBN (topet) Topheth (II Kgs 23:10),

Tophet (Jer). (asv and rRsv_ always
‘*Topheth.’’)

An alternate form, topteh, is found in Isa
30:33, where kJv renders ‘*Tophet,’’ asv and rsv

marg. ‘‘Topheth,”’ and rsv “‘burning place.’ For
topet I, “‘spit’’ (Job 17:6 asv Rsv; “*tabret’’), see
under fdapap.

The name **Tophet”’ referred to a place in the
Valley of the Son(s) of Hinnom (II Kgs 23:10; Jer
7:31f.: 19:6) where children were burned to death
as an offering to pagan deities. More specifically,
it was a “high place” (Jer 7:32), an open-air
shrine, located most probably at a point outside
the southern end of Jerusalem where the Hinnom
Valley meets the Kidron Valley in the vicinity of
Akeldama, the ** Field of Blood”™* (Acts 1:19; see
J. Simons, Jerusalem in the Old Testament, pp.
12, 230). Jeremiah's reference to the “‘valley of
the dead bodies and the ashes” (Jer 31:40)
perhaps relates to the horrible practice of child
sacrifice at Tophet. Since the Hebrew word for
“place,” mdqém, is often used as a technical
term for ‘‘shrine’’ (BDB), it is likely that the
‘place of Tophet™’ (Jer 19:13) should be rendered
‘*(pagan) shrine of Tophet.”’ The place itself was
probably a deep, wide pit containing a bonfire of
blazing wood (Isa 30:33) into which the hapless
children were thrown. From the abbreviated
name *‘ Valley of Hinnom”™ (see especially Josh
15:8; 18:16), Hebrew gé-hinno6m, so infamous
that it could also be called simply ‘the Valley”
(Jer 2:23), came Gehenna, Greek geenna (for
complete discussion see TDNT, I, pp. 657f.), the
nT word used to describe the place of eternal,
fiery punishment for all who die without having
exercised faith in Christ.

The origin of the word *‘Tophet*’ is obscure
(for various theories, see W. Robertson Smith,
Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, revised
edition, p. 377, note 2; W. F. Albright, Yahweh
and the Gods of Canaan, p. 275). The word itself
is often used as a common noun meaning “place
of child sacrifice’? (cf. Albright, op. cit., pp.
237f.. A. Menen, Cities in the Sand, pp. 56-63).
Its vocalization may be original (note the alter-
nate form topteh), although most commentators
assume an intentional scribal change to that of
béshet **shame.”

Child sacrifice among the ancient Israelites,
though presumably infrequent, was nevertheless
common enough to warrant its absolute prohibi-
tion in the Mosaic laws (Lev 18:21; Deut 18:10).
In spite of the Lord's stern warnings, both Ahaz
(II Chr 28:3) and Manasseh (II Kgs 21:6) burned
their sons as offerings. Such burning was usually
“to Molech” (e.g., I] Kgs 23:10), which may
mean either “to (the Ammonite god) Milcom/
Molech"™’ (see I Kgs 11:5, 7) or ‘‘as a sacrifice”
(see conveniently Albright, op. cit., p. 236); in
any event, *‘Molech™ may be another example of
deliberate scribal alteration to the vocalization of
boshet.

Understandably, Jeremiah inveighed against
the abominable practice of child sacrifice at

979

2542 ADR

2542 APH (tagéep)

Tophet in the Hinnom Valley and predicted di-
vine judgment on those involved in perpetrating it
(Jer 7:31-34; 19:1-15). His contemporary, good
King Josiah, defiled Tophet so that no one could
ever practice the rite there again (II Kgs 23:10).
De Vaux gathers the evidence on child sac-
rifice (AI, pp. 441-46) and concludes that it ongi-
nated in Canaanite culture, was extensively prac-
ticed in Carthage and ‘‘made its way into Israel
from Phoenicia during periods of religious syn-
cretism’> (p. 446). It evidently was not a normal
sacrifice, but one reserved for times of national
emergency even at Carthage. Albright (op. cit.)
remarks that the practice was extensive in the
Phoenician colonies, but it diminished in Phonecia
itself, and he attributes this to the salutary influence

of Israel’s religion.
R.F.Y.

NDA (tépet). See nos. 2499a, 2539.
mpm (tiqwa) I, I. See nos. 1994d,e.
meipn (t°quma). See no. 1999g.

vIPH (tdqoa'). See no. 2541b.
mpm (f° qupa). See no. 2001a.
APM (taqggip). See no. 2542b.
2540 IDM (taqan) become straight (Eccl 1:15;
T2133 1229).
2541 yan (taqa') blow, clap, strike, sound.
Derivatives
254la YPR (téga') sound (Ps 150:3).
2541b =yIpRm (taqda') trumpet (Ezk
7:14).

tdaqa‘ is attested sixty-six times in the Qal stem
and three times in the Niphal. The verb bears
three distinct but related meanings: (1) ‘‘thrust,
pound’’; (2) °° blow (a horn)"*; (3) **clap (hands."’
Trumpets were blown to convene people (Num
10:2), to sound an alarm (Jer 6:1; note the pun
with the place name Tekoa [Ym], and as a sign
of rejoicing (I] Chr 23:13) or triumph (Josh 6:20).
Clapping the hands was also a sign of joy (Ps 47:1
[H 2]) or triumph (Nah 3:19), and striking hands
with someone else (serving a function similar to
our handshake) signified pledging oneself as col-
lateral in a business arrangement (Job 17:3, Prov
6:1: 11:15; 17:18, 22:26).
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 76-85.
R.F.Y.

(tagép) prevailagainst. (ASV and RSV
similar.)

Derivatives

2542a APM (tdgep) authority, power,
strength. (asv and Rsv similar.)
2542b «=D (taggip) mighty. (asv_ simi-

lar; Rsv ‘‘strong.’*)

2543 Banh (tirgém)

The verb and noun appear three times each;
the adjective is attested only once. Each of the
three words has its corresponding cognate form
in ot Aramaic and appears there with similar
meanings. The Hebrew verb signifies ‘‘over-
power, whether God over man (Job 24:20), one
man over another (Eccl 4:12), or distress and an-
guish over the wicked (Job 15:14). The noun re-
fers to the “‘power”’ or ‘‘authority’* of a kingdom
(Dan 11:17) or a ruler (Est 9:29; 10:2). Commen-
tators are generally agreed that the unexpressed
subject of the adjective in Eccl 6:10 is God; the
verse, then, emphasizes the fact that God is
mightier than man.

R.F.Y.

See nos. 2500a,c.
See no. 2103e.
See no. 2103f.

Sm (tor).
mIsIA (farbit).
msn (farbit).

2543 Banh (tirgém) interpret. (asv and RSV
marg. ‘set forth’’; rsv ‘‘translate.’’)

The verb is a quadriliteral and is found only
once in oT (Ezr 4:7) in a form constructed analo-
gously to the Pual participle: m* turgadm. Though
often related to Akkadian ragamu **shout,’* and
Ugaritic rgm ‘speak,’ the Hebrew word is
perhaps best described as denominative from
Akkadian targumdnu “interpreter, translator’
(so KB), which in turn is probably derived from
Hittite (cf. C. Rabin in Orientalia 32: 134-36).
The function of the verb in Ezr 4:7 is to introduce
the longer of the two Aramaic sections in the
book of Ezr (4:8-6: 18: 7:12-—26). Aramaic was the
lingua franca of the middle east during the post-
exilic period and was therefore used in corre-
spondence between rulers of various countries.
The verb tirgém was later employed in midrashic
literature in the threefold sense of ‘‘recite, trans-
late, interpret’ (cf. M. Gertner in Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies 25:17) and
appears today in the modified form **dragoman”
to refer (among other things) to an Egyptian
tourist guide, one who ‘‘explains,’’ or ‘‘inter-
prets’’ Egyptian sites and ways to his clients.
Oral (beginning in postexilic times) and written
(beginning in pre-Chnistian times as the Targum
of Job from Qumran shows) Aramaic paraphrases
of the ot are known as ‘“‘targums’* or “‘tar-
gumim,’° and their importance for fuller under-
standing of the nT is only now being investigated
adequately (cf. M. McNamara, Targum and Tes-
tament).

Bibliography: Levey, Samson H., The Mes-
siah, An Aramaic Interpretation: The Messianic
Exegesis of the Targum, Cincinnati: Hebrew
Univ College-Jewish Institute of Religion, 1974.
For the Targum of Job see Van der Ploeg, J.P.M.,

980

2543.1 IMM (tirzad) cypress.

and Van der Woude, A. S., Le Targum de Job de
la Grotte XI de Qumran, Brill, 1970.
R.F.Y.

masan (tardéma). See no. 2123a.
moismn (rama). See no. 21331.
mmian (f° ramit). See no. 2133).
myran (r°ra'a). See no. 2135b.

Meaning and der-
rivation uncertain.

See no. 2169c.
See no. 2169d.

Moth (forma).
Aw (farmit).

2544 IM (toren) mast (Ezk 27:5: Isa 30:17;

33:23).

moyan (taréla). See no. 2188c.

2545 Bp mM (t°rapim) idolatry, idols, image(s),

teraphim. (asv only “‘teraphim’’; Rsv
similar to KJv, although rendering *‘house-
hold gods”’ in Gen 31.)

Attested fourteen times in oT, the word
t’rdpim is a plural noun, probably of Hittite ori-
gin (so H. A. Hoffner, Jr., in Bibliotheca Sacra
124:230-38, and in JNES 27:61-68). In all but one
somewhat ambiguous context (1 Sam J9:11-17), it
is clear that the teraphim of ancient Israel were
pagan household idols (cf. Gen 31:19 with 31:30,
32; Jud 18:17 with 18:24), corresponding in many
respects to the contemporary ildnu (‘‘gods’’) of
Nuzi (cf. A. E. Draffkorn in JBL 76:216—-24) as
well as to the Roman Penatés of much later
times. Their primary function among the apostate
element in Israel's population seems to have been
that of divination (1 Sam 15:23: II Kgs 23:24; Ezk
21:21 [H 26]: Zech 10:2), in which role they are
often found in context with the ephod (see Jud
17:5; 18:14, 17, 18, 20; Hos 3:4). They were prob-
ably of Mesopotamian origin (Gen 31:19-21; Ezk
21:21 {H 26]}) and make their appearance
throughout the entire sweep of Israelite history,
from the patriarchal (Gen 31) to postexilic (Zech
10:2) periods.

Since the discovery and interpretation of cer-
tain cuneiform legal documents (notably the one
designated as Gadd 51) at the ancient site of Nuzi
beginning in 1926, it has become a commonplace
to assert, on the basis of such texts, that Rachel
stole Laban’s teraphim (Gen 31:17—50) in order to
guarantee Jacob's title to Laban’s inheritance
after the latter had died or, at least, to secure for
Jacob clan leadership and spiritual power (see,
conveniently, C. H. Gordon, The World of the
Old Testament, pp. 129f., and in BA 3:5-7).
While this view of the matter is intriguing, Nuzi
law implies that bequeathal, rather than mere

possession, of the household gods determined
family leadership. Due to this and other difficul-
ties with the Nuzi theory, it has been suggested
that Rachel, not yet fully separated from her
polytheistic heritage (see Gen 35:2; Josh 24:2),
stole the gods for religious or divinatory pur-
poses. Support for this possibility may be
adduced from Jos who, in his Antiquities (18. 9.
5), States that it was customary even in much
later times for inhabitants of Mesopotamia to
carry their household gods along with them
wherever they traveled (cf. M. Greenberg in JBL
81:239-48—though this very late witness may be
merely a deduction from Gen).

Still unsolved is the problem of the nature of
the teraphim in I Sam 19:11-17. It is scarcely
possible that the word (used as a singular; cf. Kv,
rsv ‘‘image’’) there refers to household deities,
since archaeologists have found no such images
that even begin to approach the size of a full-
grown man (cf. W. F. Albright, Archaeology and
the Religion of Israel, p. 114; cf. also Gen 31:34,
where at least two teraphim could be hidden in a
saddle). It has therefore been suggested that
sometimes the word ft rdpim refers to an image in
the shape of a head, bust, or cultic mask (cf.
A.R. Johnson, The Cultic Prophet in Ancient
Israel, p. 31, note 3), or, alternatively, that Mi-
chal’s teraphim were “‘old rags’’ (W. F. Albnght,
op. cit., p. 207, note 63). The size and even mean-
ing and use of teraphim may have varied widely
over the centuries.

Needless to say, teraphim were never con-
doned in the oT as legitimate appurtenances to
the worship of the Lord; in fact, they came under
frequent prophetic condemnation (I Sam 15:23; II
Kgs 23:24: Zech 10:2).

R.F.Y.

2546 wewsn (tarshish) I, precious stone,
perhaps yellow jasper (e.g. Ex 28:20.
39:13; Ezk 1:6).

2547 wewsn (tarshish) HU, Tarshish, Tharshish.
(asv and rsv only **Tarshish.’’)

This place name, which occurs twenty-six
times in oT, must be carefully distinguished, on
the one hand, from the personal name Tarshish
(used of two different people: I Chr 7:10; Est
1:14) and, on the other hand, from the common
noun farshish I, a precious stone of uncertain
identity.

Tarshish was presumably a town situated
somewhere along the Mediterranean coastline or
on an island in the Mediterranean. Sites all the
way from Tarsus in the east (Asia Minor) to Tar-
tessus in the west (Spain) have been suggested,
with recent proposals concentrating on a more
central location, such as Tharros in Sardinia (cf.

981

2548 SOW (tirshata’ )

especially W. F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods
of Canaan, p. 219 and note 30: Y. Aharoni in The
Macmillan Bible Atlas, p. 75). Its island/
coastland associations are stressed in passages
like Ps 72:10 and Isa 23:6, while its great distance
from Palestine is emphasized in Isa 66:19 and Jon
1:3; 4:2. That it was related at least commercially
to the islands of the eastern Mediterranean is in-
dicated in Gen 10:4 and I Chr 1:7. If the Targumic
reading *‘Italia’’ for **Kittim’’ in I Chr 1:7 reflects
an accurate historical memory, the likelihood of
the Sardinia location is enhanced.

It is entirely possible, of course, that more than
one place was named Tarshish, particularly if the
word itself onginally meant “‘refinery’’ or the
like, as W. F. Albright has argued (see conven-
iently Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of
Israel‘, p. 136). We read often in the oT of ‘*ships
of Tarshish’’ which were large, oceangoing ves-
sels (Ezk 27:25) that carried all sorts of precious
cargo, especially metals such as silver and gold (1
Kgs 10:22; 22:48 [H 49]; II Chr 9:21; Isa 60:9; Jer
10:9; Ezk 38:13) as well as iron, tin, and lead (Ezk
27:12). Tarshish, then, could have been or be-
come a kind of generic name for places where
metals were mined or smelted. Needless to say, a
‘*ship of Tarshish’’ does not necessarily mean
only a ship made at a place called Tarshish; it
could also be simply any ore-carrying vessel, if
the etymology proposed above is correct. Their
Phoenician connections (J Kgs 10:22; II] Chr 9:21;
see also the oracles against Tyre in Isa 23 and
Ezk 27) indicate that such vessels plied the
Mediterranean, while II Chr 20:36 explicitly
states that ‘‘ships to go to Tarshish’’ were con-
structed at Eziongeber (at the northern end of the
Gulf of Aqaba), which engaged in trade to the
south and east. |

Ships of Tarshish, whether lying at anchor or
heading out to sea, must have presented an im-
posing appearance indeed. But because of sinful
pride on the part of their owners, those magnifi-
cent vessels were destroyed as one aspect of
God's judgment (I Kgs 22:48 (H 49]; II Chr 20:37;
Ps 48:7 [H 8]; Isa 2:16).

R.F.Y.

2548 smwon (ftirshata’) Tirshatha. (asv and

RSV **governor.’’)

The word is attested five times in the oT (only
in Ezr and Neh) and is always preceded by the
definite article. It is a noun of Persian derivation
meaning approximately *‘(His) Excellency, (His)
Honor.’’ A comparison of Neh 8:9 with 12:26
demonstrates that it is the Persian functional
equivalent of pehd *‘governor,’’ a noun of Akka-
dian derivation that appears in the latter verse.
Nehemiah himself is the tirshata’ in Neh 8:9 and
10:1 (H 2}; an unnamed individual bears the title

2549 3898 (tartan)

in Ezr 2:63 and Neh 7:65, 69. If the latter was a
native Persian, it is noteworthy that he neverthe-
less concerned himself with religious as well as
political matters among a people some of whom
were unable to prove their Israelite ancestry.
Nehemiah’s own role as governor likewise did
not prevent him from taking an active part in the
spiritual life of his people. To this day, he serves
aS a parade example of a dedicated political
leader who, though bearing an alien title, acted
uncompromisingly whenever and wherever
spiritual issues were at stake.

R.F.Y.

2549 ISH (tartan) Tartan. (asv similar; Rsv
*‘the Tartan,’’ ‘the commander in chief.’’)

The ksv understood the word as a personal
name, but recent research has shown it to be a
military title (cf. asv marg. at II Kgs 18:17 and Isa
20:1, the only two places in ot where the word
appears). The term was borrowed from Akkadian
tartanu ‘‘army commander'’’; its alternate Akka-
dian spelling turtanu, is reflected in the conso-
nantal reading fwrtn in Isa 20:1 on the great
Isatah scroll found in Qumran Cave One near the
shores of the Dead Sea in 1947. The tartan was a
very high official in the royal court of Assyria
during the days of Sargon II (722-705 B.c.; see Isa
20:1) and Sennachenib (705-681 B.c.: see II Kgs
18:17) as well as under earlier Assyrian rulers,

although it cannot be said that he was “‘second”’
in command to the king (the word is unrelated
etymologically to Akkadian terdennu ‘‘second
{in age or rank)’’). Rarely did an Assyrian king
entrust his entire army to the command of a tar-
tan, who might then institute a rebellion and as-
sume absolute power; usually the rank of tartan
was held by two men, each of whom commanded
no more than half the army (A. L. Oppenheim,
Ancient Mesopotamia, p. 102). The names of the
two Assyrian army commanders mentioned in oT
are not recorded, perhaps as a subtle reminder
that prominence in the eyes of men is not neces-
sarily the result of the directive will of our God.

R.F.Y.
mmiwn (1°samet). See no. 2243a.
Bswm (¢°shi’d). See no. 2339c.
yawnm (tashbés). See no. 2320c.
mown (t°shabad). See no. 2340f.
mpiwnm (1°sha‘a). See no. 929e.
mown (t°shiqa). See no. 2352a.
mwH (¢ shard). See no. 2353a.
2550 YWwR (tésha‘) nine.
2551 “pwn (t*shi‘i), WW (t*shi'i), moyen

(t°shi'‘it) ninth.

2552 BWA (tish'im) ninety.

ARAMAIC

THE ARAMAIC WORDS

The Aramaic vocabulary herewith is given brief treatment which, it is hoped, will still be
helpful. Five important roots which are of special significance and which differ from the
Hebrew are given fuller treatment. Most of the Aramaic words are already implicitly treated
in discussion of their Hebrew cognates. References to these cognates are usually given if
applicable. The longer articles are signed by Charles D. Isbell; the balance of the material
was taken from BDB with some comments and expansion by R. Laird Harris.

Biblical Aramaic is a close sister to Biblical Hebrew. For the uninitiated, it may be helpful
to say that the Aramaic noun has a definite form usually ending in Qames Aleph (8_) which
closely approximates the meaning of the Hebrew noun with the definite article. The form
without this definite suffix is the one given in the Wordbook. Also, the verb conjugation is
very similar, but the vocalization of the stems varies somewhat from the Hebrew. The
Hebrew Qal, Piel and Hiphil stems are matched by the Peal, Paal and Haphel (q°tal, gattal
and Haqtel). These also have reflexive/passive stems beginning with the prefix hit. There is
no Niphal. These verb forms are referred to occasionally in the following treatment.

For brevity of treatment and because there are numerous loan words in BA, roots are not
usually assumed where the verbs are lacking unless two or more derivatives occur. Also, in
view of the smaller vocabulary, cross references are more sparing where the words con-
cerned are close in spelling (especially when the variation concerns Aleph and Hé) and are
practically adjacent in the listing.

2553

2554

2555

2556

2557

2558

2559

2560

2561

2562

2563

2564

2565

2566

2567

2568

2568a

38 (ab), S38 (abba’) father. See

Hebrew no. 4a.

38 (éb) fruit (Dan4:9, 11, 18, ’inbeh ‘‘its
fruit’’). See Hebrew no. la.

S38 ('dbad) perish. Usage similar to He-
brew.

138 (eben) stone. Usage similar to He-

brew.

mas (Cigg’rd) letter. Usage similar to

Hebrew ’iggeret.

58 (édayin) then, thereupon. Cognate
to Hebrew ’az. Used also with preposi-
tions b® and min (meaning ‘‘since’’).

“38 (ddar) Adar. The twelfth Babylo-
nian month. Used also in Hebrew.

"38 (iddar) threshing floor. Not found in
Hebrew. Possibly a loan word.

“t3a9538% (Cddargazar) counselor. Loan
word from Persian. Occurs only in Dan
32243;

S318 (adrazda’) correctly, earnestly.
Loan word from Persian. Occurs only in

Ezr 7:23.
yas (edra‘) arm, power. See no. 2682b.

SIS) ('dza’) make hot, heat. Not used in
Hebrew.

SIS ('azda’) sure, assured, made sure,
proclaimed (KB). Loan word from Persian.

*Is (dzal) go, go off. Occurs also in He-
brew, though uncommon.

Ms (ah) brother. Used as in Hebrew.

mms (Cahdwaya). See no. 2722a.
msms ('dhida) riddle. Cognate to the He-
brew hida ‘‘riddle.”’

“ms (Cahar) after. Used as in Hebrew as
are the following related words.
88 (Cohodri) another.

2569

2570

2571

2572

2573

2574

2575

2576

2577

2578

2579

2580

2581

2582

989

2568b =meams (ahdrit) end.
2568c SNS (ohdran) another.
yypsswnms (dhashdarp®nin) satraps.

Loan word from Persian. Used also in the
Hebrew of Ezr and Est.

19% ('élan) tree. The Hebrew cognate is

"elon (q.v.).

ns (Cém*tan) terrible. Cognate to He-
brew ’émda, no. 80b.

‘PS (Citay) there is, there are. Used as the
Hebrew cognate yésh.

°298 (adkal) eat, devour. Usage similar to
Hebrew.
's (‘al) let not. Used like the Hebrew ’al

which negates the jussive.

®s (él) these. This demonstrative pro-
noun is used like the Hebrew ’élleh. See
the more common ’illén below.

mos (lah) god, God. This is the usual
word for God in BA. Its determinative
State is ’élaha’; the plural ’élahin. It is like
the uncommon Hebrew ’éloah which is
used largely in Job (see no. 93b). It differs
from the Hebrew in that there is no plural
of majesty in which the word ‘'God’’ is
plural but construed as a singular. The
plural form in BA simply means ‘‘gods.”’

mos (élleh) these. The same as in He-
brew, but perhaps not a borrowing. The
usual Aramaic form is ’illén. See below.

198 (ala) behold. Probably a by-form of
"ari (q.v.).

yes (Cillén) these. This demonstrative
pronoun is an Aramaic form of the He-
brew ’élleh.

ses (illék) these. Demonstrative,

noun.

pro-

nos ('dlap) a thousand. Usage similar to
Hebrew.

mas ('amma) cubit. Usage similar to He-

brew.

2583 MDS amma)

2583 MN (amma) * nation. Usage similar to
Hebrew.

2584 *Yas (dman) trust, believe in. Used only
in the Haphel. The passive participle
means ‘‘trustworthy.’’ Usage similar to
Hebrew.

2585 “eS (amar) say, relate, command. Used
like the Hebrew ’dmar. The Hebrew
ddabar has no parallel in BA. The verb is
often used with ‘dnd in the idiom ‘‘an-
swered and said,’’ a common semitism in
the NT.

Derivative

2585a “Wasi (mé’mar) word. Used twice:

Dan 4:14; Ezr 6:9.
no. 2554.

ma38 (inbeh). See Ss ('éb),

2586 "38 (dna) I. Usually used for emphasis,
as is the corresponding Hebrew ’ dni.

2587 38 Cinniin) they, those. Used like the
Hebrew hém. Like other third person
pronouns, it may be used as a copula ina
nominal sentence.

(’dndsh). (’dnash), no.

wis See WIS
25

2588 S8IMI8 ('dnahna’) we. Used like the He-

brew ‘dnahnii.

2589 BIS ('dnas) oppress. Used like the He-
brew, which only occurs in Est 1:8.

2590 AIX (‘dnap) face. Used like the Hebrew
cognate ’ap, no. 133a.

2591 W38 (dandsh) man, mankind. Used like
the Hebrew ’éndsh (no. 136a, q.v.), but
also serves for Hebrew ’ish and ’ddam.
Used with bar ‘‘son.’’ The phrase ‘‘son of
man’’ occurs only in Dan 7:13. The corre-
sponding Hebrew phrase is used fre-
quently in Ezk to mean ‘‘a person.”’ In
Dan 7:13, it refers to a heavenly person
(perhaps in studied contrast to the preced-
ing beast figures), coming before the An-
cient of Days in the judgment scene. It is
this verse that Jesus applied to himself in
Mt. 26:64 et al., thus filling his often used
self-designation ‘‘Son of Man’’ with the
highest significance (see bar).

thou.

2592 MAIS (Canta; Qere ’ant) Usage

similar to Hebrew ’attd.

2593 IMIS = (antin) you (plural). Usage
similar to Hebrew ’attem.
2594 SI9BEN8 ('dsparna’) thoroughly. Persian

loan word.

2595 “08 (sr). Assumed root of the following,

2595a OS ('ésir) bond, imprisonment.
Usage similar to Hebrew.

2595b “OS ('ésdr) interdict, decree of re.
striction.

2596 YN ('a‘) wood, beam. Used like the He.
brew cognate ‘és, but not used for ‘‘tree”’
(see ilan). Perhaps the aleph replaces the
expected ayin by dissimilation.

2597 AS (ap) also. Usage similar to Hebrew.

2598 SO9PN8 ('dparsayé’). Persian loan word.
Perhaps a title of an official (so KB).

2599 N2ZONPN (‘dpars*kayé’) a people (kv):
perhaps a title of an official (KB).

2600 N*SNONBS ('dparsat*kdyé’) a people (jv).
Perhaps a title of an official (KB).
2601 BneS ('app*t6m) treasury. A Persian
loan word.
2602 Y3sts ('esba‘) finger, toe. Usage similar
to Hebrew.
YO"S ('arba‘). See no. 2986a.

2603 a58 (Carg’wan) purple, red purple.
Usage similar to the Hebrew ’argadmdn
(no. 157, q.v.).

2604 358 (dri) behold. Derivation uncertain.
Probably a by-form to the less common
Glia.

2605 m8 ('drah) way, course of life. Usage
similar to the Hebrew ’6rah (no. 161, q.v.).

2606 M58 (aryéh) lion.
brew.

Usage similar to He-

2607 3°58 ('arik) fitting, proper. Possibly a

Persian loan word (so KB).

2608 m3p58 (‘arkiba) Derivation uncertain.
Perhaps derived from b¢rak (q.v.) by
metathesis.

2609 mpus (’ar’kd) a lengthening. Used simi-

larly to the Hebrew root ’drak (no. 162,
q.v.).

990

2610

2611

2612

2613

2614

2615

2616

yas (dra‘) earth, world, ground. Used
similarly to the Hebrew cognate ’eres, but
the usage ‘‘land’’ is not established. An
alternative form, ‘drag, is used in Jer
10:1la. The tsadhe of Hebrew may be rep-
resented in Aramaic by either ayin or

goph.
‘yas (Car‘i) bottom.

98% ('draq) earth. A by-form of vos
(’dra‘).

we (ésh) foundation.
word from Akkadian.

Perhaps a loan

mus (éshsheh) fire, fire offerings. Used
similarly to the Hebrew ‘ésh (no. 172,

q.Vv.).

MWe ('adshap) enchanter, conjurer. Used
similarly to the Hebrew ’ashshdp (no. 181,
q.v.).

sInws (Cushsharnd’) beams, _ structure.
Derivation and precise meaning uncertain.

“ssnwse (Ceshtaddir) revolt. See
3021a.

no.

2617

2618

2619

2620

991

2620 SBS (dtar)

yaws (Cishtiw). See sh®ta, no. 3051.

mS (at) miraculous signs, wonders. Oc-
curring only three times, this word is used
similarly to its Hebrew cognate ’6t (no.
4la, q.v.).

mos (dtd), SDS ('dta’) come; in the
Haphel, bring. This is the usual word for
‘‘come’’ in BA, which lacks the Hebrew
bd’. The word is used also in Hebrew (see
no. 188), but only twenty times to twenty-
five hundred of bd’. It appears in the NT
in the phrase maran-atha, ‘‘Come,
Lord!”’

MAS (attin) furnace. A loan word from
Akkadian.

‘ns (itay), See ns (itay), no. 2572.

“ps (‘dtar) trace, place. ba’tar, with
beth, is used for time, after. Used similarly
to the Hebrew ‘dsher (no. 183d, q.v.).

S98 (‘attari). See (n*tar), no. 2881.

2 (b°) in, with, through, etc. Inseparable
preposition used as in Hebrew, except that
the meaning ‘‘from’’ witnessed in Ugaritic
does not apply.

2621

2622 WD (b¢’ésh) be evil. The Hebrew cog-
nate primarily means to smell bad, thence
to be odious to someone.

Derivative
2622a «=WND (bi’ysh) bad.
"83 (ba’tar). See no. 2620.
2623 "93 (b¢dar) scatter. Used like the He-

brew cognate bazar.

2624 “Aa (b¢hal) alarm, dismay. Similar to

Hebrew.
Derivative
2624a 39D (behild) haste.

2625 %wa (b°tél) cease. The Hebrew cognate is
used only in Eccl 12:3.

2626 3°93 (bén) between. Preposition used as in
Hebrew.

2627 m3 (bind) understanding. Similar to He-
brew.

2628 SHS (birta’) castle, citadel. Similar to
Hebrew, but Hebrew Dird includes the
meanings ‘‘palace’’ and ‘‘temple.”’

2629 FXS (bit) pass the night. This denomina-
tive verb is not used in Hebrew.

Parent Noun
2629a =6m%S) «=((bayit) house. Similar to He-

brew. As in Hebrew, the word in-
cludes the temple, the house of
God.

2630 %p (bal) mind. Only used in Dan 5:14[A
15] in the phrase ‘‘put to mind,”’ 1.e. de-
termine.

2631 *s93 (bala’) wear away. Used only in the

Pael. Similar in usage to Hebrew bald,
which, however, also occurs in the Qal.

2632 $53 (b¢16) tribute. Loan word from Ak-
kadian.

"

2633 13 (b°nd), S823 (b¢nd’) build. Similar
to Hebrew.
Derivative
2633a 193 (binydn) a building. Similar to

the Hebrew (only in Ezk 40-42),
which may have borrowed it from
Aramaic.

2634 BID (b&nas) be angry. Not found in He-
brew. Used only in Dan 2:12, where it re-
fers to the king’s anger.

2635 Spa (b°‘a’) ask, desire, make (petition),
pray, request, seek.

Derivative

W3 (ba‘ad) petition, request (in
Jewish liturgy, always ‘‘prayer’’).

2635a

The primary meaning of the root is ‘‘to search
for.’’ Secondarily, the idea of searching for favor
from God (=praying) or asking a king (=making a
petition) are also attested. In the Pael (only in
Dan 4:36), the element of eagerness is added, so
that one’s search must be done with intensity or
from a standpoint of urgency. The Hebrew cog-
nate, bd‘d is used only infrequently with the
meaning ‘“‘to search for,’’ ‘‘inquire.’’

The root is used only in Daniel, where it carries
five shades of meaning. First, it connotes the idea
of the search made by one group of men for
another (individual or group). In Dan 2:13,
executioners from the king were sent forth with
instructions to seek out all the wise men in the
kingdom who, by their association with those
who had failed to meet the expectations of the
king, were to be killed. In Dan 4:36, the former
counselors and nobles of King Nebuchadnezzar
began seeking him (for leadership) once again.
Second, the word refers to the enemies of Daniel
who were attempting to uncover legal grounds to
have him killed (Dan 6:4). Their activities are de-
scribed as a searching (bd‘ayin). Third, the word
refers to the attempt on the part of a person to
gain favor from a human king. Thus in Dan 2:16,
Daniel ‘‘requested’’ (b°‘d) that the king grant
him more time in which to respond to his order
both to recall and to interpret the monarch’s
dream. This meaning also applies to Dan 2:49.
Fourth, the word describes the requesting of
compassion and grace from God (=praying) in a
situation of real crisis. Thus in Dan 2:18, Daniel
and his three friends know that they will be killed
unless they receive compassion from God in the

995

2636 ?p3 (b¢‘él)

form of revelation of the mystery which had
stumped the entire nation of intellectuals. Daniel
2:23; 6:11, 13 fall in this category. Fifth, the word
may mean simply ‘‘to ask’’ (a question), as in
Dan 7:16.

These meanings are not always used with ngid
precision. More than one meaning may apply toa
passage with great symbolic impact. For exam-
ple, the whole of Dan 6 revolves around the at-
tempt of Daniel’s enemies to have him killed. As
their pretext, they advise the king to decree that
no one be allowed to ‘‘make a petition’’ (yib‘e’
ba‘) other than to him. With great literary skill,
the text employs meanings three and four to-
gether two times. In verses 7 and 12, accordingly,
the root b°‘d’ means petitioning either another
human being or any deity known to the ancients.
This is precisely the issue at stake for Daniel.
Although the author of Daniel doubtless remem-
bered that in an earlier chapter it is stated that
Daniel had made a request of a human ruler (2:16,
49), when it boils down to a question of divine
sovereignty it is only to God that Daniel is willing
to ‘‘pray,’’ or make a request, as his enemies
knew well. Clearly the root b¢ ‘a’ is a key word in
Dan 6 because of its function elsewhere in the
book as well as its ability to convey a wide range
of seemingly simple meanings.

C.D.I.

2636 %ya (b°‘él) owner, lord. Similar to the
Hebrew ba‘al.

2637 S¥p3 (biqg‘a’) plain. Similar to the He-

brew.

2638 “p23 (b¢qar) inquire, seek. A synonym of
b¢ ‘a’ (q.v.). Like its synonym and the He-
brew cognate baqar, this word may have a
religious use (inquire of God) as well as a
secular use (search).

2639 “3 (bar) I, son. Used as in Hebrew. (Cf.
the Aramaism bar in Ps 2:12 and Prov
31:2). Most Semitic languages use nun, as
in the Hebrew bén ‘‘son.”’ The origin of
the resh is not clear, but note the variant
forms Nebuchadnezzar and Nebuchad-
rezzar in Hebrew. The plural of bar is
spelled with nun.

The significant verse is Dan 7:13 which J. G.
Machen and many others have taken as the

source of Jesus’ self-designation, *‘Son of Man.”
Many argue that this phrase in Dan 7:13 means
merely ‘‘man’’ as does ben ’adam (Ezk 2:1, etc.)
in Hebrew, and as b°né ’Gndsha’ means ‘‘man-
kind’? in Dan 2:38; 5:21. This may be true.
Daniel’s vision in 7:1—14 introduces four king-
doms symbolized as beasts. The fifth kingdom js
given to a man, not a beast. But this man is the
heavenly man whom all men will worship eter.
nally (7:14). When Jesus used this title, therefore,
his adversaries could not prove that it meant
more than ‘*‘man.’’ But as Jesus uSed it to his
disciples (Mt 24:30) and at last to his enemies (Mt
26:64), it is clear that he identified himself with
this heavenly man of Dan 7:13, worthy of eterna]
praise and worship.

2640 “3 (bar) HI, field. Cf.
‘‘grain.”’

Hebrew bar

2641 393 (b¢rak) kneel, bless. As in Hebrew,
the two ideas of kneel and bless are in this
word. The usage is very like Hebrew in
that *‘kneel’’ is restricted to the active par-
ticiple Peal with ‘‘bless’’ in the Qal for
‘‘kneel’’ and the Hiphil for ‘‘make kneel,”’
with bless in the infinitive and passive par-
ticiple Qal and in the Piel (extensively) and
Niphal and Hithpael. The word is used of
blessing or praising God. It is not used of
blessing men, but perhaps only because
BA is so scant in amount.

Derivative
2641a 935 (b¢rak) knee. Related to the
above.

2642 O33 (b*ram) only, nevertheless. Deriva-

tion uncertain.

2643 “Wa (b’sar) flesh. As in Hebrew, this
word may refer to literal ‘‘flesh, meat,”’
and also to mankind, and creatures in gen-
eral (Dan 4:9 [A 12]}). Note the modern
Jewish phrase kosher basar ‘‘permitted
food.”’

2644 m3 (bat) bath. A liquid measure, the
same as the Hebrew. See Huey, F. B.,
‘‘Weights and Measures,”’ in ZPEB, V, p.
916.

"m3 (bdatar). See “D8 (atar), no. 2620.

996

2645 33 (gab) back or side. In Dan7:6 the word
is singular in the Qere, which derives it
from the Hebrew root gdbah. The Kethib
takes it as plural, ‘‘sides,’’ probably deriv-
ing it from aroot ganaba found in Arabic.

2646 33 (g6b) pit, den. This word is like the
Hebrew géb ‘‘ditch,’’ from the verb gab
‘to dig.”

2647 “33 (gbr). Assumed root of the following.
2647a 133 (g°bar) man. Similar to the
Hebrew geber, which, however,
has more the connotation ‘‘strong
man.’ But see below.
maa (g°burd) might. Similar to
the Hebrew. The verb from which
these three words come is well rep-
resented in Hebrew, though not in
BA.

2647b

2648 899353 (g¢dabrayyd’) treasurer. Deriva-
tion uncertain. Probably a by-form of giz-
bar ‘‘treasurer,’’ itself a loan word from

Persian.

2649 S33 (g°dad) cut down. Similar to the He-
brew, which, however, is not used of cut-
ting down trees. The Hebrew word

specialized for this is gdda’‘.

2650 33 (gaw) midst. The usual form has a final
aleph and the preposition b°, b® gd’, ‘“‘in
the midst of,’ used like the Hebrew b®
tok. The word is probably related to the
Hebrew gaw ‘‘back’’ considered as the

middle of the body.

313 (gdb). See gdb, no. 2646.

2651 m3 (géwa) pride. Similar to the Hebrew

word, which is derived from the root ga’a.

2652 mia (gdah)

giah.

stir up. Similar to Hebrew

2653

"313 (gizbdr) treasurer. A Persian loan

word.

2654 "ta (g°zar) cut, determine. Similar to He-
brew, which, however, emphasizes more
the idea of to cut or cut in two. That the
two ideas are related is seen from our ‘‘de-
cide’’ from the Latin ‘‘to cut off.”’

Derivative

2654a -MMI3 (g°zéra) decree.

2655 "°3 (gir) plaster. The Hebrew equivalent,
gér, is used only once, in Isa 27:9. It refers
to powdered stones of an altar. The Arabic
equivalent refers to quicklime or heat. The
connection may be that limestones are
heated to produce quicklime, a powder,
which when slaked is the chief ingredient
of lime plaster. According to Albright, lime
plaster was used in Israel after 1200 B.c.

2656 S922 (g°la’), M23 (g°la) reveal; in the
Haphel, take into exile. The Hebrew gala
has the same double usage.

Derivative

2656a 193 (g¢li) exile.

2657 943
2657a

(gil). Assumed root of the following.

6393 (galgal) wheel. Similar to the
Hebrew. BA does not have the
other Hebrew word for wheel,
‘Opan.

643 (g°lal) rolling. Occurs only in
Ezr 5:8; 6:4, where it refers to large
stones, i.e. stones that must be roll-
ed or moved on rollers. The root is
common in Hebrew, but not this
idiom.

mea (mégilla) scroll. Similar to
the Hebrew, which is derived from
the verb gdlal ‘‘to roll.’’ The scroll
‘form of documents persisted
through the days of the Qumran
community (i.e. A.D. 68). The Ry-
lands fragment of John (c. a.p. 130)
is one of our earliest books in the
form of a codex.

2657b

26S7c

2658 “93 (g*mar) complete. Similar to He-

brew.

2659 33 (g*naz) treasure. Similar to the He-

brew plural g°nazim ‘‘treasury’’ which is

999

2660 43 (gap)

used only in Ezk 27:24 and Est 3:9; 4:7. Itis 2662 awa (g*shém) body. A noun from this

probably a loan word. root is used in Hebrew for a heay
shower. The meaning ‘‘body”’ is attesteq
2660 43 (gap) wing (of bird). Derivation uncer- only in Arabic and Syriac.
tain.

2661 ma (g°ram) bone. Similar to Hebrew
gerem.

1000

2663 83 (da’) this. This demonstrative pro-
noun is cognate to the Hebrew zeh, the
Hebrew zayin becoming a daleth in
Aramaic regularly if the original Proto-
semitic sound were d (Arabic Dhal).

2664 353 (ddb) bear. Similar to Hebrew.

2665 mas (d*bah) to sacrifice. Cognate to the
Hebrew verb zabah and used similarly.
The verb occurs only in Ezr 6:3 in the
king’s decree for the building of the tem-
ple. Other words are used, especially
q‘rab.

Derivatives

ma" (d°bah) a sacrifice. Similar to
Hebrew zebah. Occurs only in Ezr
6:3.

masta (madbah) altar. Similar to
Hebrew mizbéah. Used only in Ezr
7:17, the only Aramaic passage in
Ezr which specifically mentions the
altar.

2665a

2665b

2666 3% (d*béq) cling. Similar to Hebrew.

2667 M935 (dibra) cause, reason. Similar to
Hebrew and likewise used with ‘al in a set
phrase. Probably the usage arises in He-
brew from the meaning ‘“‘thing’’ of dabar.

2668 353 (d®hab) gold. Similar to Hebrew
zahab and exhibiting the common zayin to
daleth shift of Hebrew to BA.

2669 "35 (dir) dwell. Similar to Hebrew. The
participle of such ayin-waw verbs regu-
larly develops a medial aleph in BA:
_da’rin. For related nouns see dar *‘genera-
tion,’ m¢dér, mdar ‘‘dwelling,’ and
t°dird’ ‘‘continuance.”’ The basic meaning
of the root seems to be ‘‘move in acircle.”’
Some early houses were circular. Genera-
tions recur in a cyclical fashion. The basic
meaning may refer to dwell, which is a de-
rived meaning indicating that which is cir-
cular, e.g. a heap. The cognate Akkadian
noun refers to a city wall, which in our
thinking goes ‘‘round’’ the city.

Derivatives
2669a "3 (ddr) generation.
2669b ai) (m*dér) dwelling place.

2669c
2669d

“322 (m*dar) dwelling place.
s°5m 6 (fdira’) continuance.

2670 ws (dish)
brew.

tread down. Similar to He-

2671 mins (dahdwa) music. Only in Dan 6:18
[A 19]. Meaning and derivation uncertain.

NASB, NIV ‘“‘entertainment.”’

2672 %ms (d°*hal) to fear. Similar to the He-
brew zdhal II found only in Job 32:6.

2673 °%% (di) who, which, that. This very com-
mon BA relative pronoun is used: 1) like
the Hebrew relative ‘dsher; 2) in an
the name of God, Dan 2:20); 3) as a con-
struct state (often a pleonastic pronoun is
used, “‘his name which was of God,”’ i.e.
the name of God (Dan 2:20); 3) as a con-
junction, that, whereas, because, etc. It is
also used in various combinations, espe-
cially kdl-qébél-di *‘because.”’

2674 3% (din) to judge. Similar to Hebrew.

Derivatives

2674a 5 (dayyan) judge. The same
word is used twice in Hebrew, in I
Sam 24:16 and Ps 68:5 [H 6]. The
more common Hebrew word for a
‘‘judge”’ is from a different root,
mishpat, which occurs but once in
BA.

N°929S (dindyé’) a _ people (xiv),
judges (KB). Occurs only in Ezr
4:9.

mo (mdinad) district, province.
Later the name of the famous city
of Arabia.

2674b

2674¢

2675 3% (dék) this. A demonstrative pronoun
derived from dd’ by addition of the ele-
ment ‘‘k.”’ The plural is ’ilék.

2676 25 (dikkén) this, that. A demonstrative
pronoun composed of dék with the ending
as 9 ee

2677 “|35 (dkr). Assumed root of the following.
2677a “2% (d°kar) ram. Cognate to He-
brew zdkdr, male specialized for

the male animal for sacrifice.

1003

2678 225 (d°laq)

2677b = 3995 (dikrén) memorandum, _ re-
cord. Cognate to the Hebrew zikka-
ron and used similarly.
2677c 393995 (dokran) memorandum, _ re-
cord. See dikrén above.
2678 95 (d¢laq) to burn. Similar to Hebrew.
2679 mes (d’ma) tobe like. Similar to Hebrew.
2680 mys (d’nd) this. This demonstrative pro-

noun is formed from the simple da’ plus
the ending ‘‘n.’’ The plural is illén (q.v.).

2681 j92% (d°qaq) be shattered. Similar to He-

brew.

"3 (dar) generation. See no. 2669a.

2682 ys (dr‘). Assumed root of the following,
2682a ys (d°ra‘) arm. Similar to He.
brew z°réa‘. Note the Zayin to
daleth shift. From the same root
comes the word ’edra‘ *‘strength’’
(with prosthetic aleph).

2682b =YSS8 (edra‘) arm, power.
2683 ms (dat) decree. A Persian loan word
used also in the Hebrew of Ezr and in Est.

2684 SHI (dete’) grass. Used similarly to the
Hebrew deshe’ to which it is doubtless re-
lated. Words with a shin in Hebrew
characteristically shift to a taw in Aramaic
if the Protosemitic sound had been ‘‘th”’
(Arabic ‘‘tha’’). |

2685 “3m (d°tabar) judge. A Persian loan

word.

1004

m (hd). The interrogative particle. Form
is ha before words beginning with a half
vowel. The usage is similar to Hebrew. In
Aramaic, the Hebrew definite article (ha,
q.v.) iS not used. Instead a determinate
state is used for a definite noun which ends
in aleph.

2686

2687 Sm (ha’) behold, lo. A demonstrative par-

ticle (cf. Hebrew hé’).

2688 SM (hé’) behold. Used only in Dan 2:43 in

the phrase hé’ k¢*di which some would
read hé’k di. A demonstrative particle.

A Persian

2689 “355 (haddabdar) counselor.

loan word.

2690 oss (haddam) member of the body, limb.

A Persian loan word.

2691 358 (hddar) glorify (God). Used as in He-
brew, except that the Hebrew hddar is

used for honor given to men.

Derivative

"3" (hddar) honor, majesty. Used
as in Hebrew.

269la

2692 SIM (hdwa’), MIN (hdwa) come to pass,
become. In general this verb is used like
the related Hebrew verb hadyd. A pecu-
liarity of the Aramaic is that in the imper-
fect a lamedh is used instead of the usual
preformative yodh. Also in Aramaic the
verb hadwa is often used with a participle
to make a periphrastic tense expressing
continuous and habitual action (e.g. Dan
6:10 [A 11], ‘‘as he used to do formerly’’).

2693 sim (ha’), SM (hi) he, she, it. In gen-
eral, this pronoun is used as in Hebrew,

but it is also often used as the copula ina
nominal sentence, even where the subject
is a pronoun of the first or second person.
The masculine is also used as a demon-
strative pronoun. The plural is ’innin
‘they,’ “‘those,”’ (q.v.).

2694 %>°m (hékal) palace, temple. This word,
also used in Hebrew, is a loan word from
the Sumerian via the Akkadian.

2695 39m (hdlak) go, walk. Used as in Hebrew.
BA, however, does not attest the idiomatic
use as an auxiliary verb in the infinitive
absolute to express emphasis.

Derivative

39m (hadlak) tribute, toll. This is a
usage borrowed from the Akka-
dian.

2695a

2696 32m (himmod), Wan (himmoén) _ they,
them. The first form is used in Ezr, the
second in Dan. Like the singular forms ha’
and hi’ (q.v.), these pronouns may be used
as the copula in a nominal sentence. They

parallel the Hebrew hém and hémma.

2697 82°99 = (hamnika’) necklace. A loan
word from the Persian, perhaps through

Greek.

2698 I (hén) if. Used like the Hebrew hén
when it means ‘‘if’ (not when it means
‘‘behold’’). It is also used in indirect ques-

tions similarly to the Hebrew ’im.

2699 Dm (hassiqg). See the Haphel of s‘laq.

2700 “mss (harhor) image, mental picture.

1007

2701 3 (w*) 3 (@) and, but. The conjunction waw consecutive. The waw attached to
is used very much as in Hebrew, except the verb does not alter the tense.
that Aramaic does not use the so-called

1011

TY} (za’d‘in). Participle of z#a‘ no. 2706.

2702 ist (zban) buy, gain. Arelated Akkadian
noun refers to the balances of sale transac-
tions.

Usage similar to He-

2703 “St (z°har) warn.

brew.
2704 «*3% «(zad) be presumptuous. Used only
in the Haphel. Cf. Hebrew zid.
2705 *3% (zan) feed. Used in the Hithpael.
Cf. Hebrew ziin.

Derivative

2705a = tla (maz6n) food.

2706 =ys (ziia‘) tremble. Like the Hebrew ziia‘,
this verb can mean tremble in fear; indeed,
this is the only meaning witnessed in BA.

2707 i (ziw) brightness, splendor. Perhaps a

loan word from Akkadian.

2708 33% (zak) purity, innocence (in God’s
sight). Used similar to the Hebrew root
zaka.

2709 *et (z’man) agree together (Dan 2:9,
Haphel [Qere reads as Hithpael]). Cf. the
Hebrew denominative verb meaning ‘‘to
fix a time, appoint,’’ which suggests the

2709a

2710 “7
2710a

2711

2712

2713

2714

2715

1015

2710b

semantic path by which ‘‘time’’ becomes
‘*agree.”’

Parent Noun

vat (z’man) time. Probably a Per-
sian loan word. Used for seasons,
appointed times, periods of times—
but not for the celebrated seven
times (years) Dan 4:13ff., which is
‘iddan. The Hebrew equivalent is
used only in Ezr, Neh, Est, and Eccl.

(zmr). Assumed root of the following.
“rat (z©mar) music. Used as in
Hebrew.
“tat (zammar) _ singer.

%% (zan) kind, sort. Used similar to He-
brew but the derivation in both languages
is uncertain.

PY (z°‘aq) to cry, call. Usage similar to

Hebrew.

“yt (z°‘ér) little, small. Usage similar to
Hebrew.

MEY (z°qap) raise, lift up. The Hebrew
word is general. The Aramaic word may
refer to impaling (Ezr 6:11, NIV).

yt (z°ra‘) seed. Usage similar to He-

brew.

2716 *93n (hdbal) destroy, hurt. Used only in
the Pael and Hithpael. Usage similar to the
Hebrew hdbal II.

Derivatives

2716a 393m = (habal) hurt, injury.
2716b «=osoian (hdbala’) hurtful art, a
wrong.
2717 33m (hbr). Assumed root of the following.
2717a “3m (hdbar) friend, comrade.
Usage similar to Hebrew.
27176 «= mN3n (habra) fellow, companion.

2718 sm (had), mm (hada) one. Used
similarly to the Hebrew ’ehdd: as a nu-
meral, as anoun, ‘‘the same,” as an ordinal,
‘‘first,’’ as the indefinite article ‘‘a,’’ etc.

2719 mam (hedwa) joy. Used similarly to the
Hebrew root hada.

2720 nN (hddi) breast, chest. The Hebrew
cognate, hdzeh, shows the zayin-daleth
interchange.

2721 mim (hddat) new.
brew hddash.

Cognate to the He-

2722 mim (hadwa) explain, interpret, show, in-
form, tell. (Rsv consistently translates

‘*show,’’ KJV ‘‘shew.’’)

Derivative

2722a MIMS =(Cahdwaya) declaration, in-
terpretation. This Aphel infinitive is
used in a nominal construction in

Dan 5:12a.

The basic meaning of the root in Daniel (it does
not occur elsewhere) is ‘‘to explain’ or ‘‘point
out.’’ Both Pael and Haphel (or Aphel) forms are
employed, but with no distinction in meaning.
The Hebrew cognate, hdwd, is used several
times with the meaning of ‘‘make a report, in-
form, let someone know about something.”’

The root is used only in three chapters of
Daniel, always with meanings which are closely
related to the basic idea of explanation or in-
terpretation. The specific breakdown of shades of
Meaning includes the following. First, in Dan 2,
haéw4 is used to signify the act of explaining the
Meaning of (i.e. interpreting) the king’s dream.
The traditional English translation of the word as
‘“show’’ (or ‘‘shew’’) does not emphasize the fact

that not only is the king seeking to be shown the
dream which he insisted the professionals must
recount to him, but he is also demanding an ap-
propriate interpretation of that dream. Related to
this idea of explaining the meaning of a dream (as
seen in Dan 2:4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 24, 27) is the
picture presented in chapter 5 of Daniel. In this
context, Daniel is called upon not to interpret a
dream but to decipher and explain some crypto-
grammic writing which had mysteriously appeared
on the wall (see Dan 5:5). That the writing was
extraordinary is clear from the fact that the king
(Belshazzar) needed a person not only to read it
but also to explain its meaning (lit., “‘explain [or
declare] its interpretation’’).

A second function of hdw4 is attested in Dan
4:2 [H 3:32]. Here the king is quoted as saying,
‘it has seemed good to me to show (1° hahdway4a)
the signs and wonders that the Most High God
has wrought toward me’”’ (Rsv). As the following
verses show, the king understood these signs and
wonders only because Daniel had previously in-
terpreted them for him. So in this context, hadwad
apparently means simply *‘to announce’”’ (in pub-
lic what Daniel had explained privately).

The most obvious significance of the word
hdwa in Daniel is thus to denote the ability to do
something which the great intellectuals of the
Babylonian empire were incapable of doing.
Daniel could explain current and coming events
as well as their political and theological implica-
tions. The Babylonian soothsayers, magicians,
and other professionals could not. But Daniel
does not emerge as merely a human hero because
of this. Rather, the God of Daniel emerges as the
only deity through whose revelation history
makes sense. This distinction is plainly made
both in chapter two (vv. 26-28) and in chapter
five (vv. 9, 18).

C.D.I.

2723 wim (hat), wm (hit) repair, join (foun-
dations). Occurs only in Ezr 4:12. Deriva-
tion uncertain. Cf. Hebrew Aidt ‘‘thread.’’

2724 “3M (hiwwar)
brew.

white. Usage similar to He-

2725 mim (hdza) see, behold. This word is used
frequently in the normal sense ‘‘see’’ and
with reference to seeing visions. The
usage is similar to Hebrew, but BA does
not call a prophet a ‘‘seer,’’ as does He-
brew.

1019

2726 Swen (At’)

Derivatives

2725a «oN (hézit) vision, appearance.
Used similarly to the Hebrew hiz-
zayon.

2725b onitm «=(hdz6t) sight, visibility.

2726 sour (ht’). Assumed root of the following.

2726a 4309%98M =(hdtay) sin. Used only once,
in Dan 4:27 [A 24]. It is used simi-
larly to Hebrew /hét’.

2726b )= SBN «(hdttaya’) sin offering. Used

once (Ezr 6:17), similarly to the
Hebrew hatta’t.

2727 sm (hdya’) to live. Used similarly to He-
brew. However, the courtly phrase in the
imperative, ‘‘O King live forever,’’ used
five times in Dan, is not quite the same as
the Hebrew jussive.

Derivatives
2727a MM (hay) living. Usage similar to
Hebrew. Derived from haya’.
27276 «6AM O(héwa), RDN (héwa’)
beast. The Hebrew hay means

both ‘‘living’’ and ‘‘living thing or
animal.’’ The Aramaic héwd seems
more specialized for beasts—both
the literal animals and the symbolic
beasts of Daniel.

2728 © Rm (hayil)
to Hebrew.

strength, army. Usage similar

2729 gam (hkm). Assumed root of the following.

2729a =oBstam (hakkim) wise men. Used
mostly of the court astrologers in
Daniel.

27296 «Mam (hokma) wisdom. Used simi-

lar to Hebrew. Related to hakkim.

2730 een (hélem) dream.
brew halém.

Used like the He-

2731 ASR (hdlap) pass over. Used of the pas-
sage of years (Dan 4:16 [A 13], etc.) ina
way not exactly witnessed in the Hebrew.

2732 pm (hlq). Assumed root of the following.

2732a 89m (hdldq) portion, possession.
Usage similar to Hebrew.

2732b = Ap?ma (mahl’qa) class, division (of

temple functionaries). Used like the
Hebrew mahdlogqet. Related to the
noun hdlaq.

2733 Sem (héma’) rage. Usage similar to the
Hebrew hémd. The root in both languages
isyhm.

2734 “7am (hdmar) wine. Usage similar to the
rare Hebrew word hemer. Used for the
wine at Belshazzar’s feast (Dan 5: 1ff.) and
for the wine to be given for the temple

offering (libations?) in Ezr 6:9; 7:22.

2735 maim (hinta) wheat. Usage similar to the
Hebrew hitta. The Arabic as well as the
Aramaic, and possibly the Egyptian, wit-
nesses to an ‘‘n”’ assimilated in the He-

brew word.

2736 ma3n (hdnikkad) dedication. Usage similar
to Hebrew. The Jewish feast of Hanukkah
is a postbiblical festival celebrating the re-
dedication of the temple by Judas the
Maccabee in 165 B.C. Cf. John 10:20 (niv

footnote).

2737 33m (hdnan) show favor. Usage similar to
Hebrew. As in Hebrew, the meaning ‘‘im-
plore favor’? or ‘‘make supplication’’ is

found in the reflexive Hithpael stem.

2738 3 om (hdsan) take possession. The related
Hebrew words emphasize strength and
riches. The semantic connection to pos-

sessing 1S obvious.

Derivative
2738a 30M (hésen) power (of the king). Re-
lated to the above verb. Note the
Hebrew nuance of strength.
2739 HOM (hdsap) clay, potsherd. The word is

not used in Hebrew. Its use in BA is re-
stricted to the feet and toes of the image of
Dan 2. The only question is, was the clay
miry (2:41, KJv), or was it already baked,
like pottery. Since the picture is one of
smashing breakable things, probably the
latter is intended (so NIV).

2740 *mOM (hdsap) show insolence. Only used

in the Haphel and not in Biblical Hebrew.

2741 *35nm (hAdrab) be waste. Only used in the
Hophal of a city being laid waste. So used

also in the Hebrew Hophal.

2742 gen (hartém) magician-astrologer. Usage
similar to the Hebrew (q.v.). It may be an
Egyptian loan word through the Hebrew

(cf. KB, Hebrew hartém).

2743, 39m (hdrak) singe. Found only in Dan

3:27. It never occurs in Hebrew.

1020

2749 ann (hdtam)

2744 van (hdras) loin, hip joint. Probably re- 2746b «o3mMwn (hashhi) things needed (col-
lated to Hebrew hdlds with interchange of lective).

the liquid consonants.
2747 siwm (hdshék) darkness. Used like the

2745 swm (hdshab) think, account. Usage simi- Hebrew hoshek. Occurs only in Dan 2:22.

lar to Hebrew.
2748 %Wr (hdshal) shatter. Used once in He-

2746 mm (hdshah) need. Not used in Hebrew, brew (Deut 25:18, Niphal). There are cog-
but the root is found in Akkadian. nates in Akkadian and Arabic.
Derivatives 2749 ann (hdtam) to seal. Usage similar to
2746a «oamwn (hashha) thing needed. Hebrew.

1021

2750 38 (t°’éb) be good. Used like the He-
brew t6b. The aleph developing from the
root y°tab (a by-form related to Hebrew
t6b) is unusual outside of the participle
Peal.

Derivative

2750a 38 «=(tab) good.

2751 m3 (tabbah) guardsman. Used in He-
brew for both cook and (in the plural) the
king’s guard. Potiphar was a captain of the
guard (Gen 37:36).

2752 "330 (tar) mountain. Used similarly to the
Hebrew sur with the usual interchange of
t and s when the Protosemitic sound is
emphatic fricative (like an emphatic th in
‘‘that’’). Cf. also the Aramaic qgayit ‘‘sum-
mer,’ Hebrew qayis.

2753 mye (t*wat) fasting. Used only of the
king’s fasting in Dan 6:18 [A 19]. Not used
in Hebrew.

2754 3% (tin) clay. Cf. the word hdsap used in
the same context of the image’s feet in
Dan 2. This word is not used in Hebrew.
Baked clay would fit the context.

2755 %8 (tal) dew. Used similarly to the He-
brew tal, derived from a root talal.

2756 *55 (rlal) have shade. Used only in the
Haphel. This word is not related to the
noun tal, but comes from the Hebrew
sdlal. Note the t-s interchange.

2757 *aye (‘ém) feed. Used only in the Pael.
The Hebrew equivalent used in the Qal
means ‘‘taste,’’ which is in accord with the
following derivative.

Derivative

2757a pepo (f'ém) taste, judgment, com-
mand. The Hebrew is similar, but
the meaning ‘‘command”’ is rare in

Hebrew.

2758 “be (t®par) nail, claw. The Hebrew cog-
nate sippdren also means fingernail, but
more broadly includes a stylus (Jer 17:1), a
meaning not witnessed in BA.

2759 SS (f*rad) chase away. Used similarly to
the Hebrew tarad.

1025

2762 713°

2763

2765 yt

2765Sa

*63° (y®bal) bear along, carry. Used in
the Haphel, y° bal is similar to the Hebrew
Hiphil of yabal.

al the earth. The Hebrew
yabbashd4 is more specialized to mean dry
land. Indeed the Aramaic word in Dan
2:10 may emphasize the land part of the
earth where people live, rather than the
total earth.

(y‘gar) heap (of stones). WLaban’s
name for the pile of stones which witnes-
sed the oath between him and Jacob. The
Aramaic name was y* gar sahddita ‘‘heap
of witness.’’ Jacob’s name for it was the
Hebrew gal‘éd. It has been pointed out
that the ‘‘mizpah benediction’’ spoken on
this occasion was not a benediction, but a
threat and a sanction that the covenant of
peace would be kept. See sahddi.

(yad) hand, power. This common word
is used similarly to the Hebrew.

#59 (y*da’) praise, give thanks. As in the
case of the Hebrew cognate yad4, there is
difference of opinion as to whether this
root (used only in Dan 2:23 and 6:11)
means ‘‘give thanks”’ or ‘‘praise.’’ See the
discussion at the Hebrew root. One possi-
ble view is that general thanks can well be
called praise. But when a particular point
of deliverance is in view, it can be trans-
lated by ‘“‘give thanks’’ (so NIV in Dan).

(y°da‘) know. It may be said that this
word is used quite like its common He-
brew cognate. But as it is used in the more
restricted compass of BA, all of the He-
brew usages (e.g. carnal knowledge) are
not represented.

Derivative

yaa (manda‘) knowledge. De-
rived from the verb y‘da‘, this
Aramaic noun develops the nun by
dissimilation from the form
madda‘. This noun was later used
as the equivalent of the Greek
gnosis. The Aramaic Gnostics were
called Mandaeans.

2766 3m (y°hab) give. In BA this word is

much more widely used proportionately

>

2767

2768

2769

2770

2771

2772

277]2a

2772b

1029

than the corresponding word ydhab in
Hebrew. That word (q.v.) is restricted to
the Qal imperative and often used as a
courtesy word, ‘‘come now..’’ In Hebrew,
natan is used characteristically as the
word for ‘‘give.’’ In BA the situation is
reversed; n°tan is restricted to the Peal
imperfect and imperative, with y°hab
used in other forms and stems. Semanti-
cally, y°hab in Aramaic supplemented by
n*tan covers the main usages of Hebrew
natan.

piy (yém) day. Usage similar to Hebrew.
However, since the number of usages in
BA is only 15, against 2285 in Hebrew,
some of the less common Hebrew usages
are not found in BA. Of interest is the
usage in Dan 2:28 b°’ahdrit yémayyd’ *‘in
the latter days’’ (KJV) or ‘in days to come’”’
(NIV). See the discussion of Hebrew ’aharit,
no. 68.

38° (y*tab) be pleasing. Related to t°’éb,
as Hebrew ydtab is related to t6b. But the
Hebrew idiom for ‘‘be pleasing’’ usually is
the fuller expression ‘‘be pleasing in the
eyes of....”’

%2° (y°kil) be able. Usage similar to He-
brew.

Bm’ (yam) . sea. Usage similar to Hebrew.

MD’ (y*sap) add. Only used in Dan 4:36
[A 33]. The different idiomatic usages are
not witnessed to in the limited literature of
BA.

*eys (y*‘at) advise, take counsel. Only
used in the Ithpael. The usage is similar to
the Hebrew cognate yd‘as. The meaning
of ‘‘consult together’ is found in the Ni-
phai of Hebrew, whereas the one use of the
Hithpael in Hebrew means ‘‘conspire.’’ Is
the Aramaic of Dan 6:7 [A 8] really saying
that the officials had conspired together?

Derivatives

wy? (ya‘ét) counselor. A_ partici-
ple Peal of the above verb used as a
noun.

mop (‘éta) counsel.

2773 *38) (y°sab)

2773 *3%°9 (y*sab) make certain. Only used in
Dan 7:19, in the Pael. The Hebrew ydsab
is probably cognate, but means more ‘‘to
take a firm stand.’’ It is used only in the
Hithpael.

Derivative

2773a 3°89 8 (yassib) certain, true; with

min: of a truth.

2774 Sp° (y*qad) burn. Used six times in the
record of the fiery furnace of Dan 3. Its
range of meaning is similar to the Hebrew
yaqad.

Derivative

2774a = MNB° «(y’qédad) burning. Used simi-
larly to the Hebrew y°géd, which is

also derived from the root yqd.

2775 9p
2775a

(yqr). Assumed root of the following.

"2° (y*qar) honor. The basic

meaning of the Hebrew root is ‘‘to

be precious.’’ The semantic exten-

sion to honor is seen in the Hebrew

word y*qgar as well as in the
Aramaic.

2776 ms (y’rah) month. Usage similar to He-
brew.

2777 ma"9° «(yar’ka) thigh, loins. Used only in
Dan 2:32. Extensions of this meaning
(‘‘side, extreme parts, recesses’’) found in
Hebrew are not witnessed in BA.

2778 W* (yshn). Assumed root of the following.
2778a mw (shénd) sleep. The verb is not
found in BA. It occurs frequently in
Hebrew, and the parallel form

shénad is among its derivatives.
2779 WS (yat) mark of the accusative. Used only

in Dan 3:12. The Hebrew ’ét (q.v.) is very
common in the Bible, but is rare in poetry
and is absent in Ugaritic. The one instance
in BA argues that is not at home in that
dialect, though it is found in the other
Aramaic/Syriac dialects.

2780 3m’ (y*tib) sit, dwell. Used similarly to
the Hebrew cognate ydshab.
2781 “°M° (yattir) pre-eminent, surpassing.

Used like the Hebrew yeter, which how-
ever, has another meaning ‘‘remainder,
excess,’ not attested in BA.

1030

2782

2783

2784

2785

2786

2787

2788

2789

2790

2791

2792

2793

2794

> (k*) like, as, about. Usage similar to
Hebrew.
33> (k*dab) false. Cf. the cognate He-

brew noun, kdzab ‘‘falsehood.’’ Note the
daleth-zayin interchange.

“12 (k¢di). See di, no. 2673.

m> (kad) here. The Aramaic does not alter

the accented long ‘‘a’’ to ‘‘o’’ as seen in
the Hebrew demonstrative adverb koh.

oma (k*hal) be able. A root not attested in
Hebrew, which uses yakol. Possibly there
is a relation with a by-form, but evidence
seems to be lacking.

m2 (kahén) priest. Usage similar to He-
brew.

"33. (kér) cor. A dry measure equal to ten
ephahs. See the discussion under Hebrew
"épa, no. 82.

*65> (klal) complete. Used only in the
Shaphel and Ishtaphel stems, possibly a
loan word from Akkadian. But kalal is
used similarly in Hebrew, and there are
Shaphels in Ugaritic. The Shaphel is not as

surprising in Aramaic as sometimes
thought.

> (kol), °93 (kol-) the whole, all.
Usage similar to Hebrew.

12 (kén) thus, as follows. Usage similar to
Hebrew.

NID (k*néma’) accordingly, as follows.

Can refer either backward (Ezr 6:13) or
forward (Ezr 4:8). It introduces a letter in
Ezr 5:4—the ancient ‘*‘Dear Sir.”’

wI> (k*nash) gather. Cognate to the He-
brew kdnas (q.v.) and used similarly.

mi> (k®nat) associate. The same word is
used in the Hebrew of Ezr 4:7. But there it
is probably a loan word from the Aramaic
which in turn may be borrowed from the
Akkadian.

D> (k*sap) silver. Used like the Hebrew
kesep and without clear reference to coin-

2795

2796

2797

2798

2799

2800

2801

2802

1033

age, although coins both Greek and Per-
sian were in use in Ezra’s day (cf. Ezr
7:17).

WD (kan) now. A combination of the
preposition k* plus a derivative of the root
‘ana, which is back of the Hebrew word
‘et ‘‘time.’’ The meaning is ‘‘at this time’’
or “‘now.”’

mapa (k*‘enet) now. A feminine form of
the above.

hyd (k°‘et) now. A contraction of the
form k° ‘enet.

mp2 (k*pat) bind. Not attested in He-
brew, but cognates occur in Akkadian and
Arabic.

*855 (Kra’) be distressed. Not attested in
Hebrew. Cognates occur in Akkadian and
Arabic. Not used in the Peal.

899593 (karb’la’) cap, turban. The He-
brew word involves clothing thrown over
like a mantle. The Akkadian cognate re-
fers to some kind of cap. Perhaps the ref-
erence is to a turban, but the precise sig-
nificance is uncertain. Occurs only in Dan
32).

*199 (k*raz) make a proclamation. A de-
nominative verb from kdr6éz, suggesting
that the word had been borrowed some
time previously. Used only in Dan 5:29.
Not used in the Peal.

THD. (kar6éz) herald. This is one of the
three or four celebrated Greek words
found in Daniel (3:4). The argument has
been that these words prove a date in the
days after Alexander. But it is remarkable,
if Daniel were of Maccabean date, that
there would be so many Persian loan
words and so few Greek ones. Obviously
Susa and Babylon were not isolated from
Greek merchants, artisans and soldiers in
the days of Daniel. That there were Greek
musicians with instruments bearing Greek
names (cf. Dan 3:5 etc.) in the days of
Daniel is to be expected. KB argues that
kdr6z is really derived from an Old Persian
root cognate to the Greek word.

2803 so (korsé’)

2803 NBND (korsé’) throne. Used like the He- Derivative
brew kissé’ with an inserted liquid con- 2805a SnD (ketab) a writing. The
sonant. "Aramaic word expresses the mean-
ing of both the Hebrew k‘tab and
2804 “22 (kikkar) talent. Usage similar to He- miktab.
brew.
2806 %n> (Kk tal) wall (Dan 5:5). The Hebrew
2805 3nd (k*tab) write. Usage similar to He- equivalent also appears but once (Song
brew. 2:9).

1034

2807 % (l*) to, for, in regard to, at; the sign of the
accusative. This inseparable preposition
is used very like the corresponding He-
brew. The forms with m seem to be lacking
in BA, as they are also for b® ‘‘in,’’ and
ke ‘as,’ ‘‘when,’’ ‘‘like.’’ The /° is used as
it is in Hebrew to mark the object of a verb,
but a parallel to the Hebrew ’ét is lacking.
One may question whether the /° is ever
used in the sense of ‘‘from,’’ as is now
recognized in Hebrew. The answer seems
to be that such a usage has not been ob-
served, but our material is too limited to
exclude the possibility.

The /° is used more in BA than in Hebrew as a
periphrastic idiom to express the genitive ‘‘be-
longing to.’’ The use with an infinitive to express
purpose is the same as in Hebrew. There is no
cognate to Hebrew /€ ma‘an in Aramaic.

2808 8? (la’) not. Used as in Hebrew. Note
that in BA the accented games does not
change to holem. Two usages are more
common in BA than Hebrew. /a’ may, in
BA, be used to negate a participle. And
since Aramaic does not use /°bilti, the
plain negative /a@’ is found with an infini-
tive of purpose preceded by the preposi-
tion F.

2809 33° (/bb). Assumed root of the following.
2809a 3635 ~=(léb) heart.

2810

2811

2812

2813

2814

2815

2816

2817

1037

2809b 339 (/*bab) heart. This word is
more common in BA than is /éb.
The reverse 1s the case in Hebrew.
ws (l*bésh) be clothed.
Derivative
2810a was? (ibash) garment (Hebrew
the same).
wm (lahén) I, therefore. Hebrew the

same.

wm (lahén) II, except, but. This usage dif-
fers from the Hebrew /dhen and serves for
Hebrew ki’im.

myo (l°wat) to, at, beside.

an? (l°hém) feast. The cognate in He-

brew is used for food, but ‘‘feast’’ in He-
brew is usually mishteh. See mishtéy.
Not used in

mim? (l®hénd) concubine.

Hebrew.
8995 (léyld’) night. Used as in Hebrew.

1 (lishshan) tongue, i.e. language;

therefore people.

2818

2819

2820

2821

2822

2823

2824

2825

2826

2827

2828

Nl. (ma’). See ma, no. 2822.

mia (m°’a) one hundred. The same as the
Hebrew.

NIIINI9 (md’zanya’) scale, balance. Oc-

curs in Dan 5:27, only.

S782 (mé’mar). See no. 2584a.

IW (ma'n) vessel, utensil.
mead (m¢gilla). See no. 2656c.

*932) (mgar) overthrow.
the Pael.

Used only in

masta (madbah). See no. 2665b.
mata (midda). See no. 2834.
“ita (m®dér). See no. 2669b.

maa (m&dinad). See no. 2674c.

"32 (m¢dar). See no. 2669c.

mi) (ma) what? whatever. Used in Hebrew
with prefixed preposition: k®md ‘‘how!”’
l€mda ‘‘why?”’

mv (mut) death. Occurs only in Ezr 7:26.

vitt92 (mazdn). See no. 2705a.

Nm (mehda’) smite, strike, kill.

mpema (mahl’qd). See no. 2732b.

NOI (meta’), Mele (meta) reach, at-
tain. Probably cognate to Hebrew mdsd of
the same meaning (so KB).

79 (méla’) fill. See Hebrew malé’ and
mala. .

ms8979 (mal’ak) angel.
Hebrew.

The usage parallels

mor (milla). See no. .2831a.

mora (m®lah) eat salt. This denominative
verb is used only in Ezr 4:14. It probably
reflects the common Near Eastern idiom
‘*to be under obligation to.’’ If a host gives
a guest salt, the guest is under the protec-
tion of his hospitality which is considered
a binding obligation.

2829

2829a = 34%) «~(melek) king.

Parent Noun

2828a m3 (m*lah) salt. Parent noun of
the verb m°®lah. See the Hebrew

cognate.
s5) (mlk) 1. Assumed root of the follow-

ing
See Hebrew

melek.
2829b =ma2 «(malkd) queen.
2829c 15%) «(malkii) royalty, reign, king-
dom. See Hebrew malkat.
2830 s5 (milk) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing. |
2830a 39% (m*lék) counsel, advice. The

2831

283 1a

2832

2833

2834

1041

Hebrew cognate verb is used once,
in Neh 5:7. It is probably a loan
word and therefore from Aramaic.
Akkadian also witnesses to this
root, which is to be distinguished
from mlk I.

#697 (mélal) speak, say.
the Pael.
mor (milla) word, thing. This word
appears also in Hebrew, where it
has been called an Aramaism equiv-
alent to the native Hebrew word
dabdr. But there is no sound shift to
indicate a borrowing of the word
either way. It may be a word native
to Hebrew, but used less and there-
fore a good poetic parallel to dabar.
This word, and others, have been
used to date portions of the oT as
late. But more recently the signifi-
cance of the argument has lessened
with more discovery of and resul-
tant appreciation of Aramaic. See
the helpful discussion in Archer,
- Survey of Old Testament Introduc-
tion, pp. 137-141.

Used only in

2 (man) who. Used also with di, ‘‘who
is there that?’’ Cf. Hebrew mi.

v2 (min) from, by reason of, more than.
The range of uses is similar to the Hebrew.

N39 (mene’). See mena, no. 2835.

maj (mindad), m2 (midda) tribute. A
loan word from Akkadian, found also in
Hebrew (midda).

2835 Myr (mend)

yaa (manda‘). See no. 2765a.
2835 Mt (mend) number, reckon; Pael, ap-
point. Similar to the Hebrew.
Derivatives
2835a S32 (moné’) maneh, mina. The
same as Hebrew. Usually fifty
shekels made a mina, but in the
sexagesimal system, sixty would be
expected and is witnessed in Ezk
45:12. The word is probably used in
Dan 5:25, 26 in a word play on
mana ‘‘to number.’”’
2835b 932 (minyadn) a number.
2836 Mmm (minha) gift, offering. Similar to the
Hebrew.
2837 S¥ro (m°‘a’) abdomen, belly (but not in-

cluding the internal organs). Used like the

Hebrew m®& ‘G.

“apla (ma‘dbad). See no. 2894c.

2838 ip (m*‘dhi) abdomen, belly. This noun

is composed from m°‘d’ with a suffix.

Ya (me‘dl). See no. 291 1a.

2839 S32 (maré’) BM (maréh) lord. This
word is used of God, and also of the king.

2840 “973
2840a

(mrd). Assumed root of the following.

33% (mrad) rebellion. The root is
common in Hebrew, and the mean-
ings of the derivatives in BA reflect
the Hebrew usage.

2840b 39%) (mardd) rebellious.

2841 wr (merat) pluck, pull off. Similar to

the Hebrew.

2842 mw (m*shah) olive oil. The cognate in
Hebrew means more the compounded
anointing oil. The Hebrew shemen zayit
used for olive oil is not used in BA.

saw (mishkab). See no. 3029a.
yw (mishkan). See no. 3031a.
mypiswi (mashréqit). See no. 3049a.
mnwi (mishteh). See no. 305la.
SIM (matt?nd’). See no. 2879a.

1042

2843 833 (nb’). Assumed root of the following.

2843a 8°32 (n°bi’) prophet. Probably a
loan word from Biblical Hebrew.
See the discussion under Hebrew
naba’, no. 1277.

2843b -ANI32) (n°ba’a) prophesying.

2844 M3BI32 (n° bizba)
sian loan word.

reward. Probably a Per-

2845 smwa32 (nebrashta’) lampstand. Not the
seven-branched lampstand of the temple.

2846 2) (n°gad) stream, flow. The relation of
this root to the Hebrew ndgad is unclear.
Derivative
2846a 4] (neged) in front of, facing. Not
used in Aramaic outside of the
Bible and probably a borrowing
from Hebrew.
2847 33 (nogah) brightness, daylight. The
same as the Hebrew.
2848 3533 (n°dab) volunteer, offer freely. He-
brew the same.
2849 335932 (nidbak) row, layer, course (of stones).
Probably a loan word.
2850 ‘3 (n*dad) flee. Similar to Hebrew.
2851 233 (nidnd) sheath. Meaning uncertain.
Probably a Persian loan word. See the He-
brew in I Chr 21:27.
2852 “m2 (n°har) river. The same as the He-
brew nahar.
2853 "m3 (nhr). Assumed root of the following.
2853a 392) (nehir), IMI (nehdr) light.
See the Hebrew root nhr II.
2853b 0635983) «(nahiri) illumination, in-
sight.
2854 3 (nid) flee. The Hebrew’ cognate

means more ‘‘to move back and forth.”’

2855 3913 (né’wald), 713 (n°wali) — refuse-
heap. Probably an Akkadian loan word.
2856 "33 (nur) fire. The Hebrew root gives rise

to nér ‘‘lamp’’ and m°nd6érd, the seven-
branched lampstand.

2857 (933. (n®zaq) suffer injury. This verb is not

used in Hebrew, but is used in Akkadian.

2858 wm (n°hdsh)

Hebrew.

copper, bronze. The same in

2859 mma (n°hét) descend. This root in Hebrew
is called poetic and late in BDB (p. 1102),
but now is witnessed in Ugaritic. The

meaning is the same.

2860 983 (n°tal) lift up. The Hebrew cognate
means more to lift up a thing and lay it
upon something. The Akkadian natdlu

corresponds more closely to the BA.

2861 “83 (n°tar) keep. The same as the He-
brew cognate ndasar. But the form ndatar

is, only scantily, represented in Hebrew.

min’: (nihéah) soothing. Used as in He-
brew of acceptable offerings and rewards.

2862

2863 B22 (n°kas)

in Hebrew.

riches, property. The same as

2864 fa) (n’ mar)

brew.

leopard. The same as in He-

2865 *mb2 (n®sah) pull away. Used in the
Hithpeal. The same as in Hebrew (where it
occurs in the Qal).

2866 383 (n°sak) offer sacrifice. Used in He-
brew especially for pouring out libations.
In BA the verb is used of offering sacrifice
in general (only Dan 2:46).

Derivative

2866a 30] (n®sak) libation offering.
PB] (nsq). See s*laq no. 2889, which
assimilates the ‘‘l’’ backward to make

forms like a pe-nun verb.

2867 %b] (n°pal) fall. Used as in Hebrew.
2868

PBJ (n*paq) go out or come out, come
forth. Not found in Hebrew, but widely

used in Aramaic dialects.

Derivative
2868a MPBJ (nipqa) outlay.
2869 M32 (nisba) firmness. The root is used

extensively in Hebrew meaning ‘“‘to stand
firm,’ etc.

1045

2870 *n¥3 (n’sah)

2870

2871

2872

2873

2874

2875

*m¥2 (n’sah) distinguish oneself. Similar
to the Hebrew ndsah ‘‘be pre-eminent,”
which, however, is treated as one root in
BDB, as two in KB.

*5¥3 (n°sal) rescue, deliver. The same as

in Hebrew.

SP] (n®qé’) clean, pure. Similar to the
Hebrew root ndqa with its derivatives.

wp (n’qash) knock (of knees). Probably
the same root as the Hebrew, which, how-
ever means more to catch in a snare.

sw (n°sa’) lift, carry, take away. The
same as in Hebrew, where the word is
common.

1W2 (n®shin) wives. Occurs only in Dan
6:25. n®shin is related to the Hebrew
nadshim (singular ’ishsha). Its relation to
"éndsh is not clear. BDB lists two roots
’nsh, one for the masculine noun, one for
the feminine. The Hebrew ’ish and
’ishshaé have similar problems as to their
derivation and relation.

2876

2877

2878

2879

2880

2880a

2881

1046

mews (nishma) breath. Occurs only in
Dan 5:23. See the Hebrew nishmd.

_ (n°shar) vulture, eagle. Used like the

p
Hebrew nesher.

nw. (nisht®’wan) letter. Probably a Per-
sian loan word.

INI (netinin) temple servants. Similar to
the Hebrew n° tinim.

M2 (n®tan) give. In Aramaic this word
for give is used only in the Peal infinitive
and imperfect. The other word for ‘‘give,”’
y’hab, is widely used in the perfect, imper-
fect, and participle Peal and in the passive
of the Peal. In Hebrew, on the contrary,
natan is widely used and ydahab restricted.

Derivative

Nin (mattna’) gift.

*3n3 (n°tar) strip off (leaves). Occurs

only in Dan 4:11, in the Haphel.

2882

2883

2884

2885

2886

2887

2888

“3D (s°bal) bear, carry a load. Meaning
uncertain. See Hebrew sdabal.

"30 (s®bar) think, intend. The Hebrew
cognate is Sdbar.

530 (s*gid) worship, pay homage. Used of
God, idols, and men. Used like the He-
brew sdgad.

720 (s°gan) prefect, governor. This Akka-
dian loan word is found also in Hebrew.

"30 (s¢gar) shirt. Used as in Hebrew.

ma5ID = (siimponyad) wind instrument.
This word (Dan 3:5, 15) is borrowed from
the Greek symphonia (whence English
‘‘symphony’’) and was long taken as a
proof that Daniel was written in the Greek
period after Alexander’s conquests. It is
now generally recognized that since there
were many earlier contacts between the
Greeks and Persians, this name of a musi-
cal instrument could well be found along
with the instrument at the Persian court.
Cf. our Hawaiian borrowing ‘‘ukelele.”’
The same can be said of the three other
Greek words in this section of Daniel,
‘‘harp’’ (qgit®rds), ‘‘sackbut’’ (sabb° ka’)
and ‘‘psaltery’’ (psantérin). See R. K.
Harrison, ‘‘Daniel,’’ in ZPEB, II, p. 18.

AID «6((sip) be fulfilled, come to an end. The
Hebrew is similar but does not include the
idea of fulfillment.

Derivative
2888a AID (sdép) end.

mM3BID (sipponyad). See siumponya, no.

2889 pop (s*léq) come up. A common BA
equivalent of the Hebrew ‘ala. The word
shows the backward assimilation of the
‘‘l’’ known elsewhere in Aramaic, so cer-
tain forms look like n°’sag. The Hebrew
cognates are saléq and Sdlagq (q.v.).

2890 “YD (s°‘ad) support, sustain. Used as in
Hebrew.

2891 “BB (spr). Assumed root of the following.
2891a “PD (s*par) book. Like the He-
brew séper.
2891b “°BB (sdpir) scribe, secretary. Like
the Hebrew sdpér which is not lim-
ited to mere writing, but is also a
term applicable to governmental
and military officials.

2892 %3"5_ (sarbal) mantle. Probably a loan
word. KB suggests Scythian origin.

2893 390 (sarak) chief, overseer. Probably a
loan word. BDB suggests Persian origin;
KB, Hittite.

2894 “sno (s‘tar) I, hide. Like the Hebrew
satar.

2895 "nd (star) II, destroy. May be compared
to the Hebrew sdtar.

1049

2896 “3p (‘dbad) make, do, perform, create
(Peal); be made, be done, be performed, exe-
cuted/carried out (Hithpeall).

Derivatives
2896a tay (‘dbad), “3p (‘abéd) slave,

servant.

2896b tmsay (‘abida) service, work, ritual,
worship.

2896c t73~ (ma‘dbad) action (of God in
history).

The primary meaning of this root indicates ser-
vice, performance of a duty, or activity. The
Hithpeal is used as the passive of the Peal. The
formal Hebrew cognate is ‘dbad, but the
functional equivalent is ‘asd.

The root ‘dbad occurs frequently in the
Aramaic portions of the Old Testament with a
variety of functions. First, one may be said to
‘‘make’’ an image (Dan 3:1, 15), a feast (Dan 5:1),
or a war (Dan 7:21). The passive (Hithpeal) is
employed to indicate a search which needs to *‘be
made’’ (Ezr 4:15, 19); to indicate the gory pro-
cess of human bodies ‘‘being made’’ (i.e., torn or
hacked) into pieces (Dan 2:5; 3:29); or to describe
the process of a house ‘‘being made’”’ into a dung
heap (Ezr 6:11).

Second, God may ‘‘do”’ or ‘‘perform’’ in di-
vine ways. For example, God may perform mi-
raculous signs (Dan 6:27), or otherwise act in ac-
cordance with his own sovereign freedom (Dan
4:35). Of course, one of the major activities of
God is creation, designated in Jer 10:11 as some-
thing in which gods fashioned by human hands
(idols) did not participate.

Third, in Ezr 7:26, all the people in the prov-
ince Beyond the River (The Trans-Euphrates
province) were enjoined to ‘‘do”’ (i.e. *“‘obey’’)
both the law of the God of Ezra and the law of the
king. Doing the law of God is closely related to
the idea of ‘‘worship,’’ which, as understood in
Semitic thought, was ‘‘service’’ or ‘‘slavery’’ to
God. Indeed, this idea continued down into NT
times, as is plainly attested by the number of
times that Paul refers to himself as the ‘‘slave’’ of
Jesus Christ. (Greek doulos is the regular LXX
translation for Hebrew and Aramaic ‘bd.)

Fourth, the most frequently attested function
of the root ‘dbad in Biblical Aramaic is to denote
the simple idea of activity, of ‘‘doing’’ a wide
variety of things (see Ezr 4:22; 6:8, 12, 13; 7:18;
Dan 4:35; 6:10, 22).

The most intriguing use of the root is in con-
nection with the name of one of the three com-

1053

rades of Daniel. These four lads went into
Babylonian captivity bearing good Hebrew
names, each of which had symbolic meaning re-
lated to the worship of Yahweh the God of Israel.
Hananiah and Azariah contain the shortened
form of Yahweh and mean respectively ‘‘Yahu
has been gracious’’ and ‘‘Yahu has helped.’’)
However, their Babylonian captors quickly
changed these Hebrew (Yahwistic) names into
Babylonian ones. While the etymology of the
new names of Hananiah (Shadrach) and Mishael
(Meshach) is uncertain, the meaning of the new
name given to Azariah is fairly clear. Abed-nego
(‘abéd n° g6) appears to be a form which has dis-
similated from Abed-nebo (Akkadian abdinabu).
Part of the humiliation of captivity was sym-
bolized by the ignominy of one whose real name
meant ‘‘Yahu has helped’’ being redesignated as
‘‘the slave of Nabu’’ (the Babylonian god of wis-
dom). A major thrust in the book of Daniel is the
concern to illustrate that Yahweh is still in con-
trol of history despite the exilic condition of his
people. Related to this theological affirmation is
the message that no Babylonian god deserves the
worship or devotion of the people of God. Ac-
cordingly, although the Babylonians could
change his name to Abed-nego (‘‘slave of
Nabu’’), his faith remained solely grounded in
Yahweh. So Azariah (*‘Yahu has helped’’) can
say with his two friends: ‘‘Our God whom we
serve (not ‘dbad but p*lah throughout) is able to
deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he
will deliver us out of your hand, O king. But if
not, be it known to you, O king, that we will not
Serve your gods’’ (Dan 3:17-18).

‘Abad, ‘abéd. Slave, servant; i.e. the person who
does the action described by the verbal forms. In
Biblical Aramaic are found both a servant of God
(see Dan 3:26, 28; 6:21; Ezr 6:11) and a servant of
a human king (see Dan 2:4, 7; Ezr 4:11).

‘abida. Service, work, ritual, worship. The uses
of this word in Ezra refer to work done in rebuild-
ing the temple in Jerusalem (Ezr 4:24; 5:8; 6:7) as
well as to the general task of priests and Levites
which is service to God connected with ritual and
spiritual worship (Ezr 6:18).

ma‘abad. Action (of God in history). Found only
in Dan 4:37 [A 34], this word is used to describe
the dealings of the God of heaven with
Nebuchadnezzar. The human king, by acknow-
ledging that the dealings of God with him were
just and right, also acknowledged his own sinful-

2897 "3¥ (‘dbar)

ness and frailty in comparison with the sovereign
God.
C.D.I.

2897 “32 (‘dbar) region across, beyond. This
word is used in BA only in the phrase
‘‘beyond the River,”’ i.e. the region west
of the Euphrates (‘*Trans-Euphrates,”’
NIV). See the discussion of the similar He-
brew usage under ‘dbar, no. 1556. In BA
as in Hebrew, ‘‘across the river’’ does not
mean from the standpoint of the speaker
or author. Ezra’s adversary Rehum in
Samaria spoke of his territory as ‘‘beyond
the River’’ (Ezr 4:17).

2898 my (‘ddd) pass on, pass over. Not used of
death. Usage similar to Hebrew ‘ada I.

2899 “sy (‘ad) even to, until. Used as in He-
brew.

2900 3 (‘iddan) time, period, span, year, era.
: (kjv always ‘‘time’’; RSV always ‘‘time’’
except when the word is used in a tem-
poral clause.) ‘idddn is probably a loan
word from Akkadian e/addnu, addadnnu,
hadannu. Two basic meanings are equally
a ‘‘point”’ in time or a ‘‘span’’ of time.

The word occurs thirteen times, all in Dan,
with three shades of meaning. First in Dan 3:5
and 3:15, ‘iddan occurs in the temporal clause
b*‘iddana’ di, the literal meaning of which is *‘in
the time of,’’ or ‘‘at the time which.’’ However,
as the rsv has noted correctly, the phrase as a
whole simply means ‘‘when,’’ and is comparable
in function to three other idiomatic expressions
for ‘‘when’’ in Dan 3: bah sha‘td’, at the hour (v.
6); béh zimnad’, at the time (v. 7), and the usual
expression k°di (also v. 7).

Second, ‘iddadn may be used as a synonym of
z°mdn to mean a Specific length of time. In Dan
2:8, King Nebuchadnezzar accuses the Chal-
deans of attempting to stall for time (‘idddn) and
assures them that he is aware of their plans and
will punish them severely unless they retell and
then interpret his dream immediately. But in Dan
2:16, Daniel’s request for extra time (z°mdn) is
granted. Accordingly, he and his friends go to
prayer so that God might reveal to them the in-
formation which the king is demanding. It is
noteworthy that in this same chapter ‘idddn is
used in three different ways by the author. In
addition to the meaning just discussed, Dan 2:9
employs ‘iddan to mean ‘‘situation’’ (NASB),
l.e., circumstances. Later, in his prayer praising
God for revealing the king’s dream to him, Daniel
proclaims that God is the one who changes

1054

2901 iy (‘6d)

‘‘times and epochs”’ (‘idddnayyda’ w® zimnayyd’
v. 21). In this context, ‘idddn refers to far more
than the brief moment of one tough circumstance
comparable to that facing the would-be wise men
of King Nebuchadnezzar. Rather this is tes-
timony to the sovereign power of God to control
the sweep of history.

Third, the function of ‘idddn in Dan 4 is some-
what problematic. In this chapter, verses 16, 23,
25, and 32 [A 13, 20, 22, 29] employ the phrase
shib‘@ ‘idddnin, literally, ‘‘seven times’’ (kv,
RSV). However, the Lxx, Josephus, and tradi-
tional Jewish commentators have understood
the phrase to mean ‘“‘seven years’’ (See J. J.

‘Slotki, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, London: The

Soncino Press, 1951, p. 33). Still, it is not neces-
sary to view ‘idddn as a specific period in these
verses, and the NAsB translation, ‘‘seven periods
of time’’ is probably preferable to anything more
specific both in Dan 4 and in Dan 7:12.

The same thing must be said with respect to the
occurence of ‘iddadn in Dan 7:25 in the phrase
‘‘time, times and one-half a time” [‘idddn w® id-
danin tip*lag ‘idddn]. In this key verse, several
factors must be taken into consideration. First,
MT ‘idddnin may not be translated *‘two times”’
(i.e. ‘two years’’), but must be simply ‘‘times,”’
i.e., plural rather than dual. If one chooses to
interpret the second word as ‘“‘two times”’ (RSv)
one must repoint the consonants (i.e., ‘id-
danayin). Second, the phrase as a whole may
simply be a conventional, apocalyptic way to in-
dicate an indefinite period of time. Third, be-
cause of the difficulties involved in arriving at an
interpretation of this phrase which is satisfying to
a wide range of scholars, the translation of the
phrase is better left as indefinite as the Aramaic
original itself appears. Clearly ‘iddan may mean
either ‘‘time’’ or ‘‘year.’’ But to press beyond
this to a specific interpretation demanding the
phrase ‘‘three and one-half years’’ is unwar-
ranted. All that may be said with certainty is that
Dan 7 (along with Dan 2 and 8-12) points to a
period of time during which evil powers will ap-
pear to be in control of world affairs followed by
a moment at which God will reassert his sover-
eignty in history and will bring to an end those
forces which have worked against his kingdom.

[The above remarks are carefully considered
and rightly urge caution in the interpretation of
these expressions. Some may wish to add, how-
ever, that the similar Hebrew term is found in
Dan 12:7 which may perhaps be elucidated by the
reference to the periods of 1290 and 1335 days in
Dan 12:12-13. Cf. also Rev. 11:2; 13:5 and 12:6.
R.L.H. |

C.D.I.

still, yet. Used as in Hebrew.

2902 MY (‘dwayd) iniquity. Occurs only in
Dan 4:27 [A 24]. See the Hebrew ‘awd and
its derivative ‘Gw6n.

2903 iY (‘6p) fowl. Used as in Hebrew.

2904 "32 (‘ar) chaff. Derivation uncertain.

ty (‘ez). See no. 2920a.

2905 MpIy (‘izqa) signet ring. Apparently de-
rived from the Hebrew ‘‘to go around,”’
‘‘dig around.”’

Rey (‘etd’). See no. 2772b.

2906 92 (‘ayin) eye. Used like the Hebrew
cognate. The meaning ‘‘spring’’ is not
found in BA.

2907 “°%Y (‘ir) waking, watchful (i.e. an angel).
Cognate to the Hebrew ‘ar I, ‘‘awake.”’

2908 %Y (‘al) upon, over, on account of, above,

to, against. This preposition answers to
both Hebrew ‘al and ’el. Aramaic does
not have ’el ‘‘to.’’ This circumstance pos-
sibly contributes to occasional confusion
in the Hebrew texts between ‘al and ’el.
This interchange in Hebrew may be scribal
or may be in the language itself (see BDB,
p. 757). The use of Aramaic ‘al *‘to’’ may
be influenced by the Aramaic verb ‘dlal
‘‘to go in.”’
soy (‘ella’). See no. 2909a.
2909 my (‘lh). Assumed root of the following.
(See the Hebrew ‘alda.)
2909a = 8PY (‘ella’) above.
2909b oy (‘illi) roof chamber.
2909c = 9p = (‘elyén) the Most High.
2909d by (‘illay) the highest, the Most
High. This usage of ‘illay may be
compared with the occasional He-
brew usage of ‘al as ‘‘the Most
High.’’ This usage, recognized now
by Dahood in several Pss, has al-
ready been adopted by the kv in
translation of Hos 7:16 and 11:7.
nop (‘allat) burnt offering. Occurs
only in Ezr 6:9.

2909e

2910 mop (‘illa) matter, affair. Probably de-
rived from a root ‘alal used in Hebrew.

wy Cilli),

My (‘elyén). See no. 2909c.

sy (‘illay). See nos. 2909b,d.

2923 way (‘anash)

2911 %9p (‘dlal) go or come in. The corte-

sponding verb is used only once in He-

brew. Instead, the verb bd’ is used, which
does not appear at all in BA.

Derivative

291la %y% (me‘al) going in.

2912 ay (‘dlam) perpetuity, antiquity. The
cognate in Hebrew, ‘dlam, shows the He-
brew tendency to change an accented long

ee 9°

a’’ to ‘‘o.”’

2913 poy (‘dla‘) rib. The Hebrew cognate
sela‘ shows the common sound shift of
tsadhe and ayin between Hebrew and

Aramaic.
noy (‘alat). See no. 2907e.
2914 By (‘am) people. Used as in Hebrew.
2915 ey (‘im) with. Used as in Hebrew.
2916 pap (‘admiq) deep, deep mysteries. The

Hebrew is more extensively used both in
literal and metaphorical meanings.

2917 “te (‘dmar) wool. Used like its Hebrew
cognate, semer.
2918 my (‘dnd) I, answer. In every one of the

twenty-four times this word is used, it is
followed by the verb ’dmar, making the
idiom ‘‘answered and said.’’ The phrase is
an Aramaic expression merely meaning
‘‘to reply, respond.’’ This Aramaizing
expression is frequent in the Gospels,
where the kJv always renders it fully. The
NIv translates the idiom more naturally,
‘answered,’ “‘replied,’’ and the like.

2919 may (‘nh) II. Assumed root of the follow-

ing.
2919a 3% (‘dni) poor, needy. Cognate to
the Hebrew ‘dni and related words.
2920 1322 (‘nz). Assumed root of the following.
2920a =tY «=(‘éz) ~~ she-goat. Only in Ezr 6:17:
Used as in Hebrew.
2921 %3Y (‘dndn) cloud. Similar to the Hebrew

cognate.

2922 MIp (‘andp)
equivalent.

bough. Used like the Hebrew

2923 wip (‘dndsh) confiscation, fining. The
root is used similarly in Hebrew, but in-
cludes broader punishment, tribute, etc.

1055

2924 *Bp (‘dpi)
may (‘enet). See no. 2796.
2924 Sp (‘dpi) foliage. The word is used once
in Hebrew (Ps 104:12) where a Qere/
Kethib variation occurs. The Kethib in-
cludes an aleph, perhaps influenced by
Aramaic forms.

2925 33Y (‘dsab) pain, grieve. Used like the

Hebrew cognate ‘dsab.
2926 *"2Y (‘dqar) be rooted up. A denomina-
tive verb used only in the Hithpeal.

Parent Noun

2926a “P¥ (‘iggar) root, stock. Its usage

is paralleled closely in Hebrew.

“sy (‘ar). See no. 2930a.

2927 *30¥ (‘drab) mix. The usage parallels
‘drab | in Hebrew where, however, only
derivative nouns appear, not the root.

2928 “sy (‘drdd) wild ass. The Hebrew parallel
is only used once (Job 39:5) and is thought
by BDB to be a borrowing from Aramaic.
But both may be borrowings.

2929 may (‘arwa) dishonor. The Hebrew
equivalent ‘arweh ‘‘nakedness’’ is used
more generally in Aramaic.

2930 "5Y = (rr).
2930a

Assumed root of the following.

“vy (‘ar) foe. There is a Hebrew
word ‘dr (Ps 139:20) meaning
‘‘foe,’’ which may be a borrowing
from Aramaic. The cognate He-
brew word is sar (from sara II)
‘‘enemy’’ which is used exten-
sively.

2931 swy (‘adsab)
Hebrew.

herbage, grass. Used as in

2932 wy (‘dsar), mwY (‘asra) ten. Used
as in Hebrew.

Derivative

2932a wy (‘esrin) twenty.

2933 mwy (‘dshit), mwy (‘dashit) think, plan.
Hebrew has a cognate possibly borrowed
from Aramaic, but this is by no means cer-

tain.

mp (‘et). See no. 2797.

2934 “mp (‘dtid) ready. Used as in Hebrew.
2935 PAY (‘attiq) ancient (of days). Used only
of God, in Dan 7:9, 13, 22. Derivatives of

the Hebrew root include the ideas of value
and eminence.

1056

2936 MS (pehad) governor. Loan word from
Akkadian.

2937 "M5 (pehdar) potter. Probably loan word
from Akkadian.

2938 wes (p*tash) agarment. Precise meaning
uncertain.

2939 395 (p°lag) divide. Used as in Hebrew.

Derivatives

2939a 2B (p*lag) half.
2939b: m32B (p’ligga) division.

2940 m?5 (p*lah) serve, worship, revere, minis-
ter for (KJV and RSV always ‘‘serve’’).

Derivative

2940a im’p (polhan) service, worship
(only in Ezr 7:19).

The original meaning of the root was ‘‘to
cleave [open]’’ or ‘‘divide in two.’’ From this
meaning was derived the idea of cultivating a
field and ultimately of cultivating (i.e. working
hard at) the worship of a deity, hence the idea of
service or worship of a deity. In Biblical Hebrew,
the root is used only in the sense of cleave or
split, and apparently did not develop into a term
for religious service, as is the case in Aramaic.

The verb p°lah occurs only in Dan. In chapter
3, the basic meaning of the word is employed to
portray the paramount concern of the incident of
the ‘‘furnace of burning fire.’’ In verse 12 it is
learned that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego
have refused to ‘‘serve’’ the god (singular here
because it is parallel in the context to the ‘‘im-
age’’ which the king had erected) of Nebuchad-
nezzar. The king himself could not believe that
anyone would refuse to ‘‘serve’’ the god/golden
image which he had publicly erected (v. 14), and
graciously offered the three men a second chance
-to obey his commandment! Verse 17 reports the
response of the men to the king which sets the
issue in black and white. ‘‘If our God whom we
Serve is able to deliver us out of the furnace of
burning fire, he will also deliver us from your
power, O King.’’ Now the die is cast. The reputa-
tion of the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and
Abed-nego has been linked to the question of his
ability to deliver his servants from a furnace of
fire in much the way that the reputation of
Elijah’s God had been linked to the question of
his ability to create fire (I Kgs 18). However,

verse 18 indicates clearly that the three men in-
tend to say something even more radical. ‘‘Even
if he does not (literally, ‘‘if not’’), let it be known
to you, O King, that we will not serve your god
and we will not worship (nisgid) the golden
image which you have erected.’’ That is, idolatry
iS SO wrong in the minds of Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abed-nego that they will not worship or
serve a false god, even though their God should
choose not to work a special miracle in their case,
as he had in the past. So Shadrach, Meshach, and
Abed-nego refused to commit idolatry, even to
save their own lives.

It should be noted that neither in Dan 3 nor
elsewhere in the book is the ability of the Hebrew
God in question. In fact, just the opposite is true,
for the book of Daniel was composed to show
historical examples of the fact that God had in-
deed become savingly and redemptively involved
in the lives of those who served him. Thus in Dan
6:16 [H. 17], even a pagan Persian monarch
(Darius) is quoted as stating his belief that the
God of Daniel was capable of delivering Daniel
from the den of lions. Verse 20 [H 21] is framed
as a rhetorical question, but obviously the king
expected an answer from Daniel, and that would
mean that Daniel’s God had in fact been capable
of delivering him.

C.D.I.

2941 85 (pum) mouth. Used like the Hebrew
peh.

2942 OB (pas) palm of the hand. Used like the
Hebrew word derived from pdsas.

2943, 7998205 = (p®santérin) a stringed instru-
ment. This word is doubtless borrowed
from the Greek psalterion which is often
used in the Lxx to translate the Hebrew
nebel ‘‘harp.’’ See the discussion under
‘*Music; Musical Instruments,’ in ZPEB,
IV, p. 320. For the question of the date of
this borrowing, see s&émponyda, no. 2887.

2944 “8B (parzel) iron. Cf. the Hebrew bar-
zel. The variation of the ‘‘b’’ and ‘‘p”’ in
Hittite, Akkadian, Ugaritic, Hebrew, and
Aramaic suggests a non-Semitic origin,
probably Indo-European. Cf. old Latin

‘*ferzum.”’

2945 O35 (p*ras) break in two, divide. Hebrew
similar.

1059

2946 PIB (p*raq)

2948 IW9B (parshegen) copy. A loan word
from Persian.

Derivative

2945a O35 (p*res) probably half-mina
(KB, half-shekel). The word is prob-
ably used as a word play in Dan
5:25, in the handwriting on the wall,
‘*Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin.”’
The words can be taken to mean a
mina, a shekel, and a half mina (or

2949 “WE (p‘shar) interpret. Used also in Ak-
kadian.

Derivative
2949a “WE (p*shar) interpretation (of a

half shekel). This makes little sense
and Daniel interpreted it as the
verbs number, weigh, and divide.
The last verb may have a double
word play in its similarity to Persia,
which was about to conquer Bel-
shazzar. The word ‘“‘upharsin’’ is
the conjunction ‘‘and’’ plus the

dream). The noun is used once, in
Hebrew, Eccl 8:1, of interpretation
in general. The word became a
standard introduction to the exeget-
ical sentences in the commentaries
written in Qumran. A sentence of
scripture is followed by pishré ‘‘its
interpretation is:’’.

lural of p°res.
plural Of pres 2950 pInD (pit® gam) command, word, affair.

Loan word from Persian.

2946 PID (p*raq) tear away, break off (sins).
The Hebrew word is used more literally. 2951 NB (p*tah) open. Used as in Hebrew.

2952 9 °MB (p°ti) breadth. The root pata is found
in Hebrew meaning ‘‘be wide.’’ But the
Hebrew derivative is specialized to mean
‘‘be simple,’ ‘‘easily enticed,’ a meaning
not shared in BA.

2947 Wb (p*rash) meke distinct. Only Ezr
4:18 (NIV, “‘translate’’). Used both in He-
brew and Akkadian in the broader mean-
ing ‘‘explain.”’

1060

2953 S33 (5°ba’) be inclined, desire. Possibly
connected with Hebrew sdabd II.

Derivative

2953a 33% (s°ba) thing (apparently some-
thing desired).

2954 *y33 (s*ba‘) I, dip, wet. Cf. Hebrew
saba‘ ‘‘to dye.’’ Used in the Pael and
Hithpael.

2955 "3% (sad) side. Used as in Hebrew.

2956 S3X (s°da’) purpose. The equivalent in
Hebrew (s°diyd) also is used of evil pur-
pose.

2957 MPS (sidqa) right doing, righteousness.
Daniel 4:27 [A 24] is the only instance in
BA of this common Hebrew root.

2958

2959

2960

2961

2962

2963

1063

“NIZ. (sawwa’r) neck. Used as in He-
brew.

*893 (s°la’) pray. Used in the Pael. Not
used in Hebrew, which uses mainly the
Hithpael of palal. Cf. Arab. sala ‘‘pray.”’

*m2% (sclah) prosper. Used in __ the
Haphel. Used like its Hebrew equivalent.

poe (s°lém) image. Used like the He-
brew, except that Dan 3:19 uses the ex-
pression ‘‘image of his face’ to mean ‘‘at-
titude,’’ an extension not witnessed in Bi-
blical Hebrew.

"BY (sippar) bird. Similar to the Hebrew.

“°BY (s°pir) he-goat. Used like the He-
brew sdpir which, however, is only used
in Dan, Ezr, and II Chr, and may itself be
borrowed from the Aramaic.

2964 *93—p (q°bél) receive. A denominative
verb used only in the Pael.

2965 %S8 (qdbel) front, in front of, before, be-
cause of; when followed by di, because that.
This very common Aramaic preposition is
often preceded by /° or kol. It is more
often used for causation than for mere po-
sition, which is usually qédam (q.v.).

2966 B85 (gdm). Assumed root of the following.

2966a B32 (qédam) before. Used like the
Hebrew prepositions gedem and
lipné.

2966b =a ~(gqadma) former time.

2966c YeI2 (qadmay) former, first.

2967 weap (qgaddish) angels, saints. The only
usage in BA of the very common Hebrew
root gddash.

2968 63> (qgiim) arise, stand. Used extensively
and very like its Hebrew counterpart.

Derivatives
2968a 892 (q°ydm) statute.
2968b B92 (qayyam) enduring. These

two derivatives show natural ex-
tensions of the meaning of the root
which, however, are not found in
Hebrew.

2969 MP (q*tal) slay. This verb, so familiar
to Hebrew students as a paradigm verb, is
only found three times in Hebrew (Job
13:15; 24:14; Ps 139:19). It may be a bor-
rowing into Hebrew from the Aramaic. It
is used seven times in Biblical Aramaic,
and it occurs in early Aramaic inscriptions
(KB).

2970 “2 (q°tar) knee joint, difficult questions.
Possibly the original meaning was to tie a
knot (KB), thence a knot, joint, problem.
There is a cognate in Akkadian, but not in
Hebrew.

2971

wD (qgayit) summer. The Hebrew cog-

nate is qgayis.
BY = (q°yam), See nos.
2968 a,b.

Bp’ (qayyam).

2972 BIN? (qitrds) lyre, zither. A loan word

from the Greek kitharis. On the signifi-

cance of this and other Greek loan words

for the date of Daniel, see s&@mpdnyé, no.

2887.
2973 8 (qal) voice. Used like the Hebrew gol.

2974 S32 (q®nd’) acquire, buy. Used like the
Hebrew gana I.

2975 ¥P (q°sap) be angry. In the limited ma-
terial of BA, this verb is used of the wrath
of the king. The Hebrew equivalent is used
of both God and men.

Derivative

2975a ASP (q’sap) wrath (of God).

2976 NM¥P (q’sat) end. Derived from a root
qs’ which appears in Hebrew as qds@ ‘‘to
cut off.’

2977 S32 (q°ra’) call, read aloud. Used like
the Hebrew garda’ I. The Hebrew gard’ II
meaning ‘‘encounter, meet’’ is not used in
BA.

2978 352 (q°réb) approach. Used as in He-
brew where also the verb means ‘‘ap-
proach,”’ but the causative includes the
meaning ‘‘offer sacrifice.”’

Derivative
2978a 96935 (q°rab) war. Derived from
‘approach,’ in a hostile sense.
2979 mM" (qirya), N92 (qirya’) city. Used

like the Hebrew.

2980 352 (qeren) horn. Like the Hebrew. Re-
fers to the horn of an animal as well as the
horn as a musical instrument.

2981 Yap (q°ras) piece. Used with the verb
‘dkal ‘‘to eat a piece,’’ idiomatically to
mean ‘‘slander, denounce,”’ an idiom well
attested in Akkadian (e.g. in the Amarna
tablets).

2982 wwe (q°shdot) truth. The Hebrew equiv-
alent is only used once (Prov 22:21) and
may itself be from the Aramaic.

psn>p (qgatrds). See qitrds, no. 2972.

1067

2983 Ws (ré’sh) head, chief. Used like the
Hebrew ro’sh. The medial vowel i/e also is
found in Ugaritic.

2984 335 (rbb).
2984a

Assumed root of the following.

35 (rab) great. Used substantively
to mean ‘‘captain, chief.’’ The
plural shows reduplication, 1.e.
rabr® bin.

335 (ribbé6) myriad. Only used in
Dan 7:10 for a very large number
‘ten thousand times ten
thousand.’’ The Hebrew equivalent
is also so used, but appears to mean
literally ten thousand in Ezr 2:64,
parallel to Neh 7:66.

13939 (rabr°ban) lord, noble.

2984b

2984c

2985 35 (r°ba)
brew.

grow great. Used as in He-

Derivative

2985a 135 (r°bii) greatness.

WIS (dii). See no. 2986b.

2986 ya" (rb‘). Assumed root of the following.
2986a 9=YS"8 ('arba‘) four.
2986b «y9S" «((r°bi‘i) the fourth. These
numbers are used as in Hebrew.
The number ‘‘forty’’ does not ap-
pear in BA.

3335 (rabrab). Plural of rab, no. 2984a.
3939 (rabr°bin).

13935 (rabrban). See no. 2984c.

2987 39 (r®gaz) rage. The Hebrew also uses
this root in its literal sense ‘‘tremble,”’
‘*quake.”’ In BA only the specialized use
‘*be angry’’ appears.

Derivative
2987a a" (gaz) rage.

2988 35 (r°gal) foot. Used as in Hebrew, but
not as broadly in the limited material of
BA.

2989 *was (gash) be in tumult. Used in the
Haphel. Also found in Hebrew, but not
common.

Plural of rab, no. 2984a.

2990 35 (réw) appearance. Only found with the
suffix, rewéh (Dan 2:31; 3:25). From the
common root ra’a@ unused in BA.
2991 mim (rwh). Assumed root of the following.
2991la m5 (riah) wind, spirit. Used as in
Hebrew. One may note that the ex-
pression *‘Holy Spirit’’ is only used
twice in the oT: Ps 51:11 [H 15}; Isa
63:10. The terminology changed
from Spirit of the Lord to Holy
Spirit (used also in the DSS) during
the intertestamental period,
perhaps partly to avoid the use of
the sacred name. The use in Daniel,
‘‘Spirit of the holy gods,’’ perhaps
contributed to the eventual usage.

ms (réah) smell. Used as in He-
brew.

2991b

2992 835 (rim) rise. Used very much like the
Hebrew.

Derivative

2992a B35 (rim) height.

2993 15 (raz) secret. A Persian loan word,
translated in the Lxx, rather naturally, by
the Greek mysterion.

2994 pms (r°hiq) far off. Used like rahdq in
Hebrew. .

2995 39m (rahdmin) compassion. Used in the
plural to express intensity. Common in
Hebrew, which also uses the root rdham.

2996 yrs (rehas) trust. Used in the Hithpeal.
Found in Akkadian, but not in Hebrew.

ms (réah). See no. 2991b.

2997 Sie (réma’) cast, throw. Used like the
rather rare Hebrew rdma I. Used twelve
times in BA.

2998 mys (rh). Assumed root of the following.
2998a 9 W5 (r°‘i) good pleasure, will.
2998b i°Y5 (ra‘yén) thought. The He-

brew cognate to this root is rdsd,
which shows the s/‘ sound shift (cf.
’eres/ ’dra‘). But Hebrew uses de-
rivatives of r‘h, perhaps as
Aramaisms, in Eccl and Ps 139:2.

1071

2999 3395 (ra‘dnan)
2999 335 (ra‘dnan) flourishing. Used like the 3001 Op (r°pas) tread, trample. Used like the
Hebrew equivalent derived from rd‘an. Hebrew equivalent which, however, is not
common.

3002 awn (r’sham) inscribe, sign. Used a

3000 yun (r°‘a‘) crush, shatter. Used like the number of times in the Aramaic of Dan,
cognate Hebrew rdsas (note the sound once in the Hebrew of Dan (10:21), possi-
shift s/‘). bly borrowed from Aramaic.

1072

3003 N paw (Sabb’ka’) musical instrument. Ap-
parently a triangular instrument with four
strings. The Greek equivalent is sambyké,
but it is not sure whether the Greek bor-
rowed from the Semitic or vice versa. For
the bearing of Greek words in Daniel on
the dating of the book, see simpény4, no.
2887.

3004 Now (S°gd’) grow great. The verb is used
also in Hebrew, but restricted to the book
of Job. It may be an Aramaism there or a
dialectical variant of ancient Hebrew.

Derivative
3004a ss N’AY 6(Saggi’) great, much.
3005 ssm¥v (Ssahddi) testimony, witness. The

Hebrew equivalent is used once in Job.
The word is used as part of the language of
Laban in Gen 31:47 in the emphatic form
sahddita’.

3006 ase (sam), aw (sim) set, make. Used
like its very common equivalent in He-

brew.

3007 “Mw (Star) side. not used in Hebrew.

3008 s*y (sib) be hoary-headed. The plural par-
ticiple is used substantively for ‘‘elders.”’
Used as in Hebrew.

3009 %5% (s¢kal) consider, contemplate. The
Hebrew equivalent is common and broadly
used for meanings related to ‘‘insight, pru-
dence, attention, success,”’ etc.

Derivative

30092 NYS (Sakl*tand) insight.

3010 saw (S¢nd’) hate. The plural participle is
used substantively for ‘‘enemies.’’ Usage
is similar to that of Hebrew.

3011 spe (s°‘ar) hair (of head). Used like the

Hebrew Sé‘ar.

1075

3012 ONY (sh°’él) ask. Used like the Hebrew.
The word sh¢’6l does not occur in the BA.

Derivative

mone (sh°’éla) affair, request. The
same semantic development ap-
pears in Hebrew.

3012a

3013 NW (sh°’ar) rest, remainder. The He-

brew equivalent is sh®’érit.

3014 *m3w (sh°bah) laud, praise. Used in the
Pael, as is the equivalent Hebrew, shdbah
II.

3015 wgw (sh°bat) tribe. Used like the He-
brew shebet. However, the meaning
‘scepter, staff,’’ common in Hebrew, is
absent in BA.

3016 3°3W (sh°bib) flame. There is a Hebrew
equivalent found only in Job 18:5. It can-
not be concluded which word sprang from
the other or whether both were native to
their own languages.

3017 pow (sh°ba‘)
ing Hebrew.

seven. See the correspond-

3018 pgw (sh*baq) leave, let alone. The
Aramaic counterpart to the Hebrew
‘dzab. The most famous usage is the cry
from the cross in which Jesus quotes Ps
22:1 [H 2], using the Aramaic sh°baqtani
for the Hebrew ‘dzabtdni (Mt 27:46).

3019 ww (sh®bash) confuse. Not found in
Hebrew, but the Akkadian cognate is simi-
lar.

3020 %3y (shégal) king’s wife or concubine.
Used only in the plural (Dan 5:2, 3, 23).
Origin obscure. Hebrew uses a verb ‘‘to
ravish’’ which may be related. But shégal
may be a loan word.

3021 *"38 (sh°dar) struggle, strive. Used in
the Hithpael. Not found in Hebrew.

Derivative

(3021a osAwS (eshtaddir) revolt.
3022 mw (shdt). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
3022a

mW (shét), AY (shit) six.

3022b «= PRY (shittin) sixty. The Hebrew
cognate shdsh shows the common
sh/t interchange. The only problem
with this root is found in Ezr 6:3
where the second temple is said to
be sixty cubits wide and sixty
cubits high. The expected figures
are twenty cubits wide and high. If
the writer might offer a suggestion,
the number shittin there, the plural
of six, may have been confused
with the plural of two (not oth-
erwise used for twenty). The He-
brew dual of two is shtayim. The
two words are remarkably similar.

3023 *mw (sh°wa) I, become like. Used in the
Pael. The Hebrew equivalent means
‘*make like’’ in the Hiphil.

3024 *mw (sh°wa) II, be set, made. Used in
the Hithpael. The Hebrew equivalent is
used in the Piel. Aramaic as well as He-
brew uses more widely the synonym sam
or sim.

3025 "38% (shar) wall. The Hebrew cognate
from shwr III also means ‘‘wall,’’ but the
more common Hebrew synonym is héma
(from hmh), which does not occur in BA.

3026 mmw (sh*hat) corrupt. Used as in He-
brew.

3027 srw (shézib) deliver. Not used in He-
brew. Probably a loan word from Akka-
dian where it is a development in the
causative stem (Shapel) from the verb

ezébu.

3028 sx°w (shési’) bring to an end, finish.
Like the above verb, this is probably a loan
word from an Akkadian causative form
(Shapel) of the verb asi (cognate to the

Hebrew ydsa’).

3029 ssw (shkb). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
3029a 9 SW (mishkab) bed. This root is
common in Hebrew, and the de-
rivative mishkab is used like the
Hebrew equivalent.

3030 %¥ay (shaklél). A form of the verb lal
which has a Shaphel causative under the
influence of Akkadian.

1079

3031 IaW (sh°kén)

3031 ww (sh®kén) dwell. Used like the He-
brew equivalent.
Derivative
3031a ta (mishkan) abode (of God, in
Jerusalem).

3032 mow (shlh). Assumed root of the following.
This verb appears in Hebrew, along with
similar derivatives.

3032a 0 mow (sh’léh) at ease.
3032b 0 my? (sh®léwd) ease, prosperity.

3033 mow (sh®lah) send. Used like the Hebrew
equivalent.

3034 wow (sh°lét) have power, rule.
Derivatives

%9Y (sholtan) dominion.

wy (shallit) having mastery, au-
thority. This root appears also in
Hebrew, where it is called late by
BDB. But a derivative of it (shlyt)
appears in Ugaritic as a by-name of
Leviathan (AisWUS no. 2612). The
Arabic form gives rise to the title
‘*sultan.”’

Wow (shilton) ruler, official.

3034a
3034b

3034c

3035 aw (sh®lém) be complete, be finished.
Derivative

3035a Bow (sh*lam) welfare, prosperity.
The verb and its derivative are simi-
lar to the widely-used Hebrew
equivalents.

3036 Bw (shim) name. Used like the corre-
sponding Hebrew word shém.

3037 *Si9¥” (sh°*mad) destroy. Used in_ the
Haphel, it is similar to the Hebrew verb,
which is used in the Niphal.

3038 yaw (sh®mayin) heavens, sky, heaven.
Like the Hebrew equivalent, this dual
noun refers both to the atmospheric sky,
the starry sky, and the abode of God and
angels.

3039 Brew (sh°mdm) be appalled. Used only in
Dan 4:16. This is the word which in the
Hebrew sections of Dan refers to the
‘‘abomination of desolation,’ Dan 12:11,
etc.

3040 pviw (sh°ma‘) hear. Used like its Hebrew
equivalent.

3041 wre (sh®mash) sun. This is the common
Semitic word for ‘‘sun’’ appearing in He-
brew, Akkadian, Arabic. In Ugaritic it ap-
pears as shpsh, a form witnessed to also in
Akkadian.

3042 wry (sh°mash) to minister, serve. Unre-
lated to the above word ‘‘sun’’; probably a
loan word from Egyptian.

3043 Ww (shén) tooth. Used like the Hebrew
where it is derived from shdnan meaning
‘*to sharpen.”’

mw (shénd). See no. 2778a.

myw (sha ‘a) brief time, moment. Deriva-
tion uncertain. An Akkadian cognate
means ‘‘time, hour.’’ Some suggest deri-
vation from Hebrew shd‘d ‘‘gaze,’’ but
this is questioned by BDB and KB.

3044

3045 wpw (sh®pat) judge. See the discussion
under the Hebrew equivalent. The word
includes many of the aspects of
government—executive, military, legisla-
tive, judicial. In BA (Ezr 7:25) it is appar-
ently used primarily for the judicial, not
because the meaning of the word had
changed, but because the political. situa-
tion was different.

“pw (shappir). See no. 3046a.

3046 “pw (sh*par) be fair, seemly. The He-
brew equivalent emphasizes more the idea
of beauty, which appears in an Aramaic
derivative also.

Derivatives
“°BY (shappir) fair, beautiful (of
foliage).
“pupw (sh°parpadr) dawn (as
beautiful?). Relation to the above
root not certain.

3046a
3046b

"pIpw (sh°parpar). See no. 3046b.

3047 py (shaq) leg. As in Hebrew, this word
refers to the lower leg, the calf when used
of the human figure (only Dan 2:33). The
upper leg, the thigh, is called yarkda. In
Hebrew usage shdq also refers to the
upper leg of a sacrificial animal. The root,
attested in Hebrew, is shwg.

3048 Naw (sh°ra’) loosen, abide; in Pael, begin.
The Hebrew cognate shdrd means ‘‘let
loose.’’ The meaning ‘‘abide’’ apparently
comes from untying the baggage etc. at a

1080

campsite. The development of the mean-
ing “‘begin’’ is not clear. Strangely, the
Hebrew verb halal III means ‘‘pollute’’
and has an unexplained meaning ‘‘begin’’
in the Hiphil.

3049 paw (shrq). Assumed root of the follow-
ing. The verb is not used in Aramaic, but
regularly means ‘‘hiss, whistle’ in He-
brew.

3049a = pnw = (mashrdqi) pipe. See
‘‘Music; Musical Instruments,’’ in
ZPEB, IV, p. 320.

3050 ww (shrsh). Assumed root of the follow-
ing.

3051 mnw (sheta)

3050a_ ww (sheresh) root. Used like the
Hebrew equivalent.
3050b ww (sh‘rdshi) uprooting, banish-
ment. Kethib: shrshw.
my (shét). See no. 3027a.
3051 mnw (sh¢ta) drink. Used like the He-

brew. The causative ‘‘give drink’’ (He-
brew shdq@) is not found in BA.

Derivative

30Sla_ mmwr (mishteh) feast, banquet.

prw (shittin). See no. 3022b.

1081

3052 "3m (t®bar) break. Used like the Hebrew

cognate shabar. Note the sh/t interchange.
S39 «(t°dira’). See no. 2669d.

3053 33h (tab) return. Used, as is the Hebrew
cognate shiib, to include restoration and
returning an answer. The: common He-
brew adverbial usage of doing something
again (‘‘return and do’’) is not witnessed in

3054 mim (t°wah) be startled, alarmed. Not

‘ used in Hebrew.

3055 5m (tdér) bull, young bull (for sacrifice).
Used like the Hebrew cognate shor.

3056 nminm (t®hdt) under. Used like the He-
brew tahat, referring to things under the
heavens (Dan 7:27; Jer 10:11) or under the
shadow of a tree (Dan 4:12, 21 [A 9, 18}).

3057 39m (t°lag) snow. Used in a simile for
whiteness, as is the Hebrew cognate
sheleg.

‘mom (1° liti). See no. 3058c.

3058 nm?n (tit). Assumed root of the following.
3058a on?m (t®lat) three. The feminine
form is ¢¢®ldtd, used like the He-
brew cognate shdlosh. Note the
sh/t interchange in this and the fol-
lowing derivatives.

non (t®lat) third, i.e. the third
ruler, one of three (Dan 5:16, 29).
talti (Dan 5:7) is a different word of
the same meaning (BDB) or a var-
lant form (KB).

‘mom (¢¢liti) the third (in a series)
the ordinal number. As in Hebrew,
the ordinals from three to ten have
the two long ‘i’ vowels inserted.
The Hebrew cognate is sh® lishi.

wnom (t¢latin) thirty.

3086b

30S8c

3058d

3059 mah (tamma) there. The Hebrew cognate
is sham, shamma.

3060 mam (mah) wonder(BDB), miracle (KB).
This word has a cognate verb in Hebrew,
tamah *‘to be astounded.”’ But in the three

times the noun is used in Dan (4:2, 3 [A
3:32, 33] and 6:27 [A 28]), it is used in the

expression ‘‘miraculous signs and won-
ders”’ (at and t® mah), very similar to the
Hebrew ’6t and mopét. The references in
Dan are to the miraculous deliverances
from the fiery furnace and the lions’ den.

3061 83m (tn’). Assumed root of the following.
The Hebrew, Akkadian, and Arabic use
the root verb ‘‘to repeat, do again’ (He-
brew shana).

3061a 33M (tinyan) second (Only in Dan
7:5).

3061b = maIM (tinyadnitt) the second time
(only in Dan 2:7).

3061c 8386S (t*rén) two. The Hebrew
cognate is sh®nayim. For the dis-
similation of ‘‘n’’ to ‘‘r’’ (cf. KB),
one may note the famous shift of
Hebrew bén ‘‘son’’ to Aramaic
bar.

3061d Hh (tartén) second, the ordinal
number.

mIIIM (tinyaniat). See no. 3061b.

NMDM (tiptayé’) magistrate (KB, NIV).
Name of a provincial officer of unknown
station.

3062

RPM (taqggip). See no. 306Sc.

3063 °BR (t*qal) weigh. Cognate to Hebrew
shaqal.
Derivative
3063a 08pm (tél) =shekel. For discussion

of the handwriting on the wall, see
p*ras.

3064 32m (t*qan) be in order. The Hebrew
equivalent means also ‘‘make straight.”’
There is a cognate in Akkadian.

3065 APH (t°gép} grow strong. The Hebrew
equivalent may be an Aramaism. It is
found only in Job and Eccl but there is no
proof here that the word is late, as BDB
asserts. Aramaic influence is now recog-
nized as much older than the exilic period.

Derivatives
3065a =APM (t®qap) might.
3065b IPH «(t°qép) might.
3065c APH (taqgqgip) strong, might.

pan (t°rén). See no. 306Ic.

1085

3066 pon (t¢ra‘)

3066 ysR (fra‘) gate, door. The Hebrew the seat of administration, became a word
sha‘ar (‘‘gate’’) is most naturally taken as for the king’s court, the palace.
related, although this would involve a
metathesis in the Aramaic form (cf. BDB 3067 Ysm (tard‘) porter, doorkeeper.
under sh‘r, p. 1044). As in Hebrew, the
word ‘‘gate,’’ because the city gate was PYAIH (tartén). See no. 3061d.

1086

INDEX

This index is intended to assist the reader who is_ Strong is not always exactly parallel to the treat-
only slightly familiar with the Hebrew language. By ment in other authorities. Strong may treat as a
referring to the well-known Strong’s Exhaustive noun what the Wordbook considers a verb form (or
Concordance of the Bible, he can find for any _ vice versa). Strong may analyze a Hebrew word as
word in the kjv of the Old Testament a number _ representing one root, where the Wordbook may
for the Hebrew word used in the translation. By analyze it as two roots. Strong may analyze a verb
referring to that number in this Index, he can find form as derived from a middle-weak verb where the
the corresponding number in the Theological Word- | Wordbook may analyze it as a middle double con-
book and turn immediately to it for a definition and sonant verb. But it is believed that the corre-
a discussion of its use if the word is theologically spondences given in the Index will be sufficiently
significant. Most names are omitted and an asterisk clear to assist the student in finding the definition
indicates this omission. desired.
It should be noted that the analysis of words by

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
i segadeeeapesteeeene AD 88 si cehendutet tetas ae ee eer er a | Pe 26e,f
Ds pats traddotesecusestse D958) 30 coca saree ae pee ernie 217a WB eee 27b
OS dainat nase eet IBS AO erect eetnaeatsatet a eee ah eee *
Die hiateedi te cauan D558 FOI chee passage cotabnn’ | en meres ee ee eee ene *
Salt Gustin aiad eretan dt R SA2 achaetitc redo tonite ae Se 12: “WG cciaevooennate 2558
Oi cuct ei enetbawineaien De FAD chi we clach ate ose e TBO) ct ideiaad aio’ Na. Al Psactec en eu clan 28b
rene D555. AW ei ict ec emd tans OS TB liste de santas Lb: WS sevectided sanesudes *
Beck wumeaeaen tie 7) any | RE ELE B.S Secale gate 3b 119... eee, 26b
Deieae naneiceen DU AG vtica scatonees 1G: (83 oSercuenunstenk 3a 120... eee eee 25a
10 cacohoenoocuaats Di ADS ei ath is hone ca. ee tee a! Woe cedassctcasds 25a
Wil as hceties suck ae Dd: TAB decid apusuk carers Be RG bee eh Riot Ab? WAP eceeaes 26b
(a ien ce saaaansine DOO FAO aio hin ected ne en es Ae, 123 ee terreoseiacs ater 26e
13 ene ena rcnsneyss Dee. DSO teccea dette as a ©: EBD alnmecaeesearaets TDA ousesencabae 26c
1A aise cea ei tach ners Bi Bde servis teceacenst eh a. eer ee O ADS: cnc aasantaisities 26g
[5 ea nirdienlow een cay eee ey ere © BO oi cekamoekaytt © 196. c2c2aveskusaac *
[G.ccossenisnoucand BG SA en thoteds | eee renee ADT teeth gatarnont 25b
oe eet ree Gd! 54 anc. eae otentek Olwaadin nbscammnnet ae eee *
CB car tiedtfiaishaintes LOG? “SSicae aah veces wets eae GOP crpiuted Senne 15a 129 see eee eee 26f
1D ceiasb ate gritvee BOD S6scci iced on aie 6 03 coca statins: 16: (80 cis cacsicawcens *
DU pis hehe ted tals DIAS. ST y cogutesaamucoiae bb: Db ihe be atdauindsteen Wats cr detecn canna *
ON recaetet ead oe unas a er ner es Tat “OS ogc atnacinset att 23a 132... eee eee ee es 26h
Oe ha il aires iteica 2 ee een ae. So eee Ja 133 cece eee eee. *
OB cae er sheeneitid sada © OOieciiccuiunin coms 6a HO sit tae sen a ner 27a
Dan ait oaunnataaceay ID: 6) \etdnantemednesecae 8 Boece eee. Ba 135 oe eee *
je ae eng a ae S. SO atountai tea atte J, ee eee 8b 136.0... ccc cee 27b
D6 ccicsnatet vena OD. 463, cin irindtiacnsens nn (| 19518 onsite vacnasned *
Di uiocd peetateds se a. See eee © AOD siccie nirea chores 20a: 138 f2iek catintasunsa’
7). ae ee ene eee © 765 cai deca! a 7 ee ore eet Bla 1399s aesashsactos: *
er reer a en eee ant (|; Seen eee OD NAO seccaihbneaed earl *
BO es ice et Ss pe * 104 occ cece eee D557 Adi cre nse ate reece *
Meet geeaseoeenses a ee ees & 105 sdwsesenais sues 380a 142. 0... eee eee 28
A? sonata seminna iene B60 or hecssitarnthbnindt 2556 106........ eee ee. 385a 143... eee *
ck ae eee enne ae M10 onsite yaade wauiee Qa 107 vs. eee e eee eee 23b 144.0... 2559
SA hoseoatnenstaad Bae Ti amet naaans © AOR os eacanunen cant 38d 145 0... 28a
95 Hid oa cata aia! Bb Pistia ace skeen ® 409 cinieouasiaduas DA N46 a bocron ctlnwees *
BG ugieueseducsade ©. DS apiectiReateees 2568), 110 asians divwegvaies # NAT a pshccGacn eae 2560
OT comiescesecwoeses a See ee Tile wecdanoentaaun: a ee 2561

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
[40 32d eet Sos 2562
190) dh cnseeee ees ae 28.1
LOE set oct oo eet *
[2 hi xs Se ee ones -
IDS Gh keusasee a. 2682b
194 bs wits Sere totete .
| bas eee ae eee 28c
F< aa tegen tt ee 419
SF raxccuinuea eho oer 29
POS Sante was eared 29a
D9 scncvs ay bardare tens 29b
1GO) 2 eats Saws aals 29c
WG Ls fnaceis heaven tated ee *
1G? acc eed 6a oinecns 30
1G co giee esha eee eee i
164 noe soe ee eee te =
165 -Ycietne Ce ounce te 31
166: eoei cee -oe és 33
1G) eho Visa: 32
1 G8 3555.8 ee pees Gains 32a
19: shh clr pa teens aes *
VO) Mises hoe isee 32b
7 ett wee eoeareeer -
i a eae ee 32c
(93: cd cnniatadedes *
a Sr em ee 34
Gare Sere ere 35
116 cccedcosedteuwes 36
LID. 252 ee eee sete eas ‘i
DTS trees Soe cee 37a
LO tee eaten the, ce *
180 cioae Pare twss 835g
1S sororities ot BES ae 38a
LB tater ccs cate te 38b
183) nbd $e. dsentrtaee 40
ke ea ee 41
[S565 oredtanneu deel os 40b
SG eerie aed eo ee Ga >
1S? onset e eho ween *
LSS sce etiencw sees 42
189 SS cata *
TOO! fo tscnartcaies os as *
LO sie chk ei Mebahs tes 44a
LO?) oon ose enteee Sid te s
193 acta ast betnen 4Sa
198 5. oar 8 ida we eek Sa 46
19D 5:6. tees eae e
196.022 oh eae aes 44b
OF ein Sat ate cede ale 45c
19S vi cede ts Baoan *
121° Aenea ne te eee ea 47
LOO) soe ae tem eeeus 44c
DON oid mcnatgraeacey eee 1
QOD iis come demeio eis ses 49a
LOB ative 2 asad ete een
204 355-3 ou as en ee ee *
QOD: cig eo he ereeretataee od 48a
DOG 2 cade te oot ees ‘

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
QO g-a Mecpaninel Reais gtintee SOON ated aa hs recta if
COB oie esl aed oxatets Me DOO! 6265s erste oh is Se Sac ole ee is
209: cnn ce acnsysnaes P20) gic enced wate nants .
PAO 3h iraph hs Saree wheat Di QO sb, ian a ark hit Rehr 68c
Agree ee ee D0! 269 vecmoaee siiuses 62c
1s, Ce ere ee eee 1468. 2270 situ Gave new as 64
PAE eee ee ee ere SY 2a attain avian teen -
Seer ee ree re 1948) 212th oa eNews 64a
21D Surana toene ns D2.- < 279 dane cate etek .
21GGnt iooteaeees S2a- 274 anaes wah ae Oke es .
PAD Sedna yu haly sais 320+ 2D Gack teceiae eens “i
DASA tbe Ane dye ae BP 210 .cikine yas ee ead e
DID au aneneGokee O20) 277 cx asei tiene ted :
(5) ee See eee 380. 218 so aee ee eeeuaewas -
22 Ghicumememe nue Oo DID cveweeonsatasaakes .
D2 scsi ce gts Ae eae aes S Q80Nvequesed teeta 2567
FL Ee OE eee ere 2B ete hin Sat ve ne eaten .
220 ans Glecy ead in RISD tc a een ae a a nes 7
DED: Brean iin emcee. DD 329) ssn dasueewae -
220: maim cena cw arene Ala: ~ 284 6incits eles. ‘
DLT: tra hace ninitn D4) 8289 eho ha cena: d .
DB rst trite Mwtanee' 2563° 286% cx tied teukeweesa =
OD by Se ea ee te DBT wish nom Sees a es ij
pi, \ are eee eee 2964. 288 36 io eb dean sues =
DOs epeliet aceed daveane 5 DD: 1209 bhetias ca simivaes .
ZO 2 ietncoteces hate D9 2290! yes. ced pun bea *
29D. aes abies h.ag.cawk D4 29 akendsaees Onsen °
(in, Eee ee Tee DONG (292. since settee oceans tos J
29) Bisbee eta bus DO. 298 eves S cet urs tend ‘3
IOs Bae nies whe aaa 2909): 2294 22 eo ewasg cays tas 3
DO wie eae eened DD 2 QO VceGrnmdne ae @aaeina ke .
DIO sooth te stale rsberis and Di? DOC aia ele ainite tation
2S re ee DS 2287 esa seo pneyata/aicteietaceias is
240i 2 ort keys DO 298 erie ce he ten Bae :
DAN ie edhe ween sens Da. (OO eee wees s i
24? Gironde teeaha hte D DOO aseanat he Bersted .
DAD os isa Ak tots Mas hakee 3 BUI. ce once pe eees 3
1 a a ge tera ee ee |) eee er err ree .
PAD 2b eRe eked Gok ees Pe DOS: jae vac eleaeatee’s .
DAG asceseiis wee Oeeta STO: 304 cswaismaicnauds 7
LAT desc is ben aia ate 2 59) 30D ciation tentieoes 67a
LOS aetna chatty el D050: “306s ss cee ney Saws 67b
Da be ae En a eer DSU: BOT: Gages meine eis *
as) | Se ee ee re Ho SOG) caskidd ediaieene as :
7) ee ee ee ee 62a)... 309 ps 5nd oa 3 eines 68
292 adwcnw tended: 200; B10 2 a oaicoaditeene’ ters 68b
DDD scsice alee search anarteents 60: 3M aged ccaeass< 2568
LOW Je tiatiati sy iedaeatecn 66a" 312 i na cwenureetss 68a
ZOD acess ae eares Goa: ‘SIS sakscwaameuesens .
DOO et aratnahraite Gin peared De CNA 2 a cadena tra Maadig Bette 68e
ZO) sesceaaina Sarena ss eID owies tt ecsaeeenas i
DOO ee mduomsiias GOS: (SIGN ccenett ousacaenad *
ZOO dapaigendhatewiarn ics aes 6) BIT wien edaeses 2568a
DOW sk eae ee awa nts 63), 318 ciauenesed as 2568c
ZG ios Schissi ce Gissaswniectr ais = BIO eu ot ecradtaaes dole 68f
262.535 6x ela Gk oe as 618a-. 320 <s-cvs-uscan ees 2568b
203 once denmades DI22a 32 pha ware aan es 2568c
DOA see rae Saas 620. 322-4051. ace goeeaues 68d

STRONG TWOT
B232 ew ee ooarenaneen 69
4: ee 2569
Bert Saba ode ene me
D265 86 pc Ae ws Ose *
B27 etinbics vaceea eon ee 70
9. Re en ea nee 72b
BO agains de alas Tla
BIOs caraaiseth ee ates 73b
BS tacts ncsraneteseeece 73
B38 clare wees 74
cis Ree aa eee oe ware we ‘
B94 5 ce iat athdeatat T4a
S39 i steed daw a uatas 75
B30 tatoos aceasta 77
i Are ae ne ar te Tr me 76
6s Sn ee 43a
339 cscs toeeeeeG ak 39a
BAO sc oak ae cetmacs Tree: 78
7 ne eee ee rae e o 78
BA. ick cuss aadaane 78a
BAS hn Sede adiks 38c
B47 atu -2 oe 43b
BAD 8 5 ve ina hotenw ines €
BAG ic ie noo beu buds 75a
B47 bb ca vede he ohes 78b
BAS iice kind ane clas ‘
BAO oi cdg band Soe dene, 75
390) ncivcart ase camneae f
Si ic eadn quad alatsawies 75d
BSD see eare nares 45d,e,f,g
3 itd ance teen Ramses 79
Bikes ee See 45k
BOD aro deate eeanlow wins 45]
BDO aia pktan ew aa eesatea ‘
Ly eee eee eer ree ae ‘
BOG. cao e bb alee *
B99) scien tue bc. here aga .
360 oc. cc eew ede eh 79a
DO! my ced eeneseetnaninn 45}
SO) nis cat aeae -
SOI. Gr th be hoes 2570
BOF: ka ae bala as on
BOD sawcatn aedvecns 451
BOG. oe ee eka suse 80a
S67 sen ses cua aan 80b
BGS nh Ke hea nn ss
BOD teed awe atarals 81
BIOS caster d facvasevens 75f
Blt coxiettucie se wacecards 81
Oe ee eee eee *
BTS hahaa ta eps oe crseernain ers *
Ly. Ue ene ear 82
BI tins tee aeteunes 75h
39) Of. c.tece ares esheets 83a
Bs carretera 83a
BIS. oie in are Sriny ota Ook 7
BID: ihue fant ee oes ‘i
SU dicdnsnhce ee at ate 83b

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
DO ewaceeee abe sa Oi MOD ots inerrant aula one uae) deren ee ae ee ee BS DD). ties ates 117a
O82 ci Gwedaes.d tee AAO sri teal ca wistine ae a> {= aa ea eee M SSO: aa pentasee weeks 117b
SBF! Gitte Beene 2/2, Abbi ecg eectees L090: “499 23.2426 23aueoads O DOL) pacha wa 28 waasearnsn, .
SSF ig heed naps hae: © SAAZ: aces ga ances See DDO is ioe eure dene BOO) re ee itu iets oc ‘i
20) miuedioesonsuhees pO SAAS: 8 dol bse eee ose aha © DU pus daa teaes gees We So et oaieidseweues 118
986 c.abeeosec west 9598, AAAs teed eed aseeees 98 B02) cco. dee cevnnn WOS; 560 ection anim dens 2585
DO) 368s Sage aes ame ee Serre eer ee By GDS 48% dative areata FOO: -S6)) cei sarees 118a
D600: a tee wearers © AAG ca eum tne Maa are oe Po DOG asa witaten eth eck teres LO8a:: S62 Siwy sisnomacie es 118a
S89 Ga ud aa ace ebcke 84. 4A wisest se tet aines T DOD 4 a.dtmiae eeiteat 1098: S632 cers stad 2585.1
| Ree en ee ee © BAS no cwauems carats 2) D0G ese ata aus wes. ZO DOA oes Cenc nwe ath somes i
DOT en detonate GIOD: *AAO va weve yc ted Be SOOT wie acine eek wed Po SOD a got eel bee Bas 118b
bp Dae are eRe ee ‘ODO SC eteeorh wea Geens B DOB cc oes Ata e ah eda * 906 yaisia 28.e00ns Sows -
ho ee ee ee Oi lay “450: soocey Gestation’ D958. O09 gaat se eicaeees EO “S67 ce saytevey dees 119
BOF cs deanna ara OTD. *AS2 eis ean gus antihe 5 awe Be DN os We crave a meen me OO" DOB 6.54 inn ae, esses Sie +
D9): ose e os DING.» ASS cen cctuared es uai.s Oi SID wt adars ieee aye BOL Goh An bap atten ig .
996) < sceatcne Saco ees BSC. 2494 nce weet neene sen MOD vente anes P DIOS ceweeulawe ha 120
BOT aes cphcs nate hart Cea toie je ere ts err oe wT D1) wvewocmseseone ned DT Nhs heiereaayess 116k
Ge aa ene ee eer BS. OG nn ciaiaeteopaneme Be ED WA ido acho ares prea rn © D2: oie oeadaka’ 1265a
oe a ee ee TT ee ZS1S* AT ealate nectar ans Wa’. SID tata wosiueieaes mn ear paneer a ee ‘i
NO! eieiece chee were O90, “4G cides hese ae seeks DIG watiie adesee ees MD Aviawaragamelalies 2571
OT cs scgahs's fy ateeal Cheer a > Se re eres DSI? DN ee pcmeedcadeis lia SIS sescscuasceiaes 75g
AOD cit Been aaaats B50. AGO is 4cs peed Sos A WAG: pi eta arene ee oe iL. +516 wees sieetesnes 2586
AOS ss conwee sie tar etes BO. “4612s opeowe date thee BS DID) agen conn Mepis: M12 OTT whee od caged ok 122
NOG iciaal ee ntie eaten mens BP: AGZ 255 chew a eaue care OS D0 aerated inca LID€? (DIB icv he etntGuna es 124
AY sco ant satertvtaste vrtoe Ge 87a: 403 Avcssdavtoreawns eee 4 eee Oe nee DIOL. SSD solder brs echt aon 126
BUG ax ea Re Genk 5 8a 404 Vaca scuk heeds s Be ioe Wath oes Same Rees FDO insted oe Mame de 128
BOT. cuca phe Alot ed eine’ © AOD ed cases ares eee Y 4923 Navaeeenatdiss MDE. ~S6): snepewe athens 2587
AOS (So i Mak Be Ase B8Ses OO AGG cn tte hare ress gee Ie M (924 wtloghavney aes ee D562" “DO2 rice aa om ens 136a
ee eee DIVA: HAOT ee Stash, Psaratie: Seat ana DAE Dgctinerean ee meayeedin tae WIGE,. DSS tcsaweneeeccegas ‘
WO beste te eeess 05a AGS onecaw adn omesaaas P20 oscd ae aera B (DO4 aneendmoca sees 127
ALN aaa ihe eterna gas OD AOD 25 siete Waits alee Shee ee errs ree eee LIGE: S85 3ecscecawtaws 127a
OND a fetes Ree rarsats 2519: 410 oe caceuonuind ete eue Be DDB iene aia Satara oereete saves PE DOG uceowagstarusinatce 2588
BND sists Gear tcortarte areca Of ANN 23 dsuerustagiess SSD pasta oe eae a nee M1IGG: “DST siceden ceases 128
AG ick sis ice aghast cine se Bi AAD Meret dy oii taats ead de PDO Snip sie oetise LiGCs “588. tases ccse-nw tues .
ANS. cehdnas ae ee Gea ate me YD aed ce es eee BS DON: e Gaco ting etna, dee Oe ete DDO kick mie diene ofa 129
ALG esses ca hcassied Bcatgdenies ee SC Pe ree eee BO DO eect ates e we BOO -encoanrule nab oe 125a,b
AT: isc etan Seb onan seen B98. “ALS se oimedcngtl a tebe ee TNS hie cine Saye Chea WIG “SOT eiewececcawees 125b
AIS: cineca ates SOD AIG nei Se cwoeean tase me (SOA a aka hades DISC: “592 give. dso eee oy 124a
5 eee eee i ATE: canines tok 5 4g ue tS) ais ene Gatneaes M14: 399s cietaneeeedasek ij
BO deter ae ainda earned O UALS ee ieriat sia aui ga ws A DIO Maw Suinsaeiss oe IAD “D048 ka ston eee 129.1
AN opatem con veS ba 93: (AID eevbas ech otis LIOU! DOT: csi cesar ak Pia; 39): ceo ate keen 130
ADD: seu isan, Seats to ts 94. ASO coceiyeectalio 0) es i Senter reer oe ere MOO. cect incu nie tates 131
ADS sce sie arena tates ok Ota. ASL secdosas eu sees 102: S39 gccreed tinct eee MG DOT oe aes 132
ATA rieekeadaeadue ASN: 482) cecSaducweves 1020: 540 4 occu bee tase 2984 “DIS as este reeay es 2589
ADD iirkkc eran mcs ona A ABD) ikea sh SA oa peas L026: “S47 cinereus of Ms Ren ae eee ne 133
B26 5 a bsledrneiinns os 2510 ABR ei kicman we agreed BIC. DAZE silat. eistaaie ares 116¢- °600).255.2c¢2e000 82 2590
AT. ceased pines 1004. 485 2280 idececiess W028: DAB nk 3 ohana. Out 116b) «601... eee 133a
GIB so Gg oie 58s ae 92: ‘480s nerdew awe naw we’ BSAA ii as neers eee L168: “O02: vec nes atewares 134
WD re Ais seem pes DAT! AOI seeanart ease ie ae 2 DOD. awa ee wate TIGE: “6038. os eeccce ances 134a
ASO iu eecoie take 936. ASO kitivcsnwievoucss 103. 9946 ctete reset ce ll6e G04 <..2.6 sso inces 134b
SS eee eo re D918; VASP creche cic GueG: 104 D4): wceseees a iuee L1G: “603 -p2accucesdaray. 135
AS? Sandueeen aces wis 1S fe ee ee re LOS” S48 estan tewaings. 16h: G0G dgaceccstaaes 2591
ADS piece uaeesy O30; AO sc eentet aaa 106:, S49 es cua Geena mews P- DOTS aegis dee ats iar 2592
OSD sc cctdenitretuta cee aaa a O98 AOD, caress etches LO DDO satay ae etude sake B AOOB: seins ge wale Sin 2593
ee ee eee: DT BOS ecg eta maar PSS. os teokintsmeaus E16) [609 -diou orale eee kets -
ASO? cies guehets wth aces ce) A eee ne ae PS DOL. se Bee bet hae os HMG6t G10 ws seen edsgas 1474a
AD mika hot seleine dais LOOD* ©4955 0o5 Heinen Sven n° DOO ie teen cea se PEP, SOUE erases isles. ued or 138a
BB a raiece dentin eo aire antreehe Be AON a n0.3s acai asks Bo diate Go ©) D94esiasotibaasee Iie: “G12 ace2ecsdansues 14la

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
G13 ors csakasn 259Sa
GIFS 2 ccthie ogee scohea es 140b
GUS 62S aad wane 141b
616-22. esi bawdewes 141c
OD ead et iaceao ad :
G18 sowie cieiasies 139a
O19 66 oe teat peewes *
G20) oe secgiptascned ee aaakxeses iy
GOT ease diat a enctene adie '
622 cxrveewt basa 140
6 Ae ne a errr ewe *
O24). inate eatigens 140
G29: sense Bele utara 140a
O20 pike ee has 140d
627 eee seb eaars 140e
628: ethene ada 140f
O29 ease icoe ts Sle ates 2594
630) tor. OU daa da see *
OD hs antinori 4 141
632. a.54ost es a ees 141d
O33 kiting eats wes 2595b
O94. cu dentieit bao ocean >
GBS sachet. oh Sree eae *
636 ek bee kode 2596
G3 Fess tta bear wees 142
O38) oe cidchorenees 2597
O39 esc behets 133a
640 ............. 142.1
OAs ecee ent eie cents is
O42 ee eee ogee 142.1b
O48) concur een ata ee 142.2
644) od scs advance ees 143
GAS) oii ea ewes 144
646. isda eee 142.1la
OFF elses ch ss Oe *
648.0... .. ee eee 145d
649... e6S she een ne :
650 sickens 8A eee 149a
69) seks ees 145b
O92 creremaaweniins 145a
ODF id isc ee die wares 14Sc
G4 sabe ate hanced onto :
G99 45.52..061 ate 146a
6960 io he ve wales 147
a eee amr ae een eae 147a
O98 al eae dacyeke han *
OOF te a eeatade 179la
660 siete decane 1791b
O64 ia acc aaed awed 148
602: iwi ate aes 149
O63 A aiee bane staccato *
G04 © co sucademcnaeowe Set -
10s 150a
O00 yo sc bwrtiaee eas 1Sla
2 0) aan ere es 1813c
O68 bid isisreaees 151b
60? sks caiatedcsdawes 43
OO Meine eh Sot ae 2598

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
67 P: secmelas 2599,2600 729 ...........006. 160
OF cece tend BAO ese bec th cace aratio 160a
ay CR eee re eee BIBL ie vecee saw sub 160b
614 pica ey cuter ZO0l 732 4.26. scene hese 161
Gi oiaitcwncde mautacteles no eee ee ee re .
O16 ca ot ceds I873a 734-8 sek exceear 16la
OG a4 eeeee 2002: “T3D: beskenivdiadtven 2605
618: esas de rereeinns [SSD F386 iia ee ccteinaw ees 161c
of A! een nee I53@. 73 F ce cGikeeseaeries 161b
680 6o55-eoenaeeaaen 193) <T39B et cies cero ws 158a
OBL iio cakes Gk Fan 66 | eee 159a
682) vianend t4he5e oon Bi AQ ee se enkeewee ea +
683) 2 elisia ky eeot essen A TVG itincincae oases 159a
O84 6 hcg iota ieee Be TAD Bee asl a hgeetin ieee *
O85 eho itea desea ee 19436): “743. i sescasenineiss .
O86: oii 8 cciecteredas 154 744 .............. 2606
OST cceeeeesitees oe. A AS io east OS Pabst ag .
688 ic se setencks TO8S7D: - 746 ei cdewiwutelotetas .
O89 siceausessnges TSS) STAT: econcetecs idicagnmea doses -
O90 ec a Riatia sows ie = I a ccs Gra tutleauarn lat es 162
OOD eee cae aks 159a “749 vis eecusewa sal 2607
692 ctcckesetatdaues Be SO cicero nd dab es 162b
693 cso ca eceoaes PG: - 75) asters le suiercncs +
694 . oe ee eee Be 2s oid aoc aes 162c
69) <xsceuswainas [568-193-6645 :heainwnds 162a
O96. 5 bide carkek S44 1S6b = 784... 1... ee 2609
OFF scar caeces 21038: JOD. csdavsevuineues 2608
698 5. ook cee edaes 1500: - (756: esd ease ohas-ooss *
O99 chatic aoe ecucs ESOG: TST. ba tee bdteeatides Gd *
MANO: Beste g: ae aiid wm krereinene f. ASS as centinaeoeed 163
DOT a teotosntebenas Bo GOs ane ak ee eee 164a
| Pe ee 2106a 760 ................. -
WO ci San seats 29868 I6)) once ataatosenad -
0 Sr DS IODi tina aaa atun :
TOS -sisnhal ind witete eae oes ZN0G0: 763-265 wasiws Secves ig
TOO teria sek 21068 9764.1... ee eee .
TOT. scree coveted: [SE (96S ax cet buuiedexceas bs
TOS aieck disci Bees mats IS7@ 16622 bcanecsace tes 165a
109 a ba icc eee ais OT oii Gee tee wes *
DAO Ve occ gt aie ashes 1S7b 8768 ............... 123a
TL shears 2603 169-6 ciceceseineaidud *
WES: =. Sida eens ANIZO: “FIO Goce ouce ess *
db (eee ene rE S70: FT kta conea ete ves .
7: Caren en Ce nme Fake aad fet 2610
VIS Boe cease Se Oe onic ae eA 2611
TAG wena nee Sedans BS OTA het toic Soadis dh oka daee Disses *
GAT eres Sb Gee Givens POS! (TTS Sac deiuedactewice .
DIS feck ccasaiawak 2604 776..........0008. 167
TAD ieee ou wee Nee een if Meee er eee eucen
y P| Sen ee ere ae Bo STO sata esas ania 2612
2 Re eee oe er ere same’ i Seer eR ee re ee 168
{ 0) Re ree ae gee (ABO ce sca ts ereaahetlies 169
[3% eee er roe LS8b* 2782 a cit Sieasagees 170
DLbS ecind ett eieadiwkewn 162d: 782 sks caeeedaeen 17la
ts Ee ene ee Mi IBS: cotente en ee Cd
TV 26-5 iiecs diy vu we oe MBA a pa tid es 172
i 8 ae reer 1668: “78S :cecNewsaneaees 2613
TLS Bos Goethe ee ates C “FBG acne aeade sees 173

STRONG TWOT
TET seen a ieee aide 2613
TBS chews poate ees

VOD. fate tice estarstemth kt *
TOO cha eor cee teke -
TONS fe eek Moana eae ad *
9 om ee *
i 1. ere eee pe 174a
ROA at screamin ace esas 174b
WDD: cal eratetice: pose ton eee hesca cee *
AIO ie haar he Saba eee *
7 ee ere eter :
ih). oe ea ee ee +
iL: er ee ree 174b
B00 eck crite ke es 172
BOL oho Sees Say 172a
BO oie ees heey 137a
BOS parc kaca chiens 175a
B04 os ccvtaan sede 176
BON eave ee erncaed ?
$06 ccs hcaan dae: *
BOD ton gi hiathe crate guns *
808 ............6. 185a
809 ...........06. 185a
3 er ere 177
A (eee en era 178
B12 =.60 5. orn db ares -
2 io HA Pe *
O14 eee suacsees *
SIS ee cactaecarseae 179a
SIGs ie ieee at kee 180
BITS biesedss ewes 180b
Eee ae 180a
819 co reve cxoceds 180c
B20 a csc yciviia tor oee 2410d
Bass capi eovercteaseraianen 2414d
09 ee ee 2418a
BDF oi od Bh oe baie Sees .
B24 cs eSetacuee wane .
B25 ei ace res 181
826 4 kswsseeee scenes 2615
B27 airs cae ess 182a
B28 sutenthaneneenes .
BIG: cise Sauce ae 182.1
830% tice ceases 2441b
BA cictdts 2rd alec ek -
B32 cb Gara eRe Oran *
BOS cl dete cea 183
R34. naaseeeseges 184
B35 caiiersae weidad 183a
B96 hehe elated *
B37 es die aw ars eee 183b
B38) 5d aes Se nten 183d
eee ee 183e
B40 aetaewot cas ;
S40 a ek wue Sie dacesees *
B62 ee iclcteransre eat 183h
B48 od yao einen :
B44 re eb one Sean -

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
B45 eee. a nn) ) 225 1019.0... eee, *
7 2616 904... eee cece eee eee * 962... cece ee eeees 225 1020................ *
AP pst ah Sahat oe! * 005 ooo. eee eee ee 20la 963 ........ ee eee. 224a 1021................ *
oe ee * O06 oo cece ccc eeee ee 199 964 0c cece ee eeeeee a (1) enn *
7 3021a 907 ...... eee 2020 965... cece ee eee 2264 1023................. *
B50 Sctharenteeiase ey QOS oie retreats 200 966.0... cece seen ees * 1024 ........0 cee. =
| ee RUPERT 3909 ech dinsececiwa 201 967... cece cece see. 227 1025................
BGP antes teagan! 2617 910... . eee eee ee 201b 968 ...... eee ee eee * 1026 0... eee eee. *
B53 oie wis ecteek me 186 ONL oe cece eee eee eee a ener nee 230d 1027................ *
cr eee 167 “G12 cacogwaseaciacaes * O70 eee ecceceeees 231a 1028................
855 ooo cece eee 192a 913... eee ee eee 203¢ O71... cece ee eee 230c 1029... 0... *
856 ooo eee cece cee eee > OIA hance wea balise: 203. 972... cess ee eee 231c 1030................ =
ene nnn 188 915... . cece eee 203973... eee eee eee 229 1031.0... eee. *
ce ee 2618 916............ ee 203d 974... cece 230 1032............00... *
859 oo. e eae 189 917... eee eee eee a (|. 230b 1033 ................ *
860 oo. eee eee eae. 10a 918.00... ee eee eee 204 976... cece cece 230a 1034... . eee, *
1 ee nee eek 2619 919.00... eee eee. 204a 977 «eee eee 231 1035............0, 241b
1 ee 91a 920... . eee ee eee a er ee * 1036 oo... cece eee ee *
ee * O21... cess eee 2623 979... ke eee eee 231b 1037 ..... eee eee *
BOG a scsi ha epreae es oy OD ecm aees 2058. 980 ac5 sas saeusaauns Be O38 soqnkt on wheels ens *
B65 ctl tras wa: 7) eee 206 981 ...... see e eee 232 1039... eee eee, *
B66 se ienauee de ge 2524a 924....... 0000. 2624a 982... eee eee eee 233 1040 .... oe. eee *
| a eee * 925 oo. cece eee 211b 983... eee ee 233a 1041... eee eee eee *
BGS ni vc ctyea nes 25292 926........ eee ees 207 984... cece eee eee * 1042 ooo cece cece ce ees *
one 1 2624 985...........005. 233b 1043... eee *
BIO tinct ane 2620 928 ......... cee. 2074 986... .. eee ee eee 233c (1044.0... . eee eee, *
BF le aceaccne teeta ecttertncrsl * 929 oo ee eee 2084 987.000... ee. 233d 1045........ eee *
BID soc bait veames 212a 930.........0. 00. 208b 988 .......... eee. 235 1046.........e. eee *
eee 2622a 931... eee ee eee 2092 989... eee eee 2625 1047.0... eee eee *
i) res 194 932 oe. eee eee eee * 990 ........ eee eee 236a (1048.00... eee eee. *
eee eoeaeeee 194a 933.00... eee ee. 210a 991... eee eee eee. * 1049 00... eee. *
BIG sa cateelnsxkre ise * 934 eee ee Qila 992 ...... eee eee. 237a (:1050......... eee eee *
OP iecek eieccage 194d 935 0... 7 Va. : ere le ee * 1051 occ eee cece ee eee *
BIS ociidassenccuwes: © 20366 acscuoun nears 213, 9904.0... eee eee 238 1052......... see e eee *
BIO sta shec sais ine ©. O37. usvuneeekocs 213a 995 6.0... eae 239 1053 2... eee eee eee *
880... eee cece eee BOB Rs fa ce ttaines ganas a: Cee ween 239a 1054... 0. eee ee eee *
oT) ee * 939 eee. 213b 0 997... eee eee eee 2626 1055 ....... eee 241c
BOO) Mancireue aunseeiok: * O40 ooo. cece eee eee * O08 oo... eee 239b 1056 ........... eee *
BOS) cic vadnew minds * OAL cece eee ee eee ae ee 2627 1057 ..... eee eee eee 242
BOF Gch ons heater Oy SORZ ccs cowicter aia ofise a BQO O i502 «Ga exetecetee 218a 1058 .............. 243
B85 Meni imate a’ eee 214 1001 ......... eae. 2628 1059............. 243a
B86 so oan bak eaten * O44 eee. 835d 1002.............. 240 1060 ............. 244a
"1 ee en Tes 195 945... 215 1003............0.. 240 1061 ............. 244¢e
888 o.oo, 2622 946 0... eee eee eee eee * 1004... eee ee eee 241 1062............. 244c
889 0. eee, 195a 947 eee ee eee 216 1005...........4.. 2629 1063 ..........0- 244f
cS 195b 948... eee. 219 1006 ......s. esse eee * 1064 oo... cece. *
re 195¢ 949 0. eee eee eee A007 te xcadioatatad * 1065 ......... eee 243b
892 ooo e eee ee eee 196 9502... 0. eee eee 220a 1008 ............. 24la 1066.............00. *
cr eee * 951.0... eee 274d 1009...... see e eee eee * 1067 0... ccc eee. 244d
894. 0s, 197. 9952. ca s.cngasdatcrcs 2 AGO weatavacatatecd * 1068 .........000- 243d
ee one 197 953... eee ee. 194e 1011 .......... eee eee * 1069 ........ eee ee. 244
B96 nk cade cetioaaes OF OS rset sareaivaneca 222 AOID eesacancriaoweseet * 1070 ......... 00 ee 244b
B97 accnsransawagian 225a 955... eee eee 222a 1013.00... see eee eee ce (7) ee *
ae 198 956.0... . eee eee 2629 1014... eee eee e eee aee * 1072... cee e eee ee 244b
899 oes, 198a 957 eee eee ee. 225a 1015... see cece ee eeee * 1073 cece eee ee 244f
900... cece eee ee 198b 958... eee eee. 223. 1016......... eee eee. * 1074 oo. ee ee eee *
OO sencescace sn 198c 959... cece 294. A017 2 vausasecewosias NOMS enc easacte ces *
eae ne * 960... cece ceca ee. 224d 1018 «0... eee eee eee * 1076 oo. cece eee eee *

INDEX

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
LOU) St ehete eek 2460. DIS) eataeees os te VEO) ta chadinataqrisdvons f DS geese eneaees 2640
LO1 Ses b0% led aie stets t ALIDO Na tutemadt wees 4 Be DS chido oe Dons Gey tad S (LD 2 a kaceeerenes 288d
1079 ea as Goes 2630" MSY dete eos Pe SPTOS: eg eee dus ctacns tc be He ADDS bein saidouraes 288c
L080 sins uissacee-s 263L L1DSecseteritcesaee. S NOG viete ase sasaes ts Po ADDA a se Oe es 278
LOST 652 danse wos MSD oie de Roe te sees BOD. erat culated aes 263 129) vases mariage ‘s
LOB? ceies ceeeetin ag 245. VAs cee eeeeee's 2558, AIDS: cain teins 264.- 1256: te ce wheter ogee ‘
LOSS hes ne ROS eae BN i cseuire: Bini ee Ge ctaran came Os area aa ret rere H 2 “AQ9S sito omen ace ate 288g
LOSS esa a6 och actin. os TAs erent Sece cardia eas © A200 cd tenes aos 2054. 1258 icasaneeesadad 280
LOSS srtnad vetousaweas aa (So ener eee en ee 239a: IZOD ccc ess caareee 8) SIDS Oc ie keane, 280a
1086555525 Sees a 246) «=1144............. 29442 A202 yas wes awake A260) otdet cent iinted on % 7
LOST hc bio eaiae aes 2408) AAD ec edg de venied dues Be N20 soho baurcges feed Bo AGL Raise Seabee 280b
[OBB oten tad oe tara BS DAG esd acct seciayss 6 D50a:.. 1204 savior caries 202° A262) acevo casa gen 281
L089: oct aa dw tense es 2Al~ L147 occ wetcte 2G632a) TLOS neces teen POda. (1263-5. coseeSacdawats -
LOD) ovr ecaws canny eared PS AS oa ce FAS macs AS s BO M206 se aie vatcanl es 2688: 1264-4 scenes 286a
DOOD 6 reer Send den, 2414. 149 ivan ex 2634 SIZ0F eee aarn 2O08D:. 1269 aed ce ogees 289a
1092 ct ceumaway asst ee bs) ere ee ere PS AZO? ie ma ae ngeiiertes ZION. (1260 cit cak eon were 289a
1093 acheure ieee 2632.. WISN cei we tens esas Be ZOD 2a seca ph aphe anaes teiena ahs Te COT c5 aot Gaahacaaians 281b
1094 cot ie Pesos 2460 PIS 2 eect eaten glee 02 | Meearererery eee 2100) 1268 tsar es sie ee is
LODD ea games Rees BS. MADD ae ot hes eran at ered SIZ nae yates nee ees 2008: 61269 oiicentrheveny ates >
L096 3, Bits Bete sti ey USA: ates Guede deae aoa 297 AZ1 oi tas ae hey, teres UDO se sre eccstee ga aeaers 283a
LOOT ees caante male e 246€.. “LISS: cadasdncvexse 250a: 21S seen sttitenss ce BS DDT caresechenoath Outing: os
1098 aoc are a hees 248a =1156............. 2039) A214 atcccschaseges 267 TD Dic abit oars 284
LOO i Sbete ch Sig caters 2408 ALT setae tetente 256a). IZ1S yates eacenand | 261a, IIS escent set -
VE OO 5 cot se peshenisass 2468 ‘VIDS ve oe ceekes 299 ‘AZIG 4 2254054634654 209? ' VIS: omen seed sie hs 279a
LOT cucu abe trctenxt 248> -TESD ekeure ages aar 26359a:, T2V7 sips soe area's ee 2698> A2ID 3 ved acide ott ec Ga ‘i
MOD seat acacie wiser DAD -AVOU ce ele engtiowe is. o AUS Gara tterae tees ae MY ADIOS orb Since hes ig erect § *
BU erence carne er 290 ANGI ssc eaceeses ee 2650" W2IS cates agattae 2IO:. “ZIT iceciscaspenete gia 279a
L104 22.836 cucaees 29 ATOZ 3 auae on cteeaes sas 7274 | Meee eee er ee 210A: -AZTD ath oletataacsms 278a
TOS 3308 ah 8 eek Doday” MIGS 2 espe ease 261. (122 Sees tenes BO NTS aes auto e e ats 281la
VIQGsF ccdnas os oes Po NIO4 oe atins #625 ISI W222 emutcess 2100 A280 ss 50tcane4.eus 284b
LOT viwekseden tse 240h- WIGS iaceistecseas 2648 1223 a wredastexs 2I0B (129) 5's cis ee enectecns 284a
DIOS) sixties iuesre cians siaeee 0s, ceremrere rarer rare 262» NZ24 she vet snwteeanas e WQ82 concen etadtuegent +
1109 ecko caucrs pO ZORO! WOT carers eee otek 2628. A223 ensmncsacmiee, 2I0C A283). et tien cting agin -
TO tatters oaree 292 IGS aeonaacecuses 2628. W226 oom cureee ied: 210d. A284... cages ea Setcies -
Pasadena cornet Be AOD se rca a baptt eea ae 2036° 122) os eece de dame des Bi. (AZBS pa. cacetiert at 282a
| ee ery eee B MIO « thdoden oe ae'ea os Fo M22 soars eG La aiasis 2138 A280 wncditow see eet .
eee rere rere mee 6 a eeera ee rer oe Bo DD his anda Sie ian cae ce BEAST rican ie oe oie 288d
[14 erwtaeetactiness eS 2 ak Sevens 2620: (1290) ccagse hates peed e288) xs atic ewes 285
i seer re eeny: DAG VATS ric acct coeeatia tts Bs NSU ae pee eateatiaus Sa (2): ana ae ae 2641
L1G ents bake 299: ALIAS caccoees ain tees Ri. DDD: Schade attrate nantes He N29 ites atiaiere tines 285a
DED hound eoe ns doen BO” MTD. txt ties. nee oe Sees scan! (020 nena were ee eee DINGS : 291 tera ae ucens 2641a
1 bs Seer ere rere ee IO dct eaheeceasy Po NZBs stan a ee Ortaca ZI: Wien wadan toot e
|B Ie baer are eee 195% ANID or iettnad cnt noise Yl 280 Stig eateeiedeack DENA A293: oe cucu aaee waste i
M20 oe eee e ake ehecies a WETS str wt Sens S NDSG: ct aia ie DOST: N2O4E gedit atl ie omar is
LET cota byes sega 294 WS 3 eisew cee ues B23 7 nda enon sae 27D). 1295) ctw eea Saaad 285c
P22 cainry ena deateee ales MN SOc ticcn otis tera Bees © ‘W238 aaa aeuasene ees 21D. 12964 2 tes veaeceuaes i
1123) psa sit sateen nde 2639 SUEGD sees. 2th nae 2 ete i (22 ee ee eee 21S 120) exe taeteeeacds 2642
PTA gta pth iw 2, aie 2633: “EIS2 aa cteaws cate cacs glee 72.) | eee ae eee ere eee POSS) DOB icin bate pewaeces ‘i
| O- earee ee era ee PDS Sinko ci eee sean same 0) rere wrerrars ae ZAA A290 iv ieeuciow awe ace 287
112 Geos wtng telat out oes e MASA Gwin ane ea snes aes 0. arena eee DIAC NSO mio, 8 acetra s 28/7a
LIZ TF nteeedtsacsehe aes wo. LEGS: ecco -e sedans BO NAS acs va edhe whe 214. ABON et ieraecsncimeuns i
L128: cee ee coes ta htes DY ABO chine eagh eters By U2AG. 5 ann eee ge daes IAG: "AZO? accu swvaeen eur -
Sa: eee eee eae Por 255° AIST Semunwe sue esqes NDAD) racautin ee areata 216° 1303 weceeneneeies 287e
LO itesre newton DISS ascsn ate Gass Bes a “124G s cemdoa ieee 2108: 1304-4 sce noes ee 287d
LISD sae beau acxanes PASS: oxi eitiaw aw ae Be DAT sc saa wiarsateees 2039) 1305 cccptamueamecrns 288
PSD oi inthe deere ws racn 0 ae BS NOD cee os Ga Wok aed are © AS caceetunete pas 21). A306 cigicnwawessia
I19S eawica sete nese Bs AOL AG hacec trae akctcnerts e - 124D oa etink tees 2888. 130) essen eeacives .
1134s caesieeee teens ae | Pe ee re er cere S 1250) ca tiweseha ies 288b° 1308 jis eda cceawaess :

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
1309 ...... 0... eee 291b 1367 ...... ee eee 307b 1425.0... e eee ee eee * 1483 00... *
1B O octane a cacsmaten 292 1368 ......... ese. 310b. 1426... 0. eee eee. eC.) Senne 336a
611 ene eee 292a 1369... 0. eee 310c 1427... eee eee ee Be HAG Sots crave picaas ta oceee *
cp eae en * 1370 ...... 0.00 2647b 1428.0... ee ee. 314a 1486... 0. 381a
1313 Sieoseasactes 290a «1371... ee ee eee 306a «1429 .... eee 314c 1487.00, 333a
ci ee re 290a 1372 .... ee ee ee 306b 1430 ........ 319a,320a 1488 ....... 336a
TSS ustoseeian tents ane ik ee ee * 1431 oe. cece eee 315 1489... 334
1316 cure ivaindee vases be ae 6, eee ae oy ene 315a 1490........ 0... 2653
1B T cceandicautatanhan 222b 1375... eee eee eee 309b 1433..........00.. 315b 1491 .......0...... 335
1318 cede ahadaee 294 1376.0... 0. ee eee 10d. 1434 svccccivacaad 315c 1492... 336b
1319 carn haccz oss 291 1377... eee ee eee 310d 1435.0... eee eee. (AO8 Se vcdine aie oxy as *
1320) astereectiee 291a 1378.0... 0. eee. 31la 1436... 0. eee eee. * 1494 00, 336
1a ead 2643 1379... eee eee. 307 1437 0. eee eee eee BS AOS otaeestueecinncun *
132) si oncemicnsan 222b 1380... 00. ee ee eee. * 1438 0000... eee. 316 1496... 0... ee, 335a
1323 Soca craiiaaiot 254b 1381 ...... ee ee eee. * 1439 0 eee. 316a 1497 ...... eee 337
1324 ecicccienedsuden 298a 1382.0... se eee eee * 1440 00... e eee eee * 1498 000... eee, 337a
1325 pecs duwienaas 2644 1383 ...... eee ee, 307c «1441... eee * 1499 oon, *
1326.2... ee eee 298c 1384.......... 00, 308a (1442... eee eee. 317 1500........... 0, 337b
1307 sce kGoecue 298b 1385............. 308b 1443.0... 318 1501.0... 0... eee, 338
1328 clade Saeescnes a. oe 308c 1444... eee. 318a 1502... 0. eee eee *
13929 ccas vu onus eeenan ae eee WANG: Manatee Su uisomesen * 1503.0... c eee, 339a
1330.0... ee eee ee 295a «1388 ..... 0... ee. 309a 1446.0... eee. * 1504.00... cece eee 340
TS 3 eat enre vince 295b 1389 ....... ee eee 309a 1447... eee 318a 1505 ...........0.. 2654
PAB hticuiiechele enate: ©. 1390ksu oe rahaserieate: WAAR 3 2 ion acd ane tw ca 318b 1506... 0... ee 340a
1333 0... cece eee. 296 1391.0... . cece eee GAA rice ucoisc 318b 1507... eee eee *
1994 scree ted tera Oe 207 139) ceclatat canes 309d 1450... eee eee. * 1508.00... eee, 340c
2 ee eee ey aie 297a 1393 0... eee eee. * ASL eee eee. ae |): eek eee 340b
1396 Senne faba * 1394 00 eee HE ASD shies oa cts bot talus BS ASA wa tcawecneaes 2654a
1337 vn necdate hing wesek * 1395 oo e cece ee eee A538, cschacn Geaeaieae sae 1 | ae Peed mane *
1338 orterietintenanse € $996. cacaw dase bes 310° 1454 ...Guh tele 528 1512... eee eee 342a
1339 oo. eee eee * 1397 0.0. eee 310a 1455... 0... eee 321 1513... eee eee. 341a
1340 vinoscav accuses © PIOR ss mace seracectee * 1456 .......0..0- 32la 1514.0... eee *
IBA Ds Asiah owen 2992 1399...... eee 310a 1457... eee B22. ASV Steevie cuceneeciears *
1342s cczenacnaceia 299 1400............ 2647a 1458.0... eee 326a 1516...... eee eee 343
1348 2 sek i codatad 299b 1401............ 2647b 1459 .... 0... ee 2650 1517 ...... eee eee 344a
1344 0. ee eee. 299c 1402 ..... 0... eee eee * 1460 ........ 0000. 326b «1518... 0. eee ee. 345
1345 iden cus Gudea! PAO 3 aces eaee wencn dn datas #° NGL ream dnannde, 323 1519 ..... eee ee 345
1B AG cscichcsha 4 Sin 299d 1404........0000.. 310e 1462.............. 304b 1520..... 0... *
1347 oo. eee 299e 1405.0... 0. cee eee * 1463 0.00.0... eee 324 1521... eee eee. 345a
1348 oo. cee eee ee. 299f 1406...........0-. 312 1464.0... eee. a 7) *
1349 oo. ee eee 299g 1407 ..........0.. 313c (1465.0... 326c 1523... eee eee 346
135 Oeics cots rentet 300 1408 ............. 313e 1466............. 299h 1524......... 0 eee. 346a
155 eerie cee 301 1409............. 313d 1467... 0... 2651 1524..........00- 346b
eee 30la1410...... eee ee PAGS shor ja sis aac ye B27 W525 secret cases 346c
135s cacacenvews: 300b 1411 ............. 2653 1469.0... eee. 337 1526... eee e eee ee eee *
cy eee 303a 1412 ..... eee ee ae eee nee eee OS Di acta ceenitesne etna *
1356 nccseerne autos 2645 1413.0... eee. BIS? TATA eecaeneccraee: 326e «1528.0... ee ee 2655
1356 2... eee. 323a,b (1414.............. 2649 1472...... 00... 326d 1529... eee *
Do iien ae 304a 1415.0... 2. eee 3l4a 1473 0. eee eee 350a-1530...... 0. ee ee 353a
Bo Secticcaeereneet ee (eee ere 313a 1474... ee. PSS Le ioe etc cens os 353¢
1359 cece eee eee MD VAT Pe ceca dnd Ba% 313a,b 1475-0... eee ee. R608 (1532 wei rvesut den 348
1360 sincere Sasees 302a «1418.0... ee 313b0 1476.0... ee eee aD ee eee *
136 lb ucaaneaaaenc 305 1419.0... eee. BIS. NAVD ei vedccaiec enon tea aD) eee 353i
36D yan ouecienbes 305 1420...........0. 315e 1478 2... 328 :1535........0. 0. 2657a
1363 cokioenewsee 305b. 1421..........00.. 317b- 1479... eee eee 329 1536 .............353}
1364 00... ee eee ee. 305a 1422 ..... eee 317g 1480 ..........0... 329a 1537 0. cece eee *
1365 00.0... ee eee 305c (1423... ee eee. 314b 1481 20.0000, 330,332 1538 ....... ee eee. 3531
1366.0... ee eee ee 307a 1424.0... eee eee HF UPAR ip cincie add een 336b 1539... eee eee 349

INDEX

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
1540 oo. eee cece 350 1597 ..... eee e ee ee 366 1655 ..... eee cece 2662 1713... eee eee eee 402b
ky | een eee te 2656 1598... eee ee ee eee. 367 1656........ 0.000 389 1714.............. 402a
1540! ve wokscwameecn * 1599 0. eee eee * 1657 eee c cece eee 390 1715.0... eee ee eee 403a
1543 0... ee eee. 353c 1600...........005. 368 1658............ eee. * 1716 oo. eee cee ee. 404
ky) ree 353h 1601 ...........- eae. * 1659 ooo e cece eee eee 3911717 woe eee eee 405
1545 ooo cece eee ee. 354a 1602............-. 369 1660............. 84a 1718 .... eee eee 406
1546... ee eee eee 350b 1603 ..........- ee ee. * 1661 oe. cece eee eee nn V1 ee *
SA Tu hecauecuehe 2656a 1604.............. 369a 1662.0... eee eee eee 1720 esses Suediove ws eiadoac *
(548 vse csreua needa 351 1605.........000-- 370 1663 .........0eeee- ane >) eee mente *
1549 ooo. eee eae. 350c 1606 .........0 00. 370a. 1664.......... 0... * 1722 ...00. eee. 2668
1550... see eee sees 353e 1607 ..........00 ee BTN NCGS ese an gee See “1908 cous deaualetiess *
1550 2... . eee ee ee 353f 1608................ * 1666 oo cece cece eee eee sien (by Cnn neees One 407
1551... ceeeeeeeeeee nn (2 ee a |. .\ eee: * 1705 ieee cece eee 408
1552 eee e cece eee 353g 1610............. 373a 1668............. 2663 1726... eee e eee 408a
1553 oo cece essen. 353g 1611............. 2660 1669.............. 392, 1727 oo eee eee eee 409
1554 eee c cece ee ee ees * 1612... cee eee eee 372a 1670 ..... ee ee eee 392a 1728... eee. 401d
1555 ch. ha Barcencesanc’ * 1613 oo... cee eee eee 374 1671... cece eee 392b 1729... . eee eee. 40le
1556 oo. eee eee e ee. 353. 1614.........- eee. B95 1672 a vac ite vncs: 393 1730... . eee ee eee 410a
1557 cksssinoconiasae 353d 1615..........00.- BAT as 1618 wise et stuctane a: © AWM seared 410e
1558s sudentaceuat: 352 1616.............. 330a 1674......... cae. 393a 1732... eee eee 410c
Co ee eee ae ee eee 394. 1733 0... eee. 410b
1560... see cece eee 2657 1618 ........-0e. 376a 1676.......... 006. 394a 1734. eee cece. *
1561 oo... cece eee 353d 1619... see eee eee eee * 1677 oc eee cece eee 396a «1735... eee cece eee. *
[S62 icacenhtwmaces * 1620 ...... 0. eee 386c 1678 ....... cece ee. 2664 1736... 0. eee eee 410d
1563) cis atiesosenes 354. 1621 ......... 00. 386d 1679.00.00... 395a 1737 occ eee eee eee *
1564.0... eee eee 354d 1622... ee ee eee eee ee * 1680 .......00.0 00. 396 1738.0... ee eee eee 411
1565 vee cece eee eee 354c 1623... eee eee ee eee 377 1681 .... 0.00 eee 396b -1739...........00. 411b
1566 oe cece cece eee. 355 1624... cece cece eee 378 1682 ............. 399f 1740 ...... 0.00. 412
£560 cok cacomasacsae * 1625 eee e eee eee 386a 1683 ............00e. ae) retention 41la
1568 oo. cece cece ee. 356 1626.0... eee eae. 386b 1684............. 2665 1742... . eee eee. 411d
1569... cece ee eee 356a 1627 ... se ee eee ee 378a 1685 ............ 26654-1743... eee eee eee. 413
1570 oo cece cece eae. 357 1628... wwe eee ee 330b 1686 ............ 271981744 oe ee 414
[ST cdiae eaiete’ 361a-1629...... eee. 379 1687.00... eee eee 399g 1745... 0... ee eee. 415a
yee eee 358 1630... .. eee eee ee. * 1688 oe. cece eee eee MF IAG esos 5 cosa oaortanes *
(573 sic cheniecos 358a1631........ eee. 379a 1689 .... 2... eee eee a 1: ee ene 415b
Ly) nner 359a 1632. ..... 2... 381a 1690 ............. 397a «1748... eee 415¢
1515 accor comenesade: #16332 cccane tana. 382b 1691 .......... eee eee © 4949) cc cuca 444a
1516 iho eceseacs es 3604 1634....... ee eae. 382a 1692 ...........00. 398 1750... eee eee eee 416
ISU? crtocdd atmos entas * 1635 oc... eee ee 2661 1693 ..........0.. 2666 1751 ..... eee eee 2681
1518 ctadirnnce: 360b 1636... . see cece eee * 1694 0... eee. 398a «1752... eee eee eee 418
1579) ciccccivanmewseexs * 1637... cece eee eee 383a 1695 .........0000, 398 1753.0... eee ee. 2669
1580 rack bce 360 1638... 0... ee eee 387 1696............00- 399 1754.......... 00. 418a
[581 che cer ania 360d 1639... 0. eee eee 384. 1697 ..........0.. 399a. 1755.0... . eee ee 418b
1582 ae sleak ees * 1640 ....... 0c eee 385 1698............. 399b 1756... eee eee eee eee *
1583 csenseaeritiatre sie at * 164 oo. eee ee eee 386 1699 ............. 399c 1787 oo eee cece eee *
1584 ooo. eee e ee eae. 363, 1642 ..... ce eee e ee. * 1700... eee eee eee 399e 1758... se eee eee ee. 419
1585) iteernoutieates 2658 1643. ..... 0. seen. 387a 1701 ............. 2667 1759... .. ee ee eee 2670
1586.0... eee eee 3634 1644....... es eee. 388 1702..........00. 399d 1760........ eee. 420
(587 ced ace batancetn ee | eee 388a 1703 ............. 399} 1761 ...........5. 2671
1588. cha cenceenne 367a 1646... . 0. ee eee 388b 1704.0... eee eee #1762 oo cece ee eee 420a
1589... eee cece eee. 364. 1647 oo eee cee ee eee * 1705 oo. cece eee eee eee * 1763 oo. cece ee eee. 2672
1590 ...... ee ee eee 364d 1648... eee eee * 1706.02... cece ae. 4000 1764....... 2... ee. 422a
i) ree 3644 1649... eee ee eee * 1707... cece eee 400b 1765..........000-- 423
1592: cp sensed 0 ia * 1650... eee e eee eee * 1708 oc. cece eee eee * 1766 wee cece neces 424
1593... eee e eee 367b 1651...... 0. eee eee eee * 1709 oo. eee e cea. 40la 1767... ee eee ee 425
i) re 367b 1652... .. ee eee eee 389 1710............. 401b 1768 ............- 2673
1595 oo cece cece ee. 365a 1653.0... eee. 389a 1711 ......... 00 ee. 401 1769... cee eee ee eee *
1596 oo cece eee eee 2659 1654 ooo eee e eee eee a i) oe eee * 1770 cece eee 401c

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
i re 401d 1829 ..... 0... eee eee ©. VIGST 5 occidental 461 1945 ............... 485
VT TD icaisioie gina tinces 394d 1830......... 0000. 442 1888 ........ 2687,2688 1946............. 2695
ik rr 41le 1831 ............. 442a 1889 ...........00. 462 1947 ............. 50la
Vi, eee nee ne ee 442b 1890............. 849b 1948 ............. 501b
DTS cis tse cttais bese a ee oe 433 1891 .......... 00s. 463 1949 .............. 486
1916 sit.onaet oe nteacnd: ee cr ee ee ee ee * 1892 00.0.0... ee. 463a 1950................ *
UP iconcnacdanses 426 1835.0... eee eee eee * 1893 oo. eee eee * 1951 00... 487
1FIB s caacieanehs 2674 1836..........000- 2680 1894...........05. 464 1952.............. 487a
19719 cad steiner 426a 1837... eee eee eee. * 1895 oo... cece eee. 465 1953... eee, *
1780 sea neusens 2674 1838.0... ee eee ee * 1896 oo cece ec eee MNOS A csatae tees agin: *
178 vscutinided 426b 1839 ........... 00. * 1897 00... eee eee. 467 1955... eee eee eee. *
LTD aseacstter Merit 2674a 1840............00ee. * 1898 eee eee. 468 1956................ *
1783 cst eas: ne C7) ee * 1899 0. ce. 467a 1957 eee eee, 489
ch eee ee ee eee 2 17 * 1900 .........000. 467b 1958 ..........04.. 490
1785 oo. eee ee eee 417a 1843 ........ 0 848 1901............. 466a 1959 .............. 471a
1786... eee ee eee 4192 1844............. 848b 1902 ............. 467c 1960 ........ 00 ee, 847a
iL 1 ee een oe ® PBAS oaecdae ans mee * 1903 0.2... eee 469a 1961 ............5. 49]
1788 oo. e eee eee. 419c 1846...........00.. 445 1904........ cece eee a eee. 483b
17RD a5. cce a6 cavintiswnd * 1847 0... eee 848c 1905 ...... eee eee * 1963 0... eee eee 492
1790: cc ascceanee 429a 1848.............. 4462 1906...........5. 471b 1964.00... eee 493
ec) ee 2675 1849.0... eee eee 447 1907.00... eee 2689 1965 ............. 2694
POP eecasitte aca svoaie 427 1850... 00. eee ee ee * 1908 ..........00- 4710 1966... eee eee 499a
1793 2. cee eee eee 427 1851.2... eee ee. 448a 1909 .............08. * 1967 0... eee e eee eee *
VL) 428 1852.........00.. 448b 1910...........0000- * 1968.00... eee eee, *
1795 oo eee eee 429b 1853. ........ 0 eee eee ae) 5 472 1969.00... eee 494
1996 <oecnivsinwiet 428a 1854............0.. 448 1912 00... cece eee * 1970... eee eee 495
1797 oe eee eee 2676 1855...... ee eee. 2681 1913.0... eee ee eee ane |) eee eee 1368e
1798 0... eee 2677a 1856..... 0... eee 449 1914.0... eee * 1972 oo cece eee cee 496
1799 0... eee eee. 2677b 1857... eee e ee eee * 1915 0... eee eee. 473. 1973... eee 496a
1800 ........ 02 eee 433a «1858 ......... 00. 454a 1916.............- 474 1974... cece eee 500a
Te 430 1859 ............ 2669a1917.............. 2690 1975 ....... cece, 497
1802... ee cece 431 1860............. 450a 1918 .......... 0 ee. 475 1976... eee ee eee 497
1803 ....... ee. ee. 433c (1861 ........... 45lajb 1919 0... eee eee. ee i eee 497
1804 ta cacnddnnsast 432 1862............000- ae |: /.| eee ae ene 476 1978 ......... 000. 498b
1805 ....... ee. ee. 431c 1863 ............. 454e 1921 ............0. 477 1979.0... eee 498c
106 cas teceicnnee dine. * 1864........00 0. 454d 1922.0... eee 2691 1980 ..........00 498
1807) vccaonciaewees: ae |. eee 454d 1923.00.00. 00. 2691a 1981 ............. 2695
1808.00.02... eee 431d 1866.............. 454c 1924... eee eee ee * 1982 ...0......00, 498a
1809... 0... eee eee 433. 1867 00... eee eee eee * 1925.0... see eee. 477a 1983 ............ 2695a
ff) [eee © AROS cau sadcetoumess * 1926... ccccsecees 477b 1984 .......... 499,500
1ST ned Seta sareone, 434 1869 ..........000. 453 1927... eee eee. ATI 1985... eee eee *
11D ov icasee are atances 434a 1870 ..........0.- 453a 1928.00... . sees * 1986 000... eee eee 502
1 ee ee eer: ae i 453c 1929 ....... eee ee 478 1987.0... eee ee eee *
CC ere 435 1872 ....... 00 eee 2682a 1930.......... 000 478 1988 .............. 503
1815... eee ee eee. 2618 ISIS si vcueaveeaedes * 1931 ...... ee eee. 480 1989 .........000- 502a
1816... eee ee eee. 435a 1874... eee eee eee * 1932 00... eee ee ae. 2693 1990 ........ eee eee. *
1817 scckione aces 43la,e 1875 ...........00. 455 1933 .......... 484,491 1991 ...........0.. 505
1S16 Soc auscwtesn ies 436 1876........0 ee eee. 456 1934...........05. 2692 1992 ...........00. 504
1819) sictene veces 437 1877 eee eee. 456a 1935...........05. 482a 1993 ...........0.. 505
1820.0... eee 438 1878 ...........05. 457 1936 .... 0. eee eee ee * 1994 00, 2696
121, oacx diet eae 2679 1879... 0... eee 457b 1937 0... eee eee * 1995 0... 505a
[B22 laa seednaees 439b 1880 ............. 457a 1938... eee eee eee nn, *
1823 .......0..00. 437a 1881 .......... 00 458 1939 ........ cece eee #1997 eee ee eee *
1824.00... eee, 438a 1882 ............. 2683 1940......... 0... eee. * 1998 00... eee. 505b
1825 0... eee eee 437b 1883 .........000, 2684 1941.00... eee ee, 1999 2... eee 506a
1826 0... cee ee eae. 439 1884...........0.. 2685 1942 ........ 0.0 483a 2000.............. 507
1827 jee once aec 439a 1885 ...0.. eee eee * 1943 0.0.0... 483c 2001 ............ 008. *
1998 cctarecincins 44]a 1886.0... eee eee ee 2 CY) ne * 2002... ee cece ee. 2697

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
2003 onsen teens ys 508a
2004 2.8 oe eRa eee 504
DOOD sie Widsets eh ad 510
2OOG joi 8b Bok oe db 2698
DOT sianderacs at ern kes 504
2008 ............. 510b
2009 2c eka ae a 510a
DOV acces Bacio, 1323d
DOVE Berens be ewes -
DOLD) ices oa eos ae Gas =
DOVE cht wd Geeines s S511
DOVE nis we duchwewis 1740b
ZOUS: ote idbcnwh ated 512
2U1G ech ws bat eee 512a
QOL. oo each dn es ek 512
ZO Bris sen’s Sha wheres 512b
DONO a2 2 gadtuicn ota act 512¢
1 194 | Ey ee er ar a 1404a
ZOD. gradiichSyts eta tne des 513
O22. ces dh anh bce a 517a
2023. 2eceeigeeedenase .
2024. cosets eeu dnees :
QO 2S bah Gaben See S608 159a
QUZG: sSrrciieeeirntvetaien 514
ODT vet acla uatencsarets S5l4a
2028 Laeesietew sia 514b
DODO aise how winced 515
2O0380)% cuecanieaeuwe 51Sa
DOS Ts gc dea Bone out 2700
QOS2 snare aes Ase 515c
2033: ache crevedwetse *
ZOOS 4 ong a8 se eSido nk odes 516b
2039 -.0icad waters 516c
2036:-5 be 8K sda bees .
LOST ic eee eat tena -
DOSS df 2cicve maoie ees ’
QOS 9 io wbx e emcaontshas i‘
2O4O 65. oda diecareles 516
LOAD ieiceted ss igoeaeih' 516a
0 |: 9 a ee av a re 517
LORS lie age niet ae as :
p41. a ae a :
2045 .........00. 2412e
2046 as vee eee: 1442a
DORT abe Sacearetesecats -
LOAS sce eis Soe aeanedst 518
DOA osc aces analy 518a
2090 ASA e anteaters 488
DOS hctn we then ta ees is
2092 4c warnceeunl oe =
2008 Seruckortaccset 520
2 | ay: 521
DA | fe fo Me rae ee ee *
QOS cet waa 867
DOS] 2 xcn se thet reake ee *
DON sacs vst anew eacatads *
LOD Se cba oa awa ‘3
DOGO sae Sota tin ectite Sedat ‘3

SFRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
DOG U st Maen cane 922° 2119s hh cee oe 545
206? 2 sla egck eit ak oes Be DO asstvted Minted ane eeee *
2OG3 Sita eae S28. 212 TD od gstigd bees 547c
LOCA ees ives aes B24 DD vata sais 2707
DOOD eh ons ok S244, 2123) Givin 535a,536a
2066 sata. cmdereeaacatt BO DAD A i acca ime e Baa ace f
QOH sedus ret eed idee Be DADS: oo isl ites tated Maer

DOOR. 6253-3 4 aiecehinteeiey Se We D6. #32 ca bebe es ee *
DOG 8 Sci ctaeutas ee? 2) 727 ee eee *
DOV! co xcie Gh eee ad 9234: 2185s ed eeeee ss At
LOUD. ctnko Seneeusw ee HDDs nik ewiad be ‘3
207) ik ts ohana PO 2130 atccourSachawtan si
DOTS! ed sictotions ten enene 5268° 216 fsciceic adh dea 573
DOTA cub eis eee S260: © 2132 x so eed banaee 548
DOTS a peatcnsies Oe Se eiak O* ~TI3 8hpt hee aneceuee -
DO 1G wiorcgonds seetectvw wre S25. 2134: -chnasackadeser 550a
LOTT hacidccastesehin act ons 5258 2IS ect waseteuie be 549
2OTS. 6a os Gare no wine ted Be D135 ea dae tat eee 2708
2OTD . Sawin ore Caoweha We DUS pedal vane, 550b
2080's caGiedoats ches PO, DSS cctince, ose dees 5S1f
QOBT cio be ee sb eke Oe SDB hoe ahh See ies -
ZUR? 6 scented dura 526: 2140 cect sein Saseok -
DOORS acca rsacceaediedtnd e QDIAW acerca ei wewe 550
DOSE 2 pd ce niece DIO DA is Gio eel omraenas 551
2089 sired ieee N27 2VAS yon eels SSla
DOBOiiok eae a nares S47 a- 2144 oie wacmndears -
2087 aac i even S47D: 2145 :csaxs ti esac: 55le
2088 .............. 528. 2146 6h hha ees 551b
LOB 5 wade Gio arace Sh ahs MDA sn ee ee oes :
QO eis: dot, ihn, hcscd foes T° DIAS octet nat ade or *
Q09D eine oboe kee 5208: 22149) oeteeceades 554a
2092 ¢ d.2tth cts td hg 530°: > 2150 <cceshgi ca eas 553a
2098 scnuce ria entan a 21S 52 ost, Moedteves 553
2094 ........-- SSE 592: i252 6 nreaccicencs 55Sa
DODD vided wisest ZIOS: 2153 cadike ches cuteness id
2O9G 56 Siena cee S31a° - 2154 os eewaet es 556b
7A Spee ae ee ee S28 25S orc chatanecean *
2098 ic aevekeiieks B28 “2156s. sae woes 559b
D099: cesta ln raat ctes By P20 eee en a eas
ZOO 6.26 wiw ete uke 534 2158 ............. $58b
PIU cut vare eluates io. : | Fo. ne ee si
D1O2 296k. 8 ataetn tes 547 2100! eae scceedaelen -
DIOS: erg eek oe hee ee ZIOA ~ 216) viccciw codecdus 556
D2 | 1: See ee are were Ee DAG) ec secuiee ea dared 5S6a
O24 | 0s ee ae Bo VG Si a fora Aine dots 2 557
PAOG se holeto ae oak S34a 2164 ............. 5S7a
DAOT ace keine Beatie at 538 2165 ............. 5S7a
DAG aihincneincuren ats 5378. 2166 cee ceors 2709
DNOD! boxe aiewdne ges focus 539 “216 2 25 ieee nue 558
D110 23566 kee ed ZIOS: “21GB eno Scare oak 559
OAM oh aeiatetels 540° DIIGO ick wattalee ae 560b
DA. caresses kee 2706 2170............ 2710a
O24 la ke Reerreene Chr a eres 540a 2171............ 2710b
48 (y [”: Serre ree ereaeraree ray S40. D172 ae iiod se chee 558a
BAAD tet cadre ae 4S 543. 2173 cts esckoies ec 560a
DING 4 eae nn 543: (274 ch cketewisedes -
DAE? ah anes Cow gre dear ibea d M21 sstawuieaves oats -
DATS: og gate reas S44 DVIS estes 558a

STRONG TWOT
ACE gee ce re 561
DUB web Seseaua ag bic 2711
DTD ston pia sinks 562
PASO asco a setsG4 562a
ZLGL ed Sie baer ete 563
DOD mn 3 Bit ack ote hangs -
DUGS on Saee tee tame 563a
2104 oc keeeeteset 563b
DABS: .a Rig do oud Wes Actets *
ZASO: Gia dimsnnioe ots 564
DUO d instars Gnaed wg eee 566
21SS 2 caceaaaae 857b
2189 2 scam carves 540a
2NOO once pale tnaven es « ‘3
DIOL asitueiamd gens S7la
2192 aissaeee ss 2712
DNS: eel ptetuech oases 567
DOF soit cise ecauere wis 568
LIDS sincwiydeeeeas 568a
ZNO 6 iu Cha tedeenn 569
AAD) 62 Sus iiaeeae 569a
PIO eke ee sees 569b
OND aid aa enveeia 570
DOU arene tiseestias 2712
DOOM Saicate hos en at Matar 570
DOD eas Soci he gets waren -
2209 diem talents 572
2204 a2 ok rage eee 574
2209 orgies ees 574b
LOO: od gait ea S74a
220 5 masta amio wie. 574c
22 OB apices lectern 574e
V1) 4 | SRE eee 574d
ZN acc athe uieetak 575
ZOE sneciteeeonisis 2714
DON Lins het Peitenn De acute 576
BAP) Sg ier a ee 543a
0.5 Cae ee are 542a
1271 oe ee ee are ee 578
2216 dopa redasice 578a
ZL deine Bra Garg ie ae einat i
LEIS ate Bee eee .
PEN y See ae eee 579
DOI: Bex utsetra a Sis ut ies 583a
22 Verdun 582b
2222 ene esree as 584a
LLL caicte darian ep te 543b
D224 acai e Monee 580
Dee ware ated euals 580a
D2 LOG tha duced Sirus :
222) erueasagaans ade i
2228 ct acoua wees caeks ‘i
D229 ss. Rose ee saints 581
22S aeancaaee ed as S8la
223 |. ae vm ira qlened 581b
DLI2: eimrewnareste a te% 582
2239: cntunttaaweads 582a
229A ses eutamnages 2715

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
D935 cdascconaade 582c 2293 .... ee eee eee * 51 .....0...... 627a 2409..........., 2726b
D936 io sieaeontavctans 585-2004 sac erene ied ae: 7 eee 758b 2410................ *
ky eee eee S86) 2295 iscsicz eden dx: * 9353 000.00... 630a2411.....00.00...... *
DONO ois cand cle cags dees © D006 acs e sows 604 2354.0... eee eee ee. BDA ashen teunaaen” *
pk: ee S80. 22097 ci dansaecn chews 61: 2355: a: peectetie. 630a2413............... 641
D9AV cate uae * 2208 0... eee DTS. 2356 vse eeware cues 758a 2414............... 642
OO Se etacuctinewi * 2299 00. eee. 605a 2357 0... 630 2415............, 643a
Ora rehash he * 2300.00.00... eee 605 2358 0.0... eee, 2724 2416 ............. 644a
DIAS kfacsrasbestrscrsteat §89a 2301.00... eee eee. * 9359 eee BS AGT oa vegan 2727a
1) et 588a 2302 ......... 0.0. 607 2360 ........ cece eee, F DAIS ccssreiesun 2727
DAS hte tcaker nna 589 2303............. 605b 2361.00... ee eee eee PDI deena ht daten: *
DIAG ovtenne sani Cs \\) ee 607a 2362.0... eee eee. Ho DAO ecrscchen 616a
OAT sirens kte 590 2305..........0.. 2719 2363.0... see eee 631 2421 .............. 644
DDAB = ec teatins 2716b 2306 ......... 20 e- 2720 2364 0... eee ee eee a 7) ee ae 644e
DIAG ie ea dreiahiclac 42 * 9307 eee eee eee ee Be D865 acento stake J 2727b
DOS beeetaiae cace 598g 2308.............. 609 2366.00... . cece eee. ne) 7) eee 644g
7 eee ene 591 2309..........0.. 609a 2367.0... eee eee BDA cco riceraacceiaie 644
D952 nie ea sdet oiieen * BO... eee. 609b 2368 ........ coe. 780a 2426... 0.2... eee, 623d
7.) Sn nee 590a 2311.0... eee eee. * 2369 eee 0 eee 623b
291) re eT $90 231225 on die Savas 6lla 2370.............00- * 2428 0... eee 624a
DISS ie echoes oe de QiG? 2318 cei ccorueauce tas BIT aps ests tackgad * 2429 eee, 2728
2256... cece eee §92b 2314 c.. eee eee GID> 23 9P sa ds csr eave 633. 2430...........0. 623e
7 DINAH “DIS aii seas 612a 2373.0... eee eee 634a 2431 .........00.000, *
7) ee 593a 2316........ eee eee ee eee ene 633b). 2492) nos xcguevecwrayins *
2259 oe eee eee SONG. DBT ene se uuin ene BD Tec tes en nataer ey ee ee 694¢
6D isgeivnia ahiestane 592d 2318 .......... eee. 613 2376 ......... 000. DIDS a: DARA ice ceeaaee 628a
DG Min shseandes 597 2319 ...... ee eee 613a 2377.0... eee ee 633a 2435.00... ee, 627b
7] ae * 2320.........000. G19: 2378 incite tect: 633C) PAB rindtacuerane 629a
yn ee S071 (2321 idtn teu ktowsec © 9999 xine chindeuat DIISB D087 so icaeacisaposime: *
1. ae ae 597.1a 2322... eee e eee eee © DAR 0 ie, oc 633d 2438.00... eee *
5) <a ee ey 7p) ey £1.) ea Oe eer * 2439.00.00... 631a
2266... cee eee eee 598 2324..........0.. DTD D38F sa ncatesnistreacies a BS DAA oe net 0s 04 ae 63la
DICT smut ancients §98a 2325......... eee 614 2383 0... e eee. i AAD cele dmhat ead 692a
2268 oo. cece eee eee * 2326 ........ 0.0. 614a 2384.00.00... 00. 6336. 2440 coe secssnce ces 645
9969 sain: QTI7,2717a 2327 ose eee eee eee eee: 635a 2443... ee 693
| eee 598c 2328.00... ee eee 615 2386 ............ 637a 2444... eae. *
DOT. cds ieacesieentie 598f 2329............. G19). 22387 cose tevneed ena * 2445 00 2729a
pa pe ee 598h 2330...........06. 616 2388 ........ 0.0... 636 2446.2... eee. *
ye ee 2717b 2331.0... eee eee 618 2389 ............. 6368. 2447 eli cedont vest 646a
ei, een ae 598b 2332... eee eee i D3 sas ccagewass 6362 2448...........0.. 646b
5 rae 598i 2333 ......... 000. 617a 2391...........0. 636b 2449.00... ee 647
0. ee eee $y aera F< AOD precio Seca 636e 2450...........5. 647b
BOTT eu bots ne eende ee ae eee ene an: rr re 636b 2451............5. 647a
DD 1S icak nie rch tes 598d 2336.......... 008. 620a 2394.00... ee. 636d: 2452s poesacctu: 2729b
| en ee 598e 2337 .........00.. 620a 2395.......... ee eee ree *
D980 aaa chic sessaee 599 2338 ............. 2723 D396) i tcwn erent a aa rrr 647a
D281 cannon aaa: 600a 2339............. 62la 2397..........00. 620b 2455 ........ 623a,661a
51.) ee ae 602a 2340..........00000. BS DIOR icc i bvauienn 638 2456 .......... 008. 648
7 ee eee 602b 2341 ...........00. 622 2399............. 638a 2457 ..........008. 649a
DOA wis wrewieticaates 60la 2342 ......... 0008. 623 2400............. 638b 2458... eee eee *
0) en © 9A hg Git ccndmeaa * 24012... 0... eee. 638d 2459... 65la
DIBG S ccrrichns euch ealth # OBAB 66 on eansgaes 623a 2402............ 2726b 2460.0... eee eee *
1 i eee 602,602b 2345............. 625a 2403 ............. 638e 2461 ...........5. 650a
DOR cis sae bites 603a 2346............. 674e 2404.....00. 0... 639: 2462 ic dewtientwasouas *
1 604b 2347........0... 00. 626 2405............. 640a 2463... eee eee *
2900: axvauai 604a,604c 2348 ............. 710a-2406............. 691b 2464........... 008. 652
71) ee aoe * 2349 eae. ny) ee * 2465.00.00. eee 653a
DID sac teueniseeruaceaisines * 2350 0. eee eee eee * 2408 0.02... 02 ee. 2726a 2466... eee *

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
2AOT > ails Ciara gah 654a
2468 ose tae ees .
PAOD 23 sk wit ae Dae ania i
02:9 | | rarer rare near ere 655
DAT ios ine.os tac Ge 660b
1. 9 Pa ere ee 663a
BATS. a sice area Waa hls “
DATA: eoicioesscet ts 660c
DA] Dish ome ad ater 666b
DA) Ors cecdie 3 aie args sbi 671b
1:9 eens eee ee ee *
DATS a sptiniee Seed atin 6 .
DATO coat amined. 623f
DAS: hore een he see ee 658
ZAS i cageeee tees 657a
ZASD seicacinntae geeks -
DOSS arms he buarclates 655a
DAB a scnasta chia haan 657b
ZAG) eGie esata en 660d
2ABO soo w cde vs ses 661c
DAST eh aie cose aus 666c
2488 344554 667a, 668a
TASD ssi Sh sat cha treas 659a
DAOO” sictakidrer Gees 660,661
DAI 1 sled Se BH ieee 660a
Ly Ee eee 662
DADS shoes arstaie ds 2730
DAA Bs cisd eek eid waaats =
DAD) Guar tea Ries 664
2490 extras ee nease 665
LOD) 0g catia rin warn Seas -
LADS. sacs © Seo Para bees 666
LADD) ie ce tne gee als 2731
DOU cece sues. 666a
DOU L. chs cans pea sae si
ZOOL ithe Rate bite ot 667
BIOS 2:8 Sor sitiatewegieaes i
DOUG: gare crema ata 668
ps) | se ne a ee 669
2906 2a3eawasgucse 669a
DIOP (5-15 Ate hae anse ae =
2508 sia ens vas 2732a
DUD i onaewe aioe-oae 670
ZS ND yas sertasgs ttle sac eer, Ge =
DT epee yaeie 670d
DON res Gracie Mawee 670d
9 2 an ae er e 670c
DST wbgia takes 670e
BOND: ch Gri Citinaa sae 669c
291G .ccomsnsausercas es 3
291) cee ee cake ied .
ZOO teed ge eRiiiae Genes *
21D! Sy Sho we 670f
a0) | ee ener ere ene ee A
in) Eee ee ere =
ZZ Gale eee cintaku 671
pe) A a ee aaa 671a
DIDAT hs eereiee naa 674a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
ILD Lndnwecnmawes CIID: 2583 scien satan 690
LILO ine beneats eee ee 3). reer ae ee ee .
DOL ois masala anions O71a, $2585 oc. Gkeus tveusexs J
0 bo) | a ea ee 2199S: 2I8O a. ae caver saierkys 7
De asians, Scere 0124 2987 emaamicwnniers 694d
via || ee erg ae 615: ‘2088 sh.c.0c0 eaee 690a
Ay 5 ae eee oe O13a- 2989 wivesiaxeueoed 694
DOI entre aoe Se 6150. 25904 gesics ae teks 691
LOIS ed a aiarh an eae, A een): ) Geers wee rere pares 2735
2594 secu eeenie S604 2592 iceencs Biekemde -
DODD. Avo aruiiiac bate Rare GLICO: 2593 a titiinaeeuciteies 693a
290 ee satay Goreme tts n>). Peeve ere 694e
299 seat ees Steak DOO) cums yaeaeas 690b
ZOIDS Sisrstia kets Nee aaa as © 299 Stet eaann eee. 693
29? SoS aie mies waaes f 2001 boy entiua gee 2736
LOAD cGy econ del as Re” DO cates eeuietaegignecs 693b
DOAN teak ces ocd 2 O81a: 52999 dimaatencaiaes +
py, Oe re ee 682a 2600............. 694b
ia. a ee ee 6858) 2001 soon weed amet ig
DOW SG a ive he einiy Bech B® 2602 sa4ateae ena 694.1
DOA oae ee Aart Sad 674b 2603 .......... 694,695
ZAG banwonotwvetaans ©: 2004 oon cst ober 2737
LON) siete Guetta asap ects BY VOU) one da eet od.ts *
DONO sath olen ea aine 6796 2006 acadueensuteses -
poe ee ee 6860) 2607 sictisdeteaneaean :
ZOU vaiecupsa ween wie tna’s O16.” 2608 ssc ganienin desea =
29S 1 ree meanness 6/0a> 2609 25s. e cusses %
LOD Dia iatadine wri iiota es O17. 926IO so. octane ae 696
2999s ty esses wate OPI) 20V0 ce adaceairn eee 696b
LI I4 Ss Bik Sees O78: 2612) cud ee-eqaed-ie 696a
20D ee eed nee 6/88: 2613 scworeuiease 696c
DDG eet seta ge clas O79). 2614s ecuin eh tweed: 697
ZIDT a eh and esos ek C198. 2261S escaseea adwretes i
2000 ook eats oe 679b 2616 .......... 698 ,699
phy er eee re ee 682° 2617 iasvcun: 698a,699a
2900s sahoet waeans O83: 2618 sn ciee pees chee es -
ZOOM 2a hu ta ht ote: 6830. 2619 nc eacsuewascauwe: .
DOOD: dics epian dee ana RISE 2620 wcmircaticrarss 700
ZOOS eat ee wae O83C° (2621 os peovesee dane .
ZIOA x doves eating at 6830 2622 -i20 ac bate ee 700a
250): wie aneewsees 6846 2023 c6.caisaeuen xe 698b
200) Srecre cee as wees © , 22024) cased gia Saieax 698c
2OOT o aitincacea wie ees A 686. 2629) rsigtez aioe maticute 701a
ZIOSi ase ptgacite: suanace 686a 2626............. 703¢
ZOD erie ty gous 686D: 2627 ocieiedsic tina 2739.1
DIO nakededatn dicks O88. (2628 occa dees stands 701
DOIN con Sete cee hold seins O884a) (2629) .5inGer ceded: 702
SY Pe ee are 686C°. 2630 soci eiiswaunwe 703
ded i Den creer te 689a° “2631 ccc egaant x 2738
LTA Sx Secunia cakes Bt VDOSD antisera. ceasatys aes 2738a
DO) Mire ht vgs eee DOSS: Gicintteiacst Saat 703a
LITO: 6 spo: ioe Sty etieter PO” DOSE. gs aes etek niees 703b
ZIT. pats sore mes Ps 1 DOSI ¢ tui awahs waves 2739
2978 inc tdcnte mane eae 2OSO urd ants des ee aes 704
ZOIDS oxedeme tet aetas © DOS] ces wea unas 705
as) ) | ager ee ae 694a -2638.............. 705¢
DOL ated acs Ve lstictis 26099 wet mp niomieas 705a
ZOOL a a. eoa ee acnee ota LOAD x cab eekeus Ys 705b

STRONG TWOT
DORI ho ircedssieten Gente od -
LOD 5 ied tow healing aes 705d
2643 cases cases T1la
2644 ... ce eee 706
DOWD. scant esa d eaves 707
2646 eda vesinier ca 710b
2647 cree esau keris *
2648 ... 0... ee eee 708
2649 .. 0. cece eee 708a
ZOD: ssp gies mesh esas *
DOD Vesa eens need 709a
LOD 2s ate ere hs oe Bien ‘i
ZOI3 2 Saka es be 710
2OI4 ides waa ek ees 712
ZOOS cen ive x see 712a
2O50 os ee contare ws 712b
DOS Tos 83 once dual ateetores -
LODO ck dc dad 4 Oued 714
DODD. Bi a Ato’, 2 Overs 715
DOGO! dere Saks Sache *
2OOW ede dew balding 714a
DOG 2 i cs ret Sie Bed ea «
2OG 3 octane ers ecko w dns *
QOG4 ssid 4.8 ob Ras 716
QOO OS ie ie adarexeaer ones 716a
2606 ncsiib esas ew des 717
LOGE eritincevicd retire date aes -
L008 vse ered een? 717b
2069 5 sins aie wen 717d
2OIO See Ce has 717c
267. 5 Sessa ieais ov 3s 721b
LOT? emits tue eset 718
LOI Bb hekaedetecneapanectne 719
2074 ntoicci an tenet ‘a
ZO) ida eae hd aid 6 *
2616: 2Sveseswkees 719a
QOL) Sivetewse ess’ 719b
2018 2b ideas 719c,721b
DO1D beta a dma She *
DOBRO ors) kota Sta Guavese kee -
ZOOL eescioudacestes 723b
2682 ........ 724a,725a
DOSS Kid de eee 720a
2OS4 6 i522 pa aedss 720b
2089 is oe eee 2740
2086 s.2heee vgs 721c
DOOD: Grantee tua Basset 721la
DOSS dts che se a eevation i
2689 .........006- 726a
2690 .........006- 726b
P 5°) a ear 722a,723a
2092 ues hae aoe oe ee-s 1
2093: cclei nee a Ree Am aies -
2094: oc ower eta *
LODD: Baw eine dines -
ZOOG: dice 2ie ae higtenidene > -
2697 Bite en tae -
DOS: Sacchi te satin stk -

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
2699 . oo... cece eee Be DIST ein wey ndteisonas 1526, DBS ssucc dee sresawes ie 1 eee ee ae ae 786
2100 ae haa aitevndio’ DDB hak a cs Meee 760c =2816.............. 2747 2874 ............. 786a
ZION pica edie ae Be DISD ib ahi ave ase 7O0G:. “2B o5-us. cin eebesiae BDO] eid Ps Sn le i, he -
2102: dnaanch aeons © DICO wiehaeoeas 741,742 2818 ............. 2746 2876............. 786c
7a Uk Se eee Soe eee ee ae E2161 tn aiaug ite ars 2743 «= 2819 ............ 2746b «2877 ............. 2751
210F nen os cithenwns a. Oo. SDNOE Bindu ees oe 7424. 2820 cae icnsexe Guk 765 2878 ............. 786b
DOD ie daot eats att ae 2D | 8 ae ae eR A T44q 282 hina we caturennee TOD: 2879s ais hese, 786d
2106: 3 oes 66 bone eos 1288... 2164 gunk ie cade T44e 2822 trae tee ites 769a =-2880................. i
DIE cis rack etic eateepcncd V2 “L1G eerie pastas PE ALO a cots asec he 769b 2881 .......... 787,788
DOB sick Bh ook be bam 7280. 2166 eis eoscnnacudaws MDB 24 lees commute wave: > DRRD seni s dua patie hacks -
DIOP sintece srt GRrate oe eeta eee gee? 27 ol ereereer rerene ee re ae SO 2829 axios eee nedos MOVE: “DB83 ae cl ou he hes 789
DY Occ a tee ie trek 4 TOS: 2IOS ac indeed oe 744b 2826.............. TI DBC a stoceg cei act ey i ‘
DN foe's be ooh eee ectes 1284. 2109 oc eaw ie caw es Sexe BS 2627 he ea anew 2748 2885 ............. 789a
DIAZ sire nace ets ees acemh?27 | | eee ee ee ee TAG. -28268 3 2csicadecteces D886: ede t aw avirveenss *
0 id i eee TLD - DVT: bbe we Pansqod be 147 2829 gen d uted backhoe oe CDOS) ns hedt & oumein rine *
DING ord ecneresicnatetes 129A. “QTD cinch ances € 2850 iy be ece ewes 770.1 2888 2.0.0 eee eee. *
DIAS: ahh ee Gatien (ol gel he reer ree eee Be DOS wake hare eu enase's 771 2889 ............. 792d
ZING 5d aes hans IIOA! SLI 1s ache eto Beare ak BS DBS 2 vc sce sivarsiactoaaes *- 2890) cc tans ceeeian 792b
2TIP kde hee pe VAI OL. 22AdS wis wars done 748a,759b =. 2833... we eee T)2a. F891 s ccc oe, 792
DINO asec one aies oi 3 ne? 9 |< eee HDB DA stig ow bana ars 766 2892............. 71924
DING: iret se oe Rae T928. 6 2TTT 233i cy tote od TSO. “2Odo eroddete se ges 766a 2893 ............. 792¢
9d P| Pe ae Ee 73la 2778....... 749,750,751 2836...........065 773 2894 .............. 785
94 9 2) Re eee TIVO: 227 79 sore ccest ery does Ty0a: (2837 sdg.c4 5c pees 773a 2895 .............. 793
DUD, Sastiiacins aa TING D2IBO ried Geek eee gd #2838 een et Bar telans 773b 2896............. 793a
OA 2, mE rere TOG 2QISL sitio ait Awe ed 749a 2839.............. TISG: Q89F icccty cache ies -
DI DA ice hee aaa TONG (2182 x ut eka deroraeivectele T92. 28a0 cee aaesaduds 774Bb 2898 ............. 793b
D125 Sghiaceaseene TAAL” 2183 shh ee oe tadee 2144. - 2844 od eicesndeceas 774a 2899 ................ *
DTQ6 ch bees Sars aa ODDO besa 1 eon as 754a 2842... 775a «2900... 0... ee eee -
DALY iret wiae dees VIS: (DISY eben eevee ae PI20) © 2848 ives dcne seas as FOOT es ov eee 794
Pid 52. eee ee 734a 2786... wee 199: 2844 ca skewadsaes 784a 2902.............. 795
DID cence oe eek aac TID: ° 2787 = oaks Bee ewea 190° ° 2845 2.22 ose Fe5% 776 2903 ............. 804a
27 Ss pce hee Sieh tee (39a LIBS south iiokae WG. 2846 sista cetawsn 777 2904 ...........2.. 797
2D) ana erates sarwete s 1350. 278 Fr eccireeauwees W598 (2847 veka aes 784d 2905 ............. 798a
IA] A een ee ne Ce SDI Wik ah lease Ati e 760 «2848 ............. 779b 2906............. 2752
2133s Ch aes Be NM ee tees tec bles ale ea 761b =2849 ............. 784e 2907 .............. 799
5 7 ee ee ee 130° 227923 tebe eae eases Be DGD Sinden Seg ed too 776a 2908 ............. 2753
DAD AA ee eee 85 are PP DIOS tS se dnc ahass 762a 285] ........ 0. 784f 2909 .............. 800
ZIG pres Son Wakivy Here PDT DAE on ebb ha Ba 1698. (2852 2 ebcieincheaees 778) «2910... eee, 795b
044) Se ee ee 1ad8.. 2195.82.48 vewesaeke T6la. 2893) wncseardscnenee TID. DOV ek ond eee ee 802a
0 i |< ne Hada. L190 fea. oe he Soren 760a 2854... 0. eee TIGA: MOOV? oo ice on bark le 802
044° ee re er Be IO) ech tanta wed hte ee LOD ieee gta hoe ate ies BP DOL S ncwacesuntees 802b
LIAO bgt e te hiaeees 1SOd! 2199-4 6 iia dso weneenuen PTZ OOO: 4d otiaeact eater TBO: 2914 iss iden we ier 803a
DIAN ics oe ae as es ease Bs SOD Sohatetak setts otek 160D: 2857 so e0d3sose aus ZIAD! 2913 wie da sircnles 795a
4 f: Vane 752a,b,753a 2800 ...........02 0 ee OTIS I6 eee aceaaeieun 780b =2916............. 796a
DAD cesses, Prctenainig & heeae BS DBON os side press eace ea 104° 2859 eee wed bees TSV0: (2917 nis motes sada 2754
4 7: Cn aan eee rere i 2802 Sc encore baie ey one B D8GO» 60s oe bo meet oe TONG. 29S iciis aon ee 798b
2) dae ae seeeeiaunos © 2803 cian senedon IG] 2860 isc6cetecccwnes 781d 2919 ...........,..807a
2TAO oh eee aea eee 756b «-2804.............. ZIAD: “2862 pciwed eeewas MOD: 2920 eine we woes 2755
0M fe ee 738a 2805 ............. 767a = 2863. ...... 0.000 TB2A. 292s res oumanes 805
DIAS 8 hes Wienges 738b =-2806......... 2 ee eee S DSGOAR ei ect hagas TSS 292 ek ocs ees ha 806a
ZIAD hace ih Gee es 2142. D807 odessa wires aes P VQSOS cases hee naviete he POA O92 Stra: Oe ated Odes Ree ‘i
Dy Oi Gates d cats cone 7366) 2808 08 eee 16ID. ° 2866 ss4een0eiGe: 784c 2924 ............. 806a
DYN: xc, Sheth wee eons TAQ - 2809 2:55 idan gees S - DSGE ducitiatinaces hot A 3290: ced uuhae ates 797a
21d ks 0m a Oe ea ee S 2810 stats ei oeses 767¢ = 2868... 2. eee 2150. 2926-6. si08.beaeeewn 808
£4 2 Ee ee ene ee © 2S etre ta tao iene B 2B69 seiko ida 27508- 2927 Sachiwace ee 2756
0 ey ema eee T3948. “2812 cevrainemexcetacee DB Oct annte atamenees Be ILS Bad etme chee -
DIDS. Seedotchwes TBE. “2OIS tak indo beeen Oe DBI 3) A areirntase 188a.. 2929 se sce sedereicetwes
fo Ce a ee * 2814 sang heusacee sa POD “QBI2 sig webasigent d 790a 2930 ...........06. 809

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
DOS: BES aia 5 809a
DO3 2 rice awn ig aera a 809b
2999 a esieucaacun hs 810
2954) cesuaieu dares s 811
2959: Secech salou els us 812a
2956 s.wiusiateeses 813
DOT eck siitsin's S neience ne 814
2939 cgeGa ee oe ehys 815
DODD ce dos aio Was at Sins 2757
2940 a becaomedcn 81Sa
8 ere ee ee ee 2757a
Dy «Pare eee eee eae 2757a
fl 1 eee 816
DOAA Baits ete aaa 817
LOAD: viking scameaareaeaes .
BOAO a ig bad ees 82la
DOG Ecsite aS esate eis 818
298 ie we Care a 818c
DOA ia ihes top miami 818a
DOO iniaretapa tb area 819
hy BY a ee eee 820
DAs Pa 821
DONS rise R ace aM goers 2758
DOSS peste dnstate pacha 822
DD oi wese te ous ss
Ody es ee ee ee ee 823
LOST is tes ahah Bees 2759
jd: es ee ee eee 826
DOSY fcc Ghee ie ie Bee 825
296OF 3.5 Hess nei eiee 825a
2961 ecb eed maeed 824a
DOO? wo-ins sia eevoms arenenn 826
DOGS cae tiiy- tone Bais 827
LOO ep taties rts wad 827b
DION x semana vdies 827a
2966? pies 6a Grete Bois 827¢c
29GF, 2 swe naw weds able -
D968 wernt woe ee es 828
DOGO 5.5 sind dca ras 829
DON ake som aeteweue as -
ZINN: hots Bee wert cau ‘3
2972. neces ei umeaiaws +
207 cours ooum sme 830
Le Sf. ee eae 831
DOES sib. 8 see act yc dceon’ 832
DOIG: ois ioe a sata ee 833
Pt ee ee ee eee “i
DOTS acetic ee taned 188a
a Ree ee rere ee ‘i
DSO! siete et ee the tat 834
ZOBL: 5 oiceh ee tare ses 835c
DISD wnat ware aegis i
DOGS: ss cceetcians ina eadears -
|. ae See ee ‘3
298 Y ie dock gata scases e
DONG ois Bg ie Siaeeae oe 835
LOST oe aici he id eas 2760
DOGS ihe seeiia ches nt. Gnas wns 835a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
OSD iS asi- hid bets ke wae i SOND eae en ee eae 4
DOWD, heheh cased B3ot- “2048 coca ead aneoess _
LOO 25 noatwe teen ne Bi BORD ward a iertth scones 848d
Pa» ) Sar eee S56 BODO wcsucsnacneunts g 484b
LOIS! eid seriaat ys 8360, [30S iid bs oan bd 849
LDA is, seed Hach area S36b 3052 2533 os aieaak 2766
LOIS 2x trot wien a Mia as RB SOD Si a ao Stretch es os 849a
LODO 58h hese ey Ad Me SSOO4 Satta mech eae 850
DID site lb he tage eB Sats * 305-2 tock ateherans se ‘4
DOID AS eddie ae ee t SO5G creueiwid eeowane

DID: dota ee ore Spe Babs Be TODS gies aire eed i te ‘3
BOO racic meal eave tr BS DOD. cece aca ta yaad actrees ,
DUO ckawaatre swears S31. BOF vicneasw eee ears -
DOOD. ses seb dotteae S374 3000. cusesetiew ieee 3
9008 2.2 sia eamet @ SBOGD Patek Sone eum arate ‘i
S004 ce ctinuiaceaae de 8370 30602 ssincsccwikwane ees *
S00S eck awteweme weds Po 9009 d cacucse gies 850c
SOO. 2 sities aiiecea es S37C S004 cere neuen 850a
S007 2a ew och es 2101: S0Od feet pawn Si ee ee =
S008 ac aebite aed otek an He D000 cii.c kaa eas 850b
S009 sri ke ate eae B38. DUO) seedenes ween .
SOO a3 185-gesas $38a: 3008: vec ns eeeeee 484a
SOLD. 20 ghiccette we nsuvee Be DOGS GG cet Garg rae a ects Gets 4
SUID ee rantencarereede Bo, DOTO Aside asain ieee ‘d
S013 4c eh eee Bee B39 SOLD a incetsdP mera 34
SONA: ie cheer ees 840° 30/2 cae wi cetener eat .
S01 D4 te esau aiaties S394. 30/9 icnistseenee ex es i
DUG: Sites a ee ets $438. 3074 cist inGamee wey ee J
BOUT Se acs pntandaena es DOT D: sited nial Oo aera -
SOLS amid eesads SA26> 307G ssc oh on esGasiungse -
SOLS. pro ahem cas S420) 3077 srk oe HES Bae ‘
BO20 2h onthe Ste t S01S iota dee eons ses “
S02 ren akunase hs oe BAZ: BOO ak norte ato es -
S22 a etmek Met S424. 19080 weds oo ve teee eo if
DOS: case aay aman B420°. 308) ieee nite eee -
S024 cece wacstiotats B4A2C.: SOB2-. oct. stiowunemes ‘i
| V2 nee eer BAD BOBS sin tomenes eee es .
$026. s-ciriia- seis sa eee ies DS BOBS i eisiuin weieeaastos -
9027 cc oiee nies 844 3085.1... eee. 7
S028 2304 doe cnes 2163): “3086: cot. gast ne nee en -
D029 ios artice tee ets eth ys 2IO4° “3087 sas hincys thedawns ii
D080 ees cs ain Baoan ts BUGS 2tutesesanheswas ‘2
S03) bbe wtencn emo A S089 sus see acres .
S082 sy bis cereus 845,846 3090 ................ *
S033 septa es acess S46c BOOT Gs oc wens “
DOF. oie Gah ens Gash tines BAT OOF athe whos waeu ues .
S039) cw eeicnieten ee, Me - 2OUO 9: eterna ial iee 85la
SU5O + 2a4ceewat Ge aaie. FOG. a ieee a tar ic 8 eos ?
SOS 7: smote wrekinaes DUDS Sa. 2% tie ace osleaens 502b
5038 43a saws own, > 3096: 2 ceseaduus tothos J
S089 osteo seat 846a:. 30O7T a cas tot oeaeee ies

SOA oie. e ey an eee as B SU98 Ss sibs da aei a eet: ;
DOAN 2 ok daperenitotuta Pe SOD sea ee oak eee 3
S042 ia oes a te eens 8S © D100 5d ements aw es ~
S04 ot sdwrine wean tox © SHO) ace ses gabe sens =
DOAF as amie penis * DIO oust aa den acsetee :
S04: Ghee ts eke esis S48" 2310S boi toiewiadotens

DONG ssc diiesh a Rsiedinty DIGS. 2S1OG oe. sn ccna ees 835e

STRONG TWOT

oo
—"
wo
~
© «x % * HK KH KR

eeeeeere eee ee ee 8

eS)
bo
aS
\O
* * *¥ * *D * * *®¥ *¥ ¥OO HH *¥ ¥ ¥ *¥ HH KH KH *

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
D1G3 Gs sae ra same as ®. OIL: oohinw ens 2IIO!. (3279 Suxisenern sen ias gaa 0 ene eer a ee 4
S104 5.35 cngs omeages Be S122 ih chaise aces 871b =3280............. SSID. 559 Bres cue cthe ween 4 898b
DIGS: eacink poet aGa eet W (DD29 13 kpanic wechetes M “S280 at cuanwaeuauane’ eee ok: eee re ee ree :
SOOM eicae eae ns E B2I4 eres ee esas Pe DOO ttaelane nashaa as 1650e 3340 ..............., i
SIO igh se saadetae ews © B22) ed oan abaes BILE) SS283) secur parr sees 884a 3341... i, 899
D168 eda alee see, 6 BS WD 20S ask cig aie Mela aan N74.” Serene ee eae 884b 3342... 900a
5109 (ts oeae ta eae eee 7 ree ee ee S72ZD. “B28o ius ceeeae es BNO AY tact crinedid te aetrencena es :
BT: Ss Gian oath aga S OZIS. Kc hewenie eee « eee. ene ree re eee 885 3344... 901
DIM cee ateeonnty arses Re D209 aia ene aig tin wee DP BIBT oka eace tua idei tet 885a 3345 ............. 2774
os Pee ee BP gdL90 rd Sah te yee Be DLOO eae cua ate 885b 3346............. 2774a
DATS is site cacpngaes S500, S235) si.ciiues seas SIZE. S289 Gictwsutoedasats S87- (3347 ewes go tuvesade 2
DPA bu wie iad on eS S BLOC SA cel Pees heedes RB IO eek veciconh ooat ais * BOAO Seow diaee Gini’ ‘3
SLID: ashe ot Se iets SI9a: S299 wetter Sead S720, 3290 piecacesuun inoue BO I4O hatha ine ears 902a
DUIG) 562 eo ad oer: B99: 932342 Sse oe ee enes RY D292 bdwascilged ee ke es PDO iek aca Sanaa 90 1a
SAS 1 concer wes eens B O29) ee sopheiekeraee LISS 3298! a BSc es 888,889 3351 ............ 1999f
SATS ise asa ae se PP S230 Pa tale been akiowss ee. ae re re Te ee eS TODe satanastia dan 906a
O17 ayes te od S00" 3329) awa aeonenates © B29) shane ruewees SSID: 3558 es seems ha 906b
SLO es sees eos aes 685D) «3238 .26ste08 teen BIS (32964. 6 te huetaadea xs Bo DSO eat g eek one tins a
SUG D scskrwsie tea wrncecanans © 9299) fetes cuca suck is eo) See ree eee 959)! Mss Ret ien tances *
DIS? 2: wavering eerie 86la 3240 ............. B23: 29298 alia meu btintroaeces. ee Pe GD DDO a inks Gost anda weeded -
SSS ccosneskieeraciat M924 Ms) arte Wp aeaikeu hare Oe D200 cs cia en mew ae ee NOON aeae ee ae ote 905c
DISA eves ee ees Res Me GOAL. a dveish.u fain ces S74¢e: 3300 ba cece sashes To O90 snaeer esau ke 2775b
DAG) 255 Sea ie he Re BO, SAD. iia e,3.g8haiotae a S74. 3301. asta ee saneeens B39 eo hen cade cares *
S1SG6cch es tseoen iat OS 3244 cs, esac 14230). 3302+ es ie wie a Sone 890° 3360 wees bss ved dagets ss
DIO) dtd ohegrs eens: 802° 3243: asaeok vows vend S19: “3503: enc eines as S908: S361 es e255 oy cicad dieters .
JIBS nob ded ees ease $6248: ~3246- sien cdasoiens 875a =. 33304.... 0.2... S900. 3362 vets ceseennen sans 3
oi hb aera Sener rea er PS DOA) see act wees SID: 3305 easvicd ohh stess gia) os ever ern ree 903
D190 pauscacesenas $63). 3248 au cima oes SISO 33906 4 cn.05 Sena meee OIL” 3364s cherie ata 904
STOW taught dats 2168. 3249 cox Gee eeaasts L480) 3307 tench eeeais eas SIA, BIG: 2isieceed cage 905
DID csi Be rics Gels hed wats Be LSD SO aise eire sas te Sila 3308 5.20) bidesesns SI0C; “3566 cout neu as 905b
D1) cvnawe tere ease D2 Petey aieen cea IQA (3309 cuit aan SAees D -S3OP aeeae acer 2775a
S14 cle aig Mate. wes s ee 2) en eee eee Be On are a eo P3968 bbe oe Sheed 905a
SOT os ake ee we T S259 see Sees a ates Re BOVE sguk aid na gr awows By GO SOD! 4.2:tietrtetee ecient 906
SOG). 566.50 Blew seid oa 864: 9254 sot raseode ose BIO: 3317. stb eae leriees Pe BIO Sones a oheaw ean’ .
DAT, se einietee 20a Bp asi BAA! 9299 at retna otmee vias 271T 3313. sn seeaaiaens an B22. 330) axnevraahaeh ese .
DIOS: 4.25, Sas eens ois BO9~ 3290 wer eurnutesces-s CII. SSA Means cea he PE: AT) ae eee 907,908
Ci eee ae eee PS eee ee ree S798 SI) ag eha wa eee Os O37 Iie. oh mais 907a
D200 tics Ghewinehte a Se ersen O (3200 1ae iar cya e nes w /OS1O se reneeragk Sees eS eee ere 907b
S20 ctiems cece gueaee 66> 3259. aeiv eats tcp an SIS OST o4hint oe ame sees P BOe Dae haa teaver ees *
4 | Paar eer era! 2169:. 3200's da isiwasaeitalens WAFS IG we hte em, eee B99! 3316 cath ageaaines

S209. ce ciycrna tt oGret ae 538 PP SLON isis ion hala aes & B19 “3319S wa wescieiea es D028 337s cencueay evens ‘
DOF 025.8 Besch i or tiira ee WS Bo” SDLO2 i cused bane oa taiae bas F BOLO hc atakemennes S94: 3378 adi esdhaan sisieees .
Lyd ae ans eae S07. 9203 cite genes eae SSO Nhe auld Sec BETS SSID heed wie arena ios gi
D200 is tients adds S67D: 3264.2 ew aiieiessces S88a 9522) sede buses eees. BOD. (3380) cawoceatmcansen ee
B20 ras eae waae BO/D: 23265 2ed.cnitacssete es BOS. cys te yaceos ISS0C: “3381 cassuc nesses 909
S208 sake uorsaeee S8076* 232060). do buyaneeiues BO BoA e du yay ae anaee Do DOOD is ait conten eee ried 2 *
Pd | ere ee ee 80/0) “3207 seksvotes aces S80. 3925 hestesaat hdwosion Me BIOS kecuih areata es *
D213 y:0 wosara transite we ara D. BI68 2accunin weaoaen © BOLO pas tinn ee wke 896a 3384 .............. 910
D2) cee armaacets S076? 3269) 2 cucdimetuahuger eee 674) ere re eee LO0SD> 33983 tciccencuoneua se ‘i
02) Saree Para ae Er AIS: (3210 cescieuas tatoos P (GS2O Sitesi ot Soe aes © “SISO aadivesaue ealewe :
D21D tute Woot edenies S08 B27 sashes cess S8l SS20 ees es ktcwats S738. 3387 acascandanes 918c
SONG rane i laa te SOSA 23272 nt soe hea ates 2012- Bd30secdasiesase 211A: BIBS aesierstaecudes:

6 OA io ee ere BOSD: 3273 5 .¢0s0 ant ouee eens DOO Lelia cteewenecen BIO: 3389). ccedecanedeness .
S210 peo rethoaea: L098 3274 svc nnacs ead. ee by ere reer BIL 3 I90 rntcadion ta epeties ‘i
64 eee eee SOIR. B27F scierw menue cad & OBS 8S aia ewer ak 897/a 3391 o.cscdsesaees 913b
S218 ete grat Gussie BIOR. “3216 koi eie wer puree B82: ~ SISA Si arcosianets IDI! (339). ceiaouterende se. ‘
4 |: ae T1250! 23207 scared cascade S83a 3339 back wwe wees BIS 3395 Ge cabo anus 2776
9220 elie nea dew aes Sa: 3218 vassdaaera aes. w* 93590 arene saesat S988: 3394 ences comueang 913a

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
S399. «ea desen peewee *
D996 seu wes oars -
SOO ainersavsgce da tea ik ii
BOIS se caty awhile sas ms
9999 ocean Rew susts 914
3400 oe eete ee eda eee ‘i
S40) otiag ace ciara 2156b
DAOZ. 15 0.ai5 heeding ten a wivia' ‘i
B4OS ips sie orna¥ es Wee J
DOA is nte tbe ete ada kes i
DAD: ctr. is Hee aGr dec 915
SAG sede tte, Sa eancls >
DAT cuciatiec dre eho wont e 917a
D408 ease teas Suet 3
DAD: 2 Gna Oe Sea Se 916a
S410 xa. iad earns wise 2777
D4 icin oe eet 916b
DOLD: wha ckta heaps aire -
94 oe ic tee natetees .
SANE icc ee arches .
3419.2. oteucheneeeee 917
S416 ad-ind ot Se etie s =
SA] ae etait ig aes & 918,919
SAS: cca tagudets 918a
SANG). gectheeeeas 918b
DALY) conic Be wes, htens 918d
D421 28 au bie bw hares .
DAD oie eae ob Bae 918e
BADD sao tct er Ge 920
DADA asain Sle aieg 2 920a
DAL Do Seen en eae 920b
6 Care aerare, are 921
SOL atiatuely vice x4 922
3429 Sadwg ra cmat imate .
942 sie woeaes ware =
DAS oiiekt eenere a eee ‘s
DAS signees iy Cates haut .
ce VA ere oa eee ee re “3
D493 csr poten ees -
BOS 4 isis dates oe tiga ses -
oc hp ae eee ee eee ee a3
DAI O%e pad tease Moos ss
DAD) lad iis ees ag oes .
BASS sce ae Le Gn =
DADO cawn dete Gute tan -
DOA owen iad cea wl. :
BAA, cl hce thet conte beats de ‘i
Sg a ee ea *
SAAD gore hase nk Gate :
BAAS ccncreoumnaes 929b
S44 fie acdio ten eas 3 924
D4 AG sei hod Sopa 1905b
BOAT iam ei eens 925
3448 nce eeatwes cee 926
944 fh ceeded Ge iwaes :
DADO) cas ish ne ea dad ?
D4 coi cours 927a
D492 sae eee ears 927b

STRONG TWOT
BASS: 5 cco eee ee 931b
B94 5 hoki navendedeas *
CU. i Ge err an ee or eer 2243
BA56 cacccnnsiawnes 927
BEST pickle Woe ieee ate -
BASS ese eicr ume nae -
BAS acces, o osciesate he ‘3
BAGO akc kk hwwo ideas *
BAG ioscais Beem Reet *
SAG? nie. retaae 928
3463 odes ke os San 928a
BAGS isi sich deh ones, Bae *
3465 cect awe sa 928b
3466) 8 ete cee oseskwards .
B4GT gis ccnneteeven 929
3468 ............. 929a
3469. noi euewnawes %
8470 odide. conn, beans ‘
BAT! 3835 vase eee 929.1
BA 2 ited ted eeheace bE 7
BAT isc oe Fos hee ka .
BATA 2d crete he heals 930
BAT Os asrdle ei onses lena ‘
BAO shetty eg Bee 930b
SAT ise wots: 930a
BAIS 5 to wisn find aeeusss .
2) 1 Saree eee ae *
0: | er a ae -
SAG T oe tana ted ee a
DO ni tyre ae ease vane ieee -
Ch See ee eee 930c
BAGS 2 ictal a Surges .
BABY. exc teaes G8 eee aes

3486 .........000. 931a
BAST coeds oe os 2779
BASE edo Canes 2780
B48 6 whens oneek 932a
CY De | epee eee we eee 934a
B4OD 2g wn ahes 936
94D? fans d wath’ oatayetinen ji
BADD: 2.1:natoaciew ens 2781
oY: 07: aa a eae *
BADD yn on oat ees -
3496's cise eS Mend hae .
CY. (Sy Senet ater ene ate -
BAB isitatiatonutsiis ve 836
BAD 8a isnt acatery Ses 936a
BOO gad acct ioc ack geats -
DOO arcislls cA shor octhcee *
BIO 2 4 fick goles Susana 936¢
i 1 | eee ees eee
3504s o53 oe eeaeens 936f
BOD: a.iicremte eas teens .
S906 tect esewde re *
B90) as -ncstteuewed cue ss
Ch) |). een en ae 936e
3909 acacseape eee ‘
S510 a wa-oee, ou iene 940

STRONG TWOT
SDA b. Aaeaunae aces 940a
DON es plactinre ne 9 941
SSID a acaswaars owes 943
by Sear ere a 943¢
9919) siieucneadn<s 943a
S510...4.254 oselesas 943b
OD lined eo een acts 943g
SONG 28 ea Rat tceaes 944
DOLD wis isea atone 943d,e
9520 oe deeuseieas 943f
SZ I-SAttitwe sere yews i
DOLD ie erates ores et wh .
DDD! oa heucara wie eta 948a
D924, coms eoeaa otis 947a
B92 Danna pee eee 945a
S520. Bow tien pees 946
B21 Metta mnde eose 947
S28 ak heaus ya es 947¢
BO2 Dita Sess bee viepte s 947d
S930 cus Sages wee 947b
ODS] ee tmaaa wees 948b
Bae weiaorns) eaeaas 949
S999 wage asa maken, 951
9994: Sect erg ice ates 95la
S59 wins uu euie tees 950
9990 ove eae hee 952
OOS hg seks 953a
DDI BF aiapes.6 als ass 2783
SIF taint haces 953c¢
B54 55 Gate geo tesee -
SOG Fico bina euler 955
DAD: ath ache tas Bint 2784
D4 neers hee Sas 951
SDAA eh tena saanh 957a
SOA cite ees 957b
O046 cake ssuaes: 2785
SOA vanes wcuite kes 959
D948 esc ane eens 959a
9999 ce Kin tacd inate 2786
S900 atne de ciate 959b
SOA. eves ec nes 2786.1
S902 Seine eae woie xs .
S599: his sence oes 960
SIDA cb ave ean 961
SDD iad oh oar as 961b
S950 Sesnrvniaeewns 942a
hel ere eee eee 962
S00 ss edusanes 990a
3959 tate eine ess: 964
0) | eae ree -
S90) waaoaens bere 964f
BIO7 0.55 wane teu aac 2 .
ID09” «50Gb esieds 965 ,966
BOF os pettus ee aes 967b
300) nol vedetsweesinws -
3500. ia Gea aeicaeas i
D0G) get Pears aes ‘i
J) 0 ane er 969

STRONG TWOT
J) ee eee 969a
S910 hg wade cae es -
DOT ina dosimnens aaiines ‘i
DT: Mette e ies J
DO) Ota orcad ope e .
SOTA Santee Site seas 1052a
951) ota Vener evades -
DDO chk Goad ee eet 970
DOT cu swead Magura 970a
S/O ba ure can ai oes if
Chih ee eee ee ‘i
DOU St cuties oy catees -
D9O1! Acton santas 971.1
|) ee ee oer ee 972
DOD si cede eye 974
D904 cde amieaeamy 975
599) soeasuiacawsas 975a
S980 ceinuetindaas 975b
S987 vr. we aearnas 961a
DIOS ghost aaanis 976
BIB) 2 sia as eehat 977a
DD OU iim erste ace A 953b
SOO Sica, cine mega 977b
D9 hase eek x
BD99: Si kacMomn wenn 954a
Sob eee ere te wee eee .
DOD ashe eater aves 967d
DIO i iat erate 1366b
DOT ee Ness Boe, 979.1
9998 is wtetis toh ee ty -
5 2: an eae a a ee 979
D000 3.2. seca vene ts 967c
SOOM ee Ra neous 1052c
DOO 2 5c. be weslty aed ooh 956
D008. sigs ewe Be pecs ‘“
9O04 caewsedsdeet 2804a
36095 9506 meetin eecae 985a
S00G is <a. sdauweees 2789
S607) 2a aceoeeun bees 980
SOUS: ti Sa usern ee 980a
DOOD a oiler a tenw pee tes .
5610) test ccs toi 980d
BOT Ponsa sorsccs-bh Bteiae 98la
SOU i itstenae ren ative .
SOLS ji hix hehe Paes i
S014, Bis knee seas :
BOIS: otesnrnts 982 ,983 ,984
SOG 2b aeGec tees 982b
DO eciiaae yatta 982a
SOUS: nine Gasca sens 986a
3019 'o 8 ob snteta its 981b
3020) eng ere marae :
S021 6s iae5 Fis ee Deee :
D022 His dee eee eas es .
9023 sn hinen thet 986b
SO24 airs oa Sawaye ae 984a
302). Gr iaioranwu ss .
9026 wed Ovedeeuew ete. :

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
BOLT en hdd wanes 9828 “3685.22 oon beau de sce) |: (apo nee 1033a 3800............. 1057
SOL Gino eee whe 980b 3686................ OS SUAS in bode ana eis wee © PS BOT hse atid acne te: 1058a
3029 i.e sche tee bat 983a 3687............ TOUTG: 3744 ook ee eek 2802 3802............. 1059
SO30i oie ea wae ek oe die JOSS. nse odes 1OZ)) 3745 Ssh b-te dete’ 2801 3803 ............. 1060
BOS ae i ewes 982c 3689 ............ 1WOlla 3746 ................ * «3804 1... 1060a
BOS? eae chee ee 985b 3690............ LOUTD: “S7AT tito wttnwwincc ok Pe BBD i oartie ke heed 1060c
S633: biases be dak Be BOOM a5 bred obs tee 1012 3748 ............ 1048a 3806............. 1061
3634 .......... 985,986 3692 ................ BE TA ie ce a cenen Seaces 1038a 3807 ............. 1062
3659. 20sec bade’ 2788 3693 .............06. BIO 2a eens 1039 3808 ............. 1064
3636 tee ees © BOOAde ata eatin aaee DIO aac ee ee EB 809 8 cetsak eee. 2808
6 Af eg ree roe ner pr O87 3699) xeeoeeet i eee Be 1D Gat Ae Ack o Ras & S62 e hit etge te *
BOSS cake eeacberkes aed PO BO 9G esse reritacica ete lac Sloe BT SIDS hovered hea 1046b «3811 ............. 1066
9639 6 esky peed 987a 3697 ............. TOUS: 33954 one cote yeeis 1040a 3812 ................ ‘
1 07 | (ae are ere eee 987b 3698 ............ 1013a 3755 ..... ee eee 1040 3813 ............. 1067
BOS eaten Sac ee ates Fe BOOS oa ck ee aes 1014 3756 .............208- * 3814 ............ 1092a
BO4 2 iia baie Sd 988 3700............. IOUS: 3757 on benkdeosadces Be SONY ve old abies don tss *k
90495. bot e wk wee Ok IOS ccc rates ttine cok ee 101Sa 3758............. 1043 3816............ 1060a
3644 .. 2... ee O38) --3 702 2 cock cores. eee DAIE® 3799 cies ws 1041 3817 woe eee. *
364): o0'x:03 Gis Coie wen Pe BROS. gst boaracwns tngheod 3760 ewinadawiakacas 1042 3818.2... ee, **
3646 ......... 991,991b 3704............ 1009a 3761 ................ Me SSR Da aristoretedaie ae atarace *
3647 ...........00. 092. -310D: cree tees es: DIOS. (SIG? 2 nc has oaniea ke MBS 20 vate adver os 107la
3648 ....... 993,994,995 3706............. 2190. 39GB: otk aoa, ee eees e SOOM duck Mech ohn ne 2809a
3649 orecktedeeree 996°. BIOT <hcars he dcch onde: LOG: ©3764 hock otaadeex 2803> . 3822 oc cote seeds aes be a
3650 cise ctssae es 994a 3708 ............ 1016a 3765............ 1013b 0 «33823... 2... 1071
3651 c.cnse ones 964a,b 3709 ............ 1022a 3766............. 1044 3824 11... en, 107la
BON2 eutmowion en 2IDO” “STO Ado eek Solent 0 if a 9 {Cy re 1044a 3825 ............ 2809b
DOOD: sth ates, cc et ed 998a 3711 ............. 1018 3768 ............. 1045) 33826............ 107 1b
BO I4 ke he Sethe wei 999a 3712 ........62-. 1022b 3769 ............. 1046: 3827 asceelade oo 1077b
B69 Set Dhan geek 997) 3713 sa eo eds 1026a,b 3770............ 1047a 3828 ............ 1074d
SOG ed de eG bees Be BY VAY gine os testedeans lO2Ta. B77 cicuwcsngihonees R982 cy dean ws x
BOOT 6 sce busi 4 acs oo 999b 3715 ............ LOZ3 8: (3772 caller nase dn 1048 §=3830............ 107Sa
BOD 8 ces. is Geers 1004a 3716................ FBIM a3 ara es dase 1048b = 33831 ............ 2810a
3099 akc t ee west awed Te OPT eke Bakes sees LOVS! SU7A eke le eh oie T 3S32.2 owuide danas, 1072
$600 vb ate ete ZIG BTR haces ek cas otc 114) ls J SW Ay de ec 949 3833 ...... 1070b,1070c
3001 - eee 999b 3719 ............. 1020» |. 37 16s ore ss Gscatectosns 949 3834 ............. 107 1c
BOOZ toe taciaaatnetcuats ance: 1 07 | ae ee ner ee 10208: SOIT eck ese shuct naan Be RBS codes bets 1074h
3663! 2s tiv cebu BILD thee eaesuat te 1022: 3718 cass wateerek eat * 3836 .......... 1074a,b
3664 ............. 1000 3722........ 1023,1024, 3779 .......... 2.0... os” DBRS 20. canned a .
3665 wanted ats 1001 1025,1026 3780 ............. 1049-33838 1... ee, -
3666565. 2s.2 Ge ee de 100la 3723 ............ 1025c «33781 «1.0... 1050a 3839 1.1.0.2... 1074f
S360) ok Sauteeecwtss [002 3724s ee reds 1025b 3782 ............. 1050 §=3840............. 1074a
3608) 6 oyeius se bsiere sees Fe S29 hhh enh oe a 1023BD. 3783-245 ocheues 10S0b 33841... 2... ee. .
3669 ............ lO028& | 23726: cvicees ce eee e eed SIO4 bak eu wade aki 1051) = 33842 ole. 1074c
3670) sieciie ea ears 1003: “3720 ssi cstce a ones 1023C 3783 o4ciaue sean 105la = 33843. 0... 1074g
367 a nsvvaweawnk T0038 3728 weary een ba 1027 3786 ............ 1OSIb «33844. 1... 1074e
36072 shu demand HP DD. ace Casati 21938 BIST chats eee 1052 3849-4 begins ‘i
SOLS sai ka Reet ZID2 <SE3Ds 2.6 iors posoders gis 1029: 3788.2 ciweceewcns 10520 ©3846 eds cledytlewn eke -
9614 ix Lata be os 1005 (373 kcwsciawenk dos 1028 3789 siicunsacded 1053. 33847 1... eee. 1075
BOD se clieaad bans on 2193. BIBL 243s kee eaeokwien Be BI QO ses sig ant eh 4 ar 2805 3848 ............. 2810
3616 oe cele se ees LOOT 3733) neccoe cece’: 1046a 3791 ............ 1053a = 33849 1... 1076
S677 cavwetesas een 1006 3734 .............. 1031 3792 ............ 2805Sa 33850... ee ee 5s

30/8 she 95. sews ae lOO?" .. 3733: tewsee soe bes Pa by > RMR A ae 1053b 3851. ....... 1077 ,1077a
BOI Diiciee thoi ai ed eeamiod: Oy 3 ISG eae ed LOS 2 37 OF cae tended oes Po OS: hentia 1077b
3680 ..........0.. TOOR 23737 ete nda ox ete 2800 3795 ............ 1062a) = 33853. 6. eee :

3681 ............ 1008a 3738....1035,1036,1037 3796 ............ 1054a 33854 1... 1078a
30822223255 Am 1008b 3739 ............. 1036)- 3797 2c oxccauswns 2806 3855 1.0... eee x

3689 ach tees sae eee 1010 3740 ............ 10374. 3798 ocean tk oak does FS, SBR SG Sieg carecthahs atest 5 1079
3684 .......... lO@liGe SB7A4T 20s eens wala © STOO! owe ata doth L055: 3857 vc hestanaecieens 1081

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
3658 55 see ce swes 1081la
BSD cewies eae car 1082
3860 c45 o daeweare 2 1083
3861 beciceawatecn 2811
S862 hs Geendumee de 1084
B09) oie ian cvoes 1085
$864 ).0 bs a bees ‘3
38656 a5. dacne os Bae :
3866 nis. eoisn Pens os *
3867 ........ 1087,1088
3868 ecu ko ineuewes 1090
S869 eh ewes 1090b
SB TOF has towne ace eine *
BSL aiicw sce: 109la
BBD ss en aailiete attieaake $
8871S sce eae ah. Senay -
6 er nr 1092
367) cuuew eee 1092b
BS IO gerdnnn ooies, jek ad .
BOTT an She eden *
SSIS <eaese eines 1093
BB Ot a oe pee htcee esis i
3880 ............ 1089a
BSS hig acd ceewocrieees "
BBB 2 sis eceere Mee ees 1089b
3883: chal iw tweens 1094
3884 ode edieees 1085a
S88) oseicanloewh as 1096
3886.26 bse wee eg 1098
S88 ncaa vies 1113
BOOS: egancarae aaa 1100
BROS a. ilo a Rn aegiatind ais *
3890 ecu ceuts Suan 2813
BROT wie a sese dn itc ets 1090a
BBO? hace tee ceed 1102a
BSOD ce 8S teas 1102b
S894 oder aated 1104b
BBO: giro toe ee ee 110la
3896. kg hea diacrs a ncunds +
BOOT Bo hei Saat Sees 1103
BS 98- hist eae ues’s 1104
3899 ... owen. 1105a
S900! ci siorse biirereia s 2814
S90) 54 fe aia sew 1104a
S902 is OAL kta ea *
S903) 5 cv dksics we hd diac ss
3904... oc eee. 2815
3905: ct o3eduerwiks 1106
BO0G: nee en ssa dhe 1106a
B90 7 6a ene ae 1107
3908 ............ 1107a
3909 .... 0... ee. 1092a
3910... ee 1108
BOUL to ato eens 1109a
1” Aa ee =
SONS heres Bons etal 1109
BOVE oie hace 1089a
BOIS icc oe fete 1111

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
B9IG. eo cen ee hadi D816. - 3974s oiecee eva oes S2f
SOV Bea oie ep a LAD. BOTS ci tcersen eh 3aes S2f
SOIS: Beacrsimew ees L14a: 3976: cic kes eaciwns 58a
DOT oxi acinde eae ee BS OO) Ls ok wenn aes 2819
1°). | eres em rn WNT! (SOT Si ik eho eta sac 85d
392) nek oat sand bbISa: 3979 sak nurses asees 8Se
3022 2s bh ot ee E S980 coves iawweweus 8Sf
DOOD: 6d: sp telite wad Surtees SOOM ois rca pe varrecgemtates 117e
9924 2 wa tee aout me 109Sa 3982 ............. 118e
D923 sa bncates seebain 111G: -3983) ccc dod dvowes 2585a
9926 adda ke ee eewe 1063 3984 .............. 2820
BOD i x edn te mons eaere ties * 3985 1. ee eee 1138
O28 cata oracle ted lll6a 3986............ 1138a
9929 cs Boasts celiated MD OST od ed ok bebe 1138b
3930 .........00. 1098a 3988 ........ 1139,1140
SOS ccd atsk eines 1117)» =3989 .. oe... 143a
BOS? Shs wn Sau eees 1118 3990 ............. 145e
5955) ase swe aes 1118a 399] ............. 145f
5934 ond ene owes 1118b 3992 ............. 1141
DIS aed eros Sa eee tS BOOS. ieee ea ison 156e
3936s Binns ace ewee sd O BQ0 Ge sth fog eaten 168a
50ST, cana teas LIDS: BOON 28 Piet aco ie a 203b
9938 ent hac bak wee 1120 3996............. 212b
58 ut an ele Gales M21, 33997 2 2utoiyoiena's 212b
3940 ............ 1122a 3998 ............. 214a
C12 7) area anne See tee rae BB GOO: ies ws ee bid eh 1142
5942 io icici dibn Bixee 1782b ©4000 .............. 239
SOAS is Cals Saari, Boe 1123> 4001 w...ec ees ex 216b
3944. odes odes 1113a 4002 ............ 1287a
SOAS eos 38 pe 113: “40038 awit wees 220b
3946: Sh cwwsty eee yomas B AO04 cass wacedsen 23le
BOAT x evade eae 1124 4005 ............. 231d
3948 ............ 1124a «4006 ................ =
DOAN wcncssw he no aek ah MAO ide as Soins Lal ibeg 1282a
C1! | | ee ree 1125 4008 ............. 232a
BO ee is ses ens oe 1125a 4009 .............. 233e
SON? 6 sian tte ares 1126 ©4010 ............. 24Sa
BOIS. scaics Rawal kte te b27e- “400 28s eck haces vs 255c
9994 oe hie teas M278 4012 its eeaiceata se *
DODD ticn se We oes 11288: 4013 vs ncnesecandd 270g
9996: ohecs.< does isla: 4014 es46 oh eho es wok +
of dearer a oe eran 1129a 4018 ............. 284c
1 Joc ee 1130. “4016.8... sess e 222d
BS )s nae me are ee eer ar Pe AQT, are see 4 eer te 7
3960 ............. 1131 «64018... 22... 292b
BOGI <2 eich esed.ace 2817 4019 ................ *
1° 1) ae H BOZO cco Cs Se entas 307d
DIOS 5.84: Bynes Be ae M33a 4020 uve eek cuasasn 309c
SIGS cei ees Gains 28022) “QO22 ei aren ee 1144a
S9G>: win hn cea des LOD: -AQ28 ies ded cn arses =
S966 ab ea eee’ 1134 4024 ................ -
S967 se scsiteshs weeded W135: “4025 22 sot tees .
S9GS aca saccoekh arti hae-s BE HAQI6 sank oal han 315f,g
SIG ocs8 wets oct aes 2818) -AO2T 46h ace td va bo waad *
2 | eee ene een eee 40c 4028 ................ +
DOIN sateen aticd con PIStA- “AQOZD seis sce Sua eatecoan -
BOT 2 eich it athe 1136 4030............ 1144b
9978 ows sel 11394 4031) wndnecae eee. .

STRONG TWOT
BOYD ih ecco he eal 5, 332a
B33 vice inydreehaks 330c
4034 2... cece ee 332b
4035... cee eee 330d
ASG: veui2s 0h dole Cours AGdosa aes *
| 9 Cy See ee 340d
4038 ............ 1292a
4039 ............ 353m
4040 ............ 2657c
7 | ee ee eee ee 361b
AOA 2 ia tire yctta cotanbvacs 367e
| 7: 367¢
4044 ............. 367d
VAS posse Vat es aulaity tat 370b
4046 ............ 1294b
|: i Se ace ae a *
4048 ............. 1145
4049 ... eee 2821
ADSO! 4 bec deSawens 386e
AOS ante Gs oae cunt’ =
BOSD icasrn ie teratteees 384a
BOSS: boxe Sniraeees 385b
BOS As oih8iehea: cree oy 388c
AOS 2.0% wean cen 1146a
BAOSG oh shea d bohes 2665b
7 | 0 st Ae 399k, ]
ASS? senate eset oa ecaeing 1146
7| (o_o 1146
4060 ............ 1146b
4061 ..........00. 1147
BOG? ex. gies sig arhes 2122d
4063 ............ 1148a
4064 ............. 4llc
AQOD- dd visack tude goace 1304a
|e ¢ ee 426c
4067 ............ 1146d
ANOS 6 nt tary tee eews .
4069 ............. 848h
AO 10s encase ts 2669b
BOT roby died sedan 418c
BOT 2 usd ce thvciathascoes 420b
4073 .........005. 423a
BOTA oi o did tiem phen t -
BOTS cdckivheewias eee *
AQTO? 2 icee daira sa hb ook *
| 0 0 er rcs .
7 0 de a ae 425
BU] 9 se eswean enn 426c
BORO: fb ceecictreauce Sai ater .
BOB are nhs areal mene -
BORD Rnd Sena tale teed 426d
4083 .......0.... 2674c
BORA ini cs ixecs pee Aa wee .
BOBS 2:0 sees wees 413a
4086 .. 2. ee ee eee :
BOBS nis don pare earees 441b
AOSS nies a ceuua sees -
7.1 00° See ane er roan ara id

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT

4090 ............. 426c 4148 ............. S77b. 4206 sees cidtad 1172a 4264 .............. 690e

BOO Tecra Steck ent aes BAAD: a it dw atk wh aca a Re ADOT ar cusarenvanes 2 <r *

7 SS ne ee ee mre © ASO eer einss aia ba 878b 4208 ............. 1173 4266 ................. *

BOS 5 i coe whe ceeds 848g 4151 ............. 878c 4209 ............. D96C. (4267 so ceeddees ck 697a
7 | (| ee ee 449a 4152............. S780) 4210 sk ae aeeadtes 558c 4268 ............. 700b

4095 ............. 452a 4153................ HA ke bers cheetah ak, 3 DIIC. 4269 res es ous oe 702a
4096 .............. 453b 4154............. 1206. A212 out ete ne 559d 4270 .............. 70Se

4097 ............. 45Sa 4155 ............ 1583q 4213 ............. DANO? AQT ech eek ae ees

4098 ............. 419b 4156............. 887b 4214............. D198. “AQTD. gato hhieene 1183

7 2 2 a em AST eens 8 be cutee 1585b 4215 ............. io ae Ae 1183a
AT OO Sos oe oe Hoss 1149" A582. co sick pe eh wt Bo AD NG iia boron ce shes L176: A274 oo ona mot nae: 718a
4101 ............. D822. “ALS9 2 on ee 15324. “4218 ose kh exes DOUG. A275: 6k dues komnied 719d

4102 ..........05. 1150 4160............. 1162 4218 ............. SO2E 4076s 2 dos op oa, os 719e

4103 ..........2.. 486a 4I161............. 893c 4219 .........0... SOO: SA27T oa adsl ax 1184
4104 ....... cee eee ee * A162... 0. cee eee ee ee 24 | ener eer LWSla@ 4278 cicvweieuncds 729b
7 8s er rr * 4163 ............. 893q 34221 ives 1181b = =4279 1.0.0... 1185a
4106 ............ 1152c 4164............ [895e: “4222 hain caeecas LITT? “A280 swccdeated es 730b
7 0 0 ee ree JIS4: 4105 4.2e ve wendy SO7b. 4223 sveeantooiens 2628 ADS [irises tec tee Poa: 760d
ANOS feck Saeveas 498d 4166............. 897c =. 4224 .......... 588a,589a 4282............. 760d
1° ee ee 498d 4167............. HIGS) “AZZ s23cGhaarands 998) 4283 cine ceases 1185b
4110 ............. 500b 4168 ............. 901lb 4226............. S98k 4284 ............. 767d
| ee ee ee © A169 cen etcdcn cad O01 4227 atetaakredte) 600b 4285 ............. 769d
i Ul bene eee ee §02c 4170............. 906c 4228 ............. 604d 4286............. 766b
BAS ea bngid Stokoe’ §09a 4171 ............. 1164 4229 ........ 1178,1179 =4287 ..... 2.00... *
Al 14 och eesaneaer S120: vA ik ote Sees 907c,d 4230............. 615b 4288 ............. 784g
AUD eh ee hae ae S126. Fb ce tese sides 1165. 2423) seca tiadaas 1180 §=4289 .... 0... 777a
A116 6.55.05 csiarees 1IS2 “44s wove cose sed 9098: 4232s waited BAD 90. 8 an! orc het es 783a
AULT Sateen ed L153. 24179 “aincceeecs O06 G: 94233 ne es kaa we oo ADOT. aha ck a eve hawee 2825
4118 .......... L152a-b° 41762: bo cweed bas Fi ADDY eta on aati 623g 4292 ............. 785a
71 Nt ee LUD38 FATT] oi dois ctted bo argek 1166. “4235 ee reocauskeszes OD ADO 8 rss nea oie 786e
BO) cea eh eutecns 11S2d) «4178 ............. 1244: 4236) sic eee ore 633f 4294............ 1352b
|) (04 (ne gee ee ee ee ae ae MAND) 3), cep em sek eens ne 5 | ere rare 633g 4295 ............ 1352a
ODD a he te io cattle erate he ALB Dh cae Ga ae ene 920d 4238 ................ BO ADN9G opie bis de eae 1352c
7 A, Gare ra eee 2514a 4181 ............. 920e 4239............ 1179a = 4297 1... 1352e
sy 6 ee ee ee TESS “4182 x deaoes outa ea ADAG 8s 65:5 hbo BD cee Pe BDO6 6 Pewee tis 1352d
ANDO Sk octets tae V159a). “4 183" .kugdene adn whet ats HAA io oieis ea ea Se 644b 4299 ........00... 794a
|) 191; a ee 2126 4184 .............. W168 ~ 4242 4 <osse040-4%5 1185c =. 43000. 1... st 1186a
ADT ra edn eee LISG:- “41850 ede eue teks L1G] - (4243 3ce needa ss ) ABO coe ood euiles 8lla
7 2 San ea 1146 4186 ............. 91 Mm 2 SN PAOD ke asta es 1354c
B29) cite awn ee 848e 4187 ................ BO AAS. ace yetorain ah 655b,c 3=—-_-:« 43008. |... 1. ws 815b
rt | a a 848f 4188 ................ A246 wt cas ey ace eek 623h 4304............. 818d
BUN sea tetas tes 1188 4189 ............ 12576 “4247 ce es waren eek 660f 4305 ............. 1187
rN 1 9 a 11S8a 4190 ............. 929d 4248 ................ ® A306. bocce b. ede 1187a
1) Ie eee ee LIS8O: 419) cote ess 1169 4249 ..........0...... * 4307 ..........0. 1356a
7: eet VIS9> “A922 sic beh d coe shad Be Ss ort Berets aioe atid PS AROB cad eee dager ss x
ASS eee ean 1161 4193 ............. 2893. “425 | 64 sac hice 655d = 4309... eee *
BUS6 dis dicecwtega eas 1160 4194 ............ 1169a 4252............. 666d 4310............. 1189
7 RE ee Be ANON cae ga tara ianeare O368 4293s duces ee 666e 4311 ..............5. -
4138: anc 5eewa gawd 867f 4196 ............. S22b 44254... ee 6070. 4312) os. oda seed awiweess *
7° 1l6la 4197 ............ 11708 4259 265 6eeneot ZISLOr. HASN3 thee Ices ce es -
BNA tts ot nares eae enn ANOS cei ewes Vilar. S425 6ickaintes eae se 669d 4314................ .
| [a r 1456b 4199 ................ * 4257...... 623h or 655c —-_« 443.15 1... we. 863a
ATA2. 32% xe nek 1456b =4200............. 534b «4258 .... 0... :B3 16 42h ee tear *
QUAD) a cdets citys 875d 4201 ............. 535b 4259... ee Me AAG vs one eka ics en iene ‘3
ye SIE: “A202 oa vetates eens 539a 4260 ............. TiS2> “ASIBi ix cas wel -
BIAS tie gi Wt oth 875e 4203 ............ 270Sa 4261 ~........... 6730.6: 4319) ..d4needauds cnx :
AIAG: bec cess SOL. A204 os-cewoaes wees S43¢:. 4262 ews tceieeeads 613° 4320s .2cheeenebakaas -
BAT ecb eSie's ae he I41f 4205 ............ 117Sa 4263 ............. 6766 = 4321... eee .

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
BI) sins omrureanes thas *
A323 cole belakaes 1190
2 oe 1S a. bhinte hack ah teats *
ABD usin Sek bb ea 1188
A326 vata ewe da ee hsen .
7 et a 119la
2 9. Gee 875
BB DO 6 i cos eel et aun d 1492b
716 | | ne ee 1192
7 1] See eae eee ee ee ‘
76 aT *
ee a ee ee ae *
4334 ............. 930f
BSS). our eae ares *
7 | 6 a re ee *
A ri woe) Bo oa .
7 Se ee *
AOSD iid he eit 930e
4340 .........005. 936h
AOA hie yin tore ee ae 940b
7 A ee 947
7S 7 EA ee -
re VV eee es ee ea >
rN, 7: ee ee 948d
4346 ..........00. 948c
A347 oo. 1364d
AS AS. i itis te 3 eke Sudok 96lc
BGG okebedine cee 964c
A350 och ited wee Ss 964d
B39 ei ke Phaasws 1033¢c
7 a ne :
7\6 Vs ae ec x
BDSG iM se huscpatasatiaigteats -
ADD) ds wiewtencn’ 1193
Ve) 0 a ae 980c
7 ee a 982d
BD IS: 4casusetielacs ee 98Sc
ABS eae ap ead gin 985e
4360 ............. 985d
ASGI x heia co arens 85g
ASG? eo cou aishicng Wed 99la
7 EY 0 SR ar ene ‘3
AS OA i ci Semit cineca aed 995b
ASOD Serra tiereiaena 99Sc
A366: sis een eh KS .
BBG F cd Soin omens sabes .
4368 ............000- .
4369 ... 0.20... 964d
BS IO) opie og agatha 1000a
ABT ch. een 1014a
ASTD 5 oto gona 1008c
BASIS cin acuasten ues 1014b
4374 ....... 00... 1008d
SY io eer ee eee 1019b
AS IO se insittnncnc seman 1194
BOVE wrt ihin b ehealac es 1194a
BITS oh Cc he easy 1368f
78 5: a rey 1033b

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
4380.22.00. eee 194d 4438 0... 1199e
ABB ce seeck caer ce * 4439 000. cece eee *
ABB: she vepistciac aac: * 4AAO oo. e cece cease *
iC eee ee 1050c 4441... eee *
4384.00.00. eee 1050d 4442... 11993
ASRS na seiiee ns 1053c 4443... eee *
4386.0... eee eee 1062b. 4444... eee. *
ABBT ecient aes 1056a. 4445 ...00.. eee *
ABER osc hanise cos 106la 4446........ 000, 1199¢
3) M ANAP ois oa vane own: :
4390.0... cece eee 1195 4448 000... ee, 1201
re) ) re 2826 4449 ...... 0... oe, 2831
NBO Ts cic su antes 1195a 4450... eee eee *
BGO Wet tent 1195b 4451........000.. 1116b
i.) 119Se 4452... eee, 1205
4395.00... cece. 1195c 4453... eee. 1206
4396.0... eee 1195d 4454... 1207
4397 ooo. eee eee. 1068a 4455............. 1124b
4398 0.0... ee 2827 4456............ 1127b
4399.00.00... 0. 1068b 4457.2... 1124d
| 1068c 4558... eee eee eee. *
BAQK hos sects enen ieee * 4559... eee eee *
4402 00... eee 1195f 4560.0... ee eee 1224
4403... 00... eee 10756. 4461........00.. 1146c
4404 ...... 000. 10741 4462. ... oe eee eee *
| \\ 120la 4463. ...... 2.0 1169b
| \\ 283la 4464.0... 0... 1174a
A407 occ cece cece eee * 4465 ..........6. 1194b
1 \ 1197c 4466..........0.. 1194¢
7 \: * 4467 oo. cee eee 1199f
4410... ee eee 1199d 4468.0... 1199g
ve 1096a 4469........ 0. 1220b
AAI che etecwenne 1096b 4470 «owe ee eee. 1248}
QAR reeanedenehcnsettaatits * AAT ooo eee eee 1208
4414 ......., 1196,1197 4472.0... eee ee 1248k
BANS see ieiu cere 2828 4473.........00.. 1255d
ee 2828a 4474............ 1259b
BAND helene ude 1197a 4475... 1259c
7 119642 4476....... 0, 1261b
4419 0. eee H97d 4477... eee 1268d
00) 11976 4478 ........ 1208, 1209
7) re 1104c 4479... eee. 2832
4422 eae 1198 4480 ....... 1212,1213e
Ss 1198a 4481. ........000.. 2833
GAD Ait wa brea ath seed * 4482 00. eee 1211
[CL ee 12020 4483. .... wee ee 2835
4426 oo. eee 1113b0 4484.00... 2835a
BADD os ceneniie 1199, 1200 4485 .......... 1291.1b
1 11994 4486........ ee. 2834
1 0): ee Bo HART ie hc aac 1213
4430 0.00. eee ee, 28292 4488... 1213b
i 2830a «4489... 1213
4432 0. e eee 1199h 4490............. 1213a
1, en ee 2928b 4491 ............. 1309a
re oe oe et 111560 4492....... 00. 1316b
GANS cine cceaiin tans * 4493.00... 1319¢c
4436 00. eee 1199b 4494... 2... 1323e
7 2829c 4495 owe ee eee *

STRONG TWOT
4496... 0. eee. 1323f
4497 oo. eee 1212¢
4498.00... eee, 1327a
4499.0... eee. 1327b
4500 .. 0... eee. 1361a
4501 0.0... e eee, 1333¢
ASOD iit dco cors 1340d
4503 ....... eee I214a
4504.0... cece eee 2836
ASOS cre sesivninconhcencie, *
i ee nt *
ASP iogieus c-tocnconive ae *
4508 oo... cece eee. *
PC ee *
4510... 0. eee eee. 2835b
AB fea weet at eset oe *
A512 oo. cece eee 1370a
4513.0... eee eee 1216
4514.00... eee 1383¢
C5 ne 1383d
4516... cee cece 1384d
AST oo... ee eee 1328a
4518.00... eee. 1412d
CS 1217
4520 ooo eee cece eee. *
79) a 1213d
BBD res ae steyee 1218
ok 1223a
oy 1456c
A525 he doc acies 1462c
C9 eae eee 1462d
NOT onethis cee faces 8752
A528 sees viewic akira 1467¢
791: ea 1219
A530) en Snciw scans 1225
4531.0... cece 1223b
rc) ae *
4533... cece eee. 1472b
4534 00... cece, 1475a
BSS 5 ta hatea siete 1374a
4536... 0. cece ee. 1486d
ABB ecccvescadadas 1220
| 1220a
4539.00... eee 1482a
4540.00... eee 1475a
4541 ...... 1375c,1376a
4542 00. cece eee 1221
4543.0... eee 1494a
/ a re 1221
4545 oo. eee cea. 1376b
| a 1506d
4547 ooo. eee eee 1506e
ASA oathow! wee a 1518b
4549 oo... cece eee 1223
4550 oo... eee eee 1380a
ABSA ss can eatarrtas ch 1380b
Sy en 1525a
4553 oo... eee 1530a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
ADDS: iat ee eaaye 15298, “4613? sconRiniceds 1637€° 4671 weitesscas 1162a 4729 .......... 1911d,e
ADDO eee hee ears 1534c 64614 ............ 1643a 4672 ............. 1231) 4730 2... ee, 2011f
A990 eas saee egies 15340: :461S acer eanwes 1644e 4673 ............ 1398 4731 2k. eee ees 1236
BOOT ee tien vate, 1540e 4616............ 1650g 4674............ IS98G °473 2 is dase abate ware’ i‘
ADDO Lacie ccieiade heen: ® GOL] ccsKews 1650f,1651b 4675 ............ 1398f 4733 ............ 2026a
WDD icvamehiomeaumas © MOIS ica gees an 1651b 4676............ 1398g 4734 ............ 2031a
ANO0 niceuadabou. 1224: “AGI Dire wae oanene P * YAO Tete east tite ahanean eles Oe SATIS bso B petites 2039b
AIG]! dice epee eeses 877b 4620 ............ 1666f 4678 ............ 1398g 4736............ 2039¢
ANG? ca ened aaa 14le; 4621.3 nceecwuss 1668a 4679............ ISSO: AIST joan ecie ete wed si
AS G9 505 ecyene ard wees IDI AG22 sasccrnwce. 1675d 4680............. 1252. A138 coud rey widates 2044b
BD OF oie teva drae tid LSD 16: 4623 ic iacteeexd 1675€° 4681 kis saan cnevsss D MISO 5 secsaietes bola’ ‘
ADO) sae wece btw WOSTE: A624 rccet pace gic G wix 1679a 4682............ 12548" 4740 piesa eeuen 2057a
BSOG: aiisece aha ISD9E, 246252 ccateaetesce 1684c 4683. ............ 1400a 4741............ 2056b
ADOT asin ang Sass 2896c 4626............ 1692d §4684............. 188la 4742 ............ 2057a
ADOS se icere oie cmnepesk 1554b 4627 ............. 1686c 4685 .......... 1885d,e 4743 ............. 1237
ob ee eer I556h 4628............ 1689b 4686........... 1885g,1 4744 ............ 2063d
| eee eee eee 1560f 4629............ 1692d 4687............ 1887b 4745 ............ 2068c
fo | eae ee ree ee 1226 4630............ 1692d 4688 ............ 1889b 4746 ............ 2068f
BOUL sect cero wats aoe areca Be OSA ee aie fe Mscaer yh 1704a 4689 ............. 1S399@ 4747 ei tcawwes eek 2077d
AO) 2 escodatewecie See's O PAOND ad eae eee es oe, | Seem ae eee 1896a 4748 ............ 2086a
ATA: scua tiie seas [D607 ° 4633 anew sienenus 1694c 4691 ............ I895¢- (4749 is ei cdua ees 2086b
AS) txsaeous ase 1649a 4634............ 1694d 4692 ............ 1898a 4750 ............ 2083b
ADI O. sata a arte eres IS7la 4635 ............ 1694e 4693 ............ 1898a 4751 .......... 1248a,c
QTD cise wi hie rhe bee 2837 4636............ 588d = 4694... I898D° 4752 id eaccesasa as 1249a
MOTD Gist cog cee 12274. “4637 a cceasncntes 1702¢ =. 4695... eee 1400b 4753............. 1248b
i ere ere 12270. ;AOI8 s.5 sik. cans sees Pe AGI ee stew ths ais gis 12338 “AI94 s obescee danas 1238
i) 1 | epee reer a ISTSD:, A639 gece vaaees 1708a 4697............ | ALIS |» a. a> eee ee re :
AOL wes eateAtoen 15/8a: 4640 2.8 caadaeesa- © QAOOS: ors Gene wears W919; A756) cea gerduae ters 2839
BOB2 Gol waadseeeerres W” “AGAT. o sicncaprnanden Aine x AG 99 ee « eeeteed i IS826: “AIST cc xsi tie beneians ‘i
BSSS spire cages I58la 4642 ............ ITISe -AJOOM se oct sages 1919 4758): soe wewees ces 20951
A842 idaa Rae se oe eres m) AGAS .5.e Sayre § W711i = 4701. ............ 1940c 4759 .......... 2095g,h
GBD aoa tegeads 15810. 4644 ences ei gawss eae (1 (Seer wee ee 896e 4760............ 1239b
ASO ected cap amsamoues Be GAD 2 ions puiendtacns L73ID. 4703 en sens aves 1943d 4761 ............ 2097f
AST i ions we aes dees BS» AOAG i ecceteord aad 1390a = 4704 ............. NOASC:: 14162. bias meets ean
ADSS inks ee weeeee [583b. 4647 oi acsn cece. 1390b 4705............. I94AS8C? 4105! eesaei dense 2097f
ADO? site wine wat 1I588a 4648 ................ P AIOG exe sauinnqn ees as Po AOS: oe ausceth an =
OS QO iS sob Bert sori St ele aee © “AGO atin mane erase ALOE cin s@eert aaa s's 1950b 4765 ............ 2102a
yd rere eee ere ae 1228 4650 ............ L745a- 4708 ssesckeiavws sss ATO se isiara at ieee 2103b
hy Ua ee re 12288: 4651 6 viceacd des 13920) AIO rs crear eae wens © BIGOT oh canine ates 2103c
A993 sa eaiawieaas 1602, “A652 axis ccnceces I76S8¢. <AVIO) s3 e538 eda VO530'. 4768 eine dasccke-s 2103d
hy Dee re eee 1606a).- 4653 4 ¢ssiescarees 171690). ATT pawn tite oe 1234 4769 ............ 2109b
BIG sieges aes 6 58% DST 1e! 4OI4 cst nenes 13924" ATID ectepexe eux. IOISE. U1 ek aeons 2110a
| ee ee Ws SAO tech Sat a eee aiak TVIAG: - AVIS cae reeccedaeee an hd eer eee 2117b
N98 iio cca wd we Ole 1230b 4656............ 1778b 4714..... 1. owe 1235: AL) 2 evanaalenes 2113c
NOD ated Bre lated enki 113 a! “AGS? siecs cepeeears IIIID- 24TAS cee ee natians 19720: ATS weeuasaneees 2114b
A OOO 5 dander yttdn oe tes 1229: 4698 4asudaauwees 15926 VATNG e28 eenuaae 123 a- AT TAs oceaesuats 2117¢
4600. ic cnkeoese dees © AOI suns aetna ate L7O2C: QIN. deen Sere heccereps [4096 : 47 ]D cei anw adios 1240
A602 Seach ine leaders OS BOOO ux See eats 1394b = 4718 ............ 1409d 4776............ 2840a
AOD 2h ieo end hae? 1230: 406) cote ve haga 13996! ATID aes.ace sg eis ones ae. A mare oer reer 1240a
AOO4 ie etata meee s 1230a 4662 ............ IS0Z@ 4720) cw cagald. vs VOOUE. -A7TS icic.cctnicdava yareasus .
AGOS i berks bet 1624k 4663 ................ > AID Mica escehaas LODNE: AIO i ec si See Be 2840b
4606 is sv eect caee 2912a 4664 ............ IB27a- 472) 2 os scsi ols pie eta © ATBO ccc sn onades 1240b
ROOT sakes oak 16241 4665 ............ IS28¢ 247 23Cpsvaveacaies 19940-4780 osc ieams eee 1241
4608. ses oae ia ees 1624) 4666 ............ 1832a: 4724s tue eee hes 1999 8 “A182 sa cua ee ein ino .
ROOD ie. ag. 16241,m 4667............ [8420 4725 x ae chowddies 1999b 4783 ............ 2124a
AGIO. act elueedectaus SS: BOOS: aieceh ees on 1854 = 4726............. 2004a 4784 .............. 1242
AOU cot esauen ss 16276 4069). cic euad. os IS546: A727 oe ateewsg aes LIZ4C: “AIS aed vargswates .
AGT icre pies tated 1637: AGIO nsw eesasads [S58D 247284 ace ei weds PI2Z41. A786. cs cesencus 1248d

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
AIRF ett do acon: 1248¢
A788 ooo eee eee 2129a
BIRD icceccuneascronsiintawioxs :
4790 ooo. eee 1243
AION, sveenenin a: 2133h
7, |: pa eee *
4793 ooo... eee 2137a
ATOM. cc srenearan 2137b
4795 11... 1246a,1248e
ATG ss tice costars: *
rhs ee 2140a
|) 2140a
4799 ooo. eee ee 1243
4800.00.22. eee. 2143¢
4801.00.22... ee 2151c
4802 0.0... cee. 2152a
4803.20... . ce eee. 1244
4804 oo... eee eee 2841
4805.00... eee eee 1242a
4806 ....... 0.0. 1239a
4807 ooo eee cece eee. :
4808 ....... 0.0. 2159¢
rt *
4810.00... cece ee eee

rs | eee eee *
4812 000... eee *
5 *
4814 000... eee. 1248:
4815.0... 0c eee. 1248h
4816 00.0... eee. 2164c
BIT. cient ysea-ensiecs 2163e
B18 dings deuecain 2163f
4819... eee eee, 2165¢
ARI0%, cones oacinons 2169b
7-9) ae er *
1 pe *
re Se eRe 2176a
BOA aie i ties elas *
ROS sisal tytn ayes tease *
9) *
ABT 2 sien dlac ewes 2186f
4828 ............ 2186f
4829.00.00... ee, 2185b
4830.00... eee. 2185¢
ARS ches Succes *
ABIDE s ccwasstrasnes 2196¢c
BBS Meter duane 2199a
4834 eee. 1245
4835.0... cece 2212b
4836.00... . see. 2209a
4837 .........00. 2210b
4838 ooo. e eee eee ee 1246
4839 oe eee 1247a
4840 ............ 2215f
4841.00... ae. 22152
RAPS ictictiicaks 2215h
ARAB sae cil at aatiars 1248
i ee 1248e

STRONG TWOT
BRAS oiccy awd obese 1248g
ASAG 2 hse ce aen 1248f
BOAT eee Sccatcticc bathe thes .
AB48 0c cece ee -
BRAG. hace oe ee ae 22221.
ASSO! fb pute eed :
ASS Ms oe de tet sees -
BS? scricaing eiraere as -
4853 Syne ews 142le
BO S4 ne titvcumne bles *
ASD) cutee eens 1421d
ASSGy ciasidoor sien 1421f
ASOT: scecicsosuece eat 2299a
4858 6 ocedi cwee ws 1421g
BSS 9 iw dietetiee 5 1421d
4860 ............ 1425a
ASGD : 2336 nteeawsecs ‘i
A862 is kaise se bes 2303b
ASGS icctantw assess 1252
4864 ............ 1421h
AS69. cew Seni tioes 2320b
4866 ............ 232I1¢c
ASGT 665 Se ids tad 2321d
ASGS ict ane eads 2323e
ASOD! 22 aha sluaies 2234a
BSI O) sii d ay hatoene are -
BS 1O : Sehcencttna tetas 2325b
BAST scp Gc bties tnscnte 1253
| ee ae ne 1254
BRT Boon daa tenes +
AST 4 catinsaethas 1427b
BST 9.x Aires 2339b
AS 16 oie heeds 2339b
ABT dsc bo add eens os
4878 ............ 2340c
BS TD sic teeny Shea pos 2341la
4880 ............ 2344e
4881 ............ 2241la
BSS) sens Kes eee 2426a
4883 ............ 1423a
4884 ............. 1250
BBB S is BG a oes 2246b
4886 ............. 1255
ASST sive wecs ties 2842
4888 .......... 1255a,b
4889 ............ 2370a
SOO ieee sited Soar 1905f
ASO i Ghat 2369b
BSD 2 sic tit ib tees 2370b
4893 ........00.. 2370c
4894 ............ 2372b
A895 cht ewe bad 225la
4896 ............ 2374b
ASOT ihisen Seaece% 1256
ABOR ig ol eeerdee i
AS 99 acd b se sts lecliacs 1255c
BQO ire sou Segre 1257
BOOT sezset areas auk wees 1257a

STRONG TWOT
4902 0. cece cece cues *
4903.0... ec cee ee 3029a
4904 00.00... eee 2381c
4905.0... cee ee. 2263b
4906.0... ee. eee 2257¢
| ene 3031a
4908 ........000. 2387¢
4909 ........0. 2264.1d
4910 ........ 1258,1259
rs 1258c
AQVD s5 wcoiae varia é 1258a
BOYS i re cicteinsth een saute *
AQIS hc stains. 1258d
AQIS va dekaws nue 1259a
4916... 0... ee. 2394d,e
AQNT sacle eoas. 2394f
AOVR i. Scarves veces *
7] enn ee nee *
| *
1) *
4922 oo cece eee ea eee *
4923 2... 2409f
7) nt 2410e,f
BONS nace acuntars ions *
4926 oo. cece eee. 2412f
NOD Ties ce tunticting hace *
RODS sistas feared 2412¢
4929 oo... eee. 2414f
4930 ....... 0000. 1518b
AOI cc adccs ae 2414¢
4932.0... e cece 2421¢
4933 oo. eee eee 2426a
7 2432b
4935 oo. cee eee 1260a
4936 oo cece cece eee *
ABT epoca, 2434a,b
4938.00... eee. 2434c,d
4939 00... eee. 1534d
4940 ...... 0.20. 2442b
CY 2443c
4942.0... eee eee 2441c
4943.0... . cee eee 1261a
i) 2460a
4945.0... eee eee 2452c
4946.00.00. eee. 2454b
BOAT weds acdeiiees 2458c
4948 .........0.- 2454¢
4949 000... eee. 2454d
4950... 0... ee eee 2456a
4951.0... eee ee 2288a
A952 5h ceca adeio 2464a
4953 00... eee. 3049a
Ty *
4955.0... eee 2292d
4956 oo. eee ee cence *
7 *
4958 ...... ee eee. 1251
4959 oo... eee eee 1262

STRONG TWOT
A900 es bees ened 2477c
BOON: g.8 auasaaeae 305la
AIO? pata e eae 1263
A903 ince va dedees 2493a
BOGE «cet Rane es 1264a
A OGD de catalase nbs ates .
4906) cece saa 1268c
9G) aginemedea ses *
BIOS hse cies pe eateat +
A909 2 ieee gave 1265
ADI ics 3 aig 8 wi es ache 1266
BOW. owe a eaeess 2511c
a a ee 1066a
AO TD G0 Sema eactes 2516d
Oi eer ere ee 2522e
RFD tence Giese Stewairn 1267a
NOT ON sincimne ease ast 1443b
DOT TE isiatis ce anaes setasceincn ae .
FO. as stukuattormen teresa i 2880a
BOT Sehaici pa ea Rls 1443¢
ASU, Ged dence tease yes -
BOG Le cadenstsisercitate Gee Berges a
OSD crea ayatewa aren eins -
Oe oe ee ee ee ee .
BOSS eis padaeh aid acees 1421
AOSD a6 wetan ues 1268
ASG: 605 Se acea eas 1268a
AOS | ees tees k 1268b
soe fo eae ee eae 1268c
DOS faassen gan ees 7
BOOS Samte naa ehe vate :
AOD eine are anes 1443d
Co a ee eee ee -
Le eee oe eee "
ea ee ee 1269
ee ee ee 1358a
ADC a disse Moree gree :
BOOT neat eine gemuets 1270
O98 -etivw em ne ears 1271
Oe ee ee 1322a
DOO 5 ciara tio diab 127la
is), ore are errr ae 1272
SOO2 sissies ia dots estan 1272a
S003 ca pease shed 1273
DOUF sce, Apne eas 1273a
00D caceusiyest 1273b
D006: ia Sew eae sy 1274
5007 ...... 1274a,1274b
SOUS ssh pecsiawd ae 1275
| eran eee oe 1275a
DOO sci acd te aes 1276
SOI ai ietek ais eaten ‘
DOT otaite area and 1277
DOID: cnc cations 2843
SULA oer es ne ees 1278
DOLD sahdacds 1279,1280
DOIG 52183 seca 1277b
SOUT wecavactse xs 2843b

oeoe wo ee we ee we we we we Oo

oeoe we eo ew we ew oe 8

Ce ee ee

oe eee es ew ee ee eB eo oO

oeeovr eee ee © ee © © eo

i i ee ae de cd © ee On SO er er er ee Sr 2

oeoeoe eve ee ee ee ew oe oO Oo

eeoeee eee ee ee we ew ee

eeooee ee ee ee eB we we oO ow

oeoeeeeere ee ee © © w @

Ce ae Ce ce A ee Se ee 2

eooeoe er eee ee eB ee eo 8 oO

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
5192. ckcctenekes 1353a
S195 gencieiw nee 1354
5194 0. eee, 1354a
5195 ooo. ee eee 1354b
5196 oo. cece cere *
BOT cesak eee cai 1355
5198 ...... 1355a,1355b
a) *
5200.0... cece eee e ee *
71) ee 1356
5202. ga aucesateks 2861
5903 cae saommoaite 1357
1) er 131 1c
5205... see ee eee 1319b
5206.00... eee eee 1302b
5207.0... eee. 1323¢
5208 .< vv se siaee es 2862
5209... eee eee. 1326a
cy || oe eens :
yi ee 1327
cr eee 1359
ro] ke 1405a
7) | rrr 1360
C7 Cen 1360a
S016 vauitcwasish: 1333b
Ly) een 1362
cy) | re 1362a,b
5219 oo. eee ee 1362c
G20 ce cstehis sce 1363a
C9) Gene eee 1364
522? miadenesn ant 1364b
7). re 1364a
C07! ee Sean *
re 1364c
5226 oo... ee eee 1365a
BD Tins arp sth wesroged 1365a
9). nee 1365a
52205 4 os soars acaensc 1365a
G30 scnceceateunacs 1366
S23 csoulensvan ce 1366a
523) caiccesean 2863
5933 ki cabesee 1367
ic) ae eee eee 1368
SOS ets oe 1368a
636 oAiliseeche: 1368b
S23 cies ductiniaten 1368¢
B38 seheta se eaces 1369
5239 occ eee eee 1370
52 AO castersca eae 224
SOT va eissnn tenes ‘
cp a One: *
SAB nk hoe Poot x 1161
5244 oo. eee 137 1a
yy 2864
5246 oo... eee 1372a
BOI ec etecdshceriads *
BIAS sercinna messi ieigStitee *

INDEX

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
D2 OO ado tie eh aise oais *, D308: agen iu wuekpar 2867 5366............ 1418a 5424 ............ 1447a
Dy by eee eae [3/98 5309 Sup vecaueeds 13924. D361 waieieecae seas 1419: S425) 255 cede edn 1448
S22. ees eeweces 14508. 5310 3. Coscia tan 1394 “D308 ip eeee setae Z8IS> D426 sive loretieus 288 |
D209 eid eceee canes 1462: S3ED ee scesnse wean 13948: 5367 ce poset aeeus [399a. 42) eecc case aes 1450a
A eae en ohne S79. DSI setbystesn see 2808:: S510 ceased oeansiekeas Pe DADO Meee Be enrS Sit 1451
S225 ka eet aeee IS74 313 baa acres es 2O004.. D9 TI ta wih eet wagon ©: AD pe cneolea cue ee 1452
5200340 Soe ones 200) S14 pes yhewie ee 1395) S372 aiviste se ts esse ZS | D480 cnseuceeee sh 1453a
D2) eens [S7SD ASTI a SSS ctsersene ces 13954. (9373) sudeeweeenents 1420) 5431 in sa etases es 1453
D298: sntauwes ISTSISTT SBIO ig owanete tenets ISIC D3t4 tea wsete ne pacaen ©. (9492 uca cowie ek 1452
DOs cra either tne itn IS/G- S31 texas caseare ss 1390: “D397 see iewieneweds LA2h 5433 weir e dees 1455
D200 wets aeeutoat.s 2806: D318%) 42a ity casos Me SOLO: Case Sued ees 2814 D434 bie witwnakeedee .
DIZON irate oid diets ear 28000: DST scree ceei rs atts ISS7C. 9807 a uaieen ee 1423. 3435s cgcnseutcne 1455a
9202 cota eases 197 5a:. 9320.34 edoaeuraesd DSS gid age ote eave 1424 5436 ................. -
D263 96 cence entsan IZ7S: O92) s.acctetvece ane © 9319 wisctaeoeyees MAZE (5437 ee. ree aeeetes 1456
5264 vse ae wea haees IDI D322 tes vee 5 1405b,1406a 5380 ............. 1426. “S438 sacceevtenees 1456a
920) beens: 1380: 5323 -G.s 3 eyarcsascae 1997 DS8 lex orineaea eee 1422” DAB D cgi wecu nwa 1456b
D266 sn oweeewens IDED. 5324 eesitoaenaess 1398 “D382 ocovae hedege 1428 5440 ............. 1457
D207 ices tes ine ees 2889 D325. cup ameteentis 13984, 5383) cc osteienitet 142] AAT sceectsseniaeataae ate 1457b
D200<.ne loess ona ID82 D320 bcmescocwteus 2869: (5384 ce ste eum 1429 “5442 ci gui suse 1457a
S269 a weureeteeete ces * $327... .1399,1400,1401 5385 ............ 14214 “S443 oc el oke ewe es 3003
S210 Gite Sahin Ys S DO2Btgakiene beans 14056-5386. ose ees ices 1427a 5444 ee. -
Pi 8 eee eee 1389d5¢. (3329 cscaencends 1402 5387 ...... 1421b,1421c 5445 0... 1458
DAD. Sacchi ate kins ane. BF S930 ee wetted 2510" 25388: xn cepa sae 1428a 5446............. 2882
D219 oe hwaas 1384b,1385a 5331 ............ 1402a 5389 ............. 2815 Daal xs as nmeies 1458a
DIF onde wince ately 1383: 5332 gett tenia 1403a 5390 ............. 1435a 5448 1... 1458a
S21 Os tol ee Bae 13838. 99353 scecxtets e395 1598D. “S391 sei avd ewbies 1430. 54 OO oid oA 1458b
De Ore Me tsestunare a 1384) S334. bn iateive- sa eesom 2 GS US9F sea stae tees 1430a 5450 ............. 1458c
D2 ak oariantere Gueenteee e DoD Vases et cess DD “GOOD: a aati ana Wain « [431 545) seent shee ces 1458d
D218 Ss 550.05 D asd 1384a 5336............ 1407a = $394... ee L492: “DAD osetia a5 2883
D210 6 tit Ledaa tee eis OS DOSY cringe wees 1404 S395" peace ncaa es 1ASS D453 en Janvetatondcy -
928023 55h diese sees B “S958 oes aa ekeaeas 287M . S396 wiisd ad area eoe's 2010: 5404 234350 alco eta -
D201) ition se aathe etsans FF D9 DF cians aaa 1405d 55397... ee 1433a 459: <2 Ruewt bes eun ak -
D2823s. pamiwr ees 1384C.. - S54Q us. cas cess one 1405 5398 ............. 1434 5456 ............. 1459
D299 antics dcoaehg twee sale To DOA pa. seraale ta as 1407 ° 5399" .acews ounces 14548 3497 oviswasStenes 2884
D284 eb ainda Pe DSA? witind aha eras 1408a 5400............. 2200" -D4DS: a xt a eae es 1462a
S285) 2h agehene ae 13868. 5343) ass ewea eens 2812.- SAOL sree 1435,1436 5459 ............ 1460a
S20G) congas oases IBS? 9344 oss eekaete: 1409 $402 ............. 1436a 5460 ............. 2885
D281 eee esas IS88:- 35345 v4se wee saaas 1409a = 55403 .... 1.6 2877 «S461 ............. 146]
D288: 5.6662 s ees 13898: 340) vena ces arenas PDAS tee scaa iaerws 1457 (9402 Shep ed ees 1462
D289 6cnu ree kiaad 1388a 5347 ..........5. L4096. S403 vsaestadewsde 1438 5463 ccceet cece wes 2886
S290 tobe satan IS89b° S348 ssccaiede ye be 1410a 5406 ............. 1439 5464 oct ieee. 1463a
O29 | oteaeingroces 13896. 5549 eee vate ois Il4ila 5407 ............. 2818: DAO). ahve 4 biwacen 1464
D292) bs ytiais Mimmceiees 2 Be SSSI ete ead ea 1410b =5408 ............. 1441 5466 ............. 1466
2A. Se aT Oo DOI Siac, Genres test 1410c $409 ............. 1444a 5467 ............. 1465
OIA knee ase dee wees fe “IIe aisamecsoen mie 1412 5410 ...... 1440a,1440b 5468 ............ 1467a
O29) Aan seteak eae a oa cer ere Pi DAU 2 in eae pies 1443a 5469 ............ 1468a
S290 aera he es I388b 5354 .............. 1990; S412 aah ta ay eee 2879” D410 ca uviida paler 1468b
O29 2h a enn ey able’ fo DIDS a Nett La2be DAIS in tints oe 1442" 5471 vec sonestntan tes ‘4
D298 dd wines ee ors Rast © DSO tees teas eee TAI2C:. “SATA ge iswibirdiientde 1443 S42 cus date aes 1469
hs bs eee 13304, 133 1B. S597 a teeve chads 0: es Da 2880) 9473. sce watiac ewes 1470
| |, aaa eae ee ae rere BS. SND DO aie 8 bg rented [493: S416 saeco age © 9474 wan aunra les 1462b
SUL swan dew es. as 1390). 3359s 2424 5te hee [4138 D417 ta xseess es tawes aL On eee eee 147la
9302 as ecteaneeeetes SOU eenare sctend mee I413b. S418 ib kcntccdiwnwesde T D41G se el eet ates ”
D303 4.5 pestis eons 13934 530) iced 1414 S419 2 eee. DAT ec ot baheeieies ese .
DD04 cx ut cormiease Bocas § ©: DOL? Sessa a eave 1415,1416 5420 ............. 1444 $478 1.2... ee 1474a
D909 Gc sree siaoe keiaes a DIOS Saaaiawawees 41a. AZT iid whereas [aD D479 crass cawusawues m
D900 *acaae kc ys 1391) D304 ns Geetha or 14168. 5422 woccn causa 1446 S480 ............. 1474
DOT wrayscryaoaie Sane eters I392- 5309: 3 ctdere cee 1418 °5423 . 2c cnawee bees W447 SAS bce swer iene cart 2887

STRONG TWOT
DAS 2 coh eanaeiew ees .
D459: wien 2 1476,1477
SASF coke taal wea 1477
4S) ev. oh Bota aes eon :
DAS Oe retain gwd 1478
DAG) sie saen ene ae 2888
DISS she Soa en 1479
ASD ecccnennim sear 1479
D490! eet eee bans 1478a
DAO, ska icant asa tase 2888a
ba ear aa ee 1478b
9495) 2h teen ae 1480
DADS cette eae 1480
Dy eee toe ee *
by. 6 ae ae a ag aes 148]
D497 Sst eeeeoches 1472a
9496 tats She eae 1482
DID seeks ares Austen 1482a
| || eee ee re 1483
DOT Fane wes 1483a, 1484
hy | Daa eee eee 1485
oy) |S Sareea ee eae 1486
D904 25% dca sis 1486a
S505: aicay ewe: 1486a
S506 G4 ose oats 1486b
S500 2 uipeototeen 1486c
D9UG i edaae watts 1486e
DUD: wie tiers Regie 1469a
D9 PO seeececesaes 1487
be) 0 eee eer ere -
D012) nine Sawa ee aes iJ
od Re eee ema ara eee oe “i
ro) C aren wernt 1488
DD LD a eu sestaratacve a eens = .
DIIGO Water eeeeetl os -
DDT stele Sea Ged saws 7
210) ko aera ar ee 1489, 1490
be ere ear 1492c
D920) feted ads 1492d
D2 bas gee eehs Ss 1492d
DO 22 ease taln tees 149]
N29 iy beta cee 1492e
DI tra dicthe none ase 5
D2) oA ee sen ane .
D926 ae eas 1475 ,1492,

2259,2260
D2) sea yanetouneenss i
9928 icchewnuste a us 1493
2p ee ae ee ae 1493b
D55U axesns facsnog 1493a
5981s Anita coat iors 1493c,d
D9 2s aim Sia enesers 1494
D939 aaeaueee 1495, 1496
DOF 5 pumas 1497 ,1498
D2) ekieies ness 1499
5590 hase es eo: 1507a
Do yaar ea ewes 1500
S59 07 busin ke Mie eee aa .

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
D909 ois demeeeewed SOL S597 AsAcacsende 1534a
SIAU nak eins dew a a ek Fi NOOR ooo tee nGeseews -
5941 asswad-as 1502,1503 5599 ............ 1533b
D4 2 etn aetate ewes 1S06a 5600............ 1537b
394s cack hah. on erred BR S60) aces a ees 1535
944i eras ois 1504. 5602 ............. 1536
1 1 bs eee a ISOS) = 55603 ............. 1537
S946 ei ewk oe onan ISO0Sa 5604 ............. 1537a
S98) beer esas ISOSb 55605 ............ 1538c
D408 Ss atasem eee T° DOUG? a iscteudctiaande 1539
S94 occ owwig kee ok S06 «©5607 ............ 1539a
DDO va dat ed aie oe bie 1S06b) 55608 .... 2... 1540
SOD .2Aasrenae axe 1S06c §=5609 ............ 2891la
S992 a ans Sere 1S07b «= 55610............ 1540d
D995" ae ate Zan wees eee S088 “S611 wcsedeesedencdsn -
D4 cite tier teas Bane 2° SOI? oa eat ad 1540a
S990 cg ee ee eee Ee SONS Sica tose aka 289 1b
DIDO 25 bok eg ded [509° S694 i. iy-C ag wes aiedes -
9997 2645 cate esa ISTO) .- S6US 2c. dcces ates a 1540e
SD I0 655s tapes $10a 55616. ................ -
D999! cz ue uweead don 2009. DOU) x2 ta wctewwe kek mn
SIO ses ees Secee ks L502. “S618 ska ods Bae s .
SIGM: ees aaewances S$l6a 5619. .... 0... 1541
DIG oy ihe tiene Hh he ad © 5620 3 eee ens 1549a
SDO9 ena een aos [DUS 562) Sects hints ose: 1542
S042 2 eS gimtedans S14! 5622 chp henwweee 2892
S50): Gan ssw oe SS nes W. SO023. shee en ewcasueeces

§506 464465 s8tewua LSID - S624 scout bao rewne’s .
SOOT ices ees ISLAY” “S625 2. ccocsceamees i
S508 cinta wu euee ISIS: 5626). cacneddenatses :
$5609! ic dad eo l8a 5627 1... eee. 1480a
91S ioc bec ata lnande ah snerten © O28 tts aed Atl dee 1543
D9 leis disse asnsverd echoes BNO 29 2c tee ites eas 1$43a
DOT ite uate aes tha 1520: 5630's cic y et teas 1544
DO) Bo See tciee eee Bees BS SG 8s sat eric ah eee 1545
9974 icc ssen cides Soe eontiears > “S692 oi otun ee eae 2893
So fs eee ee S20) 5633 6 Shee os 1546,1547
991 O a eure toneesesen © OSG we wets vA ek 1527d
tf ee ee eee [S22 5635sh.502 hace 2292
Dee ent bo aiete aio ed MVS G90 ears eae 1548
fo! ea a IS23° 637 iotie tweens 1549
S980 cia Gow ke ees IS24 “S638! sce diica ewe 1549.1
Ohh hog Seabee vas P DOS9 ct-oow ota oon saa ‘.
SIS: 2d uiod howd ctos IS25% 5640 woceeu ene e ake 1550
59837 e aidih ohare 2890 5641 ............. 1551
S904 sk scents eae 1526: 5642 ones aaweat 2894
S989. er basksaees IS27a $643. «oe 1SS5la
DOO sis a Ro rvecned ISZ27C . “$644 & oestind cewad anes sy
S587) Gaedecatees S27. SG64S ass ayaneneds 1S74a
DOO ice etaah saa oocers IS2Z7€: “S646 sete ke 15S2a
2 cS eee LS27TR SOAP ects ch tewtes 1553
S990 nieairee sees IS28b = 5648 «6. ee. 2896
N99 ah et eieeseardine 1828 5649 ..0.....00.. 2896a
B92 nd tear anacet ain bee 1S38a = $650... 2... 1553a
5995 5.2 ates beeen ees BE DGD tate eocieted ace oees %
D994 ifs waitin sae 1530 $652 ............ 1553b
N99 eke eee eon es [SST S655 34. facts ee eae
5596 ........ (53251534) $6546 5.16350008 345584 *

STRONG TWOT
5659 6 devtwwesiceus ‘
5656 «0... eee ee, 1553¢
SOD oc sviaisead ah 1553d
S658 isa Paaceasainces &. ‘
5659 2. eee ee, 1553e
5660 0... eee ee eee ee, :
5661 ooo. eee cee ee, :
5662 0... cece eee eee, *
5663 po. eee cee cee eee. *
5664 oo... eee eee, *
i *
5666 «0... eee eee 1554
5667 «0... eee ee 1555a
5668 .......000. 1556f,g
$669.0... eee. 1556f,g
5670 oo. cee eee eee 1555
rh ee 1555b
5672 oo. cece ee, 1554a
1k ee 2896b
A, ene 1556
S615 sue bcusicecehs 2897
5676 oo. eee eee 1556a
GOTT i hs Se icesrvcdineosies *
5678 oo. cece eee 1556d
5679 oo. ee eee 1556c
5680.0... eee eee eee *
5681 0... ee cee eee ee. *
S682) xosceeumuee ose: *
5683.0... cee ee eee

5684 oo... cece cece eee *
5685 oo. cee eee eee 1557
5686.2... ee eee eee 1558
SOS cctcainsia 2 1558a
BOSS ects atostnssites 1558b
5689 oo. oe eee ee 1559
5690 ..... 0.0.0. 1559a
5691.0... cece 1559b
5692... 2c. eee ee. 1575a
5693... eee eee 1563a
cy 1560e
5695.0... eee. 1560a
5696.0... eee. 1560c
5697 .. 0. cece eee 1560b
5698 ooo. cece eee eee *
5699.0... eee eee 1560d
5700... eee ee eee ee. s
S701 saccawdcaeans 1561
$702 os cc aeasicatten 1562
$103 cc siciwantte 1565a
5704... ce. eee ee. 1565¢
Sis ee 2899
5706... cs cece eee 1565b
5707 oo. eee eee eee 1576b
5708 .. 0... ce eee. 1564a
Cy (\\: 2898
5710) rcs meiwnats 1565
CA ee een eee *
STD exe cus hash 878a

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
DTS: a eien seas 1576c,e
a fC eer ee ere erate i
SIND setae evinces 1576f
DINO Gs ncteeaiewinic 1566a
DIAS Avs ee etauews at oats .
DIS AG teew ie ete eas -
Lh eer er ees 1568c
DT 20) 23 o iste owe eRe -
DUN bite thc eee ene -
D122 halt Stee cents :
D129 Was was Rhee .
OE a ene ere nae .
O92) pasta assne tae aes 3
D120 aytrcadeaaeesnes s
ns eee ee re 1568
D128 Kv aeeuueen 1565c
DID core dcakewned tae -
9 | | eee 1568a
DISA, wes hse vsian. Gia 6 1568.1
DID 2s care eewhee we 2900
DISS rec dd aceran teeta -
SIDA Surevetae teas ij
kp ee te ee ee eae 2
DISC ses wise eecns ts 1568
5737... .1570,1571,1572
D136 Gio vaaie wou apo .
D199) dus atieaaetws 1572a
DAO! eax eats Me aid, .
SIAL sees. oak ties ‘J
Lee ee eee 1573
D1 FS ier be eke a4 1574
DIA Ges tale ewe wie es *
a. bs re erga eer eee
DIO tba bbewaeiand 1575
DAD Seas oocicy bR GR -
DIAS cauisieoucedtes 1559a
OIAP Gann nteties 1576
DIDO! Shree duces pee ak 1576a
DIT gree ae wines 2901
DID ee ted s see Pewee :
D195 Kus neeeeesede 1577
Le. a er ee 1S577b
D195? Say cain aac -
D/O ws sesewerssaee 1578
DIST poste wea eeiytiea .
DOS Aineek ee redse 2902
OS). ema eee are 1579b
S100! ipso Sea OS 5 1580d
D701: gases ease aes -
D102 seiaies cette cman J
DGS i haete teases 1579
9104 6254 addseaes 1579a
DOD fea coms one 1580
DOO evaded he 1580a,b
1G? cases ceeese 1580c
9/08! Bxceceeeues 1579¢c
D109. on ee oats 163la
DITO 0% seeeuag is 1612

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
hii pre wen rere LSV1a “D029 aces eich aeets -
D1) 2 nee ctiecere ss LSS) D830 acne ver soem :
Dea etn es aoe STC, DSO ne catetevenst avs ‘
ote Sere ere 19821583. “D832-siveatamaentioa ys ‘
DhTD Bcaaea cone ee ane I5S2a: . 5833 pense svat 1598b
SIG: os2id eed waee 2903 D834 ee brace pc sw es 3
DD) idetarnos ones 16650. 5835 0s.haads whens 1599a
Did, eee ee eee a Ce MMOS O vai hnd have eikee eee .
Sih p Ree eee cree N5S4: 9837) seen cote o eee ‘i
DBO: x eden Garten Bohs 4 A” O00 stain cece eases “
SIGE coi tesaeees 1985). S89 ac aceeecauar eats *
aren Cre ee ee PSS DSA0 voc do xateacten es 2
DOS co teng Suse ives [580. 04) sta hcgorasdeers ‘i
DSA aicesiei Ue suas aea ta IQUE, D842 hte cuownaieers 1600
DLO) sincite ems I589a 5843... 2772b
D100 ee 'acnn-n) eens 1586 55844 ........ 1601, 1602
DIOL ea kewaediew a [586a 5845) nociesstaw aes 1604a
SISS: ss sitrs dis 1586b,c = S846............. 1609a
D189 is wees lee eee 1990. S84) cee ce we sews 1603
S190 sca bares 1592 5848... .1605, 1606, 1607
DION & Poets oh IS91 =5849 ....... 1608, 1608b
DIZ, wis eae ees IS9la: 38505 eanewo ees 1608a
Dy Seah anenacneues me SOI ewe dae than ae 2
ST OF iikoe oa 4.0m 19908 5852 4a. cectarneasnees .
DID) ain't ace Gash ae Bs 16548: 9853 succes Sr bhae chet si
S19G save tea anes 29208 5894 esa ses's dienes °
DIT ties Gada aed [S9GD> DSSS ecetee oie wees .
D1 9G ini on eee ea R SOS0 cence eset 1577d
DID. eaciape ed wars ere 1995: DOO) see hae ales
SOO ashi dears [S941593: =D858 ics ea ese nts has ‘i
S801» isn wicnge sian ID94D . 5859 sah 2 atid .
DOU2. ie a-ReeUre meen vers BS * SS OOU! cccetalacimterdies 1610
D805 set tRe see dwones © SSG) nccacavmares 1610a
D804 cue eE se Chee tea B® 9802: ss terntiscoy nied dae t :
DOOD Spsceraed sap ha [9948 “SSO3 in done tadnaw dea -
DOUG: a2 cin d sete e einai ce BSB OA utis akinesia yt dort -
DOU! ogy atesieteue IS96C.. 23865 occa wieaee 1631la
SOUS: seactieuun ceed 15900: 5866 ated ec oosemeeoes -
DOOD sce wn dt ween bee x o DSO) ws yencneat a aes ai
DOLD reese hy ctenteeare's 1590: “D868 25 cease ew: 1611
SOL oscristher sm eriateg syste BOP tanec uri 1612a,1613
DO D2. wdsantesw dere ahs PBI 0! Sac Mawel ata a 2906
DOLD. a sitar Stewse a WE SOI aie ot ccs cisreearatrn ts, ahs -
DONA Ges. sk diets Badr OO wad Shokuten ye :
DO as Sean hota ta De DOI) wie mune aed a if
DOIG ics wiia eeiacereawe DDI A cases wae ehaek -
SONG eh sane cae aay: BOSD uadsau emanates -
S018 grit ott De (9810 use oie iaeweties ij
DOLD Leh teen We miei Sectar ss SP DOLD. cis aru oats eats eh =
DO O65 toc sts ace ect corte DOUG Sepechs Ges aia ahaha oe -
S02 edo aetes PR DOO estiarn mia siheny Gaia e's ii
DO22 coi. ee eee [S9GE: . SB80! sis ciis wlgirsig tees -
DO ray dante. ee ees [SOL “DSS ities cata chee ig
D024 oi iouc eens 2905: DBS 2h on usar re si
9875 se pee ead © D8O8 fers Sutws au ould. J
DOLOr esa hh at ospathd 59S: -5884> .csacprsondwenes -
DOLE i utudipitees Biouee es Os SOOO a dcak er teeetaes 7
D028: cated Sao 15984: S886: io: snes eer tesads :

STRONG TWOT
5887 ooo. eee cece eee, *
5888 0.0.0... eee l614a
5889.0... eee 1614a
5890 ........ 000. 1583d
B80 senia umurie ness *
5892... cece eee 1615
BRO8 at Sein acidacesucias *
5894 0... eee 2907
5895.0... eee 1616a
5896 oo. eee eee eee *
Ty *
6808 Ci ho aouek *
5899 oo... eee eee ee, *
5900 .. 0... eee e eee ee, *
5901... cece eee eeeee *
5902... . cece cece eee, *
5903.0... ee eee. 1588b
ty *
5905... . cece ee ee eee *
5906.2... cece eee. 1617
GOT se vio essa eae acu *
SOUS erecta aae toes 1619
5909... see eee eee 1618
SOW ih aecirenccatecesentt cs *
cS) 0 1621a
BOI cranes satis *
Co) k 1620
5914 oo. eee 1620a
SOUS sescecetauencsacind we *
5916 oo. eee ee eee. 1621
SOUT dcx barsere savenrtarate *
5918 cicadas sane acters *
6019 sevinx sna Rana 1622
BODO oc eee nntneest 1624p
cy) 1624p
$922 ac vine sess wien 2908
5923 oo. se eee 1628a
Cy) ee eres 2909a
5925 oo. cece e ese e es *
5926 0... eee eee 1623a
5927 oo e eee eee 1624
5928.0... cece ee. 2909e
5929... 0... eee 1624a
5930 .... 0... 1624c,d
603 line uacoucwas 2910
5932.00... eee 1580b
5933 Khe sasceoutes *
5934 0. eee, 1630c
$039. ahd icicintasedtes *
5936 .... 0... eee 1636a
Ck 1625
5938.0... cece 1625a
Ch) one 1626
5940.00... . see 1624b
S941 oo eee eee eee *
5942 0... eee 1624e
5943 oo... eee ee. 2909d
5944 oe. eee ee 1624f

esos ee © eee © ee we eo oO

oe eee eee eee eee eo
CC © Ok ©
Cn ©. ©)” Ae Ot
ee ©, ©) <8 © Se
©. ©
eee eee ee eo ew oe we oe e000 hh ttt tt th ee et 8

ooo eevee ee ee ee eo

eee ee 8s eo © @ © © &e Bw ew ew 8
Cr i di i
od. © ie i Se}
oe we ee ee ee ww He ew
ee c-Si OS
ee ce, © 2. © ie Oe A a 2
Ce Sc, ©. © ae OO ST er ee Se
Cr
oeeesev ee ee © © © © eo @ ©
ooe ees ee ee eo oe we ow
eoeoewree ee ee wee ee we wo
ecoceerseer eee eweeev eee

oe ee © © @ ew © ee ew oO ow ©

STRONG TWOT
O06) «03 o.csaree tia: .
G002 56 bg tant h ease ay *
O0G3 acim eres teed :
6004 seeing eas 1659
G0GS snes ie dne eed 2923
6066.4 Sese keds 1659a
GUC) cok vesaetoate es .
O0O8 cect sade <
COG Fae Science doccaee ers .
O00 rice nattwa ses .
OUT wceereu ds wud 1660a
OTD srcdecats gata ws beatae 1660
6073 ceed erteee- tre 1661
ee eee 2924
0073 4 ee seas 1662, 1663
6016 cscs gees 1662a,b
GOTT 6.0.3 nahn ac 1662a
O078 sxe hae buaeiah ane si
0079 2 ciegctotoes 1582b
6080 o.c3 Shea ea 1664
GUST ss penance ce Sess :
US? 8 ete ien bata 1665a
O089: 2G ttaea 1664a
6084 ios osmtietaancens “i
OOS eye cutie Gs ath Secee ns :
GUSG 4s sh niadinaes 1670a
OOB Teese 1666, 1667
OOBS |. cc tead ava 2925
6089 ...... 1666a,1667a
6090 ...... 1666b, 1667b
lod eee ne 1667c
G092 sesame eee es 1666c
OUOS Hiss we ie caer 1666e
0096 eccecharean ses 1666d
0095 Gis gaeon ees 1669
6096 6. islet 24nd 1671la
OOO T cance gaa serps 1670b
O098 2 ites Paneer 887a
6) U5: area Pre 1673d
G100 5 ows 3h Parana eS "
6101 ss. ge sama ss 1672
C102 sce hake es 1672a
6103) 32.c4%2e635 5+ 1672b
6104 oc es Sepes 1672c
G105 wie ee saiees 1674
6106s cis eines 1673c
G10) b Srete tenga bei -
O1OS cat cctuiorews 1673a
C1OF es en datipeatings 1673b
GIO ws woumias oe 1674b
GIED: csve te heiete ad -
OM wie ure avernttee es i
oy Ie Bearer ae ne mee ee 1675
2) Cee eee eee 1675a
GUID oxscurem deans 1675b
OIG attain ted as 1675c
OLE) cneueeiaa neds 1676
G1IB fea d ahd 1676e

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
G1IS an ook Mee fhe 1676a
6120 neste ees .1676b
O12) os ecencee isos 1676c
G12? ictee Stic s 1676d
6 DAS Sepa ann are arr 1677
6124 eects 1678a
G12) tees 1585a
G1 26 sia ae acta ees ‘i
C127 hie Aiiraes ee 1680
G1 28 ied cdis wens ale eee 1680a
6129 s éten ete 1680b
6130s bs-25orcete sates ‘i
G18 et ccaralst 1681, 1682
C132 hee oreo arcane 2926
6133: sviexandiedaans 168la
61384 ccc ceweesedee ee *
6139 64.206 debeeres 1682a
6136506308 oces 2926a
6137 acc eadedvenes 1683
C198 seks tea edn Be :
6139 sn oS ae esses *
6140 ncccacteneet 1684
OLA ced bacteedutes 1684a
G14? ceeds ee *
61434 picts Sees 1684b
6) 0: Serene mr ee tee *
6145 c365s carne ein 2930a
6146.23 oe eyes 2930a
O17 e203 vacate died ie ~
6148 woe ex aettews 1686
6149 cee awed's 1687a
6150 ose ete: 1689
615M. cs careers te 2927
G12 heat ce ease *
OSs cccose sees sa 1689a
6154: 2. cctoeck 1685a,b
GIS aveied a ikea 1690b
6156 .........06. 1687a
GIST ec cnedndates 1685c
GIS8 aie. se wa-adiecws 1690a
G15 Fon dina anaris +
6160 ............ 1688d
G16) 3226622004 1686a
GIG?) £28 eee 1686b
GIG ae ee tae: a
6164 See exe een sf
6169) wccgiasre ll eax 1691
6166 o.2cidcoweeleeees *
6167 o65 cox dd Sew 2928
6168 saciid iad: 1692
6169 choses 1692a
6170 sess: ehedoci 169la
61) la ceavesosetes 1694
O17 2d cohgiex 1692b
G17 So esd suomi es 2929
Olid noes leant 1698
GIS Atos ee wars 1698c
C1716 cc deee oak 1705b,c

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
GLI is kext ces ean ere ‘i
O18. 9-2-5 ey atinees 1702a
O17 Ont ewipeed a eaceen *
O1S0 cand ped aheree -
GIST 2.20 2cceedes 1692c
O1B2.] cadaaessees 1699a
OISS: saree eee 1701a
O14 545 sc2tahones 1702b
GISD: Keser nee es 1705a
6186:.3seeuassaee% 1694
GIST. 2 batiaent ees 1694a
GISS) abs i Socata 1695
O18 9 2 oo Got geeds 1695b
G190 cb.e 5 odie 1695a
G19T:. 2 4 ite siateaeoiey 1698
O192 waators seed 1696
O199 a cg.ba ead ee 1698a
G19 aii Sie ates 5 1696a
O19) ickrs tna ate 1698b
6196 eciwnves 1697a
GID) ie woreint ce een te es 3
6198 3 vd diese tas -
6199 134 cae ees 1705b
(S74 10 eee nee eee ,
O21 icone ae cate hin 1701
O202 se diene e wathe 1700
6205 cictacterens 1700a
6204 cei. ct ns soaewaes :
6209: jcsece tinea 1701b
O26 oo aioe 5s dts 1702
0207 bvacrewuareiin’ 1703
O20 Bcd cient ea tarry eens -
G20 9 ain antes dy Se 1705
G2IG oe dwcd cn bod 1706a
2 i king oats 0 oon 1715a
O21 4 cen eeteneea 2931
O21 2: ins con Wink aes 1707a
6219 cist fates 1708, 1709
OA Cee ee ee eee ee “i
O219. Arts cdi peaks ij
O21G csoaceinnaes 1713c
G2 rwadiesuet 1713d
OZ 1S si2:0 hr See tie 71d
O2NG oot casa 1716b
6220 i puree et eres =
O22 ci ancan eee tes :
O22). ecm aaanttteig ve 4 “i
6229 sven hy 1714b
O224s geese a I711f
O22) ca cievsiuo coat 1712
6226 swear cow es 1712b
C227 5 ities sana 1712a
O28 ahaa warteaita ate i
6229 tebe en was 1710
6230 isan heats ihorke ae i
O25 ceded ena 1713
0297: sauce Same 5 *
0233" 53, cia nh vie wats 1713a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
6294 ins d ee nee es PISD. 26292) ..c-Gaeiewes 1730a
O239 ica ab wee ee D71IA- 0293 isos deen wie 1731
O29 ses Skea 2952°, 0294-23. s ens eae. 1731a
0230 sb xackvioeelTlC.. O29) si ccsetewewavass -
0298 Sethe eee omens UIA® SO296 ust cewtecvarns 1732
O23 otras eats LFda a. 0297 ease git ete cans 1732a
C240 oo ia eee es ITD: 6298 arcs esse 23 1733
O24 le ree ecesuk IVAUR 96299 bess a ctenass 1734
O24 2 scdey core Bik anh 71K; 6300 5 cc dite ate dans -
O24 9: cab yen gnte ZOSZA. JODO ciate sown cere ee -
O24 8 53d sudedenck 3008 LAID. “O302 nccseneeanis 1734a
6249" Ssiecaies VITGIGT 26303) 2222. denasen ecole ‘i
O24G ica rs cbusess 2953; 20304 sss csewivea t's 1734b
O247 otvceieaees T7168. 6309 o.ccccdgadsvaress 53
6249 a3 erg atiesas Ta: - (0306 osc canes 1734c
6249 4.00 bees eee IAT: (6307 sac acyepanas § 1735
C200 gu tavedeuces VILTD:. 20308 3 occecaie aiiiee 1736
O25 ts eeetectnke L7I8a 6309) 53 stcis vcs, were 1737
0292 2 seduha wales ITSO: “O31 iwicsuteecns 1738
©2939 so scaietoacces PLS? “OSL cece genes aatews 1739
OD D4 a athesien Se Band ata P) NOSIZL suet wpaadtssreas .
O29) -suceswaep ae eae ee) ere rere ee 1740
O20 nse asennad 1650b 6314............ 1740b
6297 40 secspasewe dive LTS: 2OESS: neo ac Sinves os 1741
O28 art ceiess 1650¢, 03916 icsmsiinaw enue ©
6299 ch ectee awd T7198: 20317 cieaeanamsaseae :
6260 xisian tre we oa I719D:. 6318) 3555 shasadrueess y
6261 .ccacanveacs 1650d), 0319 os dees Antes cs ‘i
6267-502 ie oes sean © 0920). dia ce Shas a. 1742
6263) s..doaedsewees 2954? i032). ahaa cee es 1743
6264s ccetacyeees 17198. 0322: se buwte dae ewards :
G26) eau rhasinie see's OOS 22 reticdopt arenas 1744
6266 xis Bh Seees PPZNG: “03248 pacttece's ee ee ore -
O20) siatemad ete [7210 G32: nutans Rodashese .
208: 3 none Ore te 2959) VOS2O pikes tise a ‘
269 sais etomidate aa * 6327... .1745,1746,1800
0A || aera ea? ere © O328 wikis dhe vaigoce 1747
O27 cceierdss wena Te W920 wend keshat iuhua 1748
O21 2: Sinnbhcasaeue 1720" 6330 i ox ie dea dao Gas 1747a
O22 scieaa eeseawawe © 10931 schdeae chau 1750
O27 4: ao bluahleen dain MMOS SL: Gags Sa iancgitnn 1749
O27). Stace Saecas L721 6939 Soe rasie ds 1750a
O21 6) xessse gneve TIZID 6334 og eit ee otal os ‘i
St i Re rr I721a- “6333 ccnckcos 1751,1752
O21 8a yore oka Be YOO SO copier ace Ganges *
7 i eer W722 6337 innate ous 1753a
6280 5-2 scene rene 1723: 0338 0% ergata ace 1753
O20) 2.5.5 oie aesales P- AOS SD eget ate ngrecnbaas 1754
O28 2.3205 dg ted Bed P1248. 0340 ss seatdeees 1755
0283 saa. ea eect’ 17238. :634) .ecesshaed 1759a,b
O28 gies og cae V2 (O54 cos ohio hears 1756
O259' S45 500s on P1251 26543. e cw eacatew as 1756a
6286° 6 iaiones T126,1727) 6344 a sccdcwec es 1756c
C287) s2iyateeetay 17208: “6349 ees vee sa% 1756b
O289: eeaiscaitnteeins W278: °O346 sa surenede seas 1757
289 atras ackouss tes LI27D: 0347 ccae a eaeewkin 2936
0290 racine hatin Vi28>. 0348) 28 dass she wate: 1758
O29) sear oi aes 1729a 6349 ............ 1758a

STRONG TWOT
O90 -oi6 ecseesee 1758b
OSI asians aurkeawes 1759
O392). 20s extaewaes 1760a
CSS iidcS ae tawiets 2937
6394 setvauseteas 176la
G99) ce cee teagan ‘i
O39 it eta tears 1761b
0397 tid iesanguess 1762
OB D8 arenas nccinene 1764
O95 ech Gini ds 1764
<0, | ene rea 1763
6561) 5.c ches seeues 2938
O302: sche te sin ces 1764
G303: occa taieted 1764a,b
O3C4 65 cae eaecceene as =
09609 fcrresatowes 1765a
0300 iced ead s 1738
O3G7 fensis cosoes Swan ‘
G3608 wvaacase aus 1741a
C909 sek. ch cepiuccae ods sa
6370) ssceslenrctes aes 1770
O37 are xce steed 1766a
6372 Aaa tes aed asad -
O97 8 jomind heaenaes aka -
O91 4 sade actor Se oe 1738
O31 Scie ashen os 1747b
OS Oras tiouaeadenmenn: -
G917 ng petecth aes Kees ‘
0378 as ieeistueee 1767a
O37 9 sc cerminess 1767b
GI80: bees sects ae aed i
O98) strate panto 1768
O992 ssimeia dee 1768a
O30 3 ise e eww tiat 1768b
O384>.0. orev scenes. i
O38): inet eidseeees 1769
6386 yo cased ge 2939
O35? a8 ehieehaeee 2939a
G388: 22 oa uals asec 1769a
G39 9'i.2.04 teabobeeewes .
6390 5 26%. Succes 1769b
O99) state ares 1769c
G39) miedo, tra onda’ 2939b
6399 ities a tsees 1771
6394 cangusseanense *
hb Saree ee eee 1772
0390 is bat cae naviineens i‘
O39) bacccutweew ese ‘i
6998 sas oes eed 1773
GI 99 5 coea rein obec. 2940
6400 bs edie rat caved 1773a
C401 oo iad teeaae ess is
CAO? peal eee 2940a
0403 2 casureneeua 1774
OA0S occ cnmeed SA e eines -
O40D ae tc ings 1774a
6406 iss eats ee ee =
OA0S etre hesowys .

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
GAG 3 5 eae aati De O4OF sil eaoa 3 aegeoas BOS TD ic a ope vateGueee ex ? "6980 coeds pees case 1840
O40) sesnss ieee dead RS GAOD 6 catia Gar wee ig Bs BS ON S55 sae srereate ts arate 2944: OSB IN hie kb es hceses 184]
G408 senicss-s ey ou iss E6400 coc wank 1792 6524... .1813,1814,1815 6582 ............., 1844
1 Le ee ener ee BS ORGD iscsi Bl Rates 17928; O29 wieed ju enees IS 1S a. “O583) ces. tivhsrs Hieiaed -
OFO) ctied et eewnaa ® 6468 se oeu exe sees Li92D. °6526 66.2. eewss’ 1813b 6584.2... 1845
CANN erie Fike aah es. C469 5 ii5 eter ss © SOS27 “ous zor eine as ISIG 0985 sce peo tend 1842
GAD i shomta cena 1774056: C470 wa gcetes fa L193. “6328 scey Stace 18l6a 6586............. 1846
2 gene ee ere 774d 6471 ............ 17938. 6529 ois oti kaye I8099. (G58) é 25.00% eceds 1842a
G4I4 ihc p downs 17716D- 6472: nceesbeweuad 17930. 6530 vscvns weeess 1826b 6588 ............. 1846a
OFS co stacaionse LOC. SO4IS: oe coca adiiwny 1794-- [6531 cost iteneas 1817a 6589 ............. 1843
O41G ears ee Gu LTI6d:, (OFA sch ekak ed pares % WODS2 ihe siete 1818a 6590 22260 i cvacsas 2949
OOD) cae maceranes M7766 “O47 eves cents odie IV9D: . “O33: toch newenadas 1819: 65910 2bccsteieeves 2949a
OFS Gir dw bes ee ee) Say 1049 Ov. tats, eae Shere WIIG *G9394 re tet ese ceewiar Te AOD92? 2 ci gaven ies oak 1847
GAD ose ate se ee: a (a «9 a ISOQla! °60535-4.55nk ie mamate as Be SOD9 Sie aeyale shanks 1849
6420 5 anus veep. Be «OAT D teaser ace ah ticileting WIDE 26930: co2 Pas owadtes 182): 0594 ein citeirreaes 1849
69) wsiaumroneenwes BOATS hn t ee Wettig oe 1797a:. O935T sscanexavases IGS “OS9S:.trmcmeyamsws 1862a
a 1772a 6480 .............. 1798: 0538 adsule-ndy ooo 182la: 6596 22.5 veins: 1850
OA os nee nce Vi2a: (O48) vein eurbe L799 20539 es ose tuetseGys TSZ0. “0597 veccicns see ance ox 1859a
O44 os ae $5 Gites VEIT: [O482%. cnusicas sams 1/998: “O340 2c oman eae BSD 9G 0 9 a8 aeethdegacne 1851
G42 Seis dey et eee WW7a& OABS caine oases MODAN 3 sins Seataes cus LSZ1D! 6599 ow seniors ues 1852
G476 ol eudu Goce 1778 6484 ............. 1801 6542. ech eesi. eee wee ® (OO00 a nd eth Bare aha 2950
OA27 xe ean I7I8a O4BS wn sie seein Bee 1802. 6943's se ead sak oeglewe OOO: rs peied eat eat 1853
04S ire viernes aia TID” 30486 655 esse wena 1802a 6544... .1822,1823,1824 6602 ................ -
04 a eh cid cence P MGABT ees pe taug act I$02E° 6545-2 ie eae tedes 18238. °6603 4.ds00enreas 1855a
C490. cco aot aaiase oe Ps SONBS edi epae ieee 802d 6546 ............ 1822a 6604 cceceee naw cae’ -
G49), iene chee sea © 10489 soe bcs oe ewes Me NODAL Ss wens facets 1825. “6605 c53e sae. 1854, 1855
0932 cttw twat dwaygs S400 choacne tea ISO2E: “0548 5555 claw Stine Beara BR GOOG ssciwcilie aia bs 2951
6433 28 theme oex 2941. 6491) ascot ose L803 . 6549. ceShotuas ee dais 8 OOOT ce cers worn are 1854a
6434.0... 2.6... 17838: 6492: cause ciet. wed oan © “O50 ncaa tense 1825.1. (6608 si s52 nits ay 1854b
6495. eitnieaeedac ee 1780 6493 ............ 1803a° “6551.45 Gavi eae es Be GOD: sos crcctneiarig ila g 1854d
6436: <. c25 vacua PISL: 6494. cicotwitiucscnates ES MOSD2. Siewert aoehe ed BS OOLO we 450.8 eet are lee 1854c
O43 ley as Can we dans L782) 2049S ewer csicee L803D. G953)cx decay ia saws © OOM a2 joindoe neh ae acid -
6438 ............ 1783a 6496 ............ IO2c §=6554... ee. POOL iicna’ ans S 1853a
CAS9 it 2cls Bhs betas Bi WORDT tenuate de tis 18048. “0999 mist dau iedwed 1826° 6613: 2 620csusaees4 2952
6440 ...........0. 1782a 6498 ............ 1804b =6556............ 1826a: 6614 ccs esd sacks 1856
6441 ............ P1826" “0499 esse ectwae os ISsla- “OSS7T bcc chs seaeaen HS GONS: cose maracas: 1853a
644) 6 weianateede 1782d 6500 ............. [805:. “O558 % erausiatga du.oas © FOO 1 Graver aloes 1857a
O4AS fie gene Stas 17830" “6501! cacontege wei 18054; “0999 hee ers oses DS OGL oes cream erent tes 1857
a carr ae ee rer P AGDO2 2: Sica ant area earns H 2G500) fn 9.22.4 mance acta Po 1661S 2a ore Reg as 1857b
O94 cco cages L184. 69038 ie a gawe gy Saou MONO, skate asa deents IS28:..-GO19 ice epee ue ees ‘i
6446 ............ 1/898: “O504 cas seks paws 1806. 0502s crises sis ce 2946 6620 ............ 1858a
O44 i iceowvbueeees 2947) iG505: 2s emaseaus int 1807a 6563 ............ 1828a 6621 ............. 1859
C448 cscs ogame L78)) O506 2 coward ate 1807b = 6564............ 1828b 6622 ............. 1860
ear OOS) e aciks os Yaron a 1806a 6565 ........ 1830,1831 6623 ............ 1860a
O45 0 coetea eins © YOSO8 weveta caret: 1808 6566 ............. 1832. 0024: 2.5ictueeaewes -
645 I nse ius tanta 1789b 6509 ............. 1809 6567 ........ 1833,1834> <GO25) 6954 a ooh 2 cas :
O49? det caaes 1786,1787 6510............ 1830b «6568 ............. 2947) G626- 8 ae a Sens 1862
0993 sis tS ee aed T7868; 05 UM 5) elaly bees BH (OD OD w xi) ser arerese aia 1835a) (0627 scexgawata de 1884a
0494 So herk needa’ e SOI i dcwrsteee eos WAR “OO10 sednwan neh onener BS “OO 28 ai ciyseg Senne Bata 1863
O99. evn etna WIS 1a: <OD19 ce ict ere paid teat © 10001 Shasas taste 1836a 6629 ............ 1864a
GAD ccreracerenctes Beta 17880° -O514 ees ied ies OS 72 oe hdase aon. asus [S37 6630 cha techn eceeods .
GA aia ees ats © HOSS sonwnaventn Warde BP OSTS: sis Sapa estas DOES: 1663) is caer acdsee 893b
6498 wi bwin ae 1788: GS1G cu sivw hoe fee ce BOOT iin bat ahes ops 1838 6632 ...... 1866a,1867a
0499 ekg ese reuind 1788a 6517 ....... 1750b,1810 6575 ............ 1$33a:: <0633 ..ccs2¢ee5e0% 1865
6460 so eet aves DOES. “6918 sa niaad sew ates WSI2:. 6576 thant coe aes 1832 6634 .............. 2953
O46: cute ating caus L790: 65.19) 2:55.24 oeoas 18128: 6577 su cio riae seeds BOOS Duccake se ktjant 1865a,b
6462 ectetendatecaces BOZO arr tied gts ei ISI2B. “O578 bseia tee asneeyes BGO SG rn 5 ita has ee als ‘s
O465".2-2esbnrd evar 179 O52 sais [S126 ~.G579 osc te crete 1839" +6637 2hct woudewieusga’ “a

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
6638 -si.cciens eee. 1868
GOB? 2 issn Beene deg 1868a
6640 Ssacu ee ecaces 2953a
6641 a cesiseved os 1872b
6642 cid oa eas 1871
6643 ...... 1869a,1870a
GOA4 4.wiso sya a huisbuts,s :
O649 cinerea kee agewes .
6646 ............ 1870b
O647 seewawstaih ies 2954
6048 aGoncinweay 1872a
O04 i 3oet tay Boaters -
O6590 224 4a hateregecns =
665 le meee ceed 1874
6692: bce cae tiesten 1874a
G69 3c ee bodoearws 1875a
6654 ........ 2 eee 1876a
665). tasieastssada 2955
6696 séndes edad 2956
OO97 cb aetedatrs hee =
6658 ........ 1877,1878
66998 6. hha nese -
6660 ............ 1877a
O66 |) nhie ca domes cae ‘i
6662. acinwas Monde 1879c
G69 seein eSieaiesrces 1879
6664. cee ek eans 1879a
G069) 5. 2tcisinG OR SOs 2957
6666 ...........6. 1879b
BOOT cai dierent a :
6068) 508s sae ee 1880
6669 veered. 1880a
6670 45455444 1881 ,1882
O67 Licesca den enes 1883d
GOL 2 84 Sinan eae 1883a,b
663 sxyesnis ates: 1887c
6074 oh cun etme ee 1884
66] Donte tours 1884b
6676.0... 2. eee 2958
GGT ss weenie 1897a
6678 2255552405 8ace8 =
66/9 ince aiceed 1885
6680 ...........5. 1887
G68 Ll eaue tice ton we os 1888
6682 isos bake eas 1888a
6683) 4 eine wes bans 1889a
6684 sas acess se 1890
GOSS: orc eceads ees 1890a
O686 ite Secea ones ‘s
O68) «665Gb eseree 1892
O688 55.5 sex Hoard 1892a
O689 knw cep he beeen =
6690 ..... 0. . ee eee ‘J
6691 dnc ckavarteeiveans -
6692 ........ 1893, 1894
6693) 65 5-b5op 0s anaes 1895
O94 cscs csc Saaeuy 1896
6695. bo. eatin 1895a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
6696 ....1898,1899,1900 6754 ............ 1923a
C697 eee ere ce 19014: .6755 shes eGcncnes 2961
O6098 wigo neice deans S 1:61 90 diac aiad eae ‘a
CODD sain Liege Agee 19008. 0797 ssc casesoun 1921b
O10 ss i toueee seas e OIG soso wa amok:

O10) aca ae sees ees eee > eee ere si
6)02: dex dawg asa es 899° (6/00 ees cahcset ts 1925
O03. soca hatenakeae I905a (O76N Yes hanes 1925a
G10 hn bogewared aia 19028° 0762.4 ve%d aieoswaede cs ‘3
G10 i sneheeins es 1903: ° 6/63 natant pains 1924a
OJ0G cc. 85% ecnes 19050: 6164 eb eesuet eines

O07 eae pinie ees I903C: °6/63 22 5.cnatesBiwwets -
OL08 oda Silesia: 1903: - 0766: i dwicnka di aveeks .
O09 22 caceoue dee 1904a 6767 ............ 1919c
OUION bawteee vests 190Sd.. - 6768 "23 ovat hendustiads
GT scseaeetantee 1905: 076921006 S.atae Soke 7
OUT 2 eutenatvegars 1905a 6770 .............. 1926
GINS: aati it custo 1906a 6771 ............. 1926b
GO) 1F i eiaeesese ewes © OLI2. Shc ae aacs 1926a
O21 teva bet asees 190GD: 0773 ast evewee hs 1926c
CUO sx esate es 1907: C774 capone. 1926d
OL cate careaead thas Be YOU) Mavis. seas Bare 1927
OVID cae icp 1885a,1886a 6776............ 1927a
OID is toe vaeacain [8850 » (6777 saceacaadss 1929a
G20 ing wera ane nt 1886b 6778 ............ 1930a
OIZD :xostarn caine doite ain BD MOLD ss a ergise at iatsdtionaes 1928
O122 as norewee ee aegs OP BO earl pect gis hers 1928a
0 (7 ve reas ee 1909a 6781 .......... 1927b,c
C2 56.8 Rees hes 1909D' 6782 cewedscacees 1929b
OI25- ta. tatacasees 1887a 6783. ............ 1932a
GI26 8 swe eae Sb ets I910) 6784... ee. 1930
G12 ts Stee ees E WOLGO ie Sine ae aie 1931a
G28 ics hint nie as Be 1908: “6786s ews cisas ckois *
O12 9 vis send Bxreioc 19414. GIST sess eauyiga cea ?
G130 sina easeeas carats Be 10180: Asietans oe aoe 1931b
OID cia Si ieee nes he 1ODL). VOU 89' wictarte ote Cas 1932
OI32: wight iases ety sts Bi GIO. a cite ee a yceetrannwte airs -
OJ IS dace re 1912) “O79 Na wat eens 1936a
0194 nem pinndiusot 1912, “O19. do acter esis 1864a
0139) haces 1913a,1914a,b 6793 .1936b, 1937a,1938a
C130? ssicas bees 1900b 6794 ............ 1942a
GIST. cacnanet ated &% 19158 (O19) nccrca enema 1934
OISB sc aad reas I92la -6790 2 isccscewwan 1936c
G139. Sdactsiee ena 2999: “OU OT sawuaeen acta 1940a
OIA. eyiah oa Sane ee IDES? O/98 Sitka aa:aks 1935
OIF Lcomagunese eau Pi VG) OO eat. e quan gree armed -
G147 cade enanadc 19228: (6800 cfc tiexeeen 1939
GI4S: oe csv cians I9IG, T9177 G80) ioe oye ices 1940
OFS i isch Batata 2960, 0802 55335005: 5 ne 1940b
O14) seeaawenawds 1918a 6803 ............ 1938b
GAO disc & ae sn 1I918c }=66804.... 1942b
GIA pose gtiua nee 1I918b «6805... 1. 1943
6148 65 ates 19iSa 6806............ 1943a
O14 aia outs 1920 6807 .......... 1943b,c
6150 uces-ancenas’ 1DID “6808 shoo bs ee 1944
OIDN aig aeeea os L921) 20809 s.r ss yen bend 1946a
O12 seu yateced 19218 . GBIO Cains te eee 1948a
0153 22h eace eGhweaet SB SOOM Sis oh gts bee ies -

STRONG TWOT
68123453 bed sae 1948b
OS13 222.4528 1945
6814s sin ete tea et He *
GOL rete ous has -
6816s vrs gaequs 189la
G817 ibé viru cn bwds 1947
6818 sccsSesenges 1947a
6819 uk ono Syas hee 1948
6820) dcacu nated ain *
O82 ec be eet 1949
6822: Seed teen Seats 1950
0825 esaccunsceead 1951
D824 esis cere ee 1892b
GS29 Sees tewes aay .
6826.05 vi. se awe 195la
G82) that argu wacmeibn -
682835 c egestas 1953b
6829 ak dices Saw aid -
6830! 2.20hssau asa 1953c
6831 8 iid maddest eens .
6832 onc ees oes 195Sa
6833 ............ 1959a
0 io a eS ee i
6835 eacie aio ted 1952a
68356: asa t eee nee 1950a
O83 miei deel ean si
6538°0. take weaces 1952b
6839 .. ccc ce ee ‘
6840 ............ 1953a
GO4) os one toss geen 2963
684? cee Ra adess 1962a
6843) nc. bawdeusess 1960a
6844 ............ 1951b
O845" sei pauses 1953
GS46 43655 is oie ek =
O849 chet adeceet sh eee .
6848 .......... 1954a,b
6849 ............ 1953a
O85 0 5. Sah oeak wens 1957
O85) dx scatter ve 1957a
O82 as 855 faraaret wea 1958
6899 Gantecuad ones 2962
6854) cde beS etc 1963
6859: fc costa eed ‘
6856 ............ 196la
G89 7 ech ebb el & Mais i
6858 ............ 195Ic
C899 ce oa M9 ia aca -
6860 6 bad assea ewe aes -
6861 ............. 1964
6862.......... 1973a,b,

1974a,197Sa
O80 3 unde aie ace heb %
6864 ............ 1975b
6865 4 x b-scus dees 1965
6866 ..........08. 1966
6807 Gerulaar eax e 1966b
6868 .......... 0.00 ee ia

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
6869 cue ek I9T5C319740> 6927 esreues enews 1I988c 6985 ........... 2006.1 7043 ............. 2028
OSI 0s rwhng am areeed oS © OO26 isn ato wd 2966b =6986 ............. 2007a = 7044............. 2028c
OSE, ict at euidne a atte’ BS NOD sskaraciiy tenses as O° SO9G7 cab eemreas 2007a = 7045... ee, 2028d
0812: oe ag hh 1973e,1975c 6930 ............ 1988e 6988 ............ ZOV Na: . 1046: oben erates 6 has 2029
od eee ar arenes L9OS: 0930 ia srcuccaree aces IS8Sl: G989 ihe ditt Ra ews POAT: sarees se veaeae tt 2029a
OSTA wa tawar aes ©! MODS 2 niekessed Wnal ta Maree es PQ ios Salen see So 1997 7048 ............ 2029b
O87 9D sirseeenn eee 19678.. 6933. oc aewaen hae 296606. 6991» iu creescun. 2008 7049 ........ 2030,203 1
68/6 2505.4 vekanwkniee Bo ODS AGS in Gite ons hp ph Bee By GOOD. t.5 pind & gated yas 2IOP “JODO da Sica og’ 2030a,b
OOF ecw ren cue bas 19694 “6935 205s ecaaawed tees PS T0998 Secs & ai eet 2008a 70SI1............ 2030c
6878 cc 2saeeiawes ID7ZOD). 6936. i pic dvandiets 1986a 6994 .............. 2009? FOS2 2 wake acaccrone’ 2028e
0879 ciccruwee sees IDDM. “C937 a peeae erin L989: *16999 "spas bee L009¢:: JOSS nba S58 wid deess 2032
6880 6 s.cnsd demas IDIIDs 6938 sca duagt saws BS O99G: apace st icete 2009a,b =7054...... 2.00... 1999b
G88 De ccson oul eu nstgud eel i> 2): ee arne ee eens ee OOO OT idea ios aug die aca: Wacens P WOSD-acuew- bint oshass *
GB82. oes sod Maavsaveiss PT 10940 owes Gwinn 1989a 6998 ............. ZOO: “JO56 vasa wens 163 i
O883 pu iiskeee ee 197la 6941 ............ 19890 6999) 6 ie casei en ZOU 7ZOSV sea: 5 sotemechatt 2037a
6884 oo cians es LOF2. VOOR? ss toaimie ae pte 1990: 1000 2:00 ceetavenys 2OIZ* TOD8? s.bc am sat oe 2033a
O889. 45 waceesess 1D) 2A). “0948 sda earsnecien tea TOOL ages pices fangs 29IO? “TOS D ais eviews wie dows 2034
6856 nadia srancced ae: Me PUNE chasers 1990a°, 7002s csv etna 2011c 7060 ............. 2035
O88) seis sisie eee 1973,1974 6945 ............ 1900. JO03 wascicnd vas ma bies POON: snc 'sce as @ aaseigcein 2036
OSES: cc Gs Sch 4.6 sae ©. \O9AG ad bis oe eoad 1990e 7004 ............ ZOW A: “10622 ice se cawacee ye 2036a
O889: col vat eae exe hom Ms (0047 cadseuceauoe nats Be DOOD, gg Beem hn Seog thane E> TOOS? acta eeiiche a8 2037a
6890 3s ts aa GOA «case vee ae ys 1990e 7006....... 2013,2013b 7064 ............ 2042a
O89 |: cin gacrerar cou tate Be O90 ss eedeninta ends 1990. “TOOT: skies cana e has ZOIV: “JOOS 2:2.0. a8 aah 2038
0892 24-44 Panto ee 2013a 6950 ............. LOO 1! “ZOOS eee oc. ase eek aed 201ID) 7066 ede cscens 2974
0893 rece Sre ed 1976 6951 ............ 1991 a. 7009 veces eee 19996 ING? ehese ie aneas 2038b
C894 naw enamine s IDETE.. C952 ute oattpotibsinn 199 JOND aise. 2968a 7068 ............ 2038a
089): Kien va nhines 1978. “6993: oittceer eres 1L991c- “TOM: sei sawre tines 2968b 7069 ............. 2039
6896. 6 nested a W979 6954 cc et Bun tauheon es BO OUD os 5 1 cee io dite Sec 19990: 7070 i cs ohare as 2040a
OSD. cite ids phates LOI9S:. GOSS prin tee east wees BOTS tid seen a2 ZOU a LOT adc at cts taiteeares id
6898. 86500% gesies WOITO. 16956" 3 cacst a meas sne : Re OVA: oe Sh hau 2ZOIO2ZON7 “TOT 2 occas bes sees 2038c
689? 4 pu ssasas 1983a 6957 ....... 1992,1994a (JOIS ci. csscesces 2OISE: O73 teeing ts eae -
6900 23 ease oasiees 1984b 6958 ............. 2014 - J01G:6.053 es2aus ce een Bs OTA i acctrs OF gta he oiee :
ODOT ideale Bee eegciss 1980% 76959 204 ew carinii 1993; TOIT eis cadigaaack ZOVG:: 1073» 26 scott eh nace, 2039a
ODO 2 oe bia si Bi asc 2964 6960 ........ 19941999! JOS scion vata kanes Be DTC: iit cadnd a dies 2041
G90 i eed esp he as 2965: G96) cenmrrscesa’s 19948. (JONG in se a steno 20208" “JOTT we ese. cates 2042
O94 ose Stas 1980a 6962 ............. 1996: 1020 bias ees 20606 7078 ............ 2043a
GOOD: esiciinaig oak 1980a 6963 ...... 1998a,2028b = 7021 ............. ZOZN FOTO casero t aleges ¢ -
O90G: scans eo at oa as IOS): 0964 6 osama genes’ PO ODD» esac te G.dss- ds 2028f 7080............. 2044
GOUT set he ee oes 1982) "6965" cig. i, seven Bens [909 ODD: a4 wi gute ac ha 2022) | JOB chs eeawnst 2044a
6908 nse cece 1983 6966 ............. 2968. 1024 cca cn ila wwe nds P< MORE ca caseg lemme eer 2045
ibe, | er rere area ar SOOT cas tecuse-e bane aes 199948 “TOL se eseewedakates Te MOGO sank waste wettiee 2080b
OOVO iene hts ay is 1983b 6968 ............ L996. 020-34 arc ind eeees DOE 9.5 ic heca De asl e tei .
GOUT: ick are cuter aia bins BS: ODO9 ic, 2 ain abe nates 2OUS. ~<(O2T 2 pie eee tad ate souk tS (DOSS c4s.iik oe So tee 2046a
O91 2 sews werden tans 1984" 6970) 2.85 ne vomseemas BOD 8 aceeie hore Mitnicht Po OBO! 4 kita ets oye iia 2047a
O913 Ausas's noes 1984a 6971 ............. 2ZOOO! . JO29 crs cis Melita ye . YOST 355 sac earn ate 2048
OIE corte cete oer eekes We HOOT: 3 Sova ercensianes 20 fa. “7030 severtiseenews 2912; “VOSS 6ito a vewites 2049
OID: oa sates ait os 1985: 6973 ates buts wee 2002. “JOSE eawevieaectues 20288. 1089) 25 hens nw. eg 2049b
6916. caged ines 1986b 6974 ........ 9044a;2019° “7032 cvenswindtihes 2971S: “TO90 .bs eae eenders 2049a
GOTT ick totus tee 1988g 6975 ............ 20034. TO33:2tceed to desas D029 “FOOL 5 sis wre M eres on 2050a
O91 8. Cars teaiuwraeets L990D: 6976: iid ee Wee Saige Be SISA re snake facie PW Ses 2024 7092 ............. 2051
O99 anuceead ot LOST (O9UT sctanan vemos 20030: (703). ceetaisrawens OIL JOO west teinesars: 2060a
OOO ie sated irene 19878. 0978 oe eet niwoasg 19946; -7036 cus sane 2024a 7094... 2052
O92: waaaa teed os 1988d 6979 ........ 20042077 - 1037 cowecean bed oc 20Z9> 1098 i055 Ka che aces 2052a
O92 2 ceteucieinmsaiatns 2967 6980 udaayciaucaxs 20058. (O38 set eke aks DOLE “NODG: bcos hus Soros 2053
GODS: ea ths oO eaves 1988: O98 l tncaepcesae ws Re “AOSD aiatiises mse 20238. FOOT esc cuvtngs 2053a,c
6924 ia diia gare enn 1988a 6982............ 2008 OG). TED cay, earis ins weed PE MODS tase i dae 8s 2053b
O92 9 steed eo 29068: 6983) scr ciatacs aon ais 2000? “JOAN jew aepalautsiwntons PIO x siete la wiaoue dea 2053d
OD26 sa euicheuwos 1988a 6984 .............4.. Be OA, 6 sa Ga ba Bae ri cet Ce NON): seek ah tees ates 2055a

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
TION recor eaeice: 2054a
TAO? ted oe be -wieases 2056a
V1OS 24.08 woewes ieee -
TAOS iced cists te hace dice .
POD: serine ice 2062a,b
T1O6: 6cdesG 2056,2057
DNOF dak oe atti oee 2058
FNOB <2 sees wernadaes 2975
TNOD 2c dxowiceewe 297Sa
7 0 eee erp eee 2058a
TAT 2 eerriees ees 2059a
AD. tied toga eaeatace 2060
PAS) secmceacaeas 2975.1
TAI: pew ee ees 2061 ,2062
TANS eeatew wn aoa 2061b
TANG: ease xeotecr ces 654 2061la
GATT oh accosestts- @ en 06% 2053e
Tl Be tied tice Busiaeewtbra: 2976
5 Bh: Gee a 2077a
a i 04 | eee eee 2077b
TAD. x waienk nae 2063
FAD tis oie ae 3a 2064
FILS Scuba esa 2977
(5 OZ: Sarees er 2063a
TDD crest a sak 2064
TA26 vine sk ck chew he 2065
6 ere ee 2978
TADS ace che oh 2063b
FADD ancteeedi ake 2978a
PIB ete aet heaee 2066a
TAS Mk aes a iaers sea 2065a
5 Dee ener we 2065c
6 Ks See a oD 2065e
FASE oats ote wut 2067
TASS rig icen th dee 2077c
TNS Oca icyeate 2068 ,2068e
TAB a hae eae 2068a
y |. rr 2065d
TBD tec cceeteaaas 2069
TIAO: Set & Oo Mites 6070a
TAAL aha Mile etnsteg depts -
TA dates catches 2069a
VAAS: eae eae *
TAA oe setcscn lad aout 2069b
FV: So One ae eer ss
FUAC %c.0% Serreees 2069c
PAA sects oes a eke 2068b
7148... 2.0... 2063b
DAD foo icd ot udkeabcoats 2979
TADO coe soot east 2063¢c
TIO: estent teats 20682
TD 2 sew wectsnoa awed -
1) 5c ee ee ere eee! *
DSA ienioatirs ain isobait *
TADS: wicetscide Stk cee as é
TID Ori wivewt ane egun s *
TUDE cat oinawsaeh eA eatten *
TVSS -nccta sae een -

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
a to) ere ee toe 04d Ny 2) Wy recreate rere 2983
TOO acs 55 et ete tas 2072. “IZ18: tuGudseyseeA 2097
(als) Geer 20728 T219 is cae bes 2098
TOL 23% dchesiek Arete 2980), “220 es Sed ea Leas 2
UNOS: 22 bos iehn a nantind dic © ILL we eteehew tes 2097a
NO vos 3 hata dias neater DOTS “122 is sacs seenteuens 2097b
t VOD wee agrees Chae D0ISAF P22 a tmtcnerngaee’s 2097¢
1 LOO s:3 5-3 sores DOTSD. (1224 pcmnrm ist 4% 2097d
DOW secais thtertcataratnd LUTE: 229 ian teen’ 2097e
INOS ei in awa as 2074 a. 7226" mamgkodaases 2097f
(a eee res ar 2079: “W227 4.03 dude 2099a,b
TTI? s cus eeowses es 2981 1228 evans Beans 2100a
DTN, 25 tere coatae & LOU Sa. 1229) sateen ce weds 2984a
TAT 2 dares aeuawss 2016! 723023 cian £585 2099c
INES: Se hate ehea es ans oO ean eon ee 2099
eG Brera wemrrern se Bo TL OS sia pitare Oe eee 2100
TVS wa hiosece es ehcawace LOGI aC 1233 iantaaw eases 2099d
TAD Oeste Besse L068H 1234 6 chew eedeen 2102
TATE Reus dekocu een te ae DAIS rebates 2103 ,2104
WANTS siete core aha ara evans PY DIO eas Whe Sia Pit 2985
UNIO dest casein oe QUOTA. “T2S 7 sien pada ewes is
TAOO. darach cree ator 20834) 7238 cnet eeneee ess 2985a
BV ataeaainicea aay 2084 T2399 p28 leat aries 2099e
TNO? etree enn hw 2084a = 7240............ 2984b
INOS gee Siete a 2O84D;C° F724 owe ewes 2099f
ANA. 5:8 vedios 2080,2080a 97242 ............ 210la
TABS Se acters et es 2089: “1 2ZAB weigh 2107c
TABG) ¢.es3 8 ewes Oe 2085a. 7244 v.caeweweses 2986b
TIOE So ke Masset 2982. TAO lek ecw s woe hones *
TN OS o Se eet e8 Se 2087. 7240 nasi xan es 2105
TN BD 55: aio eh ee 2088 ,2089a = 7247 «eee -
PANDO seas asc asetnae 2089B) F248 ciadesecaada 1143
TIGL wend as caaeaed TOAD: 2 heya af 5 areata a ‘i
NOD i ti Rens aue 20S 1a. 7250") chante tenses 2108
VIS: cate eR ape es YUSZA. 125 ri koe ates 2107
TOF od anit aie aed 2090 . “1292 sac hve Siecaues 2108
ie sew eae 20908. “253! ketenes stacccn's 2107a
TAD acten ar aeanes 2OQOD 7254 e ascitdccmicatrerawans >
TAD” wieetway ZOD 2092. 12ND isecea: yeh eepaas 2107b
DN OBE icine besa 2093. -F290 octane ee 2107d
TOD sowie ee a Sits D098: ~ VLE secctl ace wid wdiaes ok 2109
T2002 cake tae 2095, “1298: wei casng vn Se 2109a
4 || anata werent S94: | 1209 a sgetes aes ees -
(202 fo icicina Hatoss 2095a:. 1200 visswuees cass 2984a
T2083 G sah oiateles 209906: BP 26V ins peat ead 2984c
1204 Boe pinnae Sine eeie hes MM DOD pach tate eon hit aie toasts ‘i
VLD at serttia Geecl raare ase T WLOD et tmaers yee 211la
PLOO? eid Ga sarcsie Giseed ase BW SIDA» saree Better 2112
LNT 8b Soc acrtsied nla 2099. IZOD nase ices aca 2987
VOB sad ated ep tie tee oes © VO ba coe gean 2987a
74 \: ieee eee eee DO9SE:: T2607 sib duties 2112a
ded || Dareniee See ee Ret 2099T- “7208 44854 etwas 2112c
(pA) ease eer ee eee PLO 25.6 oard ache es 2112b
1212 Seances oie DOOD F270 a bs diincds Beare ges 2113
TONS: cetaceans eis DOIG” VI 2T A, Ge Seghetone eeattieess 2988
(Pa sree er ree ee 20908, S272 she raat. tect 2113a
DNS) recipes ceters, ane Z0IOD > A273) caus wut 2113b
IAG ie te aware see as ee AC aren pa one ener ee "

STRONG TWOT
T27S! Beker hetero. 2114
TT Oh te Danae ba kg degen .
OU neat aed an 2114a
Tee Oise o hace hae ae 2
[Pik Seer ere oe 2142
7280... ..2116,2117,2118
TON cashes cha wate 2116a
1282 a2, weet meee 2117a
VDSS posed sevice torersre 2119
T284 acme okie were 2989
P2OD: BR aeerdas 2119a,b
280 os ities Uh ade 2120
TL © tee hosioccdees 2121,2122
V2B C2 Bes we Sod eG aoe ats *
T2607 uteud cases 2120a
> Ee re eee 2123
129 Su tanh oheesw nes 2124
1290S can ey hawaii 2125
12D: Loa incg eatonkas 2125c
VL IY Ria tann are ata ake +
T29D: eis tor eats. 2125a
DOO sina ia se ates 2125b
(Pi permenant. tee 2126
T2IO sb as a aarwie 2128a
TOD ©, petins Beate sess 2990
TOO 50 ss ee eater 2129
TION, sips nscriendese a 5 2130
P30? seccinesgnes 2130b
DIOS: tisiet Bhs tte aatars =
VIE: oxtiny cece 2132
16) \ Seen ere eee 2132a
1900 ewes oneeaes 2131
DSOU Seo rath cones ths 2131a
TIUS ete adnweke-eae 299 1a
TID co cg ha aan tas 2132b
VOLO sa scosdccen ds 205, 2130c
TOM cares dats,aseed 2133
{ere eee 2133a
TONS ewes cera 2992
LON eco e emer: 2992a
TONS ch hed baie 2133b
TING crict inane tasues >
DONT tenet stats td cate 2133¢
TIONS ieee giro 2133f
9 id by ee era re 2133f
TBO csra tc atiracasee tarnigan sie =
132) gesmeseaubant 2135
VS22 cr gnete. 8 ouane 2201
YC ene ae re oor 2137
VOLS Ges. Sie oat ae 2161
VIZ seakeetened's 2162
1920 © cobs Pes as 2138
1 Bee ee ee ee Oe -
7 S28: emo aegeraie 2993
DOLD. silane putamen 2139
T3390 xeaeem ace tiet 2139a
DSS ated niente uate al gos i
VIZ fee aua hates 2139¢

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
V99 53 ato uaeie ars 2142a S739) wissen eet 21G4D: -1449 gesneeatiiwhand Y POOT 6 sate dence 2197a
DIO Wrath attains ZISIO: -7392 cae ie eee aca 2163; T4SO wcueceasudyans ZISD: . “1SUB i ner ceeies etteacoere s =
TSS D cpcottieGarwintaaes DAG! . 7393 Steric eoce acer Z1GSA> “TAS obs o's wees ZNO) ~FI0O iesetiet Sarawens .
1996, silent oscg sys IAD) 1094: samccunnieh teed > WADE. tiiopuinte les eat ZUS5A:, TOTO ses casae reds 2198b
TIO Se ietraae ZIAS © [399 ois owe a. Secs 2IGSC” “A453? so 5.chawee des Z186A JOU ees casmewireds 2199
NOOO? Gases eae 2143 ae 7396 wears osc ters 2163b 7454... 62. ZISTA> “TSU: 3% andere ye aind-s 3001
TOD he oioy sata Os ZIASG:. 1997 seed eee tee aes eC Da ter ere ee ZIQTD. DSN 3 65205 i cette ace 2200
TOAOL ee ha meee eae ee B “A998 seh eal wears 21630, - [4502 ech see caw en 2183) 7514 ............. 2202
TOMA ee eid apa tice d 2 21430 37399 os icseraees 2167b> -7457 etece ees DIOSO.” TITS wi aed 2 a's aioe 2199
1942. Sit cetade ele 2143C. T4000 eeeaurinss wes ZIOSD: “TADB wins o teasans 21S3a- TOG ao ice tenses 2203a
TOAD: ie iurgia: ier Rare tents Be TAO) Sard ach as sens Sar 2164 7459 ...... 0.0... ZASIC.. “ASNT ekeendes bana 2204
Ce Oe rae ere W VIAO?. 8 eon eh en iuke ZIG “7AOO- 3s srs crseaty oaeaiae 21B4. FSIS tas ewew goes 2212a
TAD, sitscetect ucotoh Mein BJAG steeds Gee Sod Sabet Pe PAO Sais Ge eed 21S40:- 1DIO Ss awe eecie a eas 2205
TSAO pct sects eames and tae Be PAN i die ei cok 2165a 7462 ........ Z185;2186- 7520 veiansiaccuns 2206
TIAL ahedewe eens 21440 © 7405). sole cuan os 2166 7463 ............ 21860! 7521! cand tows n anes 2207
ISAS: isuu5. ne east aes Pe PAO iio ice o stiuate es 2166a 7464 ............ ZIBOC. F922 nado ake ee 2207a
TSAO 0 a spceretre to treet 2146c §=—°7407 .. «ww. 2166a 7465 ............ DAGID FO 23 pee tate hese. 2208
TSU: Abn he heeds 21SIb 7408 ............. 210)” TAC veucsa baci esis De ae re sa utivictg sais 2208a
5) leer ree 2128D., 1409 5 cactaisincs aan 21G]a TAO) ci ttc ae neeas © ON tate eG, Goines *
(ip? eee ee eee 2994 TAN cto anette a ats Se PAGS. 5.2: be aeteeters IBGE (9526) 342c8e ce On taces *
VIDS oe cai isaeaaeos 2145a 7411 ........ 2168,2169 7469 ............ ZASTID: “F528 seeiuceeewes 2209
TIS ctectane Sine suas eee 3 Vr ee ee eee Diy » mee | \ cement aes 2I9SA TIS inks Bo was 2210
SDD! Miadsio eeees 2RAO: “FAVS: cing cht loca 2A33¢) TAT sneer oes DAGDR SOLO cece edie es 3 2223a
TIIOW sa eas teks 2140a: TAIA ore cidasees ess DS TAT 2 settusst non erage arp Bo POO yuna Lin detemes Oed .
(i hy opera ree ee oT Gur yanciveasint 2AISA:: TATB telat 2186c 9=7531 «2... .2210a,2211a
TIS cretcncyan Get 2146a 7416............. 21D. “FATA cucahatae ean ZICOG, (IIS 2 wok oy buco ed mata
19D? gusta ge aeee ee 2999" TANT oa Scecchcars uae oe 0 Vip Ue Co a eee re ZABIC. “7539 iesasousaduns 2212
1 SOO vec e peep artes 2l4la 148 pp cose sony ake IAT Oey bes atynscesirs 2998D:. “7934 eens au alae 2218a
(ol eee eee 21464: FAI oo acaie ew ee Z133@: “TAIT Steeda tawwes LISS: “1939 weg eharweeaes 2218a
WDOD. eich cele ern 21460; 7420 vecsxas vaewns 2NIZ STATS sccuteernuoe ans ZISOa P5302. Ga dedeulan a 2219a
T9OS: pie Go oe 21482149 7421 icaes eee neces Po SMA) Da ete 5d laaee aad 21S8D! 7937 322 «eee xea ean 2213
1964 sp ch conyoches ZISU:: “7427 2h 4 secu eutetetaanes TROON eae incuts Madame n>) eee eee ee eee 2213a
TIOD. ie Bebe mie 2990: “1423 sisoue eke 21094. --T4BT sy oe ee oeeucgeaes DOO? “1539... cae keeiGee es 2213b
TIOO tad fees ZID08)> “TA24 5 niet hears PANTS” SAB? 5 aha tebe 21898. 1540 ccs ncdematex 2214
1907 site cadence us 2US0D! TAQ gw dd awakens ee ee ee ee DVSID: TIAN inci eee es 2218¢
1308 cece tetas nent 211 WAG arteoieue ads OMIA ACW woot au sreetuums Pe DGD ie Bed windy tone vane -
TOOD: 2egeelcte ek DNSTagD* 427 si cust dsm, DISSR - TABS ose cae. nina ewan Te DAS 22 re aia es 2215
feu hl ee eae 2152. TALS misedoaewseaeds BO TNAGO es a ate herndeeee es AA: Sect acca piatenn ate 2215a
TOT eeegaus Aiack DUDS AOD) aie eee Goatees Z1IG: AST Ske exieere: 2999: “1S4S i3ewe hes 2215b
ADID G25 kudos otek Sah 2154 “7430 55 eee healt ZVI, “TASS cae tow va nat ZNO: TSAG Sse ea eeG ate 2215c¢
WSS 5 Gedeavage ashlee 24948. TAS ee eke aswtas 2177a = =7489 ........ ZIGL 2192) - TS4T occa d, o.a.cie Hee 2215e
MOVE th lai oe teu n ins ON Vo) oY: ae: ) ane es re eo ADO i acca ee tuninesin 3000 7548 ........6.. 2215d
VOID Gaatnatle cice se, 7 oi damm. 3 eee BAO Fon G eed « DIDS: DAD ee enia seus 2217a
TDIO oe nate Bates ee PADG TAS ce nee eine Oh TAO is ones eg ees IO TODO ee ancre hse 2218b
TIE Gace t cela 21908! FASS c2ehaaacsuee sees a (ere eee Sree 219d. (TOD tee touceawe 2216
TS Oe Pea i hie Site 2159 F436 2a ea otuet wees BO | TAQG 4 5 oi cars B88 DIDDE: VODIO wake avintek bee es :
V STO cecoeusstove toate 2159a: FAS) 2 heces ccna ees Be, TAOS? cra weilnyataieire & 2190), TOS seas beeeee x 2216a
TIO casa setters park. obec Po HAO8 eose ti aesereaane 21T98: TAD siren heros DAIBE. TIA csinsiaeeeese 2217
PION vapid atak ZABUD: FAIS? & a veders oxnencer DNS. “FPAOT ovat cee acer DOSE: “DIOS eauvacntwnagees 2217b
DOD pire ro acidic bs ZOO: “TARO este a trare eink VII. TAB a cetezrtasce date honttita's WOOO pica pace eh et 2219
(2) .5 eee eae eee 21008 “JAAN doa ley awe Leet Be AOD: te Sec tas alt erat 21908: STDOY ede laweerenee cad :
IIBS i SUE IE SS PTAA? wai eds 21342179 7500 inne caaenes- 21960 7558 vavesecesc us 2220a
in) eee eT er ee ZNO, (AOS ce tec Gaited. Z2179G = FDO) nk hea deeaa wages’ gene 25) eae eee ree 2221
T38O elena vl oh: aa 0. Sareea eee ene ZNO “7502 swuaze ca gers: TAQT “1500: 232. ng wet anes 3002
VIO? Sis wird 2161c 7445 ............. 20790? 1503) cena’ ware Bes 2198) DIG) as.acaedans ae. 2222
TSS e Aatiae kag as ZIOZE: | 1446: seid Gadeweet sole * WOOK: shel ume aes 2N9SA: “TSG2: paced carne 2222a
VIDD Gs Sere ee 2138a,b 7447 ...... 21S la 2182a° “TOOT pseu ites conte B+ FI DOS sects Guan 2222b
ASO: a disie eth waste 2164a 7448 ............ ZAS0A “ADC ig wees wenwase ss © TS OA ee Sn ee hae 2222€

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
1565 sinahaeeacten 2223a
D566 ate ont konent ae *
TSOT sedis soctia eeteaconss 2224
V56S ei ctsahend wins 920c
7569 oo cece eee 2227b
‘.1 2225
[igh eS 2225a
PSTD ch ccd eens 2227b
‘ice 2226
(Ly eee 2226a
i ae Tees *
TS16 iia cwnencslee 2227
TST T csetiniad ces 2227a
T1578 oc cece ee eee 2228a
T1579 voce cee eeues 2299
7580... e cece eee. 2300
(oor 2300a
IOSD cece tadiedash 2301
(Lee 2302
T584 cad ak cgosvs 2301a
DSSS acai occ 2303¢
TS e6 ete ahs hes *
TST ovecutet conte *
T588 oo. e cece e. 2301c
7589... ee cece eee 2345a
7590 oo. cee ee eee 2345
7591 oo cece eee ee 2301b
7592 oo cece eee 2303
D593 <6 tsacdiviare bee 3012
ISOM cia cut aaaee *
T7595 occ cece cess 3012a
7596 oo. cece eee 2303a
To OT saw nconenelde sant *
7598 oo. e eee cece eee *
7599 oo. e cece eee 2304
7600 .... ee ee ee. 2304a
T601 oo... eee eee 2426
7602 ........ 2305 ,2306
7603 oo. cece cece. 2229
7604 ........ 2307,2308
1605 ....e eee e eee 2307a
113 \\ 3013
1607 oo. cee eee eee 2308a
7608.0... see eee 2308b
7609 oo. cece cence eee *
T610 oo. cece eee eeaee *
TOU Misiones seeds 2307b
7612 oo cece cea 2301d
1613 ve. ee cece eee 1421)
TOVA w seiniecs Ca0 pied *
TONS sess ofa tse neccansess *
1616 oo ccc cece cee. 2309
TOV esiieed aohace 2311
FOILS ss dean nie 2311e
619 oe cec cee ceeeeee *
7620... eee cece 2319d
7621 oo. eee e eee. 2318a
162? «sind ecnnene 2311d

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
TOZSi aunties 25122315; TOS pd en ek eae *
1924 i3.465:3¥ aa os S014 TOS? «exces iulexead 2234
TOLD cotsedinkeicak BOTS: JOSS cucenea ctydos 2324
VOLO? toi oo op N aed 2314a 7684 ............. 2324a
TOL) ew ssid e Sacet sae 2 Ro JOSS. esiicary 3a oa 2233b
1628 eee ree wie ans J31la. 7680 se caciuases 2325
IGE ihre tae awit Bs TOS Ss. 6 Aes Rahn tcl J
TODD os ciate Hes etambes © FOSS sasns as ke ee 2326
i: 2) Wan rere ee 3016. 7689 cscxises end 2233a
OSE xan cea tareabns 23108: 7690 baie sccweeey 3004a
TOSS: 6 ecologies bite ZOIVCY “F691 sic eee ws 2325a
VOSS sacar e Eada 4 POOR a anstatintda atin eas ‘i
PODS chia ied oleae 23160, - 1693) csc orn eases 2327
TOSO: orcee cease 231 a 1694 vesiceceeeen. 2327a
LOD se Ss ey te eats 239A. © 1O9S 594.4 nade eile 3020
1636 ..9.2.v.acwewieg o% 23205 “1090s. eacwinke cuss 2328
TODD Pg seg Steet’ 22300" O97) ‘4.8 Hosta. sous 2328a
TOA: 63205 5 mcoind 6s DINGA (698. rs Sea oak 2329a
PORN keg o acy iors ZONODSC: “FOOD: och acs edies 2332a
TOAD, othe etal, delta oh 2486. TIOO soo cause. ks 2330
106i 3 win Wasi hare seh wed P. AIOM Secainen eae 2331la
VOA4 a i ehied ira iia dans BIOL: ie a sale a aehad abi 2235
TORI So Sars Ve eaters Reh aire Be IS 50a Ge eae Hie 2331
POAG: scree ntenisteene eet 2291. VAVA péiw senda: 2234a,b
ee eee DIS TC: <TLO a sehr oatetae 2332b
IOAS oi oh vonbees Z2INA. 1IOG: cs ew ad ata woos 2333
WORD 3 he site es Ah 22510! “TIOT rnin Sine eee ,
TOOO aei.ee ie eie ae: P9162 FIO8 vs cows ee eed -
TOD) 25 oe eee py a | Us ate eee 2334a
TOD2. 2velis need arnces deck DS DINO 2 8.8 eens 8 2335
TODS gies non Biaewd 2250De ITN at aetna 2335a,b
IOI4: cs be pen eve ZLSAD? “VINE cen debe tacos ox 3021
ODS ees oad ae: SOUT, “Ve cis hoaeanes 1467b
TODO Salta eee OIA ccd ceawtog hawks -
TOOT Aca kia ans. 25190, TS eh raca towne wiaee “i
1OD8 cot tanaas GOK ZNO! TINO ae a eens Ok Be ciate 2237
IOSD Ss aie hae Shoe DSIDC! FIT eerste: eos accents 2238
POG: seihe cn te hooray ah ZIQ0 TING etra se tealaee en 2337
1601 Gee etay ye? 29208 DIN eva: pechsteie-e bos
TOO? 4s esik eal os BOIS F120) chs ocak 2239a
1003" 36 ag ohaehe wad LSE VIZ, rand hen em ease 142]
1004) soc ce seeks DIS IDE os cages 2339,2339a
1009-2 esac aca 2924. F128 eg eres 2338a
OOO gsc ata nee D322) “N12: BGs ee ieee ne Siac .
IGOT 6 Gterespine Wass DIDI “VIZ eevee ease 2340
OOD. sictis o fetssocae he DSDIA “AILS eee yh eRe 2340c
DOOD i iis tarsirace tise tie tpetes Le aa, iesaitiog ean ASarleacenc anes si
TOT Osea patereteats 2322D “TI 28 eae eau 2340d
TOT Sons sit Gates FS outta ADD is he aren Sans 2340a
WOT 2s tees wees SOUPS TSO cease oes 1457b
IGT DS osetia eh tus ZOE ISD, eis oe estate i
IGIA- s5.552 aes? 2IZ9RS VIB? Sr bashed in buss f
JOT asedawetws 4 OL2a: IIO9 paths. tases aaerss -
TOTO a cackcedd ores 23290: TABAs sick pee tan es 1469
TOM a vtaeug ee a ansegs DIAG: DISD shtick aa 1470
TOI Bonds coud eaawk re TSO! iss Sant nia tay AN 2331
TOI OD Seice ures estes 70S ae i See ree eee 2342
OBO! 5 crises ana D008) TIS B nicks ek ens 2343

STRONG TWOT
TISD: este actcehy’ 3023 ,3024
TIW sex a eer tinered 2342a
iC) Geer eee ss
VIAL ei oe cme aaa 2255
TIAD: 2 Spina een 2343.1
VAG eh yk Soe aha Scat’ sg
VIS. a icweaee es 2343.1a
TIAG.& bgt wees wigs -
TIAL ta aulsce tuba wlpiar ede 4 -
UIA ate emcees watt -
DIAD: 0 fle Mint Aa eM :
DT SO Nise tesla iniecaiet te 2240
TIS papan ace abe 2344
DIDO Gals eieaie vee ake 2344a
VIDS: been bee dalan 2241
FISW Sok Boesn 2242a,b
Tl SD) a a Gi geack alone % a
(e\ Seeer er ees eee ee .
TAS 6 as chen Supcs 2346a
AIDS & ohn SA ibe ts 2399a
LE py eer eee ere *
TOO opine a ico ati 2243
TION wtsoerettinenenanieets 3006
WIOL: eee oe erat 2347
TODS stor sree east anit .
TIOG. fk tate Bie he Sein .
TAOS sts Serie net. -
POO Sa obec’ bet aaied -
(iii See eee ee ee ‘J
11 OS: cadeaGers Sch 2348
TOD ede he ead ea 2348a
VIAN) ooh oh Says tues Sia i
Tee sams ences ais ode 2348b
TID Saermnewes Gi aes -
Th IDs 8 ithe Gach ween 2348a
Ei aera en ee rer .
TTD apace ey 2348c
De) Ors a geeks 2433a
LIT esta te welts 3
(eh renee ee 2437b
VAD cone. 6 th dete ok 2349
LOU Sapeeiewssas hee sf
DAS sis aalicrapes wiatee ate :
UAB D: chsvitncntoed ecu 2449c
TOS Caan Cine 2351
TI OF westeise sea h 2350b
TIBI 8 aoa esa 2350a
TI BOs io Beasts rts Saale 2287
PDON see Bisy rate olds 2245
TASS gh Ship Math, witet 2353
Cio. er eee ere 2354
AAIO toate seti Bates 2354a
TID st eee ees 2355b
IDL: Mp aeieg eats 3025
TIS aioe teal ata eae -
LADS saci esa es 2355a
(ic arr eee 2245a
TDD ie aie orc aia te ere .

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
(el Sores terre 2240. “1SS9 ae cathe ses 2202. F913 256 l et weetaet 75.) SY ame be 0 a 2394
TADS sie gig. avons stiles Po DONO dodgit pienens soak S MIQIA 5 fp badbtot seas ZIDID: IDT 2 ic ee tet ean 3033
TAOS ee eataweee ZING: ABT acento ta scien 2579. VOU ae aruaarcoss 2298: TOTS tts omathae ae 2394a
POOU craks aainta macht is TOO sate wate dant aos 23138) IOIG oes pare ZLO4 NG: D145 63S waco ee ‘s
TOOT ic sah e cond aes wats BS WODD seiaia ea sare Ae tee SOOT TOUT. ecrcewtecea duce DLOR NC TODD ie teste 6 isch betes .
OOD ices nceleties edeiia race BY TBO ot oe 55.55 il 23748) TOIB i ogiv ee wwe gem DD8E: S191 Gs sais gus oes 2394c
T OOD ah seawater ed ae > POOL rere aaa Quiet Po OVD! sa. accnarets 2203,2204 797 T eos ew indo va Sader. *
TOO4: 5 egos an. Oe ee BOD): - 1802 xs pas Gee ees 2919 TI20 caste geass 0 I 0 a =
ik:\\ ean ere 2391 ©7863) caucntse esas 142i, 792i eae eevee DOSS" IOTD woes oak vast 2395a
1006 Seca sdawse ec 2358. “(864.362 casi yeeeess © 1922 tegeecepates 2263a 7980 ............. 2396
TOOR 22.6.cn er ceceeds ZIOla “(BOD sahrciedh estan FLO 29 sone Maia: cose Sons 25090) ~ 198 Vinee kigaeens 3034
1808 se siced aero 22996) TSOOiis vee cintecens es ODA ae oe Sita 3009a = 7982... 2397a
1000 oeton Sead ot te M399: -T8CT noted weds 2299! TOD ase see ees 2380; “1989; sinha. a oars 2396b
TON oo he tment 25598. TBO8 ics tine saci tea S008: 7926. cag inesiwaaces 2386a 7984 ............. 3034¢
TOM aed where ie Se 2247 FBOP sci copaivn ts gaa 22990. TOLT cd hing saewiets 23SB0a.~ TISS sires ikass mecwe 3034a
TSLZ Gio wvededgan 2300. 1870 aoeucdeqoncns 2340D- 1928 sf eaiwes is down Be OBC ees a date as 2396c
TOI: bin eeeaeeaes 2247e 1ST v2 s55 at aeee es 22D. 1929 a neon hea bet 23868: 1987 comet caesnes 2392b
DOLAy nice nuiody tras 19050: T7872 need 3lee teed 22950. 1930 Sch sh5 caw mreie en Be OTISS seater ena aces 2393a
IOS latin taseaa 2368a 71873 sae ccas ven 14098: JOST is eos wae 230F SIIB Dio oo cia earn % 2396a
1SIG geueaciawud 23608... | TBTA sein Genes nes DOE A) DS 2 cea o getcwe teen bos S037 1990 occcos Sears. 3034b
TOAD wiaigs Boe ee DOGMA TSI eats eae dees PLSEA. VOSS Sch iee a gammis 258Ia (JOON 35 eee aa 2403e,f,g
DONS sk ats ea big 2248: “T816 .ssecalis eek TAS. OSA acteurs aks ZSOTO. F992 nce beaut See, 2403b
TOV paaciemanmeces ¢ 2302.. 187) Savananieeoebens OS DOSS as wera ek nee e Be MOOS: city ahalece Are 85 2398
VODs ites oe Chee 2362 “UBIS nowwibweake e4 2299. (ISOs eesatee ts 22041 “A9OF te bute and 2398a
TO2M. cn oss cee ated 23028. “1872 Secceeas gags 22590. FOS) hacen nee cis DISS) 19OD isp ycoaie 2398b
POZ2 wel cnees 2364a 7880 ............ 22908 1938 cod ea Kus 2204218: “199: ou tinee ta hea atiens a
1829 ai comes 1484 7881 ............ 22590: 93? wsaghmk eet 2264.1b 7997 ........ 23992400
TS DA ccc es Glia’ 2249 “TSB2. wiecae asain 2343.16 7940 cece cee estes Po NID Otek a aah od 2400a
TODD ae ee aitend<s 23G0D° [883 Satie nese eee STO acawae sb akd 29008 1999 6p Parone earcn 240 1c
VOL6: cunian cet a 236348. 1884 4058 Fas eyes acs eee i. eee rer er ee ee BOO | sce des a wie tensa 3035
102 2 xe oan l ayn 2363b «607885... we 23440 1943 os cee ee eats 23908C° 8001 sscxccewace 3035a
1823 ss Paeenagses 23658. 1886 p264 se enivea. 2376 7944 ........... 25094 8002 wk btevaw ans 2401b
1829 Ape coauan eds 236090: “(88 sean nnstiness DOIG. “DIAS site wactane, 184 8003 ............. 2401
1990 gi orcgnecwes 23668, “/888: 4:0 o5 baie ones oe wes BOAO 2 taba 2304a 8004 ................. -
TOON esac oes aaa): Te! “EL OOP tahuernrete aula eres © OAT os sca eects eet hist 2390’. “BOOS eeeve cua 2401e
VON: cia ate tea 1905¢, 1890 ett oor hes 23718 JOIB hee ees 23908 “SO0G acide ees eeaaes =
1939S sehen wen as 2907): JOON sino cceaee DIS: POF a hate scGcnsen nts 2391: ‘SOOT esa es, es wits San -
1894) sstase a dee eaves 23678 1892 eee vee 2378a,D- 7950 wicca een arate 2391la 8008 ............ 2270b
1939 sores bern toak 2368. 1893 we xcorenad ts 2919 VON, Srctccsahe e% eed 2392) - 8009 eo icstan sere eae ig
TBDO ate oresracecdiace ae 2369 (1899 6a dees bewia wos POD Da deena tetra face ait 2393. 8010 ase caus axis 24011
TOS: vide caret sd ahaa 23098. 189) dua teotiien wet wud a (> 2 ee eee eee 2995: SSOUN eee ceneteaed's 2401h
IBIS: ists oe iiee 2368a,b 7896 .............. 2380. “1994: wiatler ese cae BOS2 > BUL2 ick hts POS.Ry 4 *
TODD bide women ee Z308C- IBF) ice he ieee ass os 23808 7195) 6 c2sSec 505 S052¢. 18013 ee cdiencrasacwas

1840. oie nd od wa 2368d 7898 ............ 2380C> “T9S6 awe owen oh tec BO COOL seco bu cr ee bas decks -
DOAN ek sant ene acserada: Ga co eer eee ee ee 22028 “JOST aaransameres LOTTE: “SOD oantetenneucensans +
TOAD: a euits ene nneraiey ait BIO icc ce Suse ete 22008: 7958! iced eseg aa 2200 “S01 sakes teu ae eae -
TOAD Great shee es 2370! 190) c22acecteeus 238I) JOD 2 actos ZOOL a NBO 3 Merit agin ty sora a
VORA ap sipoucsale Bane 3026: (902. ddviewenes 23818: 7960.3 cian w emia’ S0326. “8018 vaccnavvecawans -
POSS eitaces 2943.1C2370d T9038 .25042tceie 23810: J9ON tegeed rutin ZI92C. “BOI? hop evar sedcnwats *
1S4G ss ccaneei-oenu eek 22408. 71904 enccas cise 2382... “1962 %. a eget ants 23920)! 0020 cet ends forge .
(Ld a eee ee eee D250; TIOS sora gee cea Z202B. 7903 cgay cthees 3032D° ©8021 6 pais cs teas 2401f
T9AS: 6.05 60s seaeee's 2971 (1Q0G! nts Bae ee hee a 2 PION eimai ecg 2394D° “BO22 ese ueeis eee mnees =
LOAD iret Gale die aaa 2902. TOOT a euch sensara ars 22578 “J9GD Gta wideae he 24014. 28023 255 63.4 4can noes -
T8950 Geegvetesn ae 23445. 1908 .cdinaeeers 23898) “1966 acres ae new 240Ny - B024 22 Jans naareneas s .
TOO Bota we acetate: PB AQOD) eas eee D89D0;0° | VOGT. eos oe sect es BOQ S 2.6 Saris iseak 2402
NOD Li Ree Gta sae e 2291 FIO cheney 2399D:. 1908 oath et ene Ses BOZO reactant sare at es .
18S ade pe eee. 2292. PON de setecd aie. 2903. 1900s nee wowace 24038. 8027 2dicncuseases 2403
TBD serie acs exces 2292a0 OV Gre eaten 3029.1 7970............ 24030. 3028 see tata es i

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
8029 wesc eee 2403h
80304 ke ch acate ase as *
SOS wasn coe sale reruns ‘3
1 | 8 Pee 2403c
BOSS? eteng tode is 2404
8034 ..........00. 2405
O35. 64 6 oe oy se nnd -
S036 Kans eieeeee ss 3036
BOT Sa bettas nent eatees *
BOSS: ii aye deca eae -
8039 shee anna ews +
8040 ............ 2267a
BOA ccivcrsans, Saat ats 2267
8042 ............ 2267b
O48 co te atta eee ars ;
BOAA ha Dah a hae «
SOAS acisbvctecady au 2406
8046 .. 0.2... eee 3037
BOAT a cic ee aes 2409d
SOAS fsa e eae di aks .
S049 ec eee eee :
SOD 0 ik ti taebatad -
BOs ere ee Bae :
BOSD ee erica date 2412d
BOS ec acioieinia Sar ‘3
SOS4 senate ertauien -
O99) 5 sdotoe aes 2268
8056 ............ 2268a
BOS phic cetreantink 2268b
SOS8 exc oie was ates 2408
SOS. oes eh dee hae 2408a
SUG 66 iveod Se has suds .
S06) siceaceceetsGand :
S062: sews nesta dak ‘3
S063 aie siPevds 2269a
8064 ............ 2407a
BOGS: suvateaeesey aa 3038
8066 ............ 2411c
SUG67 enced se vrat ees 2411c
8068 ............ 2416a
1 1()° na a *
SOTO Mew ota ntabe das .
SOT ny 544 Soads 2270a
BOTZ Bacoonedecmear es ‘3
21 1 ara ea *
BOT: hota se eens. 2409
0) UY 2s ee ee eee 3039
8076 .........05. 2409a
2 Of ee 2409b,c
8078 .........06. 2409e
31 | A. ee ernie ea 2271
8080 ............. 2410
SOS sd acndawioadins 2410c
S082: 4.5 hoo ve Re Ree 2410a
8083 .........6.0. 241la
8084 ......00000- 241 1b
8085 ..........02. 2412
ROSG=, ocecyeaseaes 3040

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
S08) ov ester tensan PS RAS nu at kei we es 2421b
8088 ............ 2412b ©8146............ 2272a
8089 ............ 2412c 8147 ............. 2421a
8090 .............00. Bo PBVAS: bss raaiadecida 2422b
SO os fe ate nd daar ee PRVAO! 65.6 busin ebieke ek x
S097 3. ck tte ee eee hee A BIO a ates ok ies ie 2422
S093 ok bueciseSnacees x MSUSI! 6 oiled seca 2423
S094. ose hwrn cake ols BS BID? sco gcd ele ee 2424
rod O12 is ae ne ee ne OSB LSS ase wee oe 928d
SO 9G zi std eee y Po NOTA eens swede 2425
SOOT ts hice ha daa e- SS 1S) chara awake 2426
BOO GS cocci gt senarte-aritld lonstetocd OB DOr pa de tues Be ates 2427
3 1 2° en Be SRLS 4 aaules an nates 2427a
S100) sosc ai ta eee “SIS8 a cctwt sees i 2428
S10) casnA este oh ee me. >: rena eee ee 2429
8102 ............ 2413a 8160............. 3044
S103 vwaee aus, 2413b) «68161 ............ 2430a
S104 me oa ch was 2414 8162 ............. 2431
SOS 24.265 ae es 241Sa 8163 .......... 2274c,e
S106 a verde ended BOOS ec daiateee 2277a
SOU curahinirs Séanis 2414c 8165 .......... 2274g,h
S108 <c:iwat ees 2414a 8166............ 2274e
8109 ............ 2414b 8167 ................ *
SLO eta kop ased aes © SS1G6S cade es 2432a
SLL St anes 2414d 8169 ................

OM etches eee eee cme «07, | Soe he are aoe re ce .
O11 3 enie ne wes Sil ene ceases -
+: eae eee ane eee BOLD tae sae eehetec 2434
SID sires hi ees BIST). hie le anon 2435 ,2436
SEG 5 cok sieht rater haa ® CBA weed bie Soe
SMT oct c.dicen tas oe doe * 8175... .2274d,2275 ,2276
SUS snakes yna ee = PIIO hd aedteth Sees 2438
STO hie esa areniins B17 soe eee is 3011
OA | ar er 8042: “B18 ecdeuticsou es 2275Sa
SUN ra artes aoe 2417a 8179 ............ 2437a
Briere uate be 3041 8180............ 2438a
B13 bx Ane tnnd saat. os ® RISE bib tidre do ae 2274a
S124: cceaeee gine ee Po B82 oboe pashads 2439a
By oben ee wee we ee FRB S estes 2275b
8126 oe dike then heer: * 8184 ............ 2274f
S12) ee boeeeke 2422a = 8185... ween 2274a
S125 Sastre d alt 3043 8186.......... 2439b,c
BO a oad a ioenctd ewes Be RUT osc te oh tae, Ot Sas z
2 Do) | eRe acer rn 2272 (BISB esd cease ceeae cs *
SIA c2veiwinaeet 3010 «8189... ee. *
SIO ees eas 2419 8190 ................ *
8193» gekated ewan 3043.1 8191 ............ 2436a
194 ester es BLOT. 2 ecccsipnSamnite 2440
S135 sco’ vows 22720. “SIDS: cin ack et nds 2278a
S136 in. oieeiecnes 2421d 8194 ............ 2440a
BUST sachcecues ae Oeeeaieaces BSG oho © beach clean des =
S138: sc ewiinttdete 2421 8196............ 2443b
S139) oaks om hieds 27188 “8197 oc dete jaa cag? ‘
8140 .......... 3043.la 8198 ............ 2442a
SIAN cee tieretcs 2419a 8199 ............. 2443
8142, cc were vow ds 928¢.. 8200 sceseewne lens 2045
S143: Ariane oes 2422¢ 8201 wcceccewwuas 2443a
8144 eked ces 2420a 8202 ................ -

STRONG TWOT
B20 9 ce ving eee ee ans -
S204 ore isle Stok wh Geeks .
S20) Ges edge whens 2440b
S206 cichs aa Sos ora hee *
S20 Aceumw ie cae: 2448a
B20 Gti deren doestes +
B20) eh isnee acta 3046a
B20! fico esedictinae pate 2444
BZ atc ton Geiatanenets 2444a
S212 codes seed os 2444b
S213! aces ete toa 2445
B24 2uaeneae sem 3045.1
S219: aa, eis 3045.1a
O21 Gi a ices casi 2445a
BOLT wl ltbise bcea ie 244Sc
S218 26 eunones 244Sb
BD ee pevinsaManan 2445d
Pd | Re Re ee ee 2445e
B22 arore trate a ce ueeae ‘J
8222 2 enews eee 2279
LDS an ee era ee ee :
B224 a wagintata eae .
S22) anges he eee ees &
S226 2 i iarc sone 1537
B22) Gagan teaes 2446a
S228 Grasse ketones 2447a
D229 beta tase 2447b
S290) inte S see nw es es .
B25) sce ck ee acnd. 6% 2449
O292) oat awneae id 3046
B29 haa aed adeno 2449a
BLOF th ih Stra treed .
B23) chaste ead 2449b
S290 skits seca °
B25 F lest bee 2449d
B25 8 i aie ees 3046b
S299 5. sa nana imee 244la
S240: gis nenaie waren 2450
B24 as See Ge tees 2373a
B24 2s 64 coy ae ee 2282a
S245 sured ae Ses aes 3047
D244 Leer euunese 2281
B24) sch eb vansdedes 2451
BAG siete orden ee 2451b
BLA Ts oo ed a certiatais 245la
O24 eseerennaurndtiae 2452
B24 Sita ecuac wie tear 2452a
B29 ii Sarctacnceess 2452a
oP as Nesrera eee are gee 2459b
D292 rete out aia 2453
D203 aes Seen as 2453a
S294 os teal ee as 2454
B29); fa an ecene 2454a
S256 se vevana kedok 2455
O25 ahah eoan ke 2456
S298 eae es 2047b
S259 Sachoiseeasacs 2457
8200! seas ee den ik 2458a

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
B26) esis Celok 24980 8319 sch pete ees ZACS. 28377 Garey nie 2488 8435 ............. 867g
S202 ec tegen ee D459’. 8320 nk ose wees 22944: SSIS cSthe noted cee 40d 8436 ............0.0.. -
B2O9 dmc He eaties DASIE.D: 8320 seta iacnaten 22986. “B31 corr euienaws 2496b 8437 ............. 868c
BZO4 ces Batedet gels DAOO! 25922 nc asicotinesse stem 2468a 8380............ 2489a 8438 ............ 2516b
B20) sa stiniersengiegie. 2289, 8923 eecieada wna 2299. “BISl ayia nates e's DAD. B48 oh die weit nels ig
S266) uc auewes ahead 2461) 8324 wees seis eens 2469. 8382 coccide clos. 2489 8440 . oe, =
S267 cinueaske cents 24GT a: B32) a oc win os ee ees BS” LOBOS ie ij daw ace ar eta 48b 8441 ............ 2530a
BOSS es aw wes haan 24920" 783260535 54 eax es 2469a = 8384.............. 2490 8442 ............ 2531a
8269 in 6 Bute Sa tes DEI, BIL i oats alesis oq ZAIN BSSS fxs assy wie 126a,b 8443 ............. 886a
S210) vente mca. 2469a 8328 ............ 24718 8386.20 awnings: 124b 8444 .........00..., 893e
A Cee rere er ree SUES: “BS 29 a iets se enka NM “BOOT a5 5 keu eee ew 3 tf BAAD tee lamen scored ens .
D212 seins ae eae oa PD SO9S0: desta si Ba ae 3050a = 88388 ....... 2491,2491b 8446............. 2500
S213 eataawaiends 24624. 38331) s.cagiecsae meds 2470 =©8389 ............ 249la 8447 ............ 2500a
B24 Salsliitnetentund © O992 cise weis eee S050D:. 28390 cect a wae ees BBA sees goes Scart 2500a
te eee ee ZIVAD sBS SS cach eng sree Gee DAI; BI91 op caesar ent 183g 8449 ............ 2500c
B21 Ope cnce haere ee 2284. 8394 widatcwoeaedin Z4AT2 B592 samba ewes ZAG2: BASO 3 ci nedind emeilwe 3055
PA hl re ae 2209'- SBI3) near een 24124. “8393 sic sien caeess 2120 Bad lettin tg 910d
PAT | ee 2286a 8336 ....... 2413929198. (8398 od og ewe ehews 2396) BAD 2 etka seen tees t 910d
oA by ee ee 22800" “8337 eq.chViearee xe 29308 8595 eisai da ceas 2IGC. -B4A93¢t534 wet bao icted 922d
S28U) cxencabiuenon 2201. ‘8338 snid-wak aaaes 29360: ''B39G, a is04 es ada oe ae PF, OAS i ast ee taseaud 923a
BLOW! sect ers loess ZAOD £8339 tcc ina seinen t SOOT mietamiae hee 248d 8455 ............. 933a
S202 bj wapaeeedes 22990 > “B94O ss oe meee Bakes BS BIO: cot a tw ih gee dal S35N: 8456: 2.5 cscs awd 2501
B23) biek Seis otk * B54) tte eeeuees 29900. 8399 pusudin nese sn 2460-8457 cicccauneetas 563c
S284 6 dtid wart due D3DDO. O34 2 erect three Gane 2246a 8400............. 248e 8458 ............. 596a
S285: veitawbats eee s 2AG9D - (S348? Panne edauke © BAO) asso dee esoan DA9S: "BA90 Lots ewes othe :
B280icoedideenseaieent BS NODA As ae hale haces tnanaed HS B42 oe oeseu debug #84600 s24cccnsweee 3056
B28) Sk dvttlete te dinar 3 SODAS ii keel ac bh 2336b «= 8403. ..... ww 2550: (O4OD woe. ca ohs oe og whet -
O20 ia ea maante es 2290a 8346............ 2336c = 8404... eee PY BAO] ta ave ance citer 661d
S280 acs aa eaters RE? ASSAD a ae ctr travian 2479) “SAS at ou s-a dee seats E8968 esti peau 648a
B20) st.t doo rtiae heals 1 S948 wishes ee ienhwns © S406 2.200 enn cosas 3052. 8464.............. 678b
Bl eee anaes 2294D: B94 inicio sm oataes Be WOAOL sawktnwageeetidat ©. GBAOD G.caraute ews ete 4s
8292 i peauweees 2468D: 8350's sce siaiwews 2476 «8408 ............. 360c 8466............. 690d
B28 is acy ad Gandhi 2409-8991 acc ah aa ewes ZS01G: “8409. o.oe selena ies SISD? *8407 iow auean hs aes 694f
O24: sla sraus- tartan ete’ BD LBS D2 asp ak dt aoe e eene’ BS BAI. 25 2 eancuie dates 408b 8468 ................ :
O299 test eres 2289) 58399 waar crs tn oe 30228. “S411 ware kaa es 2669d 8469 ............. 694g
B290! bs ok dices 228948 8394) ic acwarease 2417 “84l2 se diecastweeeesoes to (OOO) 2h ha aie cast tut atte :
O29 nia hosnarawes * “O30 eae cme ee ss S051. “B41 2.6.25, cava ekeei eas BBA cece Snaetod meters .
8298 nico rier emaeas Pe” BI NO ere sca Qentaeed ae 2380b = 8414. ............ 2A9G S| 8472 a oon ate ances ey sige -
B29 wegen ease 22048 B39) ve onvescones 2478a. S415 iscees sous gien 295A S473 5 oda ae Bale oc 2502
BI00 soendictnig Chace uate 22898. (8358 in decwatees 2ATTSA, 8416s csiercaucen's S006 *8474. 58d. Setaycca.! 736
BIO) os ouua aioe as P SSS9: cae enews 2479a 8417... «ee ZA94D : 8473 vrcives eeu cae ij
S507 Sits ab aaoes 2466a 8360............ 2477b 8418... eee 498c 8476 ............. 2503
2 ee eee re ee B, IBSOM Sars ita aes DO2 2D. 1 BAD nck iw orients od) ee tee ay eo ee :
S504: ot ae aha eesnte DIOL aieiuaniees Seni 2480 = 8420............ 2496a 8478 ............. 2504
9305 ow sawsasteus 22938 : 8363 %x6.« tdi ess 2480a 8421 ............. BOSS 18479 ee siece o eby aie 3056
8306 vistas hfe ds ZAGIC : (8964. seeweue hy ha-cuchs Di GOOD 2: edict toh ete ohh BAGO ig ob eh dit tad ak OS .
S507 cowed aga he 2469d 8365 .............. 248). 8423 )..b awa even eda BAB ies hein aa 2504a
S308: 2 ii eh gomen tes 2290 8366 ............. Q3d1 “BAQA ee ae ee enn gs S390 B82) c's iit aa 2504b
B50 Stas banca tee 29948. 8360) vasiarrecides+ 2482) “8429: da wrewnuinacma’ BS GAGS cz Avelind ty Siena abet .
B10 ge casinsawe dames S UOSIOO sd nticie alc ceas 2297) 8420s ciccn ose cae 847b 8484 ............. 2498a
BOUT aise suse oeyabe DOOM S309 asia torn ac ates Po SB AD To otis baie gs 2496); BASS: cscs potwa ieee .
S312 ane pas aiaaqas 22130: “8370 wisn dua techeas ox BS BOIS. fa 9 winrtea tre tones 2497 8486............. 872e
S519: veedawsadaeas 22928. (OS Te yuine Oe ee aude 2A83) ©8429 5 sco gare tie 3054: 8487 escceeatawediows ‘a
S514: weasok sane 22928,D S372 yess ite hate ws 2484. “8430 bi oy ae caemees M BA8G nd eee s mentscans a
B31 laches ahun ena he DOS 7S: 22 doe iicewataws 2485 «8431 ........0. 08 859b: 8489 ies ees -
B510 aiaiieveceds D2O7E: = BS 14a esta cued 2486. 8432 suck en cia ees 2498 8490............ 2523d
BSL hws arate htei acts 246) 2851s eeostecin 2485a = 8433... «www 865a,D 8490 oi uee bosom .
SIIB orien gemeues Z46Ja: 8316422 2esceeeu. 2AS), BASE os wstasiecas aera O (BAO2 sat aeue seas 2505

INDEX

STRONG TWOT
BAS. co Ganatacue ws .
BOA 5 teed ean Baca ‘
BAD istics Sedna ae 2506
BAG soa Moar 2509a
B49! tac orwed eases 2507
0498 éo alec iwaswas 964e
B49 icc cne lets wae 964e
S900 see eed aa 2508
J) |) Ener rae 2509
BIO 2 ss aed Ge ecare 982e
BIOS: 3 Gee tesawdyds 982f
S904 nb clwes yeaa 2510
B05 isis wa ecvinreeaeg 2511
SIUC nce scuteie 2511la
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S509 Sea beets 1037a
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Sd .cedavese ton 2512
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B18 penta airss 1066a
B14 Coe yewegs 1065a
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BOF Ast ot Hae tins 3057
BOS ees eniadesis 2512
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B920 cdceahetanch ae < =
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B22 hae eee tens 2512a
BOS Sains dew eae 3058c
B24 oe corsa eee: 2513
BIZ Aes das nets S 2515a
S926 vemicwissd ca was :
DI2) sxmanmoweg ares 1116c
B26 aban smeets :
Ay ee eee ee 2516c
BIS0 aahce can ewes 2517
SIO owes eeeds 3058b
2 eee ee 3058a
2 hs ee ener ar ar 3058d
BI ieiied me teerdauss 2513c
B55) Meer ee we ees 2522¢
S596 sachets pecans 3059
S597 Gave enedones 2522a
$938 sae in eeyess 2522b

STRONG TWOT STRONG TWOT
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| S060: “8580. sseKd ected 1627
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BIAS heap eee nae os 2920. 8989" ee snretomies 1652f
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BOG 25 i ewaacdes 1164a 8591... 2532
SD4O fod eee aitd ates KIGSC 26592 2esenutas aut 1673e
BOA) agrees eteees 27 SOD 9S nie ee araareas 1692e
S949 ones ouwnee LIS 7a! 8994 concer aug. 1686d
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O904 2 eeciamasasee Bo BOO hes cuceannaces 1745b
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S02 samen a eens 1246b §=8608 ............. 2536
S963. sis eases 1248L;. (8609) cyeteteows 2537
8564 1.1... ee 2923¢: -8OI0% cic teceu tute 2538
B56): Se esectad das 25280. (SOUL ccd deatonees 2499a
S500 v2 suet b adress 2524: “BOI2 cates cnes seus 2539
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BIOS: stew Merges 29288, “8614 oan ce viene 3062
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BOLO aceageit eae’ ISISC. : 8616). ausiteren edd tars :
SOU) Svwreeweades 29214. BOL wey ayasense: 1999g
BOY 2 etm tide wea 13250: 8618 4 dosh wctntnws 1999
S919 Soe iera we 1330D° 8619 esccsewsun er 2541b
S14 alawegee o08 ue 2520: (OO20 irs oh aera neo aces .
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SOU) ane vues 29280: . 58623 ciate esarims 2542b
BOIS secse em ene 306la 8624............ 3065c¢
2 pe eae eee SUGID:. 28625 sosj setae wns 4 3063
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BOG |). ssn aehe- ayers 2990 8027 2iceeven tuen 4 3064
SO2 cit eed tiens 2551, * 8628 sects ten aee 2541
BIOS tinted einen Ghee BBO Ds raessiglt eat ee 2541la
BOF ech gi eden 1576g* —8630 singed tsrvedes 2542

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STRONG TWOT
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$632 ae ecards. 3065b
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8634. oo. *
8635... eee, 2103e
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8638 oes, 2543
8639... eee. 2123a
8640 0... eee eee, *
8641 eee, 2133:
8642 2. ee, 2133;
8643 ee. 2135b
8644 ee, 2.136a
8645 oan. 2544. |
8646 oo eee *
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8648 0, 306 1c
8649 ee, 2169¢
8650... eee 2544
8651.0. 3066
R652 cuteweaitien: 3067
8653 ooo, 2188c
BO54 icoiatnsrsuoitceimeiag’ *
8655 ooo, 2545
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BO5T bss kavevs nabewes *
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BO5O nen canemate. 2547
Lo 2548
8661... 2549
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8663... cee... 2339¢
8664 eee *
8665 oo... eee, 2320¢
8666 oan. 2340f
8667 oo. eee 2243a
8668 oo ee, 929e
8669 ooo. 2352a
8670 2